.

Design of Piping Systems

.....

Design of Piping Systems

~
"

Pullman Power Products

A Wheelabrator-Frye Company

Revised Second Edition

A WILEYINTERSCIENCE

PUBLICATION

JOHN WILEY & SONS

New York Chichester Brisbane Toronto

Copyright @ 19n, 1956

by
The M. W. Kellogg Company

All Rights Reserved

Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond
that permitted by Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United Slates
Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner
is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information
should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John
Wiley & Sons, Jnc.

Revised Second Edition

20 19 18 17 16

15 14

Nothing contained in Design of Piping Systems is to be construed

118 granting
any right of manufacture, sale or use in connection
with any method, apparatus or product covered by Letters
Patent, nor as insuring anyone against liability for infringement
of Letters Patent.

ISBN 0 471 46795 2

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 56-5573
Printed in the United States of America

Preface

A volume bearing the title Design of Piping Systems, devoted solely to the study
of expansion stresses and reactions in piping systems, was privately published by
The M. W. Kellogg Company early in 1941. It made available for the first time
an adequately organized, comprehensive analytical method for evaluating the
stresses, reactions, and deflections in an irregular piping system in space, unlimited
as to the character, location, or number of concentrated loadings or restraints.
It was the culmination of an intensive, widespread effort to meet the recognized
need for refined analysis capable of general application to the increasing number
of critical piping services required by technological progress, and to the increasingly
severe problems which they posed. The timely availability of this reliable and
versatile approach, now widely known as the Kellogg General Analytical Method,
made it possible to provide satisfactory design for the avalanche of critical and
pioneering piping requirements associated with World War II plant design, and
proved to be a major step in accelerating acquaintance with accurate thermal
expansion analysis and appreciation of its potentialities for more extensive application.
Since the war, technological progress and the trend to larger scale, more complex
units has continued unabated, while the attendant increased pressures, temperatures, and structural complexities have resulted in larger pipe sizes, heavier wall
thicknesses, and a marked increase in alloy construction. Concurrently, the
wartime-fostered universal acceptance of adequate piping flexibility analysis for
critical service has paved the way for more searching examination of the over-all
economics of erected piping by relating potential fabrication, materials, and
operating savings to increased engineering costs. Earlier concepts, which regarded
piping as trivial and expendable, are fast disappearing in view of the rising costs
of field corrections and loss of plant operation - and also with the recognition
that piping represents an increasing percentage of initial plant expenditure.
The importance of sound piping design is now well recognized not only by
designers and users, but also by authorities concerned with public safety. The
Code for Pressure Piping Committee (ASA B3l.1) has increased its membership
and activity over the past several years and a Conference Committee has been
organized, composed of the chief enforcement authorities of each State or Province
that has adopted a portion or all of the Code. Significant improvements in the
rules have already resulted in the revised minimum (and now mandatory) requirements for piping flexibility. With this trend, the ASA Code is now rapidly assuming
the status of a mandatory Safety Code, whereas previously it had served designers
and users primarily as a recommended design practice guide.
The critical shortage of engineering personnel during World War II prevented
the completion of sections on other aspects of piping design that had been planned
for inclusion in the original edition of Design of Piping Systems. As the shortage
persisted, considerable time elapsed before resumption of work could be considered.
Meanwhile, many requests for extension and suggestions for improvement were

,.

PREFACE

vi

received from readers of the text already published. Review of these and other
developments in light of extended experience led to the conclusion that a new
edition was warranted: As the work got under way, it was soon evident that
broadening of the subject matter would have to be limited to treatment of the
structural phase of piping design; coverage of the entire field, including fluid flow,
system design and layout, valve design, piping fabrication and erection, etc., would
require much more than the desired single volume.
It is the objective of this Second Edition to supplement Code rules and other
readily available information with specific mechanical design approaches for entire
piping systems as well as their individual components and to provide background
information which will engender understanding, competent application of analytical
results, and the exercise of good judgment in handling the many special situations
which must be faced on critical piping. In line with this objective, the opening
chapter presents a condensed treatise on the physics of materials. It is followed
by a comprehensive study of the capacity of piping to carry various prescribed
loadings. The utilization of materials is then considered, not only in relation to
fundamental knowledge but also on the basis of conventionally accepted practices.
The present edition also includes a greatly augmented treatment of local flexibility
and stress intensification, and a chapter on simplified methods of flexibility analysis
contains several newly developed approaches which should prove helpful for general
assessment of average piping, or in the planning stage of the design of critical piping.
The Kellogg General Analytical Method, now extended to include all forms of
loading, has been improved in presentation by the use of numerous sample calculations to illustrate application procedures, and by placing the derivations of the
formulas in an appendix. Included in this edition are chapters on expansion joints
and on pipe supports that offer, it is believed, the first broad treatment of these
items with regard to critical piping. The rising significance of vibration, both
structural and fluid, is recognized in the final chapter, which was also prepared
especially for this edition. For ready accessibility of information, the charts and
tables most frequently needed for reference have been grouped at the end of the
text, and a detailed subject index has been provided.
.1

THE

M. W.

KELLOGG

COMPANY

The M.W. Kellogg Company became a subsidiary of Pullman Incorporated in 1944,

and in 1975 was re-named Pullman Kellogg. In 1977, the Power Piping, Chimney
and Mechanical Construction Operations of Pullman Kellogg became the Pullman
Power Products division of Pullman Incorporated.

Aeknowledgments
......

This volume is based 011 the broad experience, background, and mechanical
engineering accomplishment of The M. W. Kellogg Company in the field of piping
design. It reflects the numerous achievements and contributions of the Company
to effective piping design for high temperature and pressure service. As with the
First Edition, the preparation of this book has been sponsored by the Fabricated
Products Division of which Waldo McC. McKee is Sales Manager. This work
could be brought to realization only through the cooperation of the entire engineering staff of the Company and, in particular, of the Piping Division.
Certain individual contributions deserve specific acknowledgment. H. Wallstrom
provided the major original contributions to the Kellogg General Analytical Method
and its extensions (Chapter 5 and Appendix A). He was ably assisted in this work
by Mrs. Catherine R. Gardiner.
Professor E. Orowan of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, retained
consultant of The M. W. Kellogg Company, is responsible for the contents of
Chapter 1.
J. J. Murphy and N. A. Weil collaborated in composing Chapters 2 and 3 and
assisted in the preparation of Chapters 1 and 7. Chapter 4 is the result of a cooperative effort between H. Wallstrom and N. A. Weil; L. C. Andrews is credited with the
writing of Chapter 6.
Credit for the most significant contributions to Chapters 7 and 8 is due to
E. F. Sheaffer. M. Yachter, assisted by S. Meerbaurn, prepared Chapter 9 and
Appendix B.
In addition to credits for Chapters, the following special contributions are
acknowledged. J. J. Rush and M. Hartstein developed The Guided Cantilever
Method of Chapter 4. L. Morrison contributed to the general phases of piping
design. Valuable suggestions were supplied by M. G. Schar on Chapter 8 and by
S. Chesler on Chapter 9. Credit is due to J. T. McKeon for his notable comments
and assistance in reviewing and proof-reading this volume. L. Mylander is to be
commended for co-ordinating portions of this work.
The task of assembling and editing the Second Edition was carried out by
E. F. Sheaffer. N. A. Weil performed the review and inserted corrections for the
second printing of this Edition. The entire project has been under the direction of
D. B. Rossheim, who has guided the design principles and philosophies embodied
in this work.
As is the case with most advances in the engineering art, the First Edition and
this significantly extended Second Edition of Design of Piping Systems have greatly
benefited from the research and contributions of other investigators. Their many
valuable contributions are covered in the lists of references at the ends of the various
chapters and in the "Historical Review of Bibliography" of Appendix A.
R. B.

SMITH

Vice-President, Engineering
The M. W. J(eUogg Company
vii

..........

-._-------------

-_ .

'_p ..

In

jl[ cm01'y

of

DAVlD B. ROSSHEIM
In all of his career, Mr. Rossheim's ability,
dedication and friendliness were all inspiration
to his associates and won for him everyone's

affection and respect.

.T

Contents

.....

Ncmenclature

2.4

xiii

Chapter 1
Strength and Failure of Materials
1.1
1.2

1.3

1.4

l.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

Stable and Unstable Deformations

Plasticity
A. Plastic Deformation under Uniaxial Stress,
2; B. Triaxial Stress: Yield Conditions, 3;
C. Plastic Stress-strain Relationships for Triaxial Stress, 4.
Failure by Plastic Instability
A. Instability of Plastic Extension: the Ultimate Tensile Strength, 5; B. Instability of the
Plastic Expaneion of Tubes, Vessels, and
Plates, 6; C. Ultimate Stress and Working
Stress, 7.

Creep
A. The Andrade Analysis of the Creep Curve,
8; B. Transient Creep, 9; C. Viscous Creep,
10; D. Creep under Triaxial Stress, 11; E. Tbe
Mechanism of Creep, 11; F. Evaluation and
Engineering Use of Creep Tests, 12; G. Creep
Fracture, 13.
Types of Fracture;
Molecular Cohesion; the
Griffith Theory

Ductile Fractures
The Brittle Fracture of Steel (HNotch Brittleness")
Fatigue
A. General Features, 20; B. The Mechanism
of Fatigue, 22; C. Influence of a Superposed
Steady Stress, 23; D. Influence of a Compound State of Stress, 25; E. Influence of
Notches and of Surface Flaws, 25; F. Fatigue
Tests on Specimens VB. Fatigue Tests on Structural
Parts,
26;
G. Periodically
Varying
Thermal Stresses, 26; H. Thermal Fatigue, 27;
J. Damage by Overstress, 27; K. Corrosion
Fatigue, 28.

Chapter 2
Design Assumptions, Stress Evaluation,
lind Design Limits
2.1
2.2
2.3

2.5

Codes and Standards

Design Considerations: Loadings
Design Limits, Allowable Stresses, and Allowable
Stress Ranges

2.6
2.7

15
16
20

30
32

52

Pipe Benda: Structural Loading (Static and Cyclic)

Pipe Benda: Internal Pressure

52
60

3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

Miter Benda
Bends and Miters: Summary
Branch Connections: Static Pressure Loading
Branch Connections: Repeated Loading

60
61
62
66

3.7

Branch Connections: Comparison with Code Requirements

Branch Connections: Practical Considerations and
Summary

ix

67
69

3.9
3.10
3.11

Corrugated Pipe
Bolted Flanged Connections: General Background
Bolted Flanged Connections: Practical Considerations

70
74

3.12
3.13
3.14

Joints Between Dissimilar Materials

Other Components
Piping and Equipment Intereffects

79
81
83

Methods

77

90

4.1

Scope and Merits of Approximate

4.2
4.3

Thermal Expansion
Preliminary Segregation of Lines with Adequate
Flexibility: Code Rules

91

4.4
4.5
4.6

Selected Chart-form Solutions

Approximate Solutions
The Simplified General Method for Squar~orner
Systems
Approximating the EtTeot of Curved Pipe and
Other Components

94
97

4.7
34

47
48
50

3.1
3.2

Chapter 4Simplified Method for Flexibility Analysis

30

43

Chapter 3
Local Components

3.8
13

Stress Evaluation
a. Internal Pressure up to 3000 psi Maximum,
43; b. Internal Pressure over 3000 psi, 44;
c. External Pressures, 46; d. Expansion, 47;
c. Other Loading, 47.
Combination of Stress: Stress Intensification a.nd
Flexibility Factors
Evaluation of Deflections and Reactions
Design Significance of Inspection and Testa

90

92

102
107

CONTENTS

x
Chapter 5
Flexibility Analysis hy the General
Analytical Method
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
S.H
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.22

Chapter 8
Restraining,
and Bracing
the Piping System

231

8.1
8.2

Terminology and Basic Functions

Layout Considerations to Facilitate Support

231
233

8.3

The Elements of the Supporting

Selection and Location

236

8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7

Fixtures
Pipe Attachments
Structures and Structural Connections
Erection and Maintenance of the Supporting, Restraining, and Bracing System

Supporting,
115

Scope and Field of Application of the General

Analytical Method
Calculating Aids
General Outline of Operations
The Solution of Simultaneous Equations
Single Plane Calculnti~ns
Inclined Members and Changes in Stiffness
Circular Members
General Shape Coefficients
The Secondary Term
Effects of Direct and Shear Forces
Working Planes and Cyclic Permutation
Multiplane Pipe Lines with Two Fixed Ends
Hinged Joints and Partially Constrained Ends
Skewed Members
Branched Systems
Intermediate Restraints
Calculation of Deformations at any Point
Symmetrical Pipe Lines
Inversion Procedures
Cold Springing
Weight Loading
Wind Loading

115
116
117
117
119
120
123
125
125
127
127
128
129
131
145
146
153
157
157
166
170
185

Vibration:
9.1
9.2

9.3

9.4
Flexibility
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

Chapter 6
Analysis by Model Test

The Experimental Approach

The Routinized Model Test
The Kellogg Model Test
The Kellogg Model Test Laboratory
ment
Typical Model Tests

9.5
198
198
198
200

9.6

and Equip201
202

9.7
9.8

Approaches

Chapter 7
for Reducing Expansion
Expansion Joints

Effects:
210

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5

Introduction
Sources of Excessive Expansion Effects
Approaches for Reducing Expansion Effects
Packed Type Expansion Joints
Bellows Type Expansion Joints
a. Discussion, 214; b. Bellows Details, 214;
c. Support and Protection of Bellows, 216;
d. Fabrication of Bellows Joints, 217; c. Establishing PUrchasing Requirements for Bellows
Joints, 219; f. Materials and Deterioration,
220; fl. Fatigue Basis for Predicting Bellows
Life, 220; h. Testing and Quality Control of
Bellows Joints, 222.

210
210
210
212
214

7.6
7.7

Expansion Joints with Built-In Constraints

Establishing Expansion Joint Movement
mands

223
De226

9.9

System: Their

Chapter 9
Prevention
and Control

Introduction
Fundamental Considerations in Piping Vibration
a. Definitions,258; b. Types of Vibration, 258;
c. Sources of Periodic Excitation, 259; d. Vibration Prevention and Control, 259.
Structural Natural Frequency Calculations
a. The Spring-Mass Model, 260; b. Frequency
and Mass Effectiveness Factors for Different
End Constraints, 261; c. Variable Stiffness and
Variable Mass, 263; d. Combined BendingTorsion, 264; e. Approximate Natural Frequencies of Pipe Bends with Two Members
(Vibration Perpendicular to Plane of Bend),
265; f. Plates and Radial Mode in Pipe, 266.
Structural Resonance and Magnification Factors
Damping of Structural Vibrations
a. Hydraulic Snubbers, 270; b. Elastic Foundations for Rotating Machinery, 271.
Acoustic Natural Frequency Calculations
a. The Organ Pipe and Resonators,
273;
b. Special Cases of Multiple Resonator Formulas, 274; c. Piping Systems with Branches and
Enlargements, 276.
Acoustic Resonance and Magnification Factors

243
248
251
254

257
257
258

260

267
270

273

277

Flow Pulsation Smoothing

279
a. Tuned Resonators, 279; b. Surge Tanks,
279; c. Gas Pulsation Dampener Principles,
280; d. Acoustic Expansion Tank, 281; c. Comparison of Gas Pulsation Smoothing Devices,
282; f. Hydraulic
Hammer, 283; g. Magnitude and Direction of Forces on Piping Bends,
285.
Illustration of Vibration Analysis of a Simple
Piping System
285
a. General Data and Estimates, 285; b. Estimates of Structural Natural Frequencies of
Piping System, 285; c. Estimate of Lower
Bounds of Structural Natural Frequencies, 28();
d. Effect of Elasticity of Machine Foundation,
286; c. Estimate of Hydraulic Snubber Force
and Damping Requirement for Reduction of
Amplitude of Vibration, 287; f. Resonance
Effect due to Wind Velocity, 287; g. Estimate
of Acoustic Natural Frequencies, 287; h. Estimate of Acoustic Frequency of the System
Corresponding
to its First Harmonic (2nd
Mode), 288; i. Estimates of Some Possible
Resonator Frequencies, 288; j. Estimate of

CONTENTS

\).10

Volume and Pressure Drop Requirement

of
Hydraulic Filters (Bottles) in the Compressor
Discharge Lines, 290; k. Tuned Resonator
Geometry, 290.
Piping Vibration "Trouble Shooting"
a. Background, 291; b. Vibration Measurement, 292; c. "Trouble Shooting" Procedure,
293.

Appendix
History

.\.1

History of Piping Flexibility and Stress Analysis

A.2

Bibliography
Analysis

A.3

Derivation

Flexibility

of the General Analytical

346

0- 8 Moments and Forces, Two-Member System, Both

Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced in the Direction of the Adjoining Member

347

295
297

0-11
0-12

295

and Stress
Method

C- 6 Moments and Forces, Two-Member System, Both

Ends Fixed, Thermal Expansion in Plane of
Members
0- 7 Length of Leg Required, Two-Member System,
Both Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced in the
Direction of Adjoining Member

0- 9 Length or Leg Requidd, Two-member System,

Both Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced Normal
to Plane of Members
C-1O Moments and Forces, Two-Member System, Both
Ends Fixed, One Support Displaced Normal to
Plane of Members

and Derivation
of Piping
Flexibility Analysis

on Piping

291

Appendix
of Acoustic

Formulas

Multiple Resonator of nth Order

General Characteristic Equation for a Branched
Piping System

328

B.3
B.4

Tuned Resonator Relations

Simplified Surge Filter Analysis

331
333

Appendix

329

Charts and Tables

Design Data: 'I'rizonometric

lar Members

354

0-16

Span vs. Stress, Horizontal Pipe Lines, Uniform

Load
Span VB. Natural Frequency and VB. Deflection,
Horizontal Pipe Lines, Uniform Load

0-17
0-18

Correction Factors for

0-17

Use

Appendix

336

C- 1 Properties and Weights of Pipe

C- 2 Thermal Expansion, Carbon and Alloy Steels

336
341

C- 3 Modulus of Elasticity, Carbon and Alloy Steels

C- 4 Chart for Criterion in Par. 620(0.) in Code for Pressure Piping ASA B3Ll

342
343

C- 5 Length of Leg Required, Two-Member System,

Both Ends Fixed, Thermal Expansion in Plane of
Members
344

349

0-15
328

B.l
B.2

348

351
352
353

299

Vibration

345

Required Height, Symmetrical Expansion Loop

Moments and Forces, Symmetrical Expansion
Loop
Guided Cantilever Chart
Correction Factor f, Guided Cantilever Method

0-13
0-14
Derivation

xi

Constants for Circu-

356
357

with Charts C-16 and

358

A Mulri" l\lethod of Piping Analysis

and The Usc of i)igilal Computers

5A-l Introduction
5A-2 Derivation of the Shape Coefficient Matrix
5A-3 A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis
5A-4 An Example
5A-5 Selected Bibliography
Index

350

359
361
362
369
372
378
379

Nomenclature:
Definitions of Principal Symbols
Meaning

Symbol
a

. Horizontal coordinate to midpoint of member

in working plane.
b
. Vertical coordinate to midpoint of member in
working plane.
c
. Distance of the working plane from the origin;
viscous damping coefficient.
Trigonometric constants.
Co,C"", etc ....
c.........
Critical damping coefficient.
d
. Diameter; inside diameter.
e
. Unit linear thermal expansion for a temperature difference lI.T; base of Napierian
logarithms.
f
. Frequency; factor.
in
. Natural frequency.
g
. Gravitational
constant.
h
. Bend characteristic (=tR/T",2); pitch of half
corrugation of an expansion bellows: gradient of pipe supports.
.
h,
. Offset range of an expansion joint.
i
,
. Imaginary unit (= -v=-i).
k
. Flexibility factor of pipe in bending; spring
constant.
l.
. Length, span of pipe between supports.
m
. Mass.
n
. Material constant, exponent in fatigue equation.
p
. Pressure (load per unit area).
q
. Plastic constraint
factor; shape coefficient
known as the secondary term.
1' ......
Radius.
rio .......
Inside radius.
rm.
. Mean radius.
rD
. Outside radius.
8 ..........
Shape coefficient; steady stress component.
8..,8 , S'a, etc.
Shape coefficients.
t
. Time, thickness.
U, Uo, U' 0, etc.
Shape coefficients.
"J VOl V' etc. Shape coefficients.
w
. Width, unit weight load.
Unit loads in the X-, yo, and e-directions
respectively.
x, y, Z
Coordinate axes, coordinates of a point.
(10,

Symbol
A. . . . . . . . ..
A.F. . . . . . . ..
B. . . . . . . . ..
C. . . . . . . . ..
D. . . . . . . . ..
E. . . . . . . . ..

