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Nomenclature
Definitions
t2
t1
twb
tdb
td
h a
h1
h2
h
F
Flowrate, m3/h
L
Mass flowrate of liquid, lb/h
G
Mass flowrate of gas, lb/h
Q Heat load, kcal/h
Z
Altitude above sea level, m
p
Barometric pressure, kPa
pws Saturation pressure of water
vapor, kPa
pw Partial pressure of water vapor,
kPa
v
Specific volume, m3/kg
W Humidity ratio, kg water/kg air
Ws Humidity ratio at saturation air, kg
water/kg moist air
Relative humidity (RH), %
C Constant related to cooling tower
design
m Slope of tower characteristic curve
320
300
Air enthalpy, hA
260
240
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
Air enthalpy, hA
280
Water
droplet
220
Water operating
line, hw
200
180
160
140
100
80
(1)
Air
operating
line, hA
Saturation
curve
tan
= L/G
60
40
120
Figure 1. The Merkel equation is derived by considering a falling water droplet surrounded by saturated air
Enthalpy
driving force,
(hw - hA)
20
25
WBT 30
CWT 35
HWT 45
40
Temperature, C
50
55
Figure 2. This plot, known as the driving force diagram, shows the enthalpy versus temperature for water and air
In a cooling tower operating in counter current flow, there are two basic
principles involved for removing heat
by the cooling water:
1.sensible heat transfer due to a difference in temperature levels
2. latent heat equivalent of the mass
transfer resulting from the evaporation of a portion of the circulating
water
Merkel developed the basic equation
based on the above principles. The
Merkel model is universally accepted
for designing and rating of counterflow cooling towers. The model is based
on a drop of water falling through an
upstream flow of unsaturated air at
a wet-bulb temperature of twb with
enthalpy hA (Figure 1), in a counterflow cooling tower. The drop of water
is assumed to be surrounded by a film
of saturated air at the water temperature WT with saturation enthalpy hW.
As the drop travels downward, heat
and mass transfer takes place from
the interface air film to the upstream
air, thereby cooling the water from hot
temperature to a cold temperature.
The main assumptions of Merkel
theory are the following:
1. The saturated air film is at the temperature of the bulk water.
2. The saturated air film offers no resistance to heat transfer.
3. The vapor content of the air is proportional to the partial pressure of
the water vapor.
4. The heat transferred from the air to
(2)
Where:
K = overall enthalpy transfer coefficient, lb/h-ft2
a = Surface area per unit tower volume, ft2/ft3
V = Effective tower volume, ft3
L = Water mass flowrate, lb/h
Equation 2 basically says that at any
point in the tower, heat and water
vapor are transferred into the air due
(approximately) to the difference in
25
0.06
Feature Report
1/ (hw hA)
0.05
0.045
Performance demand
is area under curve
0.04
0.035
0.03
20
25
30
35
Temperature, C
40
45
Figure 3. Solving the Merkel equation (Equation 2), is usually done graphically,
where the integral is equal to the area under the curve
3
Tower characteristic curve
2.5
2
Design L/G
1.5
KaV/L
0.055
1
Design NTU
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
L/G
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
Figure 4. The intersection of the tower characteristic curve and the design NTU
curve gives the design L/G ratio
mance curve. The L/G is the most important factor in designing the cooling
tower and related to the construction
and operating cost of cooling tower.
Finally we can summarize the importance of the L/G ratio with the following points.
A high L/G ratio means:
More water to less air
Air is more saturated driving
force is reduced
More residence time of water needed
Less cooling in given time
Increase in required fan power
Decrease in height of tower
Low evaporation loss (under same
water flowrate)
Table 1.
t
NTU
NTU
Cumulative
Cooling
Range
0.0462
0.5
0.096
0.096
0.5
21.4483
0.0466
0.5
0.097
0.193
104.5420
21.3298
0.0469
0.5
0.098
0.291
1.5
129.1197
107.8338
21.2859
0.0470
0.5
0.098
0.389
132.4444
111.1255
21.3189
0.0469
0.5
0.098
0.487
2.5
0.0388
135.8480
114.4173
21.4307
0.0467
0.5
0.098
0.585
6.2810
0.0412
142.9006
121.0008
21.8999
0.0457
1.0
0.193
0.778
6.6315
6.6315
0.0436
150.2958
127.5843
22.7116
0.0440
1.0
0.187
0.965
312.15
6.9987
6.9987
0.0462
158.0530
134.1678
23.8852
0.0419
1.0
0.180
1.145
40
313.15
7.3835
7.3835
0.0489
166.1928
140.7513
25.4415
0.0393
1.0
0.170
1.314
41
314.15
7.7863
7.7863
0.0518
174.7371
147.3348
27.4023
0.0365
1.0
0.158
1.473
42
315.15
8.2080
8.2080
0.0549
183.7094
153.9183
29.7911
0.0336
1.0
0.146
1.619
43
316.15
8.6492
8.6492
0.0581
193.1348
160.5018
32.6330
0.0306
1.0
0.134
1.753
10
NTU
1.75334674
Water
Temperature, t
Water
Vapor
Saturation
Pressure,
pws
Partial
Press.
