Evolution of Life

Melody Leung

Transition from Non-Life to Life

Macro-organic molecules
Macromolecules

Plasma membrane

polymerization

Chemical Evolution

Small organic molecules

energy
capture

abiotic
synthesis

Inorganic chemicals

cooling

Early Earth

Age of Planet Earth - 4.6b yr

Oldest Fossils - 3.5b yr
Possible Formation of the
First Cells
Inorganic molecules

organic molecules
Organic molecules

macromolecules

Organic molecules
Contains at least one atom of carbon
But NOT all carbon-containing compound is organic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_compounds_by_el
ement#Carbon
The distinction between organic and inorganic
compounds is only a matter of convention, and there
are several compounds that have been classified
either way, such as: COCl2, CSCl2, CS(NH2)2,
CO(NH2)2

Urea
AgNCO + NH4Cl NH4NCO + AgCl
NH4NCO H2N-CO-NH2

Ammonium cyanate
Urea

Friedrich Wohler

Evolution of Small Organic Molecules

Some scientists
hypothesize life began
in hydrothermal vents
deep in the ocean
N2 is converted to
Ammonia (organic
matter)

plume of hot water

rich in iron-nickel sulfides

hydrothermal
vent

Miller and Urey Experiment (1953)

RNA-first Hypothesis
Some viruses use RNA as genetic materials
Ribozymes are RNA molecules that can function as
both a genetic substrate and an enzyme
If RNA evolved first it could function as both genes and
enzymes
Reverse transcriptase encoded by viruses produces
DNA from RNA
Suggests a mechanism as to how cells evolved to
have DNA genes

Protein-first Hypothesis
Amino acids can form polypeptides when exposed to
dry heat
Form microspheres when introduced back into water
Complex enzymatic processes may have been
necessary for formation of DNA and RNA
Enzymes may have been needed to produce
nucleotides and nucleic acids

Cairns-Smith hypothesis
Clay was helpful in polymerization of both
proteins and nucleic acids at the same time
May have served as a catalyst and energy source
RNA genes could replicate because proteins were
already present to catalyze the reactions
But this supposes that two unlikely spontaneous
processes would occur at once - formation of RNA
and formation of protein

Plasma membrane
protocells

Liposomes

The cell

The Heterotroph Hypothesis

Heterotrophs = contrasts with Autotrophs

Cannot fix carbon
Protocells were most likely heterotrophs

Nutrition was plentiful in the ocean

Implies that heterotrophs preceded autotrophs

Tree of Life

Tree of Life, Revised

Ring of Life

NO single common ancestor

Evolution of
Complexity & Diversity

Beetles !!
250,000 described plant species
4,000 described mammal species

>350,000 beetle species
described, with many more
beetles yet to be discovered!

Advantageous intermediates
Half an eye : A simple eye with just a few of the components of a
complex eye could still sense light and dark, e.g. eyespots on
flatworms. This ability might have been advantageous for an
organism with no vision at all and could have evolved through
natural selection.

A Planaria flatworm with its light-sensitive eyespots.

Half a wing : The evolution of the very first feathers might have
had nothing to do with flight but to do with insulation or display.
Natural selection tends to take features that evolved in one context
and using them for new functions.

From Homo erectus (upright man)

to Homo sapiens (wise man)

0.6 million years

Micro- vs. Macro- Evolution ??

A couple hundreds
years??

Darwins Journey

Galapagos Islands

The Observation & Hypothesis

Medium ground finch,

Geospiza fortis

Small tree finch,

Camarhynchus parvulus

Medium tree finch,

Camarhynchus pauper

Cactus finch,
Geospiza scandens

Large tree finch,

Camarhyncus psittacula

Vegetarian finch,
Platyspiza crassirostris

Small ground finch,

Geospiza fuliginosa

Sharp-beaked ground finch,

Geospiza difficilis

Mangrove finch,
Cactospiza heliobates

Woodpecker finch,
Cactospiza pallida
(holding a cactus spine)

Warbler finch,
Certhidea olivacea

Large cactus finch,

Geospiza conirostris

Large ground finch,

Geospiza magnirostris

Darwins Finches

Origin of Species
By means of Natural Selection

Darwin vs. Lamarck

August Friedrich Weismann

Generation 19

Darwin & Gregor Mendel

Darwin, 1859: organisms of the same species
develop subtle differences in their phenotypes that
make them more or less able to survive and
reproduce, and the better individuals passed on the
better traits to future generations

BUT Darwin did not address how the variety arises
Mendel, 7 years later, 1866: published Laws of
Inheritance that explained the phenotype of an
organism is dependant on its genotype, and
genotypes are passed on from parents to their
progeny and recombined to create new variations
Genetic variations
Phenotypic variations

Evidence of Evolution

The Bigfoot ??

