Sandstone Reservoirs

Petrography
Grain Size, Sorting, Skewness, Angularity,
Classification,
Diagenesis

Clastic Depositional Environments

Continental:
Transitional:
Marine:

Alluvial Fan, River, Desert, Lake, Glacial

Delta (Fan Delta), Shore-Zone,
Slope & Base of Slope

Sandstone Petrography

Grains
Matrix
Porosity
Cement
Grain Size
Sorting
Angularity

Matrix (primary)
Grains (framwork)
Porosity
Cement (secondary)

Sandstone Petrography (Grain size)

Wentworth
Size Class
Gravel

Cobbles
Pebble
Granule

Sand

Coarse sand
Medium sand
Fine sand
Very fine sand

Very fine silt

Clay

-2

-1

0.5

0.25

0.125

0.0625

0.031

0.0156

0.0078

0.0039

Clayst.

Coarse-grained sandstones have often, but

not always, larger pore throats, and a better
permeability, than finer grained deposits.

Fine-grained rocks are classified

acc. to their carbonate content:
Shale
Calcareous Shale
Marl
Marly Limestone
Limestone

carbonate cont.

Fine silt

-6

Mudstone

Mud

Medium silt

64

Siltstone

Coarse silt

-8

Sandstone

Very coarse sand

256

Conglomerate

Boulder

Grain Size:
controlled by energy of evironment

Phi ()
mm -log2d

Sandstone Petrography (Grain size)

Note that Wentworth Size Classes differ slightly from the classification used in
(Central) Europe
Kurzzeichen
Korngre [mm]
Y
> 200

Steine

> 63 < 200

Kies

> 2,0 < 63

Grobkies

gG

> 20 < 63

Mittelkies

mG

> 6,3 < 20

Feinkies

fG

> 2,0 <

Sand

> 0,06 < 2,0

Grobsand

gS

> 0,6 < 2,0

Mittelsand

mS

> 0,2 < 0,6

Feinsand

fS

> 0,06 < 0,2

Schluff

> 0,002 < 0,06

Grobschluff

gU

> 0,02 < 0,06

Mittelschluff

mU

> 0,006 < 0,02

Feinschluff

fU

> 0,002 < 0,006

Tonkorn

< 0,002

6,3

Konglomerat / Brekzie

Benennung
Blcke

Sandstein
Siltstein
Tonstein

Petrography (Sorting)
Sorting:
measure of standard deviation of grain size
controlled by agent of deposition
(Wind > Water > Ice)

Comparison chart for sorting classes

Well
sorted

Pettijohn, Potter, Siever (1972)

0.35

moderately
sorted

0.5

Poorly
sorted

Very poorly
sorted
1.0

Important control on porosity / permeability

s =

84-16
4

s < 0.35

Very Well Sorted

0.35 - 0.5

Well Sorted

0.5 - 1.0

Moderately Sorted

1.0 - 2.0
> 2.0

95-5
6.6
mature

Poorly Sorted submature

Very Poorly Sorted

2.0

Well sorted medium grained

sandstone with excellent
porosity/permeability.

Poorly sorted congl. with virtual no

porosity and permeability.
All large pores between pebbles are
filled with fine- grained sandstone.
Talang Akar Fm., SE Sumatra, Indonesia.

Petrography (Skewness; Angularity)

Skewness:
controlled by depositional environment

16+84-250

Sk =

2(84-16)

5+95-250
2(95-5)

positive skewness
Grain Size

negative skewness
Grain Size

Angularity (Roundness):
controlled by the distance of transport
(but also lithology)
Bach sand + dunes > fluvial > glacial sed.

Skewness

Frequency

+
Eolian
0
-

River
Sand

Turbidites

Beach
Sand
Better Sorting

Poorer Sorting

Grain Shape

Quartz
Quartzarenite
Subarkose

Sublitharenite

Greywacke

Feldspar

Rock
Fragm.

Increase in amount of instable (reactive) grains

(feldspar, lthic fragments)
effects dissolution and precipitation (cementation)

Petrography (Classification based on detrital components)

Arkosic sandstones and

lithic arenites are often
more cemented than
quartzarenites

Quartzarenite: product of intense sediment recycling (resulting in destruction of instable minerals),

often found in shallow marine environments
Arkosic sandstone: derived from granitic sources (granite is rich in feldspar), high relief, often in
fluvial environments or in shallow marine environments with a granitic hinterland
Lithic arenites (20-25%): High sedimentation rate, short transport fluvial and deltaic
environments

Diagenesis
Mechanical compaction
Immediately following deposition, sand has a loose structure. With increasing overburden,
the sand grains will pack more closely and the porosity will be reduced. This may take place
as a result of
grain rotations
mechanical deformation of ductile (plastic) minerals
grains breaking down mechanically
pressure solution

Compaction results in a
decrease in porosity (and
permeability)

Diagenesis
Chemical solution

Precipitation

Reactive minerals:
Carbonate: Aragonite, calcite, dolomite,
Silicate:
Mica, feldspar, amphibole,
pyroxene, olivine

Dissolved material is the source for

cement, which destroys

are (relatively) easily solved and may

produce secondary .

Typical cement includes:

Calcite, dolomite,
Quartz, clay minerals (kaolinite, chlorite,
smectite, illite)
Electrone microscope

HWYH 207 (13,745 ft)

Extensive quartz cement.
Light microscope:

Dissolution of feldspar increases porosity.