of H2O
Vapor,
pw
Humidity
Ratio, W
Enthalpy
of Film, h'
Enthalpy
of Air, ha
Enthalpy
Difference,
(h'ha)
1/(h'
ha)
kPa
kPa
kg water/
kg dry air
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
kg/kJ
33
306.15
5.0343
5.0343
0.0326
116.5686
94.6668
21.9018
0.0457
33.5
306.65
5.1774
5.1774
0.0335
119.5982
97.9585
21.6397
34
307.15
5.3239
5.3239
0.0345
122.6986
101.2503
34.5
307.65
5.4740
5.4740
0.0356
125.8718
35
308.15
5.6278
5.6278
0.0366
35.5
308.65
5.7853
5.7853
0.0377
36
309.15
5.9466
5.9466
37
310.15
6.2810
38
311.15
39
Capacity (F):
3,000 m3/h
Wet bulb temperature (twb):
29C
Relative humidity ()
92%
Cooling water inlet (t2):
43C
Cooling water outlet (t1):
33C
Altitude (Z):
10 m
Step I. This step involves heat load
calculations as follows:
1. Range = (t2 t1) = 43 33 = 10C
2. Approach = (t1 twb) = 33 29 =
4C
3. Heat load, Q = mCp(t2 t1)
= 998.13 F Range
= 998.13 3,000 10
= 29,943,900 kcal/h
Step II. This step involves total psychometric calculations as follows:
1. Barometric pressure (p) at the given
altitude (Z) is calculated by using
the following equation:
(3)
For an altitute of 10 m, this becomes
p = 101.2 kPa
2. Assume a dry bulb temperature of
say, tdb = 32C
3. Calculate water vapor saturation
pressure (pws) at the assumed tdb for
the temperature range of 0 to 200C
using the equation:
(4)
Where:
C1 = 5.8002206 103
C2 = 1.3914993 100
C3 = 4.8640239 102
C4 = 4.1764768 105
C5 =1.4452093 108
C6 =6.5459673 100
and T represents the dry bulb temperature in Kelvin. This results in the
value:
pws = 4.7585 kPa
4. The partial pressure of water (pw)
at given relative humidity is found
using the following equation:
(5)
(7)
(8)
(6)
which gives the result:
twb = 37.7C
7. This step is an iterative process,
whereby the assumed value of tdb in
Step 2 is varied in such a way that
27
Feature Report
Table 2. TYPICAL THERMAL CALCULATIONS OF COUNTER-FLOW COOLING TOWER
Flowrate
3,000
m3/h
43
Wet-bulb temperature
29
33
Approach
Range
10
30.12
Assumed L/G
1.575
No. of cells
Cell length
14
Heat load
29943888.32 kcal/h
101.2
kPa
4.2754
kPa
Cell width
14
3.9333
kPa
5.5
4.0083
kPa
Design RH
92%
Recalculating twb
29.0
Density of water
1,000
kg/m3
Difference
0.0
Altitude
10
28.66
Enthalpy
Inlet twb
29
RH
92%
39.55
30.12
7.2097
kPa
0.0252
kg water/kg dry
air
98.5
0.8951
7.1016
kPa
Density
1.1172
0.04692
kg water/kg
dry air
kg water/kg
moist air
160.50
kJ/kg
0.8983
Difference
0.00
Density
1.1133
Exit twb
39.31
94.5702
kJ/kg
7.1170
kPa
0.0256
kg water/kg
moist air
Recalculating twb
39.31
Enthalpy at twb
94.6668
kJ/kg
Difference
0.00
39.24
0.9540
m3/kg, dry
air
Air Flow
160.50
kJ/kg
1.0827
kg/m3
Density
1.0482
kg/m3, dry
air
1.0801
kg/m3
0.0477
kg water/kg
moist air
162.90
0.9551
m3/kg, moist
air
157.87
Density
1.0470
kg/m3, moist
air
168.26
KaV/L
1.7533
2.522
28
Reference:
1) Cooling Tower Thermal Design Manual,
Daeil Aqua Co., Ltd., available as download
at:
http://che.sharif.ir/~heatlab/Lab/Benefit%20Book%20&%20Journal/Benefit%20
book/Cooling%20Tower%20Thermal%20
Design%20Manual.pdf
2) Rosaler, Robert C., The Standard Handbook
of Plant Engineering, 2nd Edition, McGrawHill, New York, 1995.
3) Green, Don W., others, Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Edition, McGrawHill, New York, 1984.
4) Psychometric Data from ASAE D271.2
December 1994.
5) ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals,
Chapter 1, American Soc. of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Ga.
Author
Jonny Goyal is an assistant
lead engineer at Air Liquide
Engineering and Construction,
c/o Lurgi India Co. Pvt. Ltd.
(A-22/10, Mohan Cooperative
Industrial Estate, Mathura
Road, New Delhi 110044
India; Phone: +91-4259-5400;
Fax: +91-4259-5051: Email:
jonny.goyal@airliquide.com),
where he is involved in process
designing activities related to
basic and detailed engineering projects. On the
technology and business development front, he is
consistently involved in working with and developing Lurgi Fixed-Bed, Dry-Bottom gasification
technology and downstream acid-gas removal.
Prior to joing Lurgi in 2007, Goyal had two years
work experience in Mojj Engineering Pune in the
design and commissioning of bioethanol plants
from molasses or grains as feedstock, and also
has experience in plant operation of distillation
columns in the solvent recovery plant of Nectar
Lifesciences Ltd. Goyal has a B.Tech.Ch.E. from
SBSCET, Ferozepur, which is affilated with PTU
Jalandhar, Punjab.
29