Meaning

Area; activation energy; free end.

Attenuation factor.
Material constant.
Cold spring factor; velocity of sound; constant.
Diameter.
Young's modulus of elasticity j joint efficiency.
Ee. . . . . . . .. Young's modulus of elasticity at ambient
temperature.
E"
. Young's modulus of elasticity at operating
temperature.
F
.. Force.
Force component in the direction of axis
F%, F~, F ..
indicated by subscript.
Second subscript,
if used, refers to the source of the force.
G
. Shear modulus, diameter of the effective
gasket reaction on a flange.
I
. Moment of inertia.
J
. Polar moment of inertia.
K
. Constant.
L
.. Length.
M
.. Moment.
M.F
. Magnification factor.
Mb
. Bending moment in the plane of the member.
u',
. Bending moment transverse to the plane of
the member.
Torsional moment.
Ml ..
M~,Mv,M~ . Moment component referred to ongm and
about axis indicated by subscript.
Second
subscript, if used, refers to the source of
the moment.
Moment component about axis indicated by
subscript. Second subscript, if used, refers
to the source of the moment.
Ms
.. Any bending moment.
N
. Number of cycles, rpm.
0
.. Origin.
0'
. Fixed end.
P
. Point, concentrated load.
Q
.. Quotient, stiffness ratio, flow rate.

xiv

NOMENCLATURE

Symbol

Meaning

ii
S
Sb
S'b
S ..........
S"

S,
SA
SB
SE

Su
T ..........

u
V
W
y

. Centerline rndius of torus or curved member

(pipe bend or elbowjj.ratio.
.. Universal gas constant.
. Fatigue strength; stress, amplitude of alternating tensile stress component; shape
coefficient; Strouhal number.
. Bending stress in the plane of the member.
. Bending stress transverse to the plane of the
member.
Allowable stress for u material at ambient
temperature.
. Allowable stress for 11 material at operating
temperature.
. Torsional stress.
. Allowable stress range.
. Resultant bending stress.
. Computed maximum stress range.
. Ultimate
tensile
strength
(conventional
stress).
Temperature, amplitude of alternating shear
stress; period of vibration.
Velocity, energy; shape coefficient.
.. Volume; shape coefficient.
. Total uniform load.
. Yield stress in uniaxial tension; resultant
expansion.
Section modulus.

..

..

Symbol

Meaning

Surface energy (work for creating new surface

per unit area); angle; coefficient of linear
expansion.
p
.. Longitudinal stress intensification factor;
angle.
'Y
. Shear strain, transverse stress intensification
factor, ratio of specific beats.
o
. Translatory displacement; deflection.
E ..
Normal (tensile or compressive) strain.
f
.
Logarithmic strain.
Principal strains.
Elrt2,t3

r .. .. .. Viscous damping coefficient (damping ratio).
'1
:
..
Coefficient of viscosity.
0
. Angle.
h
. Wave length.
JL .........
Acoustic conductivity.
v
..
Poisson's ratio.
Density.
p ..........
<r
..
Normal (tensile or compressive) true stress.
Principal stresses (true).
dl, a%. a3 ..
T ......
Sheaf stress.
Angle.
4> ....
Angle.
Angular frequency.
w ......
A
. Restrained linear thermal expansion.
<1>
Angle.
a

"'

.,

._

CHAPTER

Strength and Failure of Materials*

Nthe simplest cases, the failure of a structural

part occurs when a certain function of the stress
or strain components reaches a critical value.
The designer must know, then: (a) how the stresses
and strains can be calculated from the applied load;
(b) what are the critical combinations of stress and
strain at which failure occurs.
The first question belongs to the field of applied
mechanics (elasticity, mathematical theory of the
plastic field, and mathematical rheology). In relation to piping systems, it will be treated in detail in
subsequent chapters of this book.
The second question is concerned with the mechanical properties of solids, which is a chapter of
the physics of solids. It is a relatively new field of
science; until about 30 years ago, the mechanisms
of fracture and of plastic deformation were almost
unknown. Since 1920, however, the progress in this
field has been rapid; at the same time, the demands
on the designer's understanding of the mechanical
behavior of materials have gone far beyond what is
generally available in the traditional textbooks.
Hence, it is appropriate to introduce the treatment
of piping system design in this book with a brief but
up-to-date sketch of the mechanical properties of
solids.
Failure of a structural part can occur by
(a) excessive elastic deformation,
(b) excessive non-elastic (plastic or viscous) deformation, or
(c) fracture.
The calculation of elastic deformations and of the
conditions of elastic instability is the main subject
of books dealing with applied elasticity (tradition-

ally, though inappropriately, entitled "Strength of

Materials").
In the present chapter, only the conditions of failure by non-elastic deformation or fracture
will be considered in detail. Failure by excessive deformation will be discussed in the first four sections, and
failure by fracture in subsequent parts of the chapter.
1.1 Stable and Unstable Deformations

A structure ceases to be serviceable if it suffers

excessive deformation. The deformations leading
to its failure may be elastic (i.e., deformations that.
disappear when the stress is removed), or nonelastic; the latter may be plastic (i.e., depending only
on the deforming stress but not on the duration of
its action), or they may represent a creep (i.e., they
may increase or decrease with time at constant
stress).
Moderate deformations (elastic or non-elastic)
may be beneficial in that they can redistribute the
stress in a structural part or between several structural parts and so prevent its rise to levels at which
fracture can occur.
In many cases, the deformation leads to changes
of the shape of the body that cause an increase of
the stresses produced by a given load. The simplest
examples of this are elastic buckling, and the plastic
extension of a rod in the course of which its cross
section diminishes and the stress for a given load increases; if this increase is not counterbalanced by
strain hardening, it leads to accelerated disruption.
Such phenomena represent an elastic instability if
the deformation is elastic, and a plastic instability
if it is essentially plastic. Plastic instabilities are of
great importance in the design of tubes and pressure
vessels.
In what follows, failure by plastic instability will
be treated separately, after the section dealing with

-Prepared by Dr. Egon Orowan, George Westinghouse

Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Maesachusetts Institute of Technology.
1

DESIGN OF PIPING

SYSTEMS

o
FlO. 1.1

Yield stress-strain curve of copper in compression.

After Cook and Larke (I).

plastic failure without instability.

failure by creep will be considered.
1.2

Subsequently,

Plasticity

A. Plastic

Deformation

under

Uniaxial

Stress .AJ; mentioned above, pure plasticity is defined as a non-elastic type of deformation without
time influence. In uniaxial deformation, the plastic
strain e is determined by the value of the stress at
which the deformation takes place
(J'

(1.1)
Elastic deformations also obey a law of this form;
however, they are reversible, while in plastic deformation the relationship (eq. 1.1) is valid only for
increasing stress. When the stress is reduced, the
plastic strain remains approximately unaltered.
By its definition, pure plasticity means the absence of creep. No material satisfying this requirement is known; however, the behavior of ductile
metals and other crystalline materials at not too
high temperatures (compared with their melting
point) can be described approximately as plastic.
The stress required for plastic deformation (often
denoted by Y) is the yield stress. 1 Its dependence
(eq. 1.1) upon the preceding plastic strain is represented graphically by the "stress-strain curve" (more
accurately, it would be called the yield stress-strain
curve). The stress-strain curves of metals cannot be
represented by a simple mathematical expression.
For strains that are neither too small nor too large,
they can often be approximated by a parabola
(J'

= constant X

FIG. 1.2

Stress-strain curve of the "ideally plastic" material.

A familiar type, the stress-strain curve of copper, is

shown in Fig. 1.1.
For the calculation of the distribution of stress
and strain in plastically deformed bodies, drastically
simplified types of stress-strain curve must be used.
Except in a few of the simplest cases, it is usually
assumed for this purpose that yielding starts suddenly when a critical stress value is reached, and
that it progresses thereafter at a constant stress-in
other words, that there is no strain hardening.
Figure 1.2 shows the corresponding stress-strain
curve of the "ideally plastic" material. It must be
kept in mind that such a curve represents a sensible,
though rough, approximation only if the plastic
strain is large compared with the elastic strain. In
the initial part of the stress-strain curve of a typical
metal (compare Fig. 1.1), the deviation from the
elastic line increases gradually and the idealized
curve (Fig. 1.2) does not represent an approximation.
A few materials (notably, low-carbon steels) show
the so-called "yield phenomenon": plastic deformation starts suddenly when the stress reaches the
value of the "yield point." After its start, the stress
required for further deformation may remain constant for a time, or drop immediately to a lower value'
(the "lower yield point"), as shown in Fig. 1.3. If
such a stress drop occurs, the initial yield point is
called the "upper yield point."
Of particular interest to the designer is the stress
at which the plastic strain (or the total strain)

fn

At small plastic strains, as well as at very large ones,

however, the stress-strain curve is usually quite different from the parabola representing it for moderate
strains.
In addition, the stress-strain curves of
different metals are, as a rule, different in character.
lIn the treatment of plasticity, the term "yield stress"
means the stress required for (initiating cr continuing) plastic
deformation; owing to the presence of strain hardening, it
changes with the plastic strain.

o
FIG. 1.3

Yield stress-strain curve of an annealed

low-carbon steel.

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE

reaches the maximum permissible value. If the

stress-strain curve is of the character shown in
Fig. 1.1, the value of the yield-stress at which the
strain reaches some specified permissible amount
(e.g., 0.2% or 0.02%) is called the 0.2% (or 0.02%)
"yield strength" or "proof stress." Since the word
"strength" is reserved in scientific usage for the
fracture stress, the term "proof stress" will be used
in the present chapter. If the yielding is discontinuous, as in Fig. 1.3, the entire range of commonly
permissible strains, up to 1% or even 3%, lies on the
horizontal part of the curve; in this case, the lower
yield point takes the place of the proof stress. The
upper yield point is a capricious quantity which can
be obliterated by relatively small stress concentrations or small plastic deformations, so that the
designer- cannot rely on it.
Naturally, the proof stress is altered by preceding
plastic deformation (ltcold work"). Let OBD be
the stress-strain curve of an annealed metal and OE
the elastic line (Fig. 1.4); A is the point at which a
critical strain of, say, 0.2% is reached. After straining in tension to B and removing the load (point e),
a material is obtained of which the stress-strain
curve in tension is eFD. The point F at which the
permissible strain of 0.2% is reached is now higher
than A, owing to the preceding strain hardening.
.On the other hand, if the same material, prestrained
in tension to B, is subjected to compression, the
microscopic residual stresses remaining in it give
rise to perceptible plastic deformation even at very
low compressive stresses, and the stress-strain curve
in compression eG deviates from the elastic line
strongly from the beginning. This softening of the
material to reverse deformation is called the "Bauschinger effect." The hysteresis loop BeF observed
when the stress is removed and then applied again is
essentially the same phenomenon, due to directional
microscopic residual stresses in a plastically strained
material.
A mild heating (stress-relieving) after the deformation removes the residual stresses responsible for
the Bauschinger effect and restores the proof stress
for reverse deformation more or less to the increased
level of the proof stress for deformation continuing
in the initial direction.
B. Triaxial Stress: Yield Conditions.
So far,
only uniaxial stressing has been considered. If a
general (triaxial) state of stress is present, with
principal stresses 0"1 ~ 0'2 ~ 0"3, yielding in a material without a sharp yield point occurs when a certain
mathematical expression containing the principal
stresses reaches a critical value. Of several "yield

OF MATERIALS

.------

FlO. 1.4

Increase

of the proof stress by cold work; the

Bauschinger effect.

conditions" suggested, only two have been found

compatible with observations and at the same time
simple enough for practical use: the Tresca (maximum shear stress) condition, and the von Mises
(maximum octahedral stress) condibion.
The Tresca yield condition {21 assumes that
yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress.
equal to one-half of the difference between the
algebraically greatest and smallest principal stresses,
reaches a critical value. It is expressed by
0'1 -

0'3 =

(1.2)

where Y is the yield stress in uniaxial tension or com-,

pression. With the Tresca condition, the inter
mediate principal stress has no effect on yielding.
The Mises yield condition [31 assumes that yield.
ing occurs when the "effective" shear stress2
Tef!

1.J

;::;:
V (0'1 - 0'2)

2v2

+ (0'2 -

0'3)

+ (0"3-

0'1)

(1.3)

reaches the critical value of the yield stress in pure

shear, i.e., one-half of the yield stress Y in tension
Expressed in terms of the uniaxial yield stress Y, it
can be written as
1

Y= v'2V

_J

(<1"1-<1"2) +(0'2-(1"3)

+(0'3-0'1)

(1.4)

2The "octahedral" shear stress differs from the right-hand

aide of eq, 1.3 by having the {actor!, instead of 1/2
bef ore

vi,

the square root. The factor 1/2V2has the convenience that it

makes the right-hand side of eq. 1.3 equal to the maximum
shear stress in the case of a uniaxial stress, i.e., for 17Z = 173 '" O.

DESIGN OF PIPING

The Mises condition is often called the "shear strain

energy condition," since, in an isotropic material,
the right-hand side of eq. 1.3 or 4..4 is proportional
to that portion of the total energy which corresponds
to the shear deformations. For anisotropic materials,
however, the shear strain energy depends in general
upon the hydrostatic component (pressure or tension) of the state of stress [4]. The attainment of a
critical value of the shear strain energy, therefore,
cannot be a condition of plastic yielding, which,
except at extreme pressures, is not influenced by the
hydrostatic component of the stress.
A characteristic feature of the Mises condition ill
that the intermediate principal stress has an influence
on the occurrence of yielding. Only if 0'2 is equal to
the highest or lowest principal stress does eq. 1.4
coincide with the Tresca condition (eq. 1.2). The
greatest divergence between the two conditions is
present when the intermediate principal stress er2 is
the mean value of the extreme ones
er2

~(O'l

+ 0'3)

In this case, eq. 1.4 becomes

va2 Y

= erl -

s .". 1.15Y

(1.5)

That is to say, the maximum principal stress difference at yielding is about 15% higher according to
the Mises condition than that given by the Tresca
condition.
Experiments indicate that the behavior of metals
with no sharp yield point, as a rule, is intermediate
between the Tresca and the Mises yield conditions,
usually somewhat closer to the latter. For mathematical investigations of stress and strain distribution in plastically deformed bodies, the Mises condition is often simpler to handle.
For materials with an upper and a lower yield point
there is no reliable criterion for the onset of yielding
at the upper yield point, since this quantity is
extremely sensitive to slight non-uniformities of
stress distribution and to the size of the specimen [5].
As mentioned, however, the upper yield point is of
little importance to the designer, since the allowable
stress must be based on the lower yield point, which
is the stress required for the first Li.iders' bands to
widen. From this it follows at once that the yield
condition in this case cannot be the Mises condition.
Since the Liiders' bands are sheared layers embedded
between still rigid blocks of the material, only the
shear stress acting in their plane can cause them to
become thicker, and the intermediate principal
stress which is parallel to the Luders' layer and

SYSTEMS

perpendicular to the direction of shear in the layer

must be ineffective. Consequently, the appropriate
yield condition in this case must be closer to the
Tresca condition.
C. Plastic Stress-strain
Relationships
for
Triaxial Stress. In the preceding section, the conditions of plastic yielding were considered. If they
are satisfied and yielding occurs, the question of
importance to the designer is how the resulting
strains are determined by the applied state of stress.
The difficulties of this problem become evident if one
considers the facts that the resulting deformation
depends on the sequence in which the stress components are applied, and that, owing to the Bauschinger effect, the slightest deformation destroys the
initial isotropy of the material and makes reverse
deformation easier than continued deformation. A
plausible solution has been given only for the simple
case of an ideally plastic isotropic material (strain
hardening and the Bauschinger effect being ignored).
According to this solution, a given triad of principal
stresses erl, er2, 0'3 is related to the increment of
plastic strain arising during its application; this
increment is to be added to the plastic strains
created by preceding actions of stresses. According
to Levy and Mises,
OEI

= 0>'[0'1 -

=
OE3 =
Of2

0>.[0'2 -

t(0'2

!(0'3

0;\.[er3 - !(erl

+ er3)]
+ lTd]
+

0'2)]

(1.6)

where OflJ OE2, OE3 are simultaneous increments of the

principal strains, and 0>. is a parameter determining
the extent of the deformation. The Levy-Mises
equations determine only the ratios of the principal
strain increments; the absolute amounts depend on
how long the straining is continued at the constant
principal stresses 0'1, 0'2, 0'3.
In the literature, occasionally the stress-strain
relationship
El
f2
f3

= ;\[erl
= >'[er2
= >.[er3

!(er2 + 0'3)]
?z (0'3 + ert)]
t(er! + 0'2)]

(1.7)

is used. If the principal stresses remain invariant

during the deformation, these equations represent
simply the integrated form of the Levy-Mises equations; if not, they are incorrect. These equations are
sometimes referred to as the "deformation theory,"
as contrasted with the Levy-Mises "incremental
theory."
For strain-hardening materials, several authors

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE

have suggested the generalized stress-strain

tionship

OF MATERIALS

rela(1.8)

where Terr is the effective shear stress defined by

eq. 1.3, and 'Yefl the effective shear strain defined by
the analogous equation
'YcCf=

~v'
v'2

(EI-E2)2+

(E2-E3)2+ (E3-El)2

o
+1

(1.9)

Equation 1.8 has not yet received sufficient experimental verification; it can be a satisfactory approximation only if the anisotropy due to preceding
plastic deformation can be neglected.