Sussex "B" Sandstone

Red (cathodoluminesc.)
calcite cement in reservoir
sandstone

Diagenesis
Chemical solution/precipitation
Typical cement:
Calcite, dolomite,
Quartz, clay minerals (kaolinite, chlorite, smectite, illite)
Effect of clay mineralogy on reduction in porosity and permeability

Floating cement:
Mobile cement, which
blocks pores during
petroleum production

HWYH 201 (14,734 ft)

Illite grain coatings retard quartz cementation,
preserving porosity
(Devonian Jauf Sdst.; Ghawar Field)

Reservoir Type
Strandplain-wave dominated deltas
Barrier bars
Large reefs/atolls
Fluvial-dominated deltas
Carbonate ramps
Barrier bars
Carbonate platforms
Wave-dominated deltas
Fan-delta/sand-rich submarine fans
Fluvial systems
Fluvial-dominated deltas
Restricted platform carbonates
Platform-margin carbonates
Turbidites
Mud-rich submarine fans

100

Drive

Strong
Moderate
Weak

n=
450
80
60
40
20
Mobile oil recovery efficiency (%)

(mobile = reducible saturation equal to about 14 %)

adapted from Tyler (1988)

Sedimentary Environments

1.
2.
3.
4.

Continental Environments
Alluvial Environments (All. fan, fluvial)
Desert Environments
Lake Environments
Glacial Environments

Shoreline Environments

1. Deltaic Environment
2. Tidal Flat Environments
3. Beach Environments

1.
2.
3.
4.

Marine Environments
Continental-shelf Environments
Continental-margin Environments
Organic reefs
Deep-sea Environments

Clastic Depositional Environments (Alluvial Fan)

A cone-shaped deposit of terrigenous sediment
formed where a stream undergoes an abrupt
widening as it leaves a mountain-front for an
open valley.

Badwater Fan, Death Valley

Canyon
Steep mountain front

Braided stream
Plain

Note radial pattern, channels become smaller

and more abundant downstream

Clastic Depositional Environments (Alluvial Fan)

Sequence:
Composition:
Overall Geometry:
Internal features:
Reservoir quality:
Speciality:

Gravel, sand, mud; poorly sorted

Big pile of gravel; fine outward (mounded structure)
Crude bedding
High porosity, high vertical + horizontal permeability
Shale is rare, no seals for traps
(some reservoirs in small fans)

Alluvial fan, N Death Valley

Small debris flow fan off of the Funeral Range.
The valley margin is defined by an active
normal fault which has cut through this fan.
http://faculty.gg.uwyo.edu/heller/Sed%20Strat%20Class
/Sedstrat3/slideshow_3_7.htm

Fan Delta: Alluvial fan which continues into a lake or the sea.
See delta chapter

Clastic Depositional Environments (Fluvial Systems)

Single channel

Multi-thread
Channel (fill+margin)

Braided

Single-thread

Classification of fluvial styles

Floodbasin

Meandering

Multi channel

Sinuosity index >1.3

Straight
Sinuosity index <1.3

Sinuosity: ratio between

channel length and
distance across the
channel belt

Anastomosing channel consist

of individual channels that can
be braided, meandering or
straight

Floodbasin

Anastomosing
Maksake (1998)

Clastic Depositional Environments (Fluvial Systems)

Sub-environments of Fluvial Systems
Channel fill

(potential reservoir)
Lag, bars (longitudinal, transverse, point bar)

Natural Levee
Crevasse Splay

(secondary reservoir facies)

Floodbasin

1. Floodplain
2. Backswamp
3. Interchannel lake

(gas-prone source?)
(Oil/gas-prone source?)

Abandoned channel plug

Clastic Depositional Environments (Fluvial Systems)

a) Braided Stream

L-Bar and T-Bar Sequences

Water level in braided rivers goes up and down
on a daily scale.
They are braided because sediment transported
during high water is deposited (as L-Bars) during
low water in the channel center forcing the
channel to split, or braid, around the bar.
In time the entire valley is braided.

Tagliamento

Braided rivers typically have no separate flood

plain (with deposition of fine-grained sediments).

Proximal
L-Bar dominant

L-Bar - Longitudinal Bar; gravel deposited in a

channel center,
T-Bar - Tranverse Bar; large planar crossbedded sand bodies

Decreasing energy
Decr. thickness of L-Bars
L-Bars + T-Bars

T-Bars dom.

Distal
Transition to
Meandering
River

Clastic Depositional Environments (Fluvial Systems)

a) Braided Stream
Sub-environments
(+ log patterns)

Blocky (cylindric)
log pattern

0%

Blocky log motifs (often with sharp upper and lower boundary) are typical for braided rivers!
Meranji 1

25%

Clastic Depositional Environments (Fluvial Systems)

a) Braided Stream

Sequence:
Composition:
Overall Geometry:
Internal features:
Reservoir quality:
Example:

Blocky (or fine upwards)

Gravel and/or sand (little shale)
Braid belt parallels depositional dip
Internal pods
Outstanding (but not very common)
Prudhoe Bay Sadlerochit Fm.

Kayenta Fm, Jurassic, Colorado, sandy braided stream: A series of bars cut in a road cut

Several of the discrete barforms are colored in. Note internally each bar contains accretion beds indicating
flow to the left. Note how bars climb up the back of previous bars.
http://faculty.gg.uwyo.edu/heller/Sed%20Strat%20Class/Sedstrat4/slideshow_4_3a.htm

Clastic Depositional Environments

b) Meandering Stream
Meandering streams form in low-energy areas.
A meander develops as the stream erodes the
outer bank of a bend and deposits sediment (as
point bars) against the inner bend.