 Evolution is the changes that have occurred in living

organisms due to differential reproductive success
Some individuals reproduce more than others
because they are better suited to their environment

Fossil Evidence
Hard body parts are preserved in most cases
Often embedded in sedimentary rock
Deposited in layers called strata
Transitional fossils
Represent evolutionary links

Transitional Fossils
Bird or Reptile??
wing

Feathers
head

wing

Teeth
Tail with vertebrae

tail

feet

Claws

Published July 24, 2014

 Geological Timescale
History of Earth: eras
periods
epochs
Dating of fossil evidence
Relative Dating Method
Determines the relative order of fossils and strata
(Stratigraphy)
Absolute Method
Radioactive dating techniques based on the halflife (t1/2) of radioactive isotopes

 Bio-Geographical Evidence
Study of species distribution throughout the world
Consistent with the hypothesis that when forms are
related
they evolved in one location and then spread
The Earth has 6 bio-Geographical regions
Each has its own distinctive mix of species
Barriers prevent evolving species from migrating
to other regions

Laurasia

Laurasia

Permian period
~250 million years ago

Jurassic period
144 million years ago

Triassic period
~220 million years ago

North
America

Eurasia

North
America

Eurasia

India
Africa
South
America

Africa
India

South
America
Australia

Australia
Antarctica
Cretaceous period
65 million years ago

Antarctica
Present day

Continental Drift
The positions of continents and oceans has shifted
through time
The distribution of fossils and existing species allows us
to determine approximate timeline

 Mass Extinctions
Large numbers of species extinct in a short period of time
5 major extinctions have occurred

a 6th mass extinction may happen due to human activities
Cretaceous extinction
Due to a meteorites falling to
Earth
Produced cloud of dust that
blocked the sun
Evidence of huge crater in
Yucatn Peninsula

Mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated

the evolution of life on Earth.

Dominance of particular ecological niches
passes from one group of organisms to another,
it is rarely because the new dominant group is
"superior" to the old and usually because an
extinction event eliminates the old dominant
group and makes way for the new one.

 Anatomical Similarities

Common descent

Homologous Structures
Same function and same basic structure
Eg. human arm and whale forelimb
Analogous Structures
Same basic function but different origins
Eg. wing of bird and wing of an insect
Vestigial Structures
Anatomical structures fully functional in one group, but
reduced & nonfunctional in another
Eg. snakes have no use for hindlimbs, yet some have
remnants of hindlimbs in a pelvic girdle and legs

bird

humerus
ulna
radius
metacarpals
phalanges

bat

whale

cat

horse

human

Homology Extends
to Embryological
Development

fish

salamander

tortoise

chicken
pharyngeal
pouches

human
postanal
tail

 Parade of fossils link modern whales and dolphins to land

ancestors !!
Presence of vestigial pelvic girdle and legs in modern
whales is also significant evidence

 Bio-Chemical Evidence
All organisms use same basic biochemical molecules
DNA (genetic material)
ATP (form of energy)
Identical or nearly identical enzymes (metabolism)
Many developmental genes are shared
Degree of similarity between DNA base sequences and
amino acid sequences indicates the degree of
relatedness

Biochemical Similarities

Number of Amino Acid Differences

Compared to Human Cytochrome C

yeast

moth

fish

turtle

duck

pig

monkey

human

10

20

30

40

50

Cytochrome c is a small protein

that plays an important role
in the electron transport chain
within mitochondria of all cells

Speciation
Species
a group of organisms that are capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
Look different, but they are of the same species
Theridion grallator

Male donkey x Female horse = Mule

Generally consider as infertile
Horses and donkeys are
different species, with
different numbers of
chromosomes.
Hybrids between these
two species, a mule is
easier to obtain than a
hinny (the offspring of a
male horse and a female
donkey)

What about this??

Hybrids
New species??

Horse & Zebra

Whale & Dolphin

Lion & Tiger

What about organisms that

reproduce asexually??
e.g. Bacteria

The Process of Speciation

When one species give rise to two species
Occurs when reproductive isolation develops
Allopatric Speciation: geographical barriers separate a
population into two groups
Sympatric Speciation: without geographical barriers
Eg. Plants - multiplication of chromosome number in
one plant may prevent it from successfully
reproducing with others of its kind
Self-reproduction can maintain a new species

Other Reproductive
Barriers

Penis Size Chart

Mating rituals
Mating time
Physiological difference
Offspring survival-ness /
sterility


Population

New Species??