FIG. 1.5 Considere's geometrical construction of the maximum load point and of the ultimate tensile stress.

Differentiation of eq. 1.11 gives

dl/l

1.3 Failure by Plastic Instability

A. Instability of Plastic Extension: the Ultimate Tensile Strength.
Like elastic, so plastic or
viscous deformation may also lead to buckling, e.g.,
of a compressed column, or of a thin-walled tube
under external pressure. The treatment of such
cases is analogous to that of elastic buckling, but the
literature of plastic and viscous buckling is relatively
small. For details, reference should be made to the
published literature [6}.
A case of plastic instability of great historical and
practical importance is that occurring in the tensile
test. Initially, the extension is uniform; unless
fracture intervenes, however, the tensile load reaches
a maximum in the course of the test, and at the same
time a neck begins to develop. Further extension is
then concentrated in the neck and ceases everywhere
else in the specimen. The maximum load, divided
by the initial cross-sectional area, is called the
"ultimate tensile strength" or "ultimate tensile
stress"; its significance for engineering design will
be discussed in detail in Part C of the present section.
Let a = U(E) be the equation of the (true) yield
stress-strain curve of a purely plastic material in
uniaxial tension; the strain used is the linear strain
defined as
E

(1 -

(1.10)

lo)/lo

where 1 is the current length of the tensile specimen

and 10 its initial length. Since the volume l' does not
change significantly during plastic deformation, the
product of length 1 and cross-sectional area A in the
range of uniform extension remains constant:
lA = loAo = V

(1.11)

The load F = uA reaches a maximum when

dF

:= U

dA

A do

=0

-dA/A

-dA/A

Combination of this equation with eq. 1.13 leads to

du/u

dl/l

(1.14)

Equation 1.10 can be written as

1 = 10(1

+ E)

(l.Wa)

from which
From the last two equations
dl/l = dEl (1

+ E)

Introduced into eq. 1.14, this results in

dafd

= u/(l

+ E)

(1.15)

Equation 1.15, representing the condition for the

load to reach a maximum during the tensile test,
has a simple geometrical meaning. Let the stressstrain curve U(E) be plotted in Fig. 1.5, and let the
point P on the negative strain axis have the distance
1 from the origin; i.e., the same distance as the
point Q on the positive strain axis representing
E = 1 = 100% extension.
For any point of the
stress-strain curve, da f d is the gradient of the
tangent line, and u/(1 + e) the gradient of the line
connecting the point (u, E) with the point P. The
condition for the load maximum is equality of these
gradients; i.e., the maximum occurs at the point M
in which a line drawn from P is tangent to the stressstrain curve. The ordinate AM of the point of
contact is the (true) stress at maximum load; OA is
the tensile strain Eu at maximum load. This theory
of the maximum load point was given by Considers
in 1885 [7].
The ultimate stress," defined as the maximum load
divided by the initial cross-sectional area,
(1.16)

(1.12)

or
du/u

(1.13)

3Since in the scientific treatment of this field the word

"strength" ought to be reserved to 0. fracture stress, the ultimate strength wilJ henceforth be called "ultimate stress."

DESIGN OF PIPING

FIG. 1.6

Determination of the instability stress on the true

stress logarithmic strain curve in tension.

is not identical with the true stress at maximum load

Urn

FmnxlA

SYSTEMS

due to the decrease of the load-carrying cross

section occurs also when a tube or a hollow sphere is
subjected to internal pressure [8, 9]. It is remarkable that the instability condition in these cases is
not identical with that for the rod under tension, and
the maximum pressure withstood by the tube or the
spherical shell cannot be derived from the knowledge of the ultimate tensile stress. In view of the
practical importance of these cases, their characteristic features should be pointed out.
For a hollow sphere of radius r and (small) wall
thickness t, under an internal pressure p, the tensile
stress IT is given by
pr271'=

(1.17)

V = 4rrr2t

SullTm = AIAo

Sulum = loll

Substituting eq. 1.23 into eq. 1.21 and observing that

the volume remains constant during plastic deformation,

in view of eq. 1.11. According to eq, 1. lOa,

+ E)

p ==

Consequently,
1
1 + E"

= log. (1 + E)

(1.19)

dE
dE* =--

Substitution of this in eq. 1.15 'gives

du/dE*

= q

(1.20)

Figure 1.6 shows the corresponding graphical

determination of the maximum load point from the
logarithmic stress-strain curve: the subtangent P A
at the maximum load point is unity.
B. Instability

Tubes,

(1.24)

For a thin-walled closed tube,

Hence,

1+

4v':7V t'~(f = CltHU

(1.18)

where Eu is the "uniform strain" at the moment of

the load maximum.
In Fig. 1.5, PO = 1;
P A = 1 + E, and AM = Um; from the similarity
of the triangles PMA and PUO it follows, therefore, that the intercept OU of the ordinate axis
between the origin and the tangent PM drawn from
P to the stress-strain curve is the ultimate stress.
A similar graphical construction can be obtained
if the logarithmic strain is used instead of the linear
strain. The relationship between logarithmic strain
E* and linear strain E is
E*

(1.23)

r=~

Urn

(1.22)

hence

which can be written as

loll = 1/(1

(1.21)

The volume of the shell is

The relation between them is

Su =

2rrrlu

of the Plastic Expansion of

Vessels, and Plates. Plastic instability

2rp
V

27rTt

2llT

(1.25)

per unit of length

and
(1.26)
For a square plate of edge length l and thickness t,
extended uniformly in all directions in its plane by
tensile forces F acting upon its edges,
F

= u

(1.27)

and
hence,
(1.28)

For the tensile specimen under uniaxial tension,

already considered, the corresponding relationship
would be
(1.29)
where t is the thickness of the (round) rod.
It is seen that the pressure p or the force F as a
function of the thickness of the specimen is given in
all cases by an expression of the type
p

(or

F) = CtnlT

(1.30)

where n = 2 for the tensile rod and the thin-walled

tube, .~-for the thin-walled hollow sphere, and! for
the unif'orm-biaxially extended plate.

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE

OF MATERIALS
Yield SIre r1

The maximum load or maximum pressure at which

the extension becomes unstable is obtained from
dp (or dF)

.....

=0

In view of eq. 1.30, this means

ntn-ler

dt

+ tn der = 0
logorilhmic
Slrain

or
n(dt/t)

= -der/er

For the hollow sphere, the tube, and the plate,

di/t = -dE*, where E* is the logarithmic strain perpendicular to the wall or the plate. Thus, the condition of instability is
der/dE* = ner

(1.31)

For the sphere, this is

do /dE*

(Thin-walled

'

hollow Ipher.

(Rod under unla,ial

lon.ion)

2
Plalo under twc equol mUlually perpendicular

~
tonsionl

FIG. 1.7 Graphical construction of maximum load or maximum pressure in various cases of tensile loading.

= (3/2)er

for the tube

and for the plate
do /dE*

E-

= (1/2)er

For the tensile rod, dt/t is the increment of the

transverse logarithmic strain; since the volume is
constant, this is - (1/2)dE*, where dE* is the increment of the longitudinal logarithmic strain. Thus,
der/de* = o
as before (cf. eq. 1.20).
Figure 1.7 shows the corresponding graphical
construction, quite analogous to that in Fig. 1.6,
carried out for the four cases. It shows that the
instability point on the stress-strain curve (true
maximum stress vs. greatest logarithmic strain)
is different for each.
Particularly interesting is the practically important case of the thick-walled cylinder under
internal pressure. The solution of this problem has
first been published by Manning [10]; see also
MacGregor, Coffin, and Fisher [11]. The relatively
simple calculation shows that here, too, the pressure
reaches a maximum as the tube expands plastically,
and then drops. The maximum pressure (often
called "bursting pressure") can be calculated
successfully from the stress-strain curve of the
material. It is remarkable, however, that it cannot
be derived from a single point of the curve and the
corresponding tangent.
In the thick-walled tube,
the strain depends on the distance from the axis;
at any moment during plastic deformation, states
of stress and strain extending over a more or less
wide region of the stress-strain curve are present.
As a consequence, the maximum pressure cannot be

calculated without the knowledge of the entire stressstrain curve, or at least a substantial part of it.
In other words, the maximum pressure withstood
by the thick-walled tube cannot be derived from
any single "working stress."
C. Ultimate Stress and Working Stress. The
ultimate tensile stress has served in the past generally, and still serves in many cases, as a basis for
deriving design (working) stresses; for this purpose,
it is divided by a so-called safety factor. Has this
conventional procedure a realistic basis? From the
preceding considerations, the answer can be easily
recognized.
There are two types of failure by plastic deformation.
In the first, the structure becomes
unserviceable by suffering an inadmissible amount of
distortion; in the second, it is destroyed by plastic
disruption.
In many practical cases, the second
possibility either cannot occur (e.g., if the loading is
flexural or compressive), or is of minor importance
because the consequences of failure by excessive
distortion are not significantly aggravated by subsequent disruption. In the design of pipes and pressure vessels, on the other hand, a moderate plastic
deformation may be no more than a nuisance;
the danger that must be excluded is disruption
(bursting).
If the practically important type of failure is due
to distortion, the design must be based on the stress
at which plastic deformation reaches the maximum
permissible value, i.e., on the "yield strength" or
"proof stress."
As is seen from the Considere
construction of the maximum load and of the
ultimate strength (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6), there is no
general relationship between the ultimate strength
and the proof stress (or, in the case of the annealed

DESIGN

-1
FIG.

OF PIPING SYSTEMS

1.8

Uniform extension (strain outside region of neck)

for different types of materials.

low-carbon steels, the lower yield point); the old

practice of deriving the working stress from the
ultimate strength by means of a fictitious safety
factor has then no justification. A certain exception
to this is the case in which different batches of the
same type of material are compared (e.g., different
deliveries of a low-carbon steel); the proof stress, or
the lower yield point, may (but need not) be then
approximately proportional to the ultimate strength.
If the only practically important type of failure
is plastic disruption (bursting), the working stress
should be derived, as a rule, from the load or pressure
at which plastic instability leading to rupture sets in
(the possibility of brittle or fatigue fracture should
be disrega.rded in this section: it will be treated
further below). The structure is then dimensioned
so that the design load or design pressure is a
certain fraction of the rupture load or bursting
pressure. For a rod under uniaxial tension, the
corresponding working stress is the ultimate tensile
strength divided by an appropriate safety factor
(which, in this case, is not a fictitious one).
It is to be kept in mind that the maximum load is
given by the ultimate tensile stress only in the case
of a structural part under uniaxial tension. For a
tube, or a pressure vessel, the maximum pressure
occurs at a (conventional or true) stress that may be
very different from the ultimate stress, as will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. In exacting
cases, therefore, the maximum load or maximum
pressure cannot be derived from the ultimate
tensile stress but must be obtained by accurate
calculation based 011 the stress-strain curve, or from
a model experiment. Often, however, this is not
necessary. If the ultimate stresses for tension and
for the plastic expansion of a tube differ by only
10% to 20%, and the safety factor may be anything
between 3 and 6 according to tradition or code
regulations, it may not be worth .carrying out an
accurate design stress determination for a structural
part of subordinate importance.
The Considere construction shows that the

ultimate stress is fundamentally unrelated not only

to the behavior of the material at small, but also to
that at large, strains. In particular, the knowledge
of the ratio between the ultimate and the proof
stress gives no indication of the fracture strain:
fracture may occur immediately after the maximum
load point, or at strains 10 or 50 times higher than
the maximum load strain. The simple tensile test.
in which only the maximum load but not the stressstrain curve is measured, however, may give a
quantity that is extremely useful for judging the
ductility of the material for certain uses. This
quantity is the uniform extension, i.e., the strain
at which the load. maximum is reached and necking
starts (OA in Fig. 1.5). Since practically no further
extension takes place outside the neck after this
has been initiated, the uniform extension can easily
be measured on the fractured tensile specimen if
this is long enough to contain parts sufficiently
removed both from the neck and from the heads"
of the specimen. A material with small uniform
extension (a few per cent) is disrupted easily in
tension and is therefore unsuitable for drawing
operations (wire or deep drawing). At the same
time, however, it may show a high ductility (i.e.,
reduction of area at fracture), so that it may be
eminently suitable to operations involving large
plastic strains without tension. Thus, pure nickel,
tin, or lead are very unsuitable for drawing, but
extremely good for operations like bending or cold
extrusion; austenitic chromium-nickel steels, on the
other hand, have much less ductility but they are,
owing to their large uniform extension, very suitable
for drawing. Figure 1.8 shows how the shape of the
stress-strain curve is related to the uniform strain.
Materials with a fairly sudden yield and little strain
hardening afterwards, like pure nickel, lead, or tin,
have sharply bent stress-strain curves of the type
A; the tangent construction gives for them a small
uniform strain. On the other hand, materials that
strain-harden slowly but steadily in the initial part
of the stress-strain curve, like copper, brass, or
18/8 Cr-Ni steel (type B in Fig. 1.8), have a large
uniform strain, independent of whether fracture
occurs soon after necking or is preceded by a large
reduction of area
1.4

Creep

A. The Andrade Analysis of the Creep Curve.

If a material can undergo progressive deformation

"The U.S.A. standard specimen is not long enough for this
purpose; a useful specimen can be obtained, however, by
increasing its gage length from 2" to 4".

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE

a.t constant stress, it is said to show creep. The

simplest type of deformation that corresponds to
t~is defi?ition is viscosity: a material is called purely
VISCOUS
If the rate of straining, d'Y/dt is a function of
the stress.j'(r) and does not depend on the deformation already undergone
d'Y/dt = fer)

d'Y
dt

(1.33)

7)-

the material is. said to show Newtonian viscosity;

the constant 11 IS the coefficient of .viscosity. Most of
the common liquids are of the Newtonian type.
Th~ creep behavior of metals, particularly at not
too high temperatures, is markedly different from
pure viscosity. If a constant load is applied to a
te~ile specimen (as is usual in technological creep
testing) and the strain plotted as a function of time
usually curves of type A in Fig. 1.9 are obtained:
S?lid sol~tions with a tendency to develop a sharp
YIeld ~omt (a-brass, Monel metal, Nickel silver)
~ay g~ve curves of the type C; other alloys show an
induction period, as seen in curve D. However,
~urve A can be regarded as the pure type observed
1 no structural changes occur during creep. It
shows that the rapid, almost sudden, extension that
fol1?ws the application of the load is followed by a
period of deceleration; before fracture occurs there
is a period of acceleration, and between the periods
of deceleration and acceleration there is an interval
of constant creep rate which may be quite long, or
may be merely a point of inflexion.
In his analysis of creep, Andrade [12] found that
the final acceleration is usually a trivial consequence
of the increase of stress due to the decrease of crosssectional area in the course of the constant-lord
tension test. If the experiment is carried out at
constant tensile stress, the acceleration disappears in
FroduTe

~~l:==
.. +b +L::
Tim.

FIG. 1.10

Purely Plodic
Stroin

VCK01J1.
C,.~p

TronJioflt

Creep

Andrade's analysis of tho creep curve.

many cases and curves of type B are obtained. A

period of final acceleration is frequently observed
even at constant stress; however, it is always due to
structural changes taking place during creep, and so
curve B can be regarded as representing the pure
and simple type of creep curve.
In his pioneering experiments, Andrade has observed that the slope of the straight parts towards
which the creep curve tends asymptotically depends
strongly on the temperature.
At sufficiently low
temperature, the asymptote becomes horizontal and
the creep rate vanishes in the course of time. The
period of deceleration, on the other hand, is always
present, even in the neighborhood of absolute zero.
From this, Andrade concluded that the creep curve
(B in Fig. 1.9) represents the superposition of two
essentially different creep processes, which follow
the sudden straining after the application of the load.
The first component is the decelerating one, the rate
of which disappears with time; this is at present
called transient creep. Superposed to this, at least if
the temperature is not too low, is a constant-rate
creep process, usually called viscous creep because
its rate depends, roughly speaking, only on the
applied stress and not on the preceding amount of
strain. Figure 1.10 shows Andrade's analysis of the
creep process: the observed creep strain is the sum
of the purely plastic (plus elastic) strain which follows immediately the application of the stress, the
transient creep strain, and the viscous creep strain.
B. Transient
Creep.
At low temperatures
(below, say, one-third of the absolute melting point)
viscous creep is insignificant and transient creep
dominates; hence its alternative name "cold creep."
At high temperatures (in the hot-creep range), the
transient component is often negligible beside the viscous one; hence the name "hot creep" for the latter.
In Andrade's original experiments, which were of
relatively short duration, the transient creep curve
could be represented by the expression
'Y =

Time

FIG. 1.9

(1.32)

If. the functional relationship is simple proportionahty (Newton's law of viscosity),

T

OF MATERIALS

Types of creep curves for various materials.

'Yo+ C~

At lower temperatures,
expression [13]
')'=

(t =

time).

(1.34)

however, the logarithmic

'Yo+ Clog t

(1.35)

DESIGN OF PIPING

10

Vi...,,,,
Creep
Rar.

Strcn

FlO. 1.11 Stress dependence of the viscous creep rate of

lead wires at 17 C. After Andrade.

fits the curve better.