Oxbow lake: oxbow lakes form when a

stream abandons a meander (abandoned
channel) and takes a new course.
The lake becomes filled with fine-grained
material clay plug

Clastic Depositional Environments (Fluvial Systems)

Channel fill pointbar sands

Sub-environments
(+ log patterns)

Crevasse
delta

sandy

Crevasse
splay

Floodbasin

shaly

Natural
levee
Abandoned
channel plug

Lateral relationships and vertical sequences as reflected by log response, of the sub-facies
of an idealized meandering fluvial system
Channel fill point-bar sands (C), which are the thickest sand body.
Natural levee sandy muds and silts (A) flank and overlie
Crevasse splay (D) and crevasse delta (B) lobes flank the channel fill, forming
heterolithic, commonly upward coarsening units.
Abandoned channel plugs (F) overlie channel floor and lower point-bar sand.
Floodbasin deposits (E) surround the belt of channel fill and associated facies.

Clastic Depositional Environments (Fluvial Systems)

b) Meandering Stream
Sequence:
Composition:
Overall Geometry:
Internal features:
Reservoir quality:

Fine upwards (upward decrease in )

Mud system with point bar sands
Meander belts in organic rich muds
upper part fine-grained
Base is excellent; top has poor lateral and
vertical permeability (Clay plugs!)

Bell shaped
log pattern

0%

Meranji 1

25%

Clastic Depositional Environments (Fluvial Systems)

c) Crevasse Splay:

a thin fan shaped sediment accumulation that

occurs at a breach (crevasse) in the natural
levee during subsequent flooding

Columbia river

Well
Channel fill facies
Crevasse splay facies

A recent crevasse splay deposit formed

where the river has broken through the
levee

Oligocene,
Texas Coastal Plain

Sand isolith map of a large crevasse splay marginal to a

sinuous channel fill. Splay thickness approaches that of the
main channel. The splay deposits are a heterogeneous mix
of fine to coarse sand and lenses of mud and gravel.
(Galloway & Kaiser 1980).

A small crevasse splay is overriding an

earlier one

Clastic Depositional Environments (Fluvial Systems)

c) Crevasse Splay
Sequence:
Composition:
Overall Geometry:
Internal features:
Reservoir quality:

Thin, fines upward and away from channel

Sand, silt
often erosive base, thin local sheets
Coarsening upward --> fining upward
Locally good

Overbank mudstone

Crevasse splay sandstone

Overbank mudstone

Clastic Depositional Environments (Eolian Systems)

Subenvironments of Eolian Systems
(potential reservoir)
Dune
Interdune
(potential flow barriers)

1. Deflationary lags
2. Depositional interdune flat
Sand sheet
Ephemeral channel and wadi (after catastrophic rain, dessication cracks)
Ephemeral lake (Playa) (groundwater is an important source!)

Star dunes indicate the winds

that formed them blew from
many directions (Namib)

Crescentic dunes are

migrating toward the left
(coastal Peru)

Linear dunes (western

deserts of Egypt)

Clastic Depositional Environments (Eolian Systems)

Characteristics of Dunes:

Well defined planar or trough bedded strata,

Upward increase in inclination of laminae (up
to 30; eolian foresets dip steeper than
interdune sediments
Many intra-formational unconfonformities,
Excellent sorting,
Relatively small grain-size (very fine sand)
In the Rotliegend sequence almost continuous
eolian bedding reaches thicknesses of 200 m
and more.

Cross-bedded sand dunes near Kanab,

Utah. The inclination of the cross beds
shows that the ancient prevailing winds
were blowing from left to right.

Sharp, planar contact between eolian dune

cross-strata and low-angle stratified fluvial
conglomerates (Newell, 2001).

Clastic Depositional Environments (Eolian Systems)

Composition:
Internal features:
Reservoir quality:
Speciality:
Examples:

Sand and silt, excellent sorting

Tabular and cross beds
Excellent but not uniform (interdune sed.!)
Often overlain by evaporitic rocks (seal)
Early Paleozoic (e.g. Algeria - Hassi Messaoud)
Permian (Rotliegend - North Sea)

Example:
South Permian Basin (SPB)
Cap Rock:
Upper Permian Zechstein evaporites
Reservoir rock:
Lower Permian Rotliegend sandstone
Source rock:
Upper Carboniferous Coal

From Vackiner, Antrett, 2011)

Clastic Depositional Environments (Delta Systems)

Deltas:
Where rivers unload their deposits
= Sediment input

Fluvial dominated deltas are elongate.

Wave dominated deltas have a
smooth shoreline, because longshore
currents carry sediments away.
Tide dominated deltas are funnel
shaped.
Deltas with fluvial and wave influence
are called lobate.
Fluvial and wave-dominated delta
types are termed constructive!

Morphologic classification of delta systems

based on relative intensity of fluvial and
marine processes (modified from Galloway
1975).