Speciation
Adaptive Radiation
Populations that adapted to different ways of living

Life form
Galpagos Islands finches studied by Darwin
Subjected to different environmental selection
pressures
Gave rise to many species of finches which differ
primarily in beak shape
Adapted to different food sources

The Pace of Speciation

Phyletic Gradualism
Change is slow but steady

Few transitional fossils are found

Reproductive isolation cannot be detected in
fossils
Punctuated Equilibrium
Long periods of stasis followed by rapid speciation

Rapid development of changes does not result
in recognizable transitional links

lack of transitional fossils

Phyletic Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium

new
species 1

ancestral
species

transitional link

ancestral
species

new
species 1

ancestral
species

new
species 2

new
species 2

Time
Time

Micro- vs. Macro- Evolution

Micro: changes in
the gene pool of a
population over time

relatively small
changes that would
not result in the
newer organisms
being considered as
different species
e.g. a change in a
species color or size

Macro: significant
changes that, over
time, the newer
organisms would be
considered an
entirely new species

the new organisms
would be unable to
mate with their
ancestors

Microevolution: a change in gene

frequency within a population

1. Natural selection; 2. Mating with non-native;

3. Mutation; 4. Genetic drift

Macroevolution

History of Life

However
Experimentation does not support the ability of many
small changes to transform one species into
another
- A matter of time??
- A matter of genetic limitation??

E.g.
- Dog has 78 chromosomes
- Cats has 38 chromosomes

Variations within a species

Mutation

Change in DNA
A random process
Can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful
Only mutation in reproductive cells matter to evolution
Can be caused by
Inaccurate DNA replication
External influences, e.g. mutagens

Gene Flow
Movement of genes from one population to another
Introduce genetic variations in a population

Genetic drift
In each generation, some individuals may, just by chance,
leave behind a few more descendents than the others
The genes of the next generation will be the genes of the
"lucky" individuals, not necessarily the healthier or "better"
individuals.
Bottleneck effects

A bottleneck occurs when an event or a catastrophe
drastically reduces the number of organisms in a population.

Natural selection
Foreground: There is variation in traits !

Fitness: how good, relatively, a particular genotype is at
leaving offspring in the next generation

Circumstance dependent - The fittest genotype during an
ice age, is probably not the fittest genotype once the ice
age is over

Selection pressure
Biotics
Limiting resources
Predation
Parasitism

Abiotic
Weather and climate
Temperature
Moisture

Non-random mating
= Sexual selection
Male competition
Compete for access to females, the amount of time
spent mating with females, and even whose sperm gets
to fertilize her eggs.

Female choice
Choose which males to mate with, how long to mate,
and even whose sperm will fertilize her eggs. Some
females can eject sperm from an undesirable mate.

Birds of Paradise

Die for mating

Stags fight

Artificial selection
Farmers and breeders allowed only the plants and
animals with desirable characteristics to reproduce

Classification with keys

Phylogeny
History of organismal lineages as they change through time

Classification
Organisms are grouped by similarities in morphological / DNA
characteristics
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Taxonomy
Identifying, naming and classifying organisms
Taxon
Group of organisms as a particular level in a classification system

Phylogenetics - places species into clades

Cladogram

lamprey

shark

salamander

lizard

tiger

gorilla

human
bipedal

loss of tail
hair
amniotic
membrane
lungs
jaws

All organisms in a clade exhibit same characteristic

Use homologous structures or DNA sequences

Millions of Years Ago (MYA)

Galago

Capuchin Green monkey Rhesus monkey Gibbon

Chimpanzee

Human

0
10
20
30
40

Modern phylogenetic studies are based on the

assumption that the more closely species are related,
the fewer changes will be found in molecular
nucleotide sequences

The things that are difference / in common

Dichotomous Keys

1a. Organism has 4 legs

Go to # 2

1b. Organism has more than 4 legs

Go to # 20

2a. Organism has a tail

Go to # 3

2b. Organism has no tail

Go to # 35

3a. Organism has stripes

Bengal Tiger

3b. Organism has no stripes

African Lion

Dichotomous Key
Try this one:

1a. Organism walks on all 4 legs (quadruped)

1b. Organism walks on 2 legs (biped)

2a. Organism has visible fur

2b. Organism has no visible fur

20

3a. Organism lives in warm climates

3b. Organism lives in cold climates

4a. Organism has brown or black fur

Ursus americanus

4b. Organism has white fur

Ursus maritimus