All transitional types between
the Andrade formula and the logarithmic formula
can be observed, as well as curves which represent a
more-than-logarithmic
decrease of the creep rate.
C. Viscous Creep, The viscous component is
often represented by a reasonably straight curve, as
shown schematically in Fig. 1.10, if the duration of
the test is not very long.
Otherwise structural
changes (recrystallization,
precipitation,
etc.) are
almost invariably
present, and then the rate of
viscous creep may increase, decrease, or irregularly
fluctuate in the course of time. This is the basic
factor that makes the extrapolation
and practical
use of creep tests difficult.
The experiments of Andrade [121 have shown that
viscous creep in metals is far from being Newtonian
(eq. 1.33); it is vanishingly small up to a certain
stress region and then increases very rapidly with
the stress.
Figure 1.11 shows the curve given by
Andrade for the viscous creep rate of lead wires at
17 C as a function of the applied stress. The character of the curve resembles that of the "Bingham
material," an idealized material often referred to in
rheology (Fig. 1.12, in which the stress is plotted as
ordinate according to convention).
The Bingham
material is assumed to have a sharp yield point, and
to show linear increase of the strain rate with the
stress above the yield point.
The behavior of
metals at high temperatures
differs from that of the
Bingham material in that the increase of the viscous
creep rate with the stress, as shown in Fig. 1.11, is
much more rapid than a linear increase.
Expressions suggested for its dependence are, e.g., the
following ones:

dyldt

ATn

dyldt

A(e

Norton
GT

1)

[14]

Soderberg

[151

SYSTEMS

It seems certain that no such simple expression

can represent generally a process depending strongly
on complicated structural features of the material.
However, one of the above expressions, or perhaps
another simple relationship,
may well be found
accurate enough for practical purposes in the case of
an individual material.
The temperature
dependence
of viscous creep
shows a similar picture.
Like all thermal reactions,
it is ultimately governed by the Boltzmann expression for the frequency of thermal activations; without further structural complications, this would lead
approximately
to an exponential dependence of the
creep rate upon the reciprocal absolute temperature:

dyldt

= Ce-AlkT

(1.39)

where A is the "activation

energy" for the creep
process,
k is Boltzmann's
constant = 1.37 X
10-16 ergr C, and T is the absolute temperature.
It can be shown [171 that,. in N ewtonian viscous
flow, A is practically independent
of the applied
stress whereas C is proportional to the stress; on the'
other hand, in plastic deformation based on crystalline slip, the increase of the strain rate dy [dt with
the increase of the applied stress is due mainly to the
decrease of the activation energy A with increasing
stress [18, 19]. In the case of crystalline plasticity,
C may be regarded as a constant because its dependence upon the stress is small relative to that of
the exponential,
That this is true for the creep of
metals can be seen in the following way: dy 1dt is the
.strain per unit of time; its reciprocal is the time
required for unit increase of the creep strain.
Now
creep fracture (see subsection G below) takes place
after a strain of f% = f 1100; the time t elapsing
between the application of the load and fracture is
related to the mean creep rate dy 1dt by
i/iOOl
Introduction

= dy/dt

of this into eq. 1.39 gives

!/100t

= Ce-A1kT

(1.3ga)

Shear
SIr...

(1.36)
(1.37)
Yidd SIron

or
dy Idt = A sinh (aT)

Nadai [16]

where A, n, and a are constants.

(1.38)

flow Rore

FIG. 1.12

Definition of the Bingham material.

STRENGTH.

AND FAILURE

+ log C = o.l..434A/kT

(1.3gb)

According to Larson and Miller (20},the dependence

of the fracture time upon the temperature for various stresses is often satisfactorily represented by
eq. 1.3gb with values of log C that vary, for different
materials and experimental conditions, between 15
and 23 if t is counted in hours. Thus, log C is in
fact almost constant. Its order of magnitude can
be derived theoretically in a simple way. It is well
known that, for processes of this kind, the activation
energy is always around 1 electron volt (ev) at room
temperature.
If it were significantly higher (say,
2 ev), thermal activation would be so sluggish that
the creep rate would become too small to be observable; if it were somewhat lower (say, 0.5 ev), the
creep rate would be too high to be followed experimentally. At room temperature, kT is -io ev, so
that A/kT = 40. As a representative example, let
it be assumed that the fracture strain f is 4% and
that fracture occurs after 1000 hours. With these
values, eq. 1.3gb gives
log C

11

and the latter

or, if the logarithm of base 10 is taken,

log{100t/f)

OF MATERIALS

0.434 X 40 - log (25,000) = 13

For A = 1.5 ev, A/kT = 60, log C would be 22.6.

The observed values of C, therefore, correspond to a
range of activation energies between about 1 and
1.5 ev.
It should be remarked that, however narrow the
range of the observed values of log C is, it would be
dangerous to use eq. 1.3gb for extrapolating creep
test results to times exceeding the duration of the
test by a factor of 10 or more, because during the
extrapolated time interval structural changes (e.g.,
precipitation, grain boundary oxidation) may occur
and the permissible stress for a given service time
may be reduced far below the extrapolated value
(see Subsection 0, "Creep Fracture").
D. Creep under Triaxial Stress. The problem
of how to obtain the principal creep rates for general
triaxial states of stress has been treated by Soderberg [15}. His solution is a rational extension of the
treatment of three-dimensional cases in the theory
of plasticity, and is in fair accord with the available
experience. According to Soderberg, the basic viscous stress-creep rate relationship is a functional
relationship between the effective shear-stress and
the effective shear-strain rate, where the former is

tcrr

= V2 V (E1

- E2)2

+ (1:2 -

f3)2

(E3 - 1:1)2

(1.41)
and f3 being the principal strain rates j volume
constancy demands that
E, E2,

E1

+ E2 + E3 =

(1.42)

Thus, the general viscous creep law would be

Tcff

= f(tcH)

(l.43)

analogous to the three-dimensional stress-strain relationship suggested for purely plastic materials (cf.
eq. 1.8). The relative magnitudes of the principal
creep rates are assumed to be given by the LevyMises equations
EI

= C[UI - !(0'2 + 0'3)J

E2 = 0[0'2 - !(0'3
E3

= C[0'3 -

!(O'I

+ UI)J

+ 0'2)]

(1.44)

The common factor C on the right-hand side is no

longer indeterminate as in the case of ideal plasticity:
it is determined by the condition that, if the principal strain rates arc substituted on the right-hand
side of eq. 1.43, the correct value of Tcff must result.
Details of practical calculations arc found in Soderberg's paper.
E. The Mechanism of Creep. Although the
details of the mechanism of transient creep are far
from being clear, there is no doubt that it is a consequence of thermal vibrations enforcing slip when
superposed to a sufficiently high applied stress. In
the course of the creep process, the material hardens
and thermal vibrations are then less and less frequently able to produce local slip; this is the cause
of the gradual disappearance of transient creep.
The fact that transient creep can be observed down
to the lowest temperatures is due to the circumstance
that the applied stress must always be high enough
to cause at least a small amount of sudden plastic
strain before transient creep can be observed. If
it is sufficient to cause slip without any thermal help,
very slight thermal fluctuation should be capable of
producing local slip at the points where the applied
stress is nearly high enough to induce slip without
thermal help.
It has been found that viscous creep itself is a
compound process. At least two different mechanisms can produce it, and often the two act simultaneously. The first type of viscous creep is called
recovery creep. After the application of the load,

12

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

the rapid plastic deformation produces strain hardening which raises the yield stress to the level at
which it equals the applied stress -and thus can resist
the load. If the temperature is high enough, however, thermal recovery or even recrystallization
gradually reduce the strain hardening. In order to
carry the applied load, therefore, the material must
strain-harden further until the amount of strain
hardening lost by recovery is replaced. This means
that, in every unit of time, additional plastic strain
arises, the amount of which is just sufficient to make
up for the strain hardening removed by recovery.
The second important type of viscous creep is due
to sliding between the grains of a polycrystalline
metal when a stress acts at a sufficiently high temperature. At low temperatures, the grain boundary
is a strong part of the structure: it resists the slip in
the grains. At a high temperature, however, the
boundary becomes soft and viscous and is an element
of weakness. The tungsten filaments of incandescent
lamps, which work at the highest temperature used
in engineering, can be preserved from gradual deformation by their own weight only by being made of
single crystals, without grain boundaries present.
F. Evaluation and Engineering Usc of Creep
Tests. Transient (cold) creep is of great practical
importance, e.o;., in prestressed reinforced concrete
design. However, since its evaluation does not involve complex problems to the engineer, and since
the problems in which it plays a role are somewhat
specialized, it will not be treated here.
In many high-temperature applications of metals,
the viscous creep strain during the lifetime of the
equipment is so much greater than the initial transient creep strain that the latter is frequently neglected (sometimes with no sufficient justification).
In such cases, the usual practical rule is to assume
that the long-time creep rate on which the design
should be based is equal to the "minimum creep
rate" observed in a constant-load tension creep test,
i.e., to the creep rate in the straight part of curve A
in Fig. 1.9. Although in the hands of the experienced
creep practitioner this prescription usually work:'>
fairly well, strictly speaking it is fundamentally
wrong. When the minimum creep rate occurs, transient creep mayor may not have disappeared. If it
has not, the minimum creep rate is not that of the
viscous component alone, but the sum of the viscous
and the residual transient creep rates. In extreme
cases, solely the acceleration of transient creep, due
to the decrease of the cross-sectional area, may give
rise to curves of type A, Fig. 1.9, at low temperatures
where no trace of viscous creep can be present. The

common rule, therefore, has to be supplemented by

the condition that the constant-rate part of the
creep curve must extend over a long time, sufficient
for the disappearance of the transient component,
in order that the minimum creep rate can be identified with that of the viscous creep.
Since structural parts must often have a service
life of 10 or 20 years, whereas creep tests cannot be
extended in engineering practice beyond about one
year (often they must be obtained within a few
weeks), the extrapolation of creep test results to the
service life is the central problem of creep testing.
Some of the extreme short-time testing methods suggested between the two wars failed because their
authors were unaware of the compound nature of
creep. Unless the test is extended long enough for
the transient component to become relatively small,
it cannot give even an approximate idea of the magnitude of the viscous component. The present conventional methods of creep testing usually avoid this
pitfall; they can be subdivided into the following
three classes:
1. Abridged tests. The creep strain is measured
as a function of time.for a few stresses around the
probable service stress, at the service temperature,
and extrapolated to the service life.
2. Mechanically accelerated tests. The maximum
permissible creep strain is enforced within the time
available for the test by a suitably increased stress.
From several such tests at different stresses, the
stress is plotted as a function of the time after which
the permissible strain is reached, and the curve extrapolated to the service life to give the permissible
service stress.
3. Thermally accelertued tests. The maximum permissible creep strain is enforced within the time
available for the test by a suitably Increased temperature. From such tests at a few different stresses
and temperatures, the stress is plotted as a function
of the test temperature and of the time required for
reaching the permissible strain, and extrapolated to
the service life and service temperature.
The abridged test would give a correct extrapolation if structural changes taking place in the material
during its service life could be discounted. Thermally and mechanically accelerated tests are in
principle more likely to lead to errors because they
take place under stress and temperature conditions
different from those in service. However, occasionally certain structural changes that would occur
during the service life but do not take place during
the abridged test may be observed in the mechanically or thermally accelerated test. Then these

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE

tests, although less correct in principle, may lead to

a better extrapolation.
No general extrapolation
method can take into account the highly individual
reactions of materials to stress and temperature, and
the likelihood of grossly erroneous results can only
be reduced by an intimate knowledge of the metallurgical, structural, and plastic properties of the
material.
G. Creep Fracture.
The grain boundaries of
polycrystalline metals, being places of atomic disorder, behave like a two-dimensional glass. They
have a softening range of temperature (roughly
identical with the "equicohesive temperature") in
which they change from being .a hard structural
component to being the softest. At very high temperatures their effective viscosity is so low that, at
low stresses, most of the deformation is localized in
them: the grains slide almost as rigid units on their
neighbors. This leads to the opening up of gaps
between the grains, and finally to the type of fracture peculiar to high temperature creep: at first
sight, it appears almost brittle.
The strain at which creep fracture occurs depends
on the stress and the temperature. At low stress and
high temperature the deformation within the grains
is insignificant compared with the effect of sliding of
the grains upon their neighbors, and thus the fracture
strain is small. However, the variation of the fracture strain in a given range of stress and temperature
is always very small compared with the simultaneous
variation of the creep rate. The latter may change
in the ratio 10,000,000 to 1 while the fracture strain
increases, for instance, from 2% or 3% to 10% or
15%. Consequently, the fracture time is usually
inversely proportional to the mean creep rate, to a
fair approximation.
The creep fracture test5 consists ill applying to
the specimen a constant tensile load and recording
the time elapsing to fracture. This test is simpler
and easier to perform than the standard creep test
because strain measurements are omitted. It is
required for design whenever the material has such
poor ductility under creep conditions that fracture
may occur before the maximum permissible creep
strain is reached. Since creep strains exceeding 1%
are not often permitted (pressure vessels and pipes
are an exception), and fracture occurring after less
than 1% strain is infrequent, the creep fracture
test is usually unnecessary.
It is nevertheless
widely used because it can be interpreted as a crude
creep test. As mentioned above, the fracture strain
varies within relatively narrow limits, so that the
bIn the creep tester's vernacular,

"stress rupture"

teat.

OF MATERIALS

13

creep fracture test represents a creep test in which

the time required for a certain strain (the fracture
strain) is measured for various stresses and temperatures. The great shortcoming of the test is not so
much the variation of the fracture strain as the fact
that it is always performed at high stress levels in
order to obtain fracture within 1000 or, at most,
10,000 hours. It has been shown by many experimenters, particularly by Grant and his collaborators [21], that the creep rate may change abruptly
even after 10,000 hours owing to some structural
change (e.g., coarsening of a precipitate, or oxidation). For this reason, extrapolation from highstress short-time tests to the long-time service
behavior is impossible, unless it is known (from a
thorough investigation of the material extending
aver years) that no structural changes may be
expected in the time interval between the duration of
the routine creep test and the service life.
1.5 Types of Fracture;
the Grjffith Theory

Molecular

Cohesion;

Fracture is the disintegration of a body into fragments under mechanical stresses. If a certain type
of fracture occurs in a given material when a stress
component reaches a critical value, this is called the
strength or fracture stress. Many types of fracture,
however, do not take place at a characteristic value
of a stress component.
Until about 20 years ago it was not realized that
there are many fundamentally different types of
fracture obeying quite different laws. They can be
classified into two main groups: brittle fractures and
ductile fractures. The former occur with little or no
plastic (or other non-elastic) deformation; the
mechanism of the latter essentially involves plastic
deformation. The mechanism of brittle fracture was
elucidated long before that of ductile fractures,
mainly by the work of A. A. Griffith in 1920 l22}.
Griffith's effort was directed to the explanation of the
extraordinary discrepancy between the very high
values of strength inferred from the magnitude of
the intermolecular and interatomic forces, and the
observed values of the tensile strength, which are
usually hundreds or thousands of times lower.
The way in which the tensile cohesion of a material
is determined by the attractive and repulsive forces
between its molecules is illustrated in Fig. 1.13.
Suppose that a crystal contains atomic planes with
the spacing b perpendicular to the direction of tension. As the tension is raised, the spacing b increases.
The net interatomic force acting between two parts
of the crystal across the gap between two atomic

DESIGN OF PIPING

14
Atlradive

force

....

or----T~~--~~----tnlermolec..lar
Spacing

Repulsive Ferce

FIG. 1.13

The dependence or the intermolecular

the molecular spacing.

forces upon

planes vanishes if no tension is applied' in this case

.
"
the attractive
and repulsive forces cancel.
If a
tension is applied and the atomic spacing increases,
the repulsive forces diminish more rapidly than the
attractive
ones; the excess of the attractive
forces
over the repulsive ones balances the applied tension.
As the atomic spacing in the direction of tension
increases, the repulsive forces become insignificant,
and the tensile force transmitted through the crystal
lattice must then start to diminish with increasing
strain owing to the decrease of the attractive forces
with increasing separation of the atoms.
Consequently, the net atomic force transmitted through a
cross section must have a maximum, equal to the
highest external force the material can withstand
i.e., its strength.
From the general knowledge of
the atomic forces it can be estimated that the maximum must occur when the spacing of the atomic
planes has increased by a large fraction of its initial
value; for an order-of-magnitude
estimate, it may
be assumed to occur when the atomic spacing has
increased by some 25% or 50%.
If Hooke's law
were applicable for such large strains, the tensile
strain would be between 0.25 and 0.5 and the corresponding tensile stress, i.e., the molecular strength
of the material,
O'm

= 0.25E to 0.5E

SYSTEMS

raise the applied stress to high local values. It was

Griffith, however, who calculated the critical value
of the applied tensile stress 0' at which a crack of
atomic sharpness and of length c, starts to propagate,
He used the following approach.
When the crack
extends, the surface area of its walls increases and
this requires energy for overcoming the attractive
forces between the atoms separated by the crack.
If the grips between which the specimen is pulled do
not move during the crack propagation process, the
only source from which the necessary surface energy
can be obtained is the elastic energy released as the
crack extends. Let dB be the surface energy needed
for enlarging the crack by an infinitesimal amount,
and dW the elastic energy released simultaneously.
The crack call propagate only if dW is at least as
large as d S; thus,

dW

dS

(1.46)

is the condition for the crack being ju.st able to

propagate under the tensile stress. It will be seen
that the stress needed for propagating
a crack
decreases as the length of the crack increases; once
condition 1.46 is satisfied, therefore, the crack will
extend rapidly, and fracture will occur.
Griffith carried out this idea in the simple case of a
plate containing an internal crack of length 2c
(Fig. 1.14). It can be shown that the effect of such
a crack upon the fracture stress of the plate is equal
to that of an external crack of length (depth) c in
one of the side edges of the plate. A sharp and flat
internal crack of length 2c can be regarded as an
elliptical hole of major axis 2c and an extremely
short minor axis; the stress distribution around it
when the plate is put under a tensile stress 0' was
calculated by Inglis in 1913 l231. From this the
excess energy in the plate, due to the presence of the
0'

(1.45)

where E is Young's modulus.

Instead of approaching the order of magnitude indicated by eq. 1.45, the
measured tensile strengths are extremely low. The
strength of ordinary sheet glass is about 1/1000 of its
Young's modulus; that of rock salt crystals, less
than 1/10,000.
It was known to physicists before
Griffith that the most likely cause of the discrepancy
was the presence of invisibly small cracks or other
flaws which produce stress concentrations and thus

0'

FIG. 1.14

Plate with a fiat elliptical hole (=crack).