Clastic Depositional Environments (Delta Systems)

Sub-environments
Delta top (subaerial, shallow subaqueous, topset)
1. Distributary channel
2. Levee and floodplain
3. Crevasse splay / subdelta
4. Marsh/swamp/lake
5. Interdistributary embayment

fluvial environments

Delta front (marine influenced, dominantly subaqueous, foreset)

1. Channel mouth bar

2. Delta front sheet (beach ridge, tidal sand flat, tidal sand ridge)
3. Prodelta
Crevasse
splay

Swamps

Delta
channels

Delta top
environments
Interdistributary
bay

Delta plain

Subaqueous
mouth bars
Delta slope

Prodelta

Delta front
environments

Clastic Depositional Environments (Delta Systems)

Delta Propagation
Delta top facies:
channel sands and
delta plain muds

Mouth bar sands

Marine
Prodelta shelf deposits
muds

Delta slope 12

Delta progradation generates

coarsening-upward succession

Taken from the homepage of Nathan D. Sheldon

www.gl.rhul.ac.uk/~sheldon/

Clastic Depositional Environments (Delta Systems)

Fluvial dominated delta (elongated )
River
channel

Delta
(distributary)
channel

Delta plain
Crevasse
splay
Interdistributary
bay

Levees
Interdistributary
bay

Mouth bars
(below water)

Pro delta muds

Taken from the homepage of Nathan D. Sheldon
www.gl.rhul.ac.uk/~sheldon/

Clastic Depositional Environments (Delta Systems)

Wave dominated delta (lobate )

Pro delta muds

Taken from the homepage of Nathan D. Sheldon
www.gl.rhul.ac.uk/~sheldon/

Clastic Depositional Environments (Delta Systems)

Tide dominated delta

Pro delta muds

Taken from the homepage of Nathan D. Sheldon
www.gl.rhul.ac.uk/~sheldon/

Clastic Depositional Environments (Delta Systems)

High Constructive Deltas
Lobate Delta
Sequence:
Composition:
Overall Geometry: Sheet sand
(fan shape)
Internal features:

Elongate Delta
Coarsens upwards
Sand
elongate parallel to depositional dip
(finger-like)

distributary mouth bar

beach, and shore face
likely to be overprinted by point bars
excellent sorting (waves)
Reservoir quality: Excellent
Very good
(25% of world res.)

Clastic Depositional Environments (Delta Systems)

Fan Delta

Alluvial fan which continues into a lake or the sea.

Consequeces (compared to alluvial fan):
better sorting (due to wave and current activity)
better sealing (deposition of fine-grained material within
the aquatic environment)

Modern example (Gulf of Suez, Egypt)

alluvial deposits

wave reworked

Feeder channel
(wadi - ephemeral river)
www.gl.rhul.ac.uk/~sheldon/Deltas.ppt

Clastic Depositional Environments (Shore-Zone)

Coastal environments outside deltas
Sub-environments
Shoreface and beach

1. Lower
5-8 m
2. Middle shoreface
3-5 m
3. Upper
0-3 m
4. Beach (foreshore)
(between low and high tide)
5. Tidal sand shoals and tongues

Shore-Zone Facies

Barrier island and split

1. Shoreface
2. Beach (foreshore)
3. Inlet fill
4. Flood-tidal delta
5. Ebb-tidal delta
6. Washover fan
7. Barrier flat
8. Lagoon

Barrier Island deposits

Barrier sand, tidal channel, and lagoon (Tx Gulf Coast).
When they are buried in the subsurface, the barrier sand and
the tidal channel sands can be good reservoirs.
The lagoonal deposits can form hydrocarbon source rocks if
they are organic rich, as is often the case in lagoons.

Flood-tidal delta and a very long beach-sand deposit.

The flood-tidal delta formed when incoming tides moved sand
progressively inland, beyond the beach and through the tidal
channel. Both the flood-tidal delta and the beach sand can be
good reservoirs when they are buried in the subsurface.

Stratigraphic
Depositional Traps (Bars)
Hoadley Gas Field: Alberta Basin, Alberta
Reservoir: Upper Glauconite Fm.: fine-medium grained bar sandst. (: 8-16%; increases
upwards; eolian rocks on top of bars: 13->20%).
Lower Glauconite Fm.: shaly marine sand (~9% por.)
Seal:
marine shale (sea-side), bay sediments, shale filled tidal channels (tidal channels
cause reservoir compartments)

coal

Discovery well, Sundance et al Hoadley,

showing
Compensated Neutron Formation Density log
Dual Induction Laterolog
of the Glauconite Fm.
AOF: absolute open flow.

From: Kam Chiang (1990) In: Stratigraphic Traps I.

Treatise of Petrol. Geol., AAPG.

Stratigraphic
Depositional Traps (Bars)
Strachan

Hoadley

SE of
Edmonton

Map showing facies of the Hoadley

barrier bar complex and the Medicine
River delta complex with locations of
completed Glauconitic gas wells.
Dashed line is gas/water contact.

From: Kam Chiang (1990) In: Stratigraphic Traps I. Treatise of Petrol. Geol., AAPG.

Clastic Depositional Environments (Shore-Zone)

Barrier Island
Sequence:
Composition:
Overall Geometry:
Internal features:
Reservoir quality:
Speciality:

Coarsens upward
Sand
long, linear parallels depositional strike
Fossils and burrows, eolian likely on top
Outstanding
encased in source (and seal) rocks

Barrier Dunes

Clastic Depositional Environments (Slope and Base of Slope)

Submarine fans and related deep-marine clastic systems

Sub-environments
Shelf
Slope:
Base of slope:
Basin floor

typically 2-5 (<1-10), erosion and sediment bypassing

typically sediment accumulation

Canyon
Outer
Fan

Shelf break
Cohesive flow
Slumps/Olistostromes

Mixed sand-mud submarine fan

(after Reading & Richards, 1994)

Turbidity flow
Turbidites

Clastic Depositional Environments (Slope and Base of Slope)

Submarine fans and related deep-marine clastic systems

Subenvironments

1) Mass transport complex (slide blocks, slump, debris flow)

2) Turbidite channel (+ levee, overbank)
3) Turbidite lobe
high density turbidites --> coarse grained mounded lobes
low density turbidites --> muddy sheet lobes, which are transitional to
4) Sheet turbidites (formed on the basin plain; classic turbidites)
5) Contourites
6) Hemipelagic Drapes

(Galloway & Hobday, 1996)

Olistostrome

Proximal turbidite

Distal turbidite

Clastic Depositional Environments (Slope and Base of Slope)

Submarine fans and related deep-marine clastic systems contain >15% of
worlds total oil reserves in clastic-dominated HC systems.
Example: UK and Norwegian North Sea shelves (90% oil, 40% of gas)

Sequence:
Composition:
Overall geometry:
Internal features:
Reservoir quality:
Speciality:
Sequence:
Composition:
Overall geometry:
Internal features:
Reservoir quality:
Speciality:

Proximal Submarine Fan

Overall coarsening-upwards, individual beds fining-upwd.

Sandstone, occ. gravel
pod shaped (channel-levees in mud-, channels in
sand-, and wedges in gravel-dominated systems
pods may not be connected
Excellent in mud-dominated systems
Likely to be overpressured, mainly stratigraphic traps

Distal Submarine Fan

Bouma turbidites
Sandstone, fine to very fine-grained
overall pod shaped
very thin turbidites
Individually poor; thick sequences OK
Each sand is its own reservoir and has its own water level

Clastic Depositional Environments

Deep-marine sediments in the Molasse Basin

Clastic Depositional Environments

Deep-marine sediments in the Molasse B. (Puchkirchen Fm)

Example of an RMS seismic

amplitude map at the level of
the Upper Puchkirchen A2
unit.
Note the W-E trending high
amplitude channel belt with
small tributary channels
(centre) and crevasse splay
or overbank lobes on the
outer bend of the main
channel (top right) (deRuig,
2003).

Carbonate Reservoirs
Difference to Clastic Rocks
Formation
Classification
Pore Space
Dolomitization
Dual Porosity Dual Permeability
Depositional Environments

Carbonate Ramp,
Differentitated Carbonate Shelves,
Reefs,
Isolated Carbonate Platform

Carbonate Rocks
Clastic sediments

Chemical and biochemical sediments

Physically deposited sedimentary

particles, such as grains of quartz and
feldspar derived from a weathered
granite.

are new chemical substances that from

by the precipitation when some of rocks
components dissolve during weathering
and are carried in solutions.

These sediments are laid down by

running water, wind and ice and form
layers of
Clay / Claystone
Silt
/ Siltstone
Sand / Sandstone
Gravel / Conglomerate, Breccia

Carbonate rocks
Evaporite rocks
Chert
Coal

Carbonate Rocks
Introduction
> 40 % of HC reserves occur in carbonate reservoirs, incl. some giant oil fields (Ghawar
Field, Saudi Arabia).
Unlike clastic reservoirs, carbonate sediments are characterized not only by physical
sedimentary parameters (, k), but also by the composition of the particles themselves.
Carbonate pores have an additional complexity, due to the shape of the organisms from
which the grains were derived.
Carbonate grains are chemically active (=diagenetic
changes). Thus, the basic controls on the ultimate porosity of
limestones are dominantly diagenetic in origin.
Diagenesis starts shortly after deposition (dissolution of
aragonite precipitation of calcite). This implies major
changes of reservoir characteristics with depth (less changes
in sandstone reservoirs).
Reservoir potential can be preserved, enhanced or destroyed
depending on burial compaction, shallow and deep burial
diagenesis.
Limestone, Dolostone (Dolomite)
Carbonate rocks (esp. Dolostone) is brittle fractures

Vuggy porosity due to dissolution

Carbonate Rocks (Formation)

Constituents of carbonate rocks
Grains: skeletal and non-skeletal
Matrix: fine-grained mud or silt-sized material between grains
Mineral Cement: crystals that precipitate into interstitial void space
Recrystalisation Spar: crystals that form by recrystallisation of any of
the above
Grains:
oSkeletal grains (animals, plants)
shallow water, sunlight, warm, normal salinity, oxygenated
today no equatorial ocean relatively little modern carbonate
production
oNon-skeletal grains
forms by deposition of CaCO3 around nucleus
Coated grains:
(oolites)
Detrital grains:
re-deposited material (e.g. lime sands)
Fecal pellets:
mostly formed by worms ingesting lime mud
Lumps: any aggregation of grains
Matrix (Lime mud): Carbonate with clay-particle size (<0.06 mm)
Precipitated as aragonite needles
Detrital

Carbonate Rocks (Classification)

Carbonate rock classification (Dunham, 1962)

Boundstone:
Framestone: Massive fossils in growth position (e.g. rudists, large corals)
Bindstone: Tabular or lamellar fossils, binding organisms (e.g. algae)
Bufflestone: Bryozoa or coralline algae, acting as baffles against water flow

Carbonate Rocks (Classification)

Grainstones

Boundstones
Boundstones are carbonate rocks which are bound
together in the original depositional environment by
framework building organisms such as
corals,
encrusting organisms (e.g. algae, bryozoans)
sediment trapping mechanisms (e.g. cyanobacteria)
They can have complex structures which show
cellular detail, or appear laminated.