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE

crack, is obtained as
W

= 7rU2c2jE

.....

per unit thickness of the plate, where E is Young's

modulus; if c increases by de, the released elastic
energy is
dW =

27r(f2cdc

E'
On the other hand, the increase of the length of the
crack is 2dc, and the increase of its wall surface area
is 4dc per unit thickness of the plate; consequently,
if a is the work required for creating a new surface of
unit area, the increase of the total surface energy is
dS

= 4adc

(1.47)

Equating dW and dS gives

u=

&E
~--;;

(1.48)

This is the famous Griffith equation for the tensile

strength of a brittle material containing an internal
crack of length 2c, or a surface crack of depth c. In
the calculation, it has been assumed that the problem
is two-dimensional, and that the plate is very large
in both directions, but at the same time thin compared with the length of the crack; if it is thick, the
factor (1 - y2) has to be applied to the denominator
under the square root, y being Poisson's ratio.
For glasses of the ordinary types, the crack length
c necessary to explain the observed tensile strength
is of the order of 1 micron. In glasses, the dangerous
cracks are almost always at the surface; tensile
stresses confined to the interior are relatively harmless. This is the explanation of the high strength of
"tempered glass," obtained by quenching glass from
the softening temperature by an air blast. By the
time the interior has become rigid, the surface has
cooled down considerably j when subsequently the
rigid interior cools, it puts the surface layers under a
tangential compressive stress. Any tensile stress
produced by external forces is diminished at the
surface by the residual compression. In the interior,
the residual stress is tensile, but this is of no consequence because there are no sharp cracks present
from which fracture may start. Thus, the strength
of the glass is strongly increased.
The Griffith theory explains very satisfactorily
the strength properties of completely brittle materials such as glass; for detailed treatment, reference
should be made to the literature [24].
An interesting feature of the theory is the answer
it gives to the question of strength under triaxial

OF MATERIALS

15

stresses. The discussion of the complete answer is

beyond the scope of this chapter [24]; the result is
that, so long as the highest compressive principal
stress is less than three times the highest tensile
principal stress, fracture should occur when the
greatest tensile principal stress reaches the value of
the tensile strength deduced for uniaxial tension
(eq. 1.48) ; the algebraically smaller principal
stresses have no influence. According to the theory,
the compressive strength should be eight times the
tensile strength if the material is isotropic and contains cracks randomly distributed in all directions.
Thus, the theory confirms partially a well-known
statement found in textbooks on the strength of
materials concerning the condition of brittle failure:
in the essentially tensile region of principal stresses,
failure does obey the maximum tensile stress criterion. However, the maximum tensile stress condition cannot be valid for any state of stress. If it
were, the compressive strength of brittle materials
would be infinitely high. This shortcoming of the
textbook rule has been corrected by the Griffith
theory, in the way just mentioned.
One of the most important results of the work of
Griffith is the realization that the strength of a
brittle material is determined by the flaws it contains. This is strikingly illustrated by glass, the
strength of which can be made a hundred times
higher than normal, if by a special design (fibre glass)
the worst cracks are made ineffective.
1.6 Ductile Fractures

The Griffith theory and the fracture condition

(eq. 1.48) are applicable only to fracture of the
cleavage type ("brittle fracture").
In addition to
this, there is a large group of fractures in which separation into fragments occurs as a consequence of
certain plastic deformation processes; these are the
"ductile" fractures. The simplest ductile fractures
are straightforward geometrical consequences of
plastic deformation; a wire of gold, e.g., breaks in
tension by the formation of a neck which becomes
thinner and thinner until it is drawn out to two
needle points in contact. Similarly, single crystals
of zinc or cadmium may break, after slow extension
at a high temperature, when one part of the crystal
slips off the other along a slip plane in which the
deformation has become concentrated.
The nature of the fracture process is less obvious
in the common fibrous fracture of ductile metals,
which produces the bottom of the cup in the cupand-cone fracture. However, it seems to be fundamentally the same type of geometrical attenuation

16

DESIGN OF PIPING
Con.',oinod

yield .,, e"

'iY

OuoilG (fib,c ",)

f,odu, e

SYSTEMS

certain precipitation hardened alloys, can be sheared

off during tightening after a small amount of plastic
twist. Another instance is that of extremely creepresistant alloys which may fail by creep fracture at
high temperatures after a relatively small creep
strain.
1.7 The Brittle
Brittleness")

Plo.'i, Ton.iI.
St,ain E

FlO. 1.1:1 Scheme of the classical triaxial tension theory of

notch brittleness, after Mesnager (25), Ludwik (26), and
Orowan [27).

as in the preceding examples, repeated many times

on a microscopic scale in the surface of fracture.
Shear fracture, which forms the sides of the cup and
the cone, is a somewhat different phenomenon. The
plastic deformation leads here to the propagation of
a crack at the tip of which there is a high concentration of strain, destroying locally the cohesion of the
material.
A ductile fracture cannot obey the Griffith condition (eq. 1.48). This can be realized in the following
simple way: The plastic deformation mechanism
which leads to ductile fracture is not essentially dependent on the elastic moduli of the material; it
could take place even if Young's modulus were infinitely high. On the other hand, cleavage fracture
of the Griffith type would be impossible in a perfectly rigid material; an infinitely high value of E
in eq. 1.48 would give an infinitely high tensile
strength.
One of the conditions governing ductile fracture
can be easily recognized: it coincides with the condition of the particular type of plastic deformation
which is responsible for the fracture. Thus, in the
tensile fracture by neck attenuation the only fracture condition is that the tensile load must reach
the value of the yield stress in the neck, multiplied
by the cross-sectional area of the neck and by the
plastic constraint factor. In shear fracture, too,
this is a necessary condition for the propagation of
the shear crack. Another condition, however, must
also be satisfied: the shear strain at the tip of the
crack must reach the critical value at which the cohesion disappears.
Ductile fractures usually occur after the structure has become unserviceable by excessive plastic
deformation. However, if the material has a low
ductility, shear fracture or other types of ductile
fracture may occur after very little deformation. A
threaded bolt of a low-ductility material, such as

Fracture

of Steel

("Notch.

Low-carbon and medium-carbon steels behave in

a maimer that is not a mere intermediate case between glassy brittleness and high ductility. A common structural steel can be very ductile in the
ordinary tensile test, with no sign of a potential
brittleness, but it can break with little or no visible>
plastic deformation if it contains a crack or a notch.
The classical triaxial-tension theory of notch
brittleness was put forward by Mesnager [25] and,
independently, by Ludwik [26]. In a form modified
according to the present state of knowledge [27], its
principle is illustrated by Fig. L15. The abscissa in
this figure is the tensile strain and the ordinate the
tensile stress; Y represents the ordinary tensile yield
stress-strain curve. The theory assumes that a material suffers brittle (cleavage) fracture when the
tensile stress reaches a critical value B ("brittle
strength") which, in its dependence upon the plastic
strain, is given schematically by the curve B. In
the ordinary tensile test, ductile fracture occurs at
the point D on the curve Y, before the tensile stress
reaches the value of the brittle strength. However,
if the specimen contains a notch or a crack, plastic
constraint raises the value of the tensile stress
reached during plastic yielding to q Y, where q, the
"constraint factor," is greater than 1. The curve qY
may intersect the curve of the brittle strength B

Compressivo
Ferce

IT
fridionot constrain'
upon 'pecimen

-~ --I-Ten
-

--I

cI~ncyto
spreed

FIG. 1.16 The ongin of plastic constraint in 8. notched

tensile specimen illustrated by the frictional constraint acting
upon a .liat compression specimen.

STRENGTH

j
'1

II

I
I
!

I
iI

I
I

AND FAILURE

before the plastic strain is high enough to produce

ductile fracture, and so brittle fracture may occur
at F.
....
The way in which plastic constraint arises is illustrated in Fig. 1.16. Suppose that I is a coin compressed plastically between two hard cylinders, I I
and II I. The necessary mean compressive stress is
higher than the yield stress Y in uniaxial compression: it has to overcome, not only the resistance Y
of the material to plastic deformation, but also the
frictional resistance of the compression blocks (indicated by the arrows) to the lateral spread of the coin.
The radial frictional forces, together with the axial
pressure, create a state of triaxial compression (a
hydrostatic pressure superposed to an axial pressure).
The mean axial stress required for plastic compression is then not Y but q Y > Y; of this, Y is required
for the plastic deformation itself, and (q - 1) Y
for overcoming the friction.
Figure 1.16 can also be regarded as representing a
circumferentially notched cylindrical specimen, I
being the notch core and II, III the full sections of
the specimen. If the specimen is plastically extended, the conditions are similar to the case of the
compressed coin, with the shear cohesion between
the core and the adjacent parts of the specimen
replacing the friction. As before, the axial stress
required for producing plastic deformation in the
core must be higher than the yield stress Y.
Plastic constraint is fundamentally different from
elastic stress concentration. It cannot arise without
some preceding plastic deformation; moreover, its
magnitude depends on the depth and sharpness of
the notch in a very different way. In pure elasticity,
the stress concentration at the tip of a notch becomes
infinitely high as the radius of curvature of the tip
converges towards zero. In contrast to this, the
plastic constraint factor of a circumferential notch
such as is illustrated in Fig. 1.16 increases only to a
value of the order of 3, instead of rising towards
infinity, as the tip radius is reduced to zero [271.
This is the reason why so many ductile metals
cannot be made to fracture in a brittle manner by
the application of a sharp crack; if, for any value of
Work
01
Freelura

T omporotur.

FIG. 1.17

Extreme types of transition curves.

OF MATERIALS

17

remporoture of

complelo embriHlemenl

remporoturo
Tron$ilion

tornporctuto

betw.en nolch briHlon=

and full dUdility

FIG. 1.18

Davidenkov-Wittman
Theory of the transition
between brittle and ductile fracture, as modified by the author.

the plastic strain, the brittle strength is more than

about 3 times higher than the yield stress, plastic
constraint alone cannot raise the tensile stress to
the fracture level.
An important feature of notch brittleness is the
existence of a transition temperature between notchbrittle, and purely ductile, behavior. Figure 1.17
shows the dependence of the work of fracture, as
measured with a Charpy or Izod pendulum hammer,
on the temperature in low-carbon steels. Above a
certain temperature region it has a high value, and
the fracture of the notched specimen is entirely of
the fibrous type. At low temperatures, the fracture
work is extremely small, and the fracture is entirely
of the cleavage ("crystalline") type. Between these
two temperature regions, there is a transition zone
in which the fracture work drops rapidly with decreasing temperature; at the same time, the area of
cleavage in the surface of fracture increases towards
100 per cent. With some materials, the transition
zone is so narrow that one can speak of a "transition
temperature"; in other cases, e.g., of many lowalloy ferritic steels, it is spread over hundreds of
degrees F.
Figure 1.18 shows schematically how the classical
theory interpreted the transition phenomenon [28].
Y is the curve giving the temperature dependence of
the yield stress; the curve q Y (= 2 or 3 times Y),
therefore, represents the highest tensile stress that
an atomically sharp crack can produce during plastic
yielding. Experiments and theory show that the
temperature dependence of the brittle strength 13
must be less strong than that of Y or q Y; this is
schematically indicated in the figure. It is seen that
the tensile fracture is entirely brittle below the temperature Ts, even in the absence of any notch. If II
notch or crack of maximum sharpness is present,
brittle fracture is possible below the temperature ']'/.
but not above it.

I'

~.

18

DESIGN OF PIPING

Recent investigations [29J have shown that the

fundamental cause of brittle fracture in normally
ductile steels is not plastic '~onstraint but the abnormally high velocity-dependence of the yield stress
of ferritic steels. The experiment from which this
can be recognized is as follows: The edge of a lowcarbon steel plate is provided with a brittle crack by
forcing a chisel into a notch at a low temperature.
If the plate is subjected to tension at room temperature, it is found that the brittle crack is unable to
propagate as a brittle crack. Instead, large plastic
deformations arise around its tip, accompanied by
some fibrous crack propagation; after this, the fracture suddenly reverts from the ductile to the cleavage
t.ype and the newly created brittle crack runs across
the plate. This shows that, at low rates of straining,
plastic deformation in microscopically small regions
around the tip of a brittle crack cannot create the
degree of triaxiality of tension necessary for brittle
fracture; quite large deformations, such as can be
seen with the naked eye and felt with the fingers,
are required. However, once cleavage cracking
starts again, it runs at high speed and without large
plastic deformations.
The simplest interpretation of theset.bservations
is that in the brittle fracture of steel the stress is
raised to the level of the brittle strength by the high
rate of plastic deformation around the tip of a running crack rather than by plastic constraint. Without a sufficiently high velocity of the crack, the
production of the plastic constraint necessary for
cleavage fracture requires such extensive plastic
deformations that the fracture, though of the cleavage type, is far from being brittle, i.e., of low energy
consumption. Triaxiality of tension, then, is probably no more than one of several ways of initiating
cleavage fracture; the cleavage fracture is then transformed into brittle cleavage fracture by the velocity
effect upon the yield stress as the crack gathers speed.
The rather exceptional combination of ductility
with potential brittleness in steel may be understood
now as being a consequence of another exceptional
property of low-carbon steels, the unusually strong
dependence of their yield stress upon the rate of
straining [30, 31]. The yield stress of copper or
aluminum increases only some 10 to 20 per cent between "static" and ballistic testing speeds ; for lowcarbon steels, however, increases of 100 and 200
per cent have been recorded.
Why such large deformations are needed for starting cleavage fracture at the tip of a crack under slow
tension is a question not yet answered. It has been
suggested that plastic constraint alone cannot raise

SYSTEMS

the tensile stress to the fracture level in typical cases

of notch brittleness under static loading; it must be
aided by strain hardening, and this requires considerable plastic deformation.
However, brittle
fracture can start in a welded structure with very
little plastic deformation. The plastic strains produced by thermal expansion and contraction during
welding and the corresponding strain hardening can
hardly be made responsible for this, because the
thermal strains seem too small to take the material
beyond the region of yield into that of strain
hardening.
The final question is this: What is the condition
under which the cleavage crack arising from the intermediate ductile crack in static loading becomes a
rapidly running crack, in which the velocity-increase
of the yield stress can replace the heavy plastic deformation necessary around a slowly extending crack
to produce cleavage? A crack can run rapidly under
static load only if the work required for its propagation is obtained from the elastic energy stored in
the specimen. It was seen in Section 1.5 that the
Griffith equation (1.48), by virtue of its derivation,
is the condition for the crack propagation work to
be supplied from the released elastic energy; however, it cannot be applied directly to brittle fracture
in steel. It has been found [27J that cleavage fracture in low-carbon steel around room temperature
is not quite brittle; there is a thin cold-worked layer
at the surface of fracture, representing an energy of
cold work of about 2 X 106 ergs/cm'', This is around
1000 times greater than the surface energy of steel;
the work of crack propagation per unit area of the
crack walls, therefore, is given by the plastic surface
work p, beside which the surface energy is negligible.
If the plastic surface work per unit area of the cleavage fracture can be treated on the same footing as
the surface energy, the condition for the work of
propagation of a brittle crack in steel to be supplied
by the simultaneously released elastic energy is
[24, 32]

(1.49)
instead of the Griffith equation (1.48). In eq. 1.49
the factor V2!-rr has been omitted to indicate that
the equation does not pretend to be accurate enough
for this factor to matter.
Brittle cleavage fracture in steel, therefore, requires the fulfilment of two conditions:
1. The temperature must be below the transition
range;
2. The applied stress must satisfy the crack propagation equation (1.49).

[,
I

I
I

J
r

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE

The first condition is satisfied by most structural

steels, at least at low winter temperatures. The designer, therefore, can avoid the 'f5bssibility of brittle
fracture only by taking care that the crack propagation condition should not be satisfied. The simplest,
although practically not always easy or even feasible, way to do this is to avoid the presence of cracks
exceeding in length a certain limit. The smaller the
crack length c, the higher is the (mean) tensile
stress <T in the plate at which crack propagation is
possible. Since the stress cannot rise above the
yield stress Y, the length of the smallest crack that
can start brittle fracture is obtained from eq. 1.49 as
(1.50)

Cracks below this length are harmless (unless, of

course, they can grow by a non-brittle mechanism
which does not require the fulfilment of the crack
propagation condition, eq. 1.49). If, therefore, the
possibility of cracks exceeding in length the critical
value Co can be eliminated by careful fabrication or
inspection, brittle fracture cannot occur even below
the transition temperature. With E=3XI07 psi=
2 X 1012 dyne/car', p = 2 X 106 erg/cm'', and
Y = 6 X 104 psi = 4.1 X 109 dyne/em+ for the
strain-hardened steel, the critical minimum crack
length Co is obtained from eq. 1.50 as
Co = 0.25 em

0.1 in.

To avoid any crack exceeding this length is difficult

and costly, but not impossible, as is shown by the
occasional use of non-aging low-carbon steels for
pressure vessels at liquid-air temperatures.
Alternatively, the designer may attempt to keep
the stress level so low that eq. 1.49 is not satisfied
even though the longest cracks unavoidably present
might exceed the critical length Co. If, e.g., the
presence of cracks of 0.4 in. length cannot be excluded, the tensile stress must be kept below 30,000
psi; cracks of 1 in. length would set an upper safe
limit of about 19,000 psi to the stress, and so on.
Naturally, the propagation condition (1.49) may
not be the only condition that must be satisfied
before brittle fracture can occur. If eq. 1.49 is correct, brittle fracture cannot occur below the stresses
derived from it; however, some other, more exacting
condition may in some cases set a higher limit, so
that fracture in fact may not occur at stresses as low
as correspond to eq. 1.49. A simple example of this
is the case of a steel plate containing a brittle crack
and subjected to slowly applied tensile stress, as in
the experiments described above. Although the
stress given by eq. 1.49 may be quite low, the crack

OF MATERIALS

19

cannot start to propagate before considerable plastic

deformation takes place around its tip, and the
stress required for this may be quite close to the
yield stress of the plate. In other words, in this
case an initiation condition must be satisfied besides
the propagation condition, and the former is more
exacting.
In recent experiments (33] in which the difficulty
of crack initiation was overcome by a wedge hammered into the crack by the impact of a bullet, fracture could not be provoked below a fairly clearly
recognizable stress level which depended on the conditions of the experiment (notch angle, plate size,
etc.). Since the mechanics of the crack initiation by
wedge impact is very complex, it is difficult to recognize the significance of this result. The observed
stress threshold is probably due to the necessity to
satisfy some crack initiation condition; whether this
condition is of more general significance, or a particular characteristic of the wedge impact experiment,
is an open question.
The practical importance of brittle fractures in
steel structures has rapidly increased in recent times,
owing to the widespread use of welding and of hightensile steels. Welding results in high residual tensile
stresses adjacent to the seam, and it may also cause
structural damage (e.g., grain boundary oxidation).
This may lead to the formation of cracks which can
run across the weld seam and wreck the entire structure in a fraction of a second. The high yield stress
of many modern steels, obtained by alloying additions, cold work, or heat treatment, may lure the
designer to the use of working stresses under which
spontaneous crack propagation becomes possible
(cf. eq. 1.49). Clearly, an uncritical raising of the
design stresses 011 the ground of the increased yield
stress is entirely unjustified, unless the transition
range is also considerably lowered. If the latter
condition is not satisfied, higher yield stress may
merely mean that the working stress is no longer
determined by the yield stress but by the necessity
of avoiding brittle fracture.
Good ductility (high fracture strain, reduction of
area) in the ordinary tensile test ending with ductile
fracture does not mean increased immunity to brittle
fracture in the case of ferritic steels. The possibility
of brittle fracture can be assessed only by determining the transition curve of the steel and estimating
the size of the most dangerous crack that may be
present. For low-carbon steels, it appears that a
fracture work of 15 ft-Ib in the V-notch Charpy
test at the lowest service temperature gives a high
degree of protection against brittle fracture even if

DESIGN OF PIPING

20
Table 1.1
Static

.""

Cyclic

Mechanical

Creep fracture

Ordinary cyclic
fatigue

Chemical

Delayed fracture
of glass; stress
corrosion

Corrosion fatigue

cracks cannot be avoided.