Grainstones are grain-supported

carbonate rocks with NO mud. Often
the interstices of these rocks are
filled with a sparry cement.
The photo below is a bit of a stretch for a
carbonate because the original carbonate has
been replaced by quartz. However, the
concentrically laminated texture of the oolites has
been preserved, making it a good photo for
showing texture!

Coral Boundstone
Algal Boundstone
Finely laminated, algal boundstone from the
Green River Formation (Eocene, Wyoming).
This type of rock is more commonly known
as a stromatolite.

Silicified Oolitic Grainstone

(secondary replacement of
carbonate by quartz)

Carbonate Rocks (Classification)

Packstones
Packstones are grainsupported carbonate rocks;
i.e., there is less clay size
matrix than grains.

Wackestones
Wackestones are
carbonate rocks which are
matrix-supported; i.e.,
there are more than 10%
grains, but the fine grain
clay size matrix
essentially surrounds the
grains.

Lime Mudstones
Lime mudstones are composed
of clay sized carbonate particles.
These particles can be derived
from the disaggregation of
relatively complex organisms, or
they can be tests of organisms
(e.g. Coccolithophorids).
These rocks can be of any colour.
Colour is primarily determined by
the redox conditions at the time of
deposition.
Lime Mudstone
Laminated,
basinal rocks of
the Devonian
Swan Hills Fm.,
W Canada Basin.

Crinoidal packstone
The crinoid skeletal fragments are an
off white to greyish brown colour,
whereas the matrix is yellowish brown.

Lime Mudstone
Chalk. It is
primarily
composed of the
tests of
coccolithophorids.

Carbonate Rocks (Pore Space)

a) Interparticle pore space

www.beg.utexas.edu

Pores between particles/grains. Controlled by particle size, sorting (and cementation).

Carbonate Rocks (Pore Space)

Packstone
Note
rhombohedral
shape of
dolomite xx

Dolopackstone

Dolograinstone

Grainstone

a) Interparticle pore space (controlled by grain size and sorting)

Carbonate Rocks (Pore Space)

b) Vuggy pore space
Vuggy porosity is pore space that is within grains or crystals or that is significantly larger
than grains or crystals (i.e. pore space that is not interparticle)*.
Two classes of vuggy porosity (based on connectivity):
Separate vugs are interconnected only through the interparticle porosity
(e.g. leached grains and fossil chambers)

www.beg.utexas.edu

Touching vugs form a interconnected pore system of significant extent.

(e.g. [solution enlarged] fractures; large, irregular cavities)

* This definition deviates

from the restrictive definition
of vugs used by Choquette &
Pray (1970) as nondescript,
nonfabric-selective pores,
but it is consistent with the
widespread and less
restrictive use in the oil
industry in referring to visible
pore space in carbonate
rocks.

Carbonate Rocks (Pore Space)

b) Vuggy pore space
Separate Vug
Moldic Porosity

Touching Vug
Cavernous

Shelter & intra-fossil pores

Microfracture
connecting
molding
pores

Dolomitization

Illustration of some dolomitization models. Dashed lines show isotherms and predicted dolomitization patterns are shaded (after
Machel)

Dolomitization: Hypersaline Reflux Model

(e.g. Qatar, Middle East)
Arid climate
sea water evaporates in lagoons, tidal flats and associated hypersaline ponds and lakes
due to loss of Ca in evaporites (gypsum), Mg in evaporitic waters is enriched (Mg/Ca: 10-50);
heavy Mg-rich brines flow downwards through the underlying tidal flat sediments (reflux)
converting the Ca-carbonate sediment to dolomite.

Mg/Ca ratio in the water is a controlling factor:

2CaCO3 + Mg++ = CaMg(CO3)2 + Ca++
Mg++ + Ca++ + 2CO3 = CaMg(CO3)2

(replacement)
(cementation)

Most important result:

Increase in pore size resulting from the increase in particle size from fine crystalline to
medium or coarse crystalline in mud-dominated fabrics.

Dolomitization
Dolomite has a smaller molar volume than limestone. in a closed system dolomitization
should result in an increase in porosity.
However, in nature we have open systems (dolomitization involves the flow of large
quantities of water). Thus, not only Mg but also CO3 can be added to the system, resulting
in dolomite cementation. Therefore, dolomitization includes both replacement of calcite or
aragonite and cementation of pore space (overdolomitization).
Once dolomite xx formed, they become preferred sites for dolomite precipitation. So,
carbonate dissolved from one location will be transported to an existing growing dolomite
crystal (increase in pore size). Dolomite crystals up to 200 m large replace
calcite/aragonite xx <20 m.
Crystal enlargment [Sammelkristallisation] results in better flow characteristics in mud
dominated limestone.
Skeletal fragments (large crystals) are usually the last to be dissolved. The dissolved
skeletal fragment is left as a fossil mold, a type of separate vug.
Young and shallow dolostones have often lower compared to similar limestones, whereas
deeply buried, old dolostones have often higher as compared to limestones (higher
resistance to compaction?).

Dolomitization
In summary, dolomitization affects the flow characteristics of carbonate reservoirs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

increase in particle size

decreasing pore volume (addition of dolomite)
developing moldic pores
increasing resistance to compaction
increase in brittleness

Calcitization of dolomite
Waters with low Mg/Ca ratios (<1) result in dedolomitization.
Origin of water with low Mg/Ca ratios:
Meteoric water(rain water)
Deep groundwater
Dissolution of gypsum/anhydrite by meteoric groundwater
Ca-rich water migrating upward from saline deposits
Calcitized dolomite commonly displays calcite centers and dolomite rims suggesting that the
centers are more soluble than the rim.
Dissolution of dolomite results in separate vug pores.

Fractured Reservoirs: Dual Porosity - Dual Permeability

Most important in carbonate reservoirs, but also in some
sandstone reservoirs.
Matrix Porosity - Fracture (Vug) Porosity / Permeability
Fracture permeability is most important for fluid flow
Fracture porosity can be negligible (A), important (B), or
very important (C)

a) Some matrix

b) No matrix

c) Good Matrix

d) heterog.

Fractured Reservoir:
.. a reservoir in which naturally occurring fractures have, or are predicted to
have, a significant effect on reservoir fluid flow either in the form of increased
reservoir permeability or increased reservoir anisotropy.
All
Fractures

% of Total
Permeability

100% kf

II

III
Decreasing Effect of Matrix
Increasing Effect of Fractures

100% km

IV

All
matrix 100% m

% of Total Porosity

100% f
(Nelson, 2001)

Classification of NFRs
Type I:

Fractures provide the essential porosity (storage

capacity) and permeability.
Amal (Lybia), Edison (California), Basement Fields (Kansas)

Type II:

Fractures provide the essential permeability. (Rock

matrix provides the essential storage capacity). Matrix
has low permeability, but various porosity.
Agha Jari; Haft Kel (Iran), Sooner Trend (Okl.), Spraberry Area (Texas)

Type III: Fractures assist permeability in an already

economically producible reservoir (with good matrix
porosity and permeability).
Kirkuk (Iraq), Dukhan (Qatar), Cottonwood Creek (Wyoming), Lacq (France)

Type IV: Fractures provide no additional porosity or permeability,

but create significant anisotropy (flow barriers).
(Nelson, 2001)

Classification of NFRs
How to recognize naturally fractured
reservoirs?

Productivity index*

Productivity Heterogeneity
Productivity Improvement Factor (PIF): stable oil/gas rate
in a horizontal well compared to a neighboring vertical well

Productivity Index (PI)

Cumulative Production
Permeability thickness (kh)
Flow Capacity Index (FCI)

(a) Bubble map showing PI distribution of an NFR;

bubbles are centered on well locations, and their area is
proportional to well PI. Notice erratic distribution og highly
and poorly productive wells, which is typical of an NFR.

*do not mix with PI from RockEval pyrolysis (Source Rock-chapter)

Distribution of PI for wells in (a).

Fractured Reservoirs: Dual Porosity - Dual Permeability

700

Quartzite,
628

Fracture Number

600
500

Dolomite,
417

400
300
200
100

Quartz SS,
Calcite
202
Cemented SS,
140
Limestone,
87

0
Lithology

Average number of fractures for some rock types (after Aguilera7).

Fractured Reservoirs: Dual Porosity - Dual Permeability

Example: Oligo-Miocene Asmari limestone (Zagros Foldbelt; Iran).
Thickness: 300 m
Folded (note contrast in competence between reservoir and evap. seal)
Average matrix porosity: 8%
Average matrix permeability: 1mD
Fractures: 0.5 - 5 mm wide
Fault porosity is NOT important as a store, but controls production rate!

Fractures and Folds

Prices (1966) classification of fracture sets typical for asymmetric anticlines

backlimb

forelimb

Carbonate Rocks: Depositional Environment

Classification of carbonate systems
Precipitation of carbonate is easiest in warm, shallow seawater. Most carbonate
sedimentation takes place on continental shelves and banks in the tropics (carbonate
factory). Some carbonate is transported landward, some seaward. Thus there are three
different zones of accumulation:
The subtidal open shelf and shelf margin (in place accumulation of lime sands, lime
muds and reefs).
The shoreline, where sediments are transported from the open shelf onto beaches and
tidal flats.
The slope and basin, where shelf-edge sediments are transported seaward (often by
mass movements) and redeposited in depth (slumps, turbidites, chalks).
In post-Jurassic time, the fallout of calcareous zoo- and phytoplankton also contributed
significantly to carbonate sediments.

Carbonate Rocks: Depositional Environment

Two end-members:
a) Carbonate Ramps (or Banks)
b) Carbonate Shelves (Rimmed Margin)

a) Carbonate Ramp

b) Carbonate Shelf

Carbonate Rocks: Depositional Environment

a) Carbonate Ramps or Banks

Gently sloping (<1) carbonate platforms which pass without abrupt change of slope from
shoreline to basin. No pronounced reef trend, although discontinuous carbonate sand
shoals may be present together with a slight shelf break.
Wave-base intersects the depositional interface parallel to the shoreline. May have high
energy beach and skeletal, oolitic sand shoals.
Sabkha or coastal, tidal flat deposits, containing anhydrite or gypsum, grade downslope
through grainstones (incl. oolites) to wackestones and packstones (pelletoidal and
bioclastic), and finally to ribbon limestones and lime mudstones. Stromatolitic or algal
zones are common. Coarse breccias or rudstones are rare.

Layer cake succession of

mechanically deposited limestones

Cyclically interbedded with shaly

limestones, marls, shales (and
perhaps a few sandstones)

Wide lateral continuity (very easy

correlation).