This figure, however,
does not apply to harder steels. If a heat-treated
high-tensile steel of 160,000 psi yield stress gives a
V-notch Charpy value of 15 It-lb; the deformation
of the notch-bend specimen is only about one-quarter
of that of a plain low-carbon steel with the same
Charpy value but a yield stress of only 40,000 psi.
The 15 It-lb high-tensile
steel, therefore,
has a
tendency to brittle fracture comparable to that of
a hot-rolled low-carbon steel with a Charpy value
of 4 It-lb.
If a steel is to be used in the brittle-fracture
danger zone of temperature
and stress, careful
design and workmanship are of the greatest importance.
Sharp stress concentrations,
such as abrupt
cross-sectional
changes, sharp thread profiles, or
blind root welds, must be avoided, and the formation
of cracks during fabrication
and heat treatment
prevented.
On important
equipment,
or where
failure may endanger lives, particular
attention
must be given to careful inspection and to the
removal of internal stresses.
1.8

Fatigue

A. General
Features.
The term "fatigue" is
used if a specimen breaks under a load which it has
previously withstood for a length of time, or during
a load cycle which it has previously withstood a
number of times.
There is a remarkably
sharp
distinction between those cases of fatigue in which
only the total duration of loading matters while it is
of secondary importance whether the load is steady
or interrupted, and those where only the number of
load cycles matters and the duration of the cycles is
of a subordinate
importance.
The first type of
fatigue is called static, the second cyclic.
Purely elastic deformation cannot cause fatigue;
all it does is to strain atomic bonds, and these
cannot wear out. Fatigue can be the consequence
either of non-elastic deformations
(i.e., of lattice
injuries or intergranular
displacements it produces),
or of chemical or physicochemical
processes accelerated by the applied load. Thus, fatigue phe-

SYSTEMS

nomena can be classified according to their physical

cause as mechanical or chemical.
In this way, a twofold subdivision of fatigue
phenomena is obtained, as illustrated in Table 1.1.
An example of static mechanical fatigue is creep
fracture, already discussed in Section 1.4. A littleknown case of static fatigue is that observed in the
brittle fracture of steels which may occur suddenly
after prolonged steady loading.
The time delay
between the application of the stress and the occurrence of fracture must be due to a slowly progressing
deformation process; the rate of this process may be
determined
by the rate at which carbon atoms
diffuse in the iron lattice. Thus, the delayed brittle
fracture of steel may possibly represent a case of
physicochemical static fatigue.
The cause of the static fatigue of glass is undoubtedly physicochemical [34J. It is known that
air (probably mainly its moisture content) reduces
the surface energy of mica by a factor of 10 or 12.
It must also reduce the surface energy of glass;
consequently,
the Griffith crack propagation
condition (eq. 1.48) rimy be fulfilled for a given stress
(J and crack
length c in the presence of air (i.e., when
ex has a lowered value), but not in vacuum.
In this
case, the crack can only propagate at the rate at
which air or moisture can diffuse to its tip. After a
period of slow propagation with the help of absorbed
moisture, the crack length may increase to the value
at which the applied stress can propagate the crack
even without the reduction of the surface energy by
moisture;
fracture
then occurs suddenly.
The
physicochemical
nature of the delayed fracture in
glasses is verified by the observation that static
fatigue is absent in vacuum.
The best known type of static fatigue due to
chemical action is stress corrosion, of which the
"season cracking" of cold-worked brass and the
"caustic embrittlement"
of steel are familiar examples. In some cases, its cause is the precipitation
of a phase in the grain boundary which deprives the
adjacent parts of the grains of an element that
increases the resistance to chemical attack [351. In
the case of some austenitic Cr-Ni steels, for instance,
chromium carbide may segregate in the boundary
during heating in a certain temperature region, and
the boundary regions of the grains are then depleted
in chromium.
Crack propagation by solution of the
more easily attacked (more anodic) boundary layers
cannot progress, however, without the presence of a
tensile stress which opens up the crack and provides
space for the corrosion products.
Under the applied
stress plastic deformation occurs at the tip of the

.....
-l

STRENGTH AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS

crack; this may disrupt protective layers, and the
increased free energy of the deformed region makes it
more susceptible to attack (mote anodic). Whether
these two effects represent important causes of stress
corrosion is not certain.
Stress-corrosion cracking can progress not only
along the grain boundaries but also across the grains;
brass single crystals crack under tension in the
presence of ammonia much like polycrystalline
brass [36, 37]. This suggests the possibility of a
stress-corrosion mechanism similar to that of the
static fatigue of glass [38). The effective surface
energy of the crack walls which enters into the
Griffith equation (1,48) can be lowered not only by
adsorption but even more radically by chemical
combination between the corrosive agent and the
metal atoms; .consequently, a crack may propagate
in the presence of a corrosive medium by cleavage
under a relatively low tensile stress while, in the
absence of corrosion, the propagating stress demanded by eq. 1.48 may be higher than the yield
stress so that crack propagation by cleavage is
impossible. Obviously, the effect of the adsorptive
or corrosive is to cut the cohesive bonds between the
atoms of the crack walls at an early stage of the
cleavage process, by converting -them into chemical
or van del' Waals bonds between the atoms of the
crack walls and the atoms, molecules, or ions of the
adsorptive or corrosive agent.
In accordance with its chemical origin, the susceptibility of metals to stress corrosion is extremely
specific. Thus, for instance, the caustic embrittlement of Cr-Ni-Mo low-alloy steels apparently can be
avoided by omitting anyone of the three alloying
elements.
Corrosion fatigue differs from stress corrosion in
that it occurs only if the stress varies cyclically. It
is fairly insensitive to the duration of the cycles (i.e.,
to the total duration of stress application). Corrosion fatigue starts with the appearance of surface
pits which then spread and join up to form surface
grooves not unlike the cracks on the bark of a birch
tree. These pits and blunt cracks apparently develop because they give rise to stress concentrations

Time

FIG. 1.19 Typical stress cycle.

21

log S
(Slress
umplilude)

e.g., Femfic mglcriol.

ee""rol

typo, e.g~ light oll0Y'

Log N {Number of qdes

to Irodurol

FlO. l.?O

Representative fatigue fracture stress

curves for metals,

where the increased elastic energy or plastic deformation locally raises the free energy; at these spots the
material is electrolytically more soluble in the corrosive solution (more anodic) than its surroundings.
Another possible reason for the local attack is that
the plastic deformation at the pits or cracks may
prevent the formation of protective (passive) layers.
Those features of corrosion fatigue which are of
quantitative interest to the designer will be mentioned briefly after the treatment of ordinary
mechanical cyclic fatigue. The chemical mechanisms
of corrosion fatigue, like those of stress corrosion, are
too specific to allow any general treatment.
In
what follows therefore, the main emphasis will be
laid on common mechanical fatigue, which is the
most important fatigue phenomenon from the point
of view of the engineer
The existence of mechanical fatigue of materials
under cyclic stressing was established by Rankine
in 1843, and the basic laws of the phenomenon were
investigated experimentally by L. Wohler between
1852 and 1869. To describe it in clear terms, a
simple terminology should first be introduced.
Generally, a cyclic stress is the superposition of a
steady stress s and an alternating stress of amplitude
8 and range 28 (Fig. 1.19). The stress amplitude
that causes fracture after N cycles will be called the
fatigue strength for N cycles; if it tends towards a
finite value for infinitely increasing N, this will be
called the limiting fatigue strength or, briefly, the
fatigue limit. In the literature, the fatigue strength
is usually called fatigue endurance; however,
there is no reason why the correct technical term
"strength" for a fracture stress should not be used in
this case also. The fatigue strength depends, in
general, on the steady stress superposed upon the
purely alternating stress.
If the logarithm of S (the stress amplitude) is
plotted as a function of the logarithm of N (the
number of cycles to fracture), curves of the type
shown in Fig. 1.20 are obtained. Plain carbon steels

22

DESIGN OF PIPING

FlO. 1.21

Effect of high-amplitude
chloride sheet.

fatigue on silver

usually have a clearly defined fatigue limit i recent

experiments indicate that this may be a consequence
of the phenomenon of strain aging shown by such
steels. Nonferrous materials may also give curves
showing, 'more or less clearly, two straight parts
connected by a curved transition region; however,
the second straight part is usually not quite horizontal but slightly descending. In such cases, there
is no clear fatigue limit within the experimentally
accessible values of N. The fatigue strength on
which the design must be based is then that for the
number of cycles which the structure must withstand during its intended life,
B. The Mechanism of Fatigue. A revealing
observation about the mechanism of fatigue is that
the fatigue crack, in general, seems to run along slip
planes, not cleavage planes [39, 40]. This Call be
recognized without ambiguity in iron where slip
planes and cleavage planes never coincide.
It seems that alternating slip can lead to the development of high tensile stresses in the slip planes
due to a progressive warping of the slip "packets" in
the course of cyclic straining. Figure 1.21 shows the
waviness developed during a high-amplitude fatigue
test in some of the large grains in a polycrystalline
silver chloride sheet. The development of tensile
stresses during the warping of slip planes may be
understood by means of the dislocation theory of
plastic deformation [41, 42] i if the stress is high
enough, it can cause local fracture.

SYSTEMS

However, the local tensile stresses which arise in

the course of prolonged alternating slip do not provide a sufficient explanation of mechanical fatigue,
If the material strain-hardens with plastic deformation, the first stress cycle ought to harden it so that
no further slip can occur unless the stress amplitude
of the following cycles is progressively increased;
how, then, can alternating slip continue in tests-at
constant stress amplitude?
On the other hand,
observations show that alternating slip continues,
with gradually decreasing amplitude, even in safe
ranges of stress i how can it then be explained that,
in such cases, even hundreds of millions of nonelastic strain cycles are insufficient for accumulating
the amount of internal stress and lattice damage
necessary for fracture? Thus, the basic questions
of fatigue are (1) How is progressive slip and structural damage possible under cycles of constant stress
amplitude i and (2) How are safe ranges of stress
possible?
The answer to these questions is given by the
general theory of fatigue [42, 24], which is concerned
with those typical features of the fatigue phenomenon
which are largely independent of the individual
molecular mechanism of the fatigue damage. A
quantitative description of the theory would require
too much space to be presented in this chapter; however, a qualitative outline of the main points can be
given briefly.
The salient point is that in cyclic stressing
progressive plastic deformation soon becomes confined to relatively small regions (e.g., at the tips of
small cracks, or in particularly unfavorably situated
grains) which are then surrounded by more or less
purely elastic material. Now it is easily seen that.
if a largely elastic specimen is subjected to cycles of
constant stress amplitude, a small plastic region
embedded in it will experience stress cycles of
increasing and strain cycles of decreasing amplitude.
This is a consequence of progressive strain hardening: as the yield stress of the plastic region rises, its
elastic surroundings have to exert upon it increasing
stress amplitudes to enforce further plastic deformation. By Hooke's law the clastic surroundings must
then suffer increasing strain amplitudes, and so the
strain amplitude in the plastic region decreases
because the sum of the two strain amplitudes must
remain constant for a given amplitude of stress
applied to the specimens as a whole.
The gradual decrease of the plastic strain amplitude explains why safe ranges of stress are possible.
It can be shown [42, 43] that the total (integrated
absolute) amount of plastic strain in an elastically

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE

embedded strain-hardening plastic region always converges towards a finite value as the number of cycles
increases toward infinity. This J..Up.it
value of the
total plastic strain decreases with the decrease of
the stress amplitude applied to the specimen.
Below a certain stress amplitude the total plastic
strain can never reach the critical value necessary
for producing that combination of strain hardening
(i.e., of the local stress amplitude) and structural
damage at which fracture occurs. On the other
hand, if the local plastic region fractures, a small
crack arises and gives rise to a region of stress
concentrations in which plastic deformations may
now begin. A repetition of the above process may
lead to the extension of the crack and finally to the
fracture of the specimen.
An interesting point emerging from the theory is
that a fatigue fracture can arise without any reduction of the cohesion (strength) by structural
damage. Strain hardening alone may raise the
stress in plastic regions gradually to the fracture
level even if the initial strength of the material is
not reduced in the course of the alternating plastic
straining. In most real cases, however, increase of
the local stress by strain hardening and reduction
of the strength by structural injuries probably go
hand in hand.
Observations indicate that, in reality, the last
traces of alternating slip never disappear; there is
apparently a minimum value of the plastic strain
amplitude below which no strain hardening is
produced. This can be recognized most directly
from the fact that the width of the hysteresis loop
decreases but does not vanish during cyclic stressing.
It may be mentioned that the general theory of
fatigue leads to a semiquantitative derivation of the
typical shape of the log S-log N curve, and it also

OF MATERIALS

23

explains the remarkable fact (see below) that the

influence of the steady stress upon the fatigue
strength is, as a rule, very small and sometimes
imperceptible up to the value of the static yield
stress.
To sum up, it can be said that the typical features
of fatigue under cycles of constant stress amplitude
follow directly from the fact that plastic deformation
is not uniformly distributed but, after an initial
deformation that may possibly extend over most of
the specimen, becomes confined to a few local
regions. Once plastic flow becomes locally concentrated, the conditions governing the development
of fatigue cracks can be investigated by a general
consideration of the change of stress and strain
amplitudes in plastic regions embedded in elastic
surroundings subjected to cycles of constant! stress
amplitude. As far as the general features of the
fatigue phenomenon are concerned, the molecular
nature of the fatigue process is of secondary importance; in particular, fatigue fracture might COI1ceivably occur without any decrease of the cohesion,
solely by the rise of the local stress by strain hardening to the fracture level.
C. Influence of a Superposed Steady Stress.

Figure 1.22 shows the dependence of the fatigue

strength (limiting stress amplitude) of three plaincarbon steels on the steady stress (mean stress of the
cycle) according to the experiments of Pomp and
Hempel [44, 45, 461; the dash-dotted lines at 45
to the coordinate axes are the loci of the points at
which the maximum stress of the cycle (including
the steady stress) reaches the conventional elastic
limit (in the present case, the 0.2% proof stress).
The curves reflect, first of all, a general feature of the
dependence of the fatigue strength upon the steady
stress: up to the elastic limit, they represent straight

100
CUN. 1; 0.1 X

S.
M

!:!
.;

-u,..
u
(;

50

in

'"

......

.S

b
e

-=<

'"

---_ -----.._
UJ

0
0

Y3

......

150

--_
200

" Moan St, es , of Cyd., 103 P';

FIG. 1.22 Dependence of fatigue strength on steady stress in plain carbon steels.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

24
'&_

....

~100

- - -- ---:-~:------.:...-

o+o

FlO. 1.23

\
\

~------~------~-------~--~u
50

100
s. M-eon Slr~u of

150
ertle, 103 pt;

200

Dependence of fatigue strength on steady stress

in patented (0.62% C) steel wire.

lines which slope downwards only slightly with

increasing steady stress. Occasionally this line is
horizontal; in all cases, the influence of the mean
stress on the fatigue strength is small.
Another feature of Fig. 1.22 is the rapid change
of the character of the curve at the elastic limit.
The slope changes abruptly with the onset of significant plastic deformations; the curves show a
distinct increase of the fatigue strength (limiting
safe stress amplitude superposed to the steady stress)
at the end of the elastic region. This "step" at the
elastic limit is followed by a second abrupt change
of slope, during which the fatigue strength declines
with further increase of the steady stress.
With strongly cold-worked metals, proof stress
and ultimate stress nearly coincide. In such cases
only the first part of the "step" seen in Fig. 1.22
can be observed. An example is shown in Fig. 1.23
("patented" steel wire, 0.62% C) [45].
If a rod is circumferentially notched (e.g., if it
is threaded), its static yield and ultimate stresses
referred to the smallest cross section are higher than

those for the smooth rod (owing to "plastic constraint" exerted by the adjacent larger sections);
its fatigue strength, however, is reduced by the
stress concentration present. Figure 1.24 shows fatigue strength curves for 1 in. and 1k in. Whitworth
threaded rods of the carbon steel which, in the form
of smooth cylindrical specimens, gives curve 1 in
Fig. 1.22 (this curve is repeated in Fig, 1.24) [46).
The designer is mainly interested in stresses
within the elastic limit; for this reason, the present
considerations will be confined to the first part of
the curves in Fig. 1.22. This can be represented
schematically as a straight line connecting the point
P of the fatigue strength in purely alternating
stressing with a point Q on the abscissa axis (cf.
Fig. 1.25); as before, the dash-dotted 45 line
represents the elastic limit beyond which curve
deviates from the line PQ. In the stress range of
interest to the designer, the effect o( the steady
stress is therefore given by the equation
S

= So (1 -

s:)

(1.51)

where S is the fatigue strength at the steady stress s,

So its value for s = 0, and Sp = OQ, a stress parameter that determines the position of the line PQ.
For many decades in the past, the dependence of
the fatigue strength upon the steady stress was
usually represented by the Goodman diagram in
which the assumption was made that the stress
parameter Sp = OQ can be identified with the ultimate stress; the Goodman diagram is indicated
in Figure 1.25 by the dashed line PU where OU is
the ultimate stress. Goodman's idea was that the
line would have to go through the point at which
"failure" would occur in purely static tension. As
can be seen from the discussion in Section 1.3, this
argument is invalid: the ultimate stress is not a
stress at which fracture occurs but merely the
Strcn
Amplitude
01 Cycle, S

Ploln bcrs

'l ..

t:!

bcrs,

~d 1

Whitworth

OVO(090

Ihf~oded

votut'~

FIG. 1'.24 Comparison of fntigue strengths of plain and

threaded bars of 0.1 % C steels.

FIG. 1.25 The

influence of steady (mean) strcse upon

the fatigue limit,

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE

(conventional) stress at which the maximum load is

reached and necking begins in the static tensile
test. For this reason, the ultimate stress point U
has no place on any curve showing the dependence
of the fatigue strength upon the steady stress, and
much less on the straight line that forms the initial
elastic part of such curves. In the experimental
curves shown in Fig. 1.22, for instance, the extension
of the initial straight part may intersect the abscissa
axis quite far from the point U of the ultimate
stress; the stress parameter Sp in eq. 1.51 and the
position of the point Q can only be derived from
fatigue tests. The only point that can be made in
defense of the Goodman line is that its errors, however large, usually lie in the safe direction.
D. Influence of a Compound

State of Stress.

Relatively little is known about the condition

of fatigue fracture for cyclically varying triaxial
states of stress. However, a practically important
case, that of a shaft subjected to cyclic torsion and
bending simultaneously, has been investigated in
detail by Gough and Pollard [47]. They found that
for a given (large) number of cycles, those corresponding values Sand T, respectively, of the tensilestress amplitude due to bending and of the shearstress amplitude due to torsion at which fracture
occurs are determined approximately by the relationship
(1.52)
where So is the fatigue strength for the same number
of cycles in pure bending, and To the fatigue (shear)
strength in pure torsion.
E. Influence of Notches and of Surface Flaws.