Carbonate Rocks: Depositional Environment

b) Differentitated Carbonate Shelves (Rimmed Margin)
Are characterized by
Presence of nearly continuous rim or barrier along platform edge. The barrier is a wave
resistant structure consisting of either a reef or skeletal, oolitic sand shoals. The reef fronts
are sites of maximum depositional energy (concentration of grainstones).
Pronounced break in slope. Beyond the shelf break, the basins are cut off from any detrital
input, except for gravity-flow deposits containing carbonate clasts from the platform. The
basins are therefore `starved` (deposition of thin lime muds, marls, or black shales).
Landward of rim/barrier is a low energy "lagoonal" area of variably restricted circulation.
These intrashelf basins contain carbonate mudstones which may be rich source rocks.
Algal and foraminiferal limestones, including patch reefs, are widely developed.
Lagoonal area commonly grades landward into tidal flat.

Depositional systems are

interrupted and discontinuous
both laterally and vertically.

Carbonate Rocks: Depositional Environment

Reefs
May form in platforms and ramps. However, most abundant along the shelf-edge
(exception: Bahamas Banks).
Reef trends are typical for shelf edges.
Often reefs consist primarily from
structureless boundstone flanked by
grainstone and packstone.
Reef cores tend to have vuggy porosity,
but may have little permeability unless
leached or fractured.

Barrier reef (Shelf edge):

Backreef wackestone and mudstone (permeability barriers). (Oolitic) grainstones

behind the reef are quickly buried by mudstone and preserve their permeability. Form
some of the most prolific reservoir rocks (e.g. Jurassic Arab Fm. in SA).

Forereef high energy. Deposition of grainstone, packstone Traps may form in the
transition zone to mudstones.
Disadvantage: Grainstones are slowly buried by mud and can loose permeability during
early diagenesis

Rock Typing
The Link between
Geology (facies, depositional environment, diagenesis) &
SCAL (Special Core Analysis; Poro/Perm, capillary pressures)
a process by which geological facies are characterized by their
dynamic behaviour
(Poro/Perm [rock fabric, fDE,Dia]; Pc, kr, wettability [rock-fluid interaction)

Gomes et al. (2008) Carbonate Reservoir rock Typing The Link between Geology and SCAL. SPE 118284

Rock Typing
Tidal Flat

Inner ramp
muds

Grain-dominated
packstone

Grainstone

Geological facies

Deepwater
muds

not affected by diagenesis

affected by diagenesis

Outer ramp muds

Rock Typing
Link between depositional facies, diagenesis and petrophysical groups (PGs)
(and correspondent -k cross-plots by facies & PGs)
Depositional Facies
Association Model

Depositional Rock Type

DiageneticFacies
Model

Petrographical Rock Type

K vs Phi by Facies Associations

Model based on
Petrophysical Groups

Petrophysical/Hydraulic Rock Type

K vs Phi colour coded by Petrophysical Groups

Rock Typing
Effect of wettability variations (carbonate rocks in oil zone can become oil wet)
Number of RRTs can be higher than number of PGs
Model based on
Petrophysical Groups

Fluid Model

Model based on
Res. Rock Type Groups

Rock Typing
4 Facies associations
6 Petrophysical Groups (diagenesis)
9 rock types (wettability variations)

MICP - mercury injection capillary pressure

PSD - pore size distribution

Flow Units
What is the minimum number of flow units necessary in a numerical flow simulator.
Gunter et al. (1997) suggested a graphical method for quantifying reservoir flow units based on

geologic framework,
petrophysical rock/pore types,
storage capacity,
flow capacity, and
reservoir process speed.

Flow Unit: stratigraphically continuous interval of similar reservoir process speed that maintains the geologic

framework and characteristics of rock types.

Rock type: representative reservoir unit with a distinct Poro/Perm relationship and a unique water saturation for
a given height above free water level.
Graphical tools include a Stratigraphic Modified Lorenz Plot (SMLP).
The key flow unit characteristics to be identified are barriers (seal to flow), speed zones (conduits), and baffles
(zones that throttle fluid movement).

Gunter, G.W. et al. (1997) Early determination of reservoir flow units using and integrated petrophysical method. SPE 38679

Flow Units
bottom

top

Flow
Storage
Capacity Capacity

Tight zone (storage

capacity, little flow
capacity)

Steep slopegreat percentage of

reservoir flow capacity relative to
storage capacityto flow speed zone
Seal: no contribution to storage/flow cap.

Flow Units

Zechstein

Nomenclature
Lithofacies (type): defined as a, depositional facies (or lithotype), based on sedimentary texture, grain types,
sedimentary structures. (e.g. skeletal wackestone)
Facies association: groups of lithofacies from the same depositional environment with common -k
relationships/trends.
Petrophysical groups: rock units (can consist of multiple lithofacies) with similar petrophysical correlations and
common porosity and permeability bins in the , k domain. Petrophysical groups can be characterized by
conventional core analysis and Mercury Injection Capillar Pressur (MICP) data
Flow units are petrophysical groups with spatial continuity at the field scale. They define the hydraulic units or flow
zones (layering) of the reservoir, which should be preserved during upscaling. Synonyms: hyraulic units, speed
zones
Rock types are units of rock deposited under similar geological conditions (not a must), which experienced similar
diagenetic processes resulting in unique pore network and wettability, which is translated into a unique -k
relationship, capillary pressure profile and relative permeability dataset for a given height above the FWL. Rock
types are therefore characterized usig SCAL data. MICP and convetional core analysis are not enough to
charactwerize rock types.

Gomes, J.S., Ribeiro, M.T., Strohmenger, C.J., Negahban, S., Zubair Kalam, M. 2008. Carbonate Reservoir Rock
Typing - The Link between Geology and SCAL. SPE 118284.