Stress raisers are relatively unimportant in ductile

metals under static stress, because plastic flow levels
down the stress at the stress concentrations. In
cyclic stressing, the situation is different: local
cyclic straining produces progressive strain hardening with consequent rise of the local stress. If the
strain hardening could continue with cyclic plastic
deformation at a finite rate, no matter how small
the plastic strain amplitude, it would finally raise
the yield stress until no plastic deformation could
occur. The local alternating stress amplitude and
the effective stress concentration factor would then
be the same as in a purely elastic body of the same
geometry.
Experience shows that this is not the case in
fatigue. The effect of notches, cracks, and surface
flaws is usually much greater than in static stressing,
but it is still far below what it would be for a purely

OF MATERIALS

25

elastic material. The simplest explanation of this

remarkable fact is to assume that cyclic straining
ceases to produce strain hardening when the strain
amplitude becomes too small (see above); if this is
the case, the material at the tip of the crack never
becomes quite elastic and the stress can never reach
the level of the elastic stress concentration. Different materials have different "notch sensitivities't"
(not to be confused with the notch sensitivity for
static brittle fracture). Some of them, like grey
lamellar cast iron or certain bronzes, are almost
insensitive to the presence of small sharp cracks or
notches; their q value will therefore be close to zero.
Others, like hard steels, are very sensitive, with q
in the neighborhood of 1.
Similarly, the surface quality has an influence
upon the fatigue strength of ductile metals that is
between those for a completely brittle material
like glass and for a ductile metal under static stress.
Occasionally, the fatigue strength of extruded lightalloy rods with the extrusion skin has been found
to be as low as one-half of the fatigue strength of a
machined specimen of the same rod. In some cases,
the fatigue strength can be raised" considerably by
surface rolling or shot blasting (e.g., for heat-treated
spring steels); in others, such a treatment has no
significant beneficial influence (e.g., with many
light alloys). Excessive surface rolling or shot
blasting in materials of limited ductility may even
reduce the fatigue strength by producing surface
cracks.
There is a difference of great importance between
the fatigue strength of a ductile metal and the
(static) strength of a brittle material like glass. In
the latter case, the strength can be raised sometimes
by a factor of 10 or even 100 if surface cracks are
very carefully avoided. In ductile metals, it is
relatively easy to improve the quality of the surface
so that any remaining flaws have no influence on the
fatigue strength. However, this does not raise the
fatigue strength spectacularly because plastic deformations set in as soon as the elastic limit is exceeded,
and they produce cracks after sufficiently prolonged
cyclic stressing in a way that is now more or less
understood. For this reason, there is no hope that
the fatigue strength may be raised much above the
elastic limit. If, on the other hand, the elastic limit
is raised by strain hardening, precipitation harden6A conventional quantitative definition of the relative notch
sensitivity q, in cyclic stress is q = (k, - l)/(k. - 1) where
kc is the clastic stress concentration factor for a given notch
and k, is the factor by which the fatigue strength is reduced
by the presence of the notch. Of course, q depends in general
on the size and shape of the notch.

26

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

ing, or in any other way, a decrease of ductility is

unavoidably associated with the increase of the
fatigue strength.
....
F. Fatigue Tests on Specimens vs. Fatigue
Tests on Structural Parts.
The strength of

structural parts under static load can usually be

calculated with reasonable accuracy on the basis of
tests performed on specimens. Stress concentrations
either do not matter (in very ductile materials), or
they can be calculated by methods given in the
theory of elasticity. The situation, however, is very
different in cyclic stressing. The effective stress concentration factors depend here not only on the geometry and on the elastic constants, but in the first line
on the "notch sensitivity" of the material, which
depends on the size of the notch. Whenever a
structural part has a strongly non-uniform stress
distribution, therefore, its fatigue properties cannot
be calculated from tests on specimens with any
reasonable accuracy. If the structural part cannot
be overdimensioned so as to exclude any danger, it is
necessary to carry out full-scale fatigue tests on it
[48]. This is particularly important, of course, in
the case of aircraft structures. As already mentioned,
attention must be given in any case to possible differences between the fatigue behavior of specimens
with carefully machined surfaces and specimens or
structural parts with surfaces as they will be present
in the structure.
There is a more trivial reason why so often conclusions drawn from experiments with specimens are not
fulfilled by structures. Fatigue tests are usually constant stress tests, occasionally constant strain tests.
On the other hand, if a structure is subjected to cycles
of constant load or deformation amplitude, some of
its elements (for instance, regions of stress concentrations) will be under cycles of increasing stress
amplitude and decreasing strain amplitude, for the
reason explained above in connection with the general
theory of fatigue. It follows, then, that the results
of constant amplitude tests cannot be applied directly
to the calculation of the fatigue strength of structures
with non-uniform stress distribution.
A general
method of calculation in such cases has been given
[43]; for the present, however, lack of experimental
data prevents the practical use of this method except
in the simplest cases.
G. Periodically Varying Thermal Stresses.
If a body is rigidly clamped at two points, increase
or decrease of its temperature gives rise to thermal
stresses in it. The magnitude of these stresses depends not only on the temperature change and on the
material, but also on the shape of the body; in a

multiply bent, relatively thin tube the stresses are

much lower than in a straight bar fixed at two cross
sections.
Obviously, the action of a stress upon a material
is quite independent of how it is produced; consequently, the fatigue effect of a thermal stress cycle
is identical with that of a mechanical load cycle
involving the same stresses at the same temperatures.
Compared with the ordinary fatigue test, the only
new factor introduced by the thermal cycling of a
rigidly supported specimen is that, together with the
stress, the temperature also varies during the cycle.
If the temperature amplitude is relatively small, the
fatigue effects of a thermal cycle will be the same as
those of an isothermal load cycle involving the same
stresses at a constant temperature equal to a suitably
chosen mean temperature of the thermal cycle. That
this can be so even for cycles of considerable temperature amplitude is indicated by recent experiments of
Coffin [49J. The equivalent mean temperature of
the cycle, however, is not necessarily the mean value
of its highest and lowest temperatures. If the magnitude of fatigue damage is determined mainly by the
amount of plastic deformation, the temperature of
the equivalent isothermal cycle will lie nearer to the
maximum than to the mean temperature of the
thermal cycle because the material is softest, and
plastic deformation greatest, in the high temperature
part of the cycle. The opposite behavior (the lowtemperature part of the cycle being of dominating
importance) may conceivably also occur. If the
specimen is a straight rod or tube with fixed ends, it
is always in tension during the low-temperature part
of the cycle. If now the tensile part of the cycle is
more likely to produce fatigue damage than the compressive part, the effect.of the thermal cycle may be
closer to that of an isothermal cycle with the same
stress range taking place near the lowest temperature
of the stress cycle.
A new factor appears (both in thermal and in
purely mechanical cycling) if the temperature is so
high that the strain hardening and the structural
damage due to plastic deformation arc currently removed during the cyclic straining. In this case, the
progressive changes which represent cyclic fatigue
cannot develop. Nevertheless, fracture may occur
owing to a different phenomenon which has been
treated already under the heading of creep fracture.
At very high temperatures (in the hot creep range),
the grain boundaries become soft, and the consequent
relative displacements between the neighboring
grains open up cracks which finally can lead to
fracture ("static fatigue"). At first sight, it might

i.

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE

seem that this cannot occur under purely cyclic stress

because the displacements produced by the tensile
part of the cycle are reversed ''by the compressive
part. However, the compressive part cannot undo
all damage done by the tensile part, and so fatigue
fracture can also occur under purely cyclic stress,
although much more slowly than under a steady
tensile stress.
Lazan and Westberg [501 have carried out experiments in the interesting transition region just below
the hot-creep range j they applied both purely cyclic
and purely static stresses and intermediate types of
loading with a static stress superposed upon a steady
stress. Figure 1.26 illustrates some of their results.
As in room temperature experiments, a relatively
low mean stress has only a slight influence upon the
fatigue strength if the duration of the test is not too
long. If the time to fracture is 150 hours or longer,
creep predominates over cyclic fatigue, and the
steady component of the cycle becomes important
from the beginning. The vertical parts of the curves
show that the static fatigue strength is almost uninfluenced by the cyclic component until the cyclic
stress amplitude becomes higher than about one-half
of the static stress. The observed curves, therefore,
consist essentially of a nearly horizontal part representing cyclic fatigue (except in very prolonged tests,
as mentioned above), and of a vertical part representing creep fracture. The transition between the
horizontal and the vertical part is the region in which
cyclic and static fatigue are of comparable importance.
If a material has been cold worked and then subjected to plastic deformation at a higher temperature, it may soften more than if it had been subjected
to the effect of the higher temperature alone without

-6.

30

Speed of Cyding
214,000 roy.nals/hr.

Time to fradure

'"'::

..

u
>-

u 20

'0
!!

v;

.~
~ 10

<

.,.;

.. Mean Siros> 01 Cycle. 103 P';

FIG. 1.26 Fatigue-creep

N-155 at 1500 F.

rupture
interaction
curves
After Leznn and Westberg.

for

21

OF MATERIALS

Fat;gu. fraduro

Log N (N

FlO. 1.27

= Numbor

Siron Curve

of situs cydM)

The damage area in fatigue.

further deformation [l9b, 511. In the course of the

deformation, its relatively highly hardened structure
changes to the less hardened structure characteristic
of deformation at the higher temperature. A similar
strain-softening effect can also be observed in fatigue
tests with previously strongly cold-worked materials
[52]. This, however, does not mean that strain
hardening is not an important factor in fatigue.
Local regions of stress concentration, e.g., at the tip
of a fatigue crack, may well harden under cyclic
stressing, while the static yield stress of the prestrained bulk material decreases by thermal recovery
'with or without strain softening.
H. Thermal Fatigue.
The most severe case of
cyclic thermal stressing takes place when the surface
of a metal is rapidly heated to a high temperature
and then cooled again. This occurs in hot rolls, gun
barrels, etc.; if the temperature amplitude is high,
the usual effect is the formation of surface cracks
("crazing") which gradually spread inwards. Frequently this cannot be prevented; the life of the body
can be prolonged, however, if the surface is machined
off before the cracks become too deep. In other cases,
thermal cracking would occur with most materials
but can be avoided by the use of special metals, such
as, e.g., the 12% Cr steel used for rolls in continuous
sheet glass manufacture.
Anisotropic metals such as zinc, or metals that
suffer phase transformations in the temperature
range to which they are subjected, can suffer plastic
deformations on a microscopic scale within the grains
which are confined and distorted by their neighbors,
even if there is no significant temperature gradient
present. This may result in progressive structural
damage during thermal cycling.
J. Damage by Overstress. If a material is subjected to stress amplitudes above the fatigue limit,

DESIGN OF PIPING

28

it may suffer permanent damage which reduces its

fatigue strength for subsequently applied cycles of
lower stress amplitude. Itseems that those combinations of stress amplitude and number of cycles above
which permanent damage occurs lie in the area D
(Fig. 1.27) between the high-stress part of the
log S-Jog N curve and a line below it which joins the
curve at the bend [53]. This line, shown dashed in
Fig. 1.27, is the "damage line." The permanent
damage suffered in the damage area D consists probably in the formation of small cracks.
K. Corrosion Fatigue. If the cyclically stressed
material is in a chemically active solution, its fatigue
strength may be substantially lowered. Whether in
this case an approximate fatigue limit exists is not
certain; as in stress corrosion, the phenomenon is so
strongly influenced by the individuality of the metal
and of the surrounding solution that the only general
statement that can be made about it is a warning
against premature extrapolations to even slightly
different metals and solutions.
References
1. M. Cook and E. C. Larke, "Resistance of Copper and
Copper Alloys to Homogeneous Deformation in Compression," J. Inst. Metals, Vol. 71, p. 371 (1945).
2. M. Tresoa, "Memoire sur Ie poinconnage et la theorie
mccanique de la d6formation des metaux," Compt. rend.,
Vol. 68, pp. 1197-1201 (1869).
3. R. von Mises, "Mechanik der festen Korper im plastischdeformablen Zustand," Nachr. kgl. Ges. lViss. Math.-Phys.
Klasse, 1913, pp, 582-592.
4. R. Hill, The Mathematical Theory of PlasttCily, p. 20,
The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1950.
5. J. L. M. Morrison, "The Yield of Mild Steel with Particular
Reference to Effect of Size of Specimen," Proc., Insl.
Meeh. Enqrs. (London), Vol. 142, pp. 193-223 (1940).
6. O. Hoffman and G. Sachs, Introduction to the Theory of
Plasiiciisj for Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, 1953.
7. M. Considere, "L'emploi du fer et de l'acier dans les constructions," Ann. Ponls et Chaussees, 6th Series, Vol. 9,
pp. 574-775 (1885).
8. G. Sachs and J. D. Lubahn, "Failure of Ductile Metals in
Tension," Trans. ASME, Vol. 68, pp. 277-279 (1946).
9. H. W. Swift, "Plastic Instability Under Plane Stress,"
Journal of Meeh. & Phys. of Solids, Vol. I, No.1, pp. 1-18
(October, 1952).
10. W. R. D. Manning, "The Overstrain of Tubes by Internal
Pressure," Engineering, Vol. 159, pp. 101-102, 183-184
(1945); also "The Design of Compound Cylinders for
High Pressure Service," Engineering, Vol. 161, pp. 349352 (1947).
11. C. W. MacGregor, L. F. Coffin, Jr., and J. C. Fisher,
"The Plastic Flow of Thick-Walled Tubes with Large
Strains," J. Appl. Phus., Vol. 19, pp, 291-297 (1948);
also "Partially Plastic Thick-Walled Tubes," J. Franklin
Inst., Vol. 245, pp. 135-158 (1948).

SYSTEMS

12. E. N. da C. Andrade, "The Flow in Metals Under Large

Constant Stresses," Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 90,
pp. 329-342 (1914).
13. P. Phillips, "The Slow Stretch in Indiarubber, Glass, and
Metal Wires when Subjected to a Constant Pull," Phil.
Mag., 6th Series, Vol. 9, pp. 513-531 (1905).
14. F. H. Norton, Creep of Steel at High Temperatures,
McGraw-Hili Book Co., New York, 1929.
15. C. R. Soderberg, "The Interpretation
of Creep Tests
for Machine Design," Trans. ASME, Vol. 58, pp.733-743
(1936).
16. A. Nadai, "The Influence of Time upon Creep. The
Hyperbolic Sine Creep Law," S. Timoshenko 60lh Anniversary Vol., Macmillan Co., New York, 1938.
17. E. Orowan, "Discussion on Plastic Flow in Metals,"
Proc. Roy Soc., Series A, Vol. 168, p. 307 (1938); also
Proc. First Nat. Conqr, Appl. Meeh., June, 1951, p. 453.
J. W. Edwards, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1952.
18. R. Becker, "Uber die Plastisitat amorpher und kristalliner fester Korper," Physik. Z., Vol. 26, p. 919 (1925);
also Z. Tech. Physik., Vol. 7, p. 547 (1926).
19. E. Orowan, "The Creep of Metals," Z. Physik., Vol. 98,
p, 382 (1935); also "The Creep of Metals," Trans. West oj
Scotland Iron Steel Insi., pp. 45-96 (1947).
20. F. R. Larson and J. Miller, "A Time-Temperature
Relationship Ior Rupture and Creep Stresses," Trans. ASME,
Vol. 74, pp. 765-771 (1952).
21. N. J. Grant and A. G. Bucklin, On the Extrapolation of
Short-Time Stress-Rupture Data, ASM Preprint No. 18,
1949.
22. A. A. Griffith, "The Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in
Solids," Trans. Roy. Soe., Series A, Vol. 221, pp. 163-198
(1920-21); also First Internat. Congr. Appl. Mech., p. 55,
Delft, 1924.
23. C. E. Inglis, "Stresses in a Plate due to the Presence of
Cracks and Sharp Corners," Trans. Inst. Naval Archil.,
Vol. 55, Part I, pp. 219-230 (1913).
24. E. Orowan, "Fracture and Strength of Solids," Reports
on Progress in Physics, Vol. 12,. pp, 185-232 (1949).
25. A. Mesnager, Reunion des Membres Fra1l{ais et Belges de
l'Association Internatioll.ak des Methode d'Essais, pp. 395405, December, 1902.
26. P. Ludwik and R. Scheu, "Uber Kerbwirkungen
bei
Flusseisen," Siahl und Eisen, Vol. 43, pp. 999-1001 (1923).
27. E. Orowan, "Notch Brittleness and the Strength of
Metals," Trans. Ins!. E,lgrs. Shipbuilders ss, Paper
No. 1063, pp. 165-215, December, 1945.
28. N. N. Dnvidenkov and F. Wittman, "Mechanical Analysis of Impact Brittleness," Phys.-Techn. Inst. (U.S.S.R),
Vol. 4, p. 308 (1937).
2!J. D. K. Felbeck and E. Orowan, "Experiments on Brittle
Fracture of Steel Plates," Welding J. (N. Y.), Res. Suppl.,
Vol. 20, No.7 (Hl55).
30. M. J. Manjoine, "Influence of Rate of Strain and Temperature on Yield Strcsses of Mild Steel," J. Appl.
},[echanics, Vol. 11, pp. A211-218 (1944).
31. G. 1. Taylor, "Testing of Materials at High Rates of
Loading."
J. Inst. Civ. Enqrs., Vol. 26, pp. 486-519.
(1946).
32. E. Orowan, "Fundamentals
of Brittle Behavior ill
Metals," in William M. Murray, ed., Fatigue and Fracture
of Metals: A Symposium, pp. 139-167, John Wiley &80n5,
New York, 1952.

STRENGTH

AND FAILURE OF MATERIALS

33. F. J. Feely, Jr., and M. S. Northup, "Study of Brittle

Failure in Tank Steels," presented at the Midyear Mtg.,
Am. Petro Inst., in Houston, Texas, May, 1954.
34. E. Orowan, "A Type of Plastic Deformation New in
Metals," Nature, London, VoL 149, p. 643 (1942).
35. G. Akimow, HEine neue Theorie der Strukturkorrosion;"
Korrosion. U. MetaUschu!z, Vol. 8, p. 197 (1932).
36. G. Wassermann, "Untersuchungen tiber den Vorgang der
Spannungskorrosion,"
Z. MetaUf..--unde, Vol. 34, p. 297
(1942).
37. G. Edmunds, "Season Cracking of Brass," ASTM Symp.
011 Stress-Corr. Cr(ld:ing in Metals, p. 67 (1944).
38. E. Orowan, in a paper presented before The Elcctrocbem.
Soc., Boston, Oct. 4, 1954.
39. J. A. Ewing and J. C. W. Humfrey, "The Fracture of
Metals Under Repeated Alternating
Stress," Trans.
Roy Soc., Series A, Vol. 200, pp. 241-250 (1903).
40. F. A. McClintock, "On Direction of Fatigue Cracks in
Polycrystallinc
Ingot Iron," J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol.
19, pp. 54-56 (1952).
41. E. Orowan, "Dislocations and Mechanical Properties" in
DisCocations in Metals, AIME, New York, 1954.
42. E. Orowan, "Theory of the Fatigue of Metals," Proc.
Roy. Soc., Series A, Vol. 171, pp. 79-106 (1939).
43. E. Orowan, "Stress Concentrations in Steel under Cyclic
Load," WeldingJ., (N.Y.), Res. Suppl., Vol. 17, pp. 273s282s, June, 1952.
44. A. Pomp and M. Hempel, "Daucrfestigkeitsscheubilder
von Stiihlen bei verschiedenen Zugmittelspannugen
unter
BerUeksichtigung
der Prufstabform,"
Mitt. KaiserWilhelm-Inst. Eisenforsch. Dusse1dorf., Vol. 18, pp. 1-14
(1936).

29

45. A. Pomp and M. Hempel, "Dauerprtifung von Stahldrehten unter wachselnder Zugbeansprunohung," !ffiU. KaiserWilhelm-Inst. Eisenforsch; Dusseldorf, Vol. 19, pp. 237246 (1937).
46. A. Pomp and M. Hempel, "Dauerfestigkeitsschaubilder
von Gekerbten und Kaltverformten Stahlen Bowie von
1"- und 111l- Schrauben bei Verschiedenen Zugmittelapannungen,"
Mitt. Kaiser-Wilhelm-Insl.
Eisenforsch:
Dusseldorf, Vol. 18, pp. 205-215 (1936).
47. H. J. Gough and H. V. Pollard, "The Strength of Metals
under Combined Alternating Stresses," Prot. Inst. Mech.
Engrs. (London), Vol. 131, pp. 3-54 (1935).
48. R. L. Templin, "Designing for Fatigue" in William M.
Murray, ed., Fatigue and Fracture of Metals; A Symposium, pp. 131-138, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1950.
49. L. F. Coffin, Jr., "A Study of the Effect8 of Cyclic Thermal
Stresses on a Ductile Metal," Trans. ASME, Vol. 76,
No.6, pp. 931-950 (1954).
50. B. J. Lazan and E. Westberg, "Effect of Tensile and Compressive Fatigue Stress on Creep, RUpture and Ductility
Properties of Temperature-Resistant
Materials,"
Proc:
ASTM, Vol. 52, pp. 837-855 (1953).
51. J. E. Dorn, A. Goldberg, and T. E. Teitz, "The Effect of
Thermal-mechanical History on the Strain Hardening of
Metals," AIME Tech. Pub. No. 2445, 1948.
52. N. H. Polakowski, "Softening of Certain Cold-worked
Metals Under the Action of Fatigue Loads," ASTM
Preprint No. 74, 1954.
53. H. J. French, "Fatigue and Hardening of Steels," Trans.
Am. Soc. Steel Treating, Vol. 21, pp. 89!}-946 (1933).

CHAPTER

Design Assumptions, Stress Evaluation,

and Design Limits
HE previous chapter passed over the problem
of calculating stresses and strains from the
applied load in order to concentrate on certain fundamental knowledge from the physics of
solids which, it was pointed out, is relatively new
and as yet largely unformulated for use in routine
design engineering. The present chapter offers a
general examination of the factors which enter into
the evaluation of stresses in piping systems due to
various external and internal loadings, their association with design limits and Code rules, and finally,
their significance and application to practical design.
With the increasing complexity, size, and economic
significance! of piping installations, it is necessary
to look beyond the limits of ordinary piping design
practice and to give attention to the experiences of
designers in related fields, particularly that of pressure vessel design. Indeed, there is often no logical
distinction between pressure vessels and piping.
Therefore, appropriate comments relative to comparative piping and pressure vessel design approaches
are given frequently in the discussions which follow.
In further consequence of the economic importance
of present-day piping installations it is necessary,
just as in the design of structures and pressure equipment, to effect a careful and realistic compromise
between design features (not overlooking materials,
fabrication, and inspection requirements) and the
overall plant economics (first cost plus maintenance
and contingency for damages to property and personnel in event of failure). Safety of operating

personnel and the interests of the general public

dictate that all feasible precautions be exercised.
Maximum assurance of safety, however, would
require complete examination of all materials and
fabrication by the best available means and with
duplicate independent inspection. Even so, absolute assurance of safety could not be attained due to
personnel fallibility and th13limitations in sensitivity
of available methods of nondestructive examination.
With this realization, in the practical approach of
achieving adequate safety economically, lower levels
of quality are accepted on the basis of including compensating safety factors in design, which are the
combined result of experience and reasoning. Many
inconsistencies still exist in current practice relative
to quality requirements of materials and fabrication,
and in the value placed on various degrees of inspection, tests, and nondestructive examination.
It should be appreciated that Codes and Standards
can establish only a level of minimum requirements
for average service, based on knowledge, experience,
and the consensus of qualified individuals. Many
circumstances relating to service operation, materials
and fabrication, inspection limitations, or to unusual
design deserve special consideration if the resulting
piping systems are to be reasonably free from maintenance, and provide satisfactory length of life with
safe operation. To assist the piping engineer in the
exercise of good judgment on these special problems,
this chapter offers approaches which largely depend
on well-established practical experience.

lPiping is n. major item in process plants, running from 50

Similar significant
expenditures are incurred in power generation and marine
propulsion installations.

2.1

to 75 per cent of the total plant cost.

Codes and Standards

The objective of Code rules and Standards (apart

from fixing dimensional values) is to achieve mini30

DESIGN

ASSUMPTIONS,

STRESS

mum requirements for safe construction; in other

words, to provide public protection by defining those
material, design, fabrication, and inspection requirements whose omission may radically increase operating hazards. Absolute assurance of safety would
require perfect design, materials, and fabrication;
this is seldom, if ever, achieved. On the other hand,
experience with Code rules has demonstrated that
the probability of disastrous failure can be reduced
to the extremely low level necessary to protect life
and property by suitable minimum requirements and
safety factors. Obviously, it is impossible for general
rules to anticipate other than conventional service,
and it would be uneconomic for them to provide for
corrosion, erosion, fatigue, shock, or potential brittle
fracture, except to the degree that such conditions are
known to be present. Suitable precautions are, therefore, entirely the responsibility of the design engineer
guided by the needs and specifications of the user.
A listing of all Standards and Specifications concerning piping design, together with their mandatory
effective edition references, appears in an appendix
of the Code for Pressure Piping (ASA B31.1).
Those which affect the mechanical design of piping
are briefly commented on in the following paragraphs, relative to their basic approach and significant details.
One of the difficulties which often confronts designers of vessels and piping, as related to Code
requirements and particularly local governmental
regulations, is the proper classification of borderline
pressure equipment. Currently (1955), neither the
ASME nor the ASA Code contains definitions for
vessels or piping which are helpful in this respect.
While the Code Committees have considered this
matter, no common agreement has been reached.
Some items in piping systems often considered and
fabricated as part of the piping, e.g, pulsation dampeners, are classed as pressure vessels in some States.
In doubtful cases it is advisable for the user to check
with the local authorities, especially in localities
having regional pressure vessel laws.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Section I,
Power Boilers, contains rules for the pressure design of boiler
piping within the specified boiler limits which are associated
with appropriate steam and feed-water stop valves. The
design, fabrication, and inspection requirements of the ASME
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, are often used by
reference in company specifications to supplement the Piping
Code. Section IX of the AS ME Code is the universal basis
for qualification of welding procedures and operators of all
pressure equipment.
ASA B31.1: Code for Pressure
Piping.
This is the
standard "Piping Code" which includes sections on Power,

EVALUATION,

AND DESIGN

LIMITS

31

Gas & Air, Oil, District Heating, Refrigeration, Oil Transmission, Gas Transmission and Distribution
Systems (ASA
B3 1.1.8-1955), and Chemical Piping. Its basic or general
supporting sections deal with requirements
for internal
pressure, flexibility, materials, fabrication,
and testing.
At the present writing (1955), this Code is in the process of
evolution from a Design Practice to a Safety Code. The
Gas Transmission and Distribution Section has been adopted
by several States and is under consideration by others; the
entire Code is used as a basis of enforcement in several U. S.
cities and in the Provinces of Canada. In recognition of thi~
trend, a Conference Committee similar to that of the ASME
Boiler Code and composed of the Chief Inspection Authority
of each State and each Canadian Province which has adopted
the (Piping) Code, has been appointed.
At the same time a
procedure was established to provide interpretations in the
form of Cases, which again parallels the ASME Boiler Code
procedure.
This transition is largely due to recognition by public
authorities that pipe line failures associated with a sudden
release of stored energy are potentially as dangerous as pressure vessel failures.
Experience with piping systems also
demanded a change in the former attitude that thermal expansion strains could not be responsible for a major failure.
Although this type of failure is due to fatigue rather than to a
single application of strain loading it can be a definite hazard
in most services.
ASA B9: Safety Code for Mechanical
Refrigeration.
This Code contains, in Section 9, brief rules for pressure and
general design of piping for this specific service.
Piping for Ships. Such piping requires special consideration because of added strains from the motions of the ship.
Naval vessels arc subject to added shock due to sudden
maneuvering,
gunfire, explosions, etc.
Requirements
for
merchant and naval vessels are contained in the following
Standards:
U. S. Navy, Bureau of Ships: Genernl Machinery Specifications; General Specifications for Building Naval Vessels.
American Bureau of Shipping: Rules for Building and Classing Vessels.
United States Coast Guard: Marine Engineering Regulations and Material Specifications.
Lloyd's Register of Shipping Rules
Flange and Fitting Standards.
The B16 group of ASA
Standards apply to pipe-fitting details. Although their significance is primarily dimensional, they involve design factors
which should be appreciated.
These are summarized in the
following sections:
Steel Flanges. The proportions of separate flanges and those
integrated with fittings were established many years ago, based
on simplified cantilever analysis. In 1953 the steel flanges
were reinvcstigatcd according to present ASME Boiler Code
formulas.
New ratings were established for two general
classes of gaskets and facing details. These appear in ASA
Standard, B16.5-1953, and also in the ASME Codes. The
basis of the new ratings is recorded in Appendix D of the
B16.5 Standard.
The calculated stress in the flanges shows
appreciable variation with size, series, and facings. A stress
of 8750 psi at the primary pressure rating was selected for the
purpose of establishing Class A ratings. Class B ratings arc
approximately 83% of Class A ratings. In the creep range at
or above the primary rating temperature,
ASME Power
Boiler Code stresses are adhered to. For temperatures up to

.........

_-_------

...

..-

_ .._._._--------_ __ ._------..

32

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

650 F the ratings are based on allowable stresses, which are

approximately 60% of the yield strength.
This is similar to
the allowable stress basis of the Piping Code, Section 3, Oil
Piping.
Ratings between 650 F a'lid the primary service
temperature
arc established by a straight line transition.
In general, the bolting, particularly when alloy steel, is of
substantially greater strength than the flanges, which can be
distorted by overtightening.
This excess bolt strength is
significant in the ability of ASA flanges to transmit line moments, as discussed later in Chapter 3.
Steel Flanged Fitting Thickness. Fitting thicknesses were
originally established for cast-carbon steel by upplication of
the Barlow (outside diameter) formula with an allowable
stress of 7000 psi at the primary pressure rating, and applying
a 50% increase in thickness as a "shape factor." This approach
was later extended to other cast and forged materials. The
fitting thicknesses in the 1953 issue of BI6.5 arc based on t.his
same allowable stress, which is 80% of the value used for
rating Class A flanges, using the primary service pressure
and the modified Lame formula now common to the Codes.
An excess thickness of 50% is provided for all flanged fittings
in recognition of the reinforcment required at the side outlets
of tees, bonnet necks of valves and similar branch connections,
as well as for elbows, whether or not they have side branch
connections.
Steel Butt Welding Filling Thickness. For cast- or wroughtbutt welding fittings the thickness required by ASA Standard
Bl(Ul at the welding ends is the same as that of the pipe size
arid schedule with which they arc intended to be used. Instead of establishing minimum wall thicknesses or "shape
factors" as is done for flanged fittings, this Standard requires
only that the bursting strength be not less than that of a pipe
of the corresponding material, size, and schedule number; the
pressure-temperature
rating then becomes identical with that
of the intact pipe.
API-ASl\'lE Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels.
This
pressure vessel Code is sometimes used as a reference in
company specifications. Except (or the absence of mandatory
random examination requirements, its provisions are essentially the same as Section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
API Standards.
In addition to material specifications for
line pipe, threads, etc., the American Petroleum Institute has
standards for certain types of iron or steel valves for refinery
or drilling and production service (API Standards 600, 6C
and 6D) and for ring-joint flanges (API Standard 6B). The
flanges and ratings utilized in Standard 600 arc based on ASA
standards.
Standards 6C and 6D assign separate pressure
ratings for "pipe line service" and "drilling and production
service" at 100 F. In addition to utilizing ASA Standard
flanges, API Standard 6B includes a special "2900 lb" series.
This is similar to the original assignment of a 4000 lb rating
to 1500 lb series flanges, drilled one size smaller, which was
advanced and used by The M. W. Kellogg Company, except
that the design was refined, in accordance with calculations
using ASME Code formulas, by Messrs. Petrie and 'Watts
of the Crane Company and Standard Oil Company (Indiana),
respectively.
The API Standard assigns a 100 F rating of
7500 psi for pipe line service, and 10,000 psi for drilling and
production service. For the latter service, materials with
higher tensile and yield strengths arc required.
The API
ratings for ASA flanges are the same as ASA ratings for pipe
line service; for drilling and production service the 600 lb and

higher series are required to have increased physical properties

and accordingly nrc assigned ratings about 33% higher.
Other Standards:
Other Standards which contribute to
piping design are those of the Manufacturers Standardization
Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry (MSS Standard
Practices), American Water Works Association (AWWA),
American Gas Association (AGA), Federal Specifications
Board (FSB), and Association of American Railroads (AAR).
These arc for the most part dimensional standards and rating
tables for specific piping and fittings.

2.2

Design Considerations:

Loadings

A piping system constitutes an irregular space

frame into which strain and attendant stress may
be introduced by the initial fabrication and erection,
and also may exist due to various circumstances
during operation, standby, or shutdown. In its
erected position, a piping system is subject to loads
due to dead weights (pipe, fittings, insulation), snow
or ice, contents of the line, wind load for exposed
piping, and earthquake or other shock loading in
special situations. Internal (or external) pressure
loads may be imposed in service or off stream. The
restraint of thermal expansion provided by terminal
and intermediate anchors, guides, and stops introduces thermal stresses in piping due to temperature
changes. Further stress may be introduced by the
movement'' of terminal equipment, foundations, or
buildings under temperature changes or other loading, or from any influence affecting the relative position of the line, anchors, or intermediate restraints.
The dead load effects, except contents, are usually
maintained at all times, while wind or earthquake
effects will be variable and reach maximum design
values infrequently, if ever. Pressure and temperature changes usually occur simultaneously, but may
be independent or have a variably dependent relationship. They may be relatively uniform for entire
service periods, or involve swings of variable
duration.
Dead load and wind or earthquake effects 011 piping are no different than for conventional structures,
while pressure effects are essentially the same as
those encountered on pressure vessels or boilers.
Overall expansion effects differ from those on structures exposed to ambient temperature changes, in
that the range of temperature variation on piping is
much greater.
For many problems, the designer must consider
more than one service condition, as well as start-up,
shutdown, and emergency conditions; for example,
a specific plant may involve more than one feed
2Frequently
designers.

termed

"extraneous"

movement

by piping

\..

DESIGN

ASSUMPTIONS,

STRESS

stock or several alternate products which may require different processing pressure and temperatures. Many plants involve-highly inflammable,
toxic, or otherwise unusual fluids, or specialized
machinery and equipment which must be carefully
isolated from air or contaminants.
Start-up and
shutdown may require protracted periods of warming up, cooling off, or operations such as purging,
washing down, pickling or passivating, solvent cleaning, air-steam decoking, etc., each of which may
introduce entirely different combinations of temperature and pressure over given portions of piping systems. Temperature differences, or other loading
more severe than normal service conditions, may
result where circumstances dictate that parts of a
system be heated successively. A proper appreciation of these various possibilities requires an adequate knowledge of the process design, operation,
instrumentation,
and control of the connected
equipment or entire plant. It is not unusual for
start-up and shutdown procedure to be governed
by mechanical design limitations rather than to suit
process only.
For exhaust steam vacuum service, opinion differs
as to whether the design temperature for thermal
expansion effects should be based on the normal
operating temperature under vacuum conditions
plus an occasional rise to 212 F, which temperature
would be approached with loss of vacuum, or on
212 F, as though it were the normal operating temperature. The first approach is consistent with the
handling of other operating upsets, it being recognized that at reduced capacity or after lengthy
periods of operation or with abnormally high cooling
water temperatures, higher absolute pressures and
corresponding temperatures may occur. It is therefore concluded that design considering the 212 F
case as an abnormal short duration (not an operating) temperature is reasonably logical.
The Piping Code (ASA B31.1-1955) is deficient
in adequate rules for protection against overpressure.
The requirements of the ASME Boiler Code, Section VIII, for safety valves, etc., are a useful guide
but require modification to suit common piping
practice. Pipe wall thickness is generally established
for a design pressure equal to the maximum (nonshock) service pressure, without provision for a
margin between service and design pressure, and
safety valves are generally set to relieve at about
10% above the design pressure. This is in contrast
with pressure vessel practice, where at least one valve
must be set to open at or below the design pressure.
Differenoes.also exist in the maximum overpressure

EVALUATION,

AND DESIGN

LIMITS

33

allowed while a safety valve is blowing; for oil piping

a 33!% increase is often used, compared to 10% on
pressure vessels, except under exposure to external
fire when 20% is allowed. This situation will probably be rectified when adequate rules for protection
against overpressure are provided in the Piping Code.
The static effect of individual loadings forms only
one phase of the broad subject of the design of piping systems. It is equally important to consider the
duration, frequency, and manner of application of
each loading, and their mutual occurrence. Both
pressure and temperature stress, if applied in a sufficient number of repetitive applications, may result
in fracture by fatigue. Failure may be accelerated
by the dynamic influence of very sudden changes of
pressure or temperature. Dynamic effects may also
introduce the possibility of direct shock failure,
apart from the brittle fractures associated with metallurgical considerations or ferritic steels at temperatures below the transition range. While failure due
to corrosion or metallurgical changes is not a subject
for this book, it should be mentioned that the level
of stress in the piping or the occurrence of plastic
flow may be a contributing factor in some cases.
Failure by stress corrosion is an important example.
The loadings which have been discussed can be
segregated for design purposes into two categories:
1. Those representing the application of external
forces which, if excessive, would cause failure independent of strain.
2. Those representing the application of a finite
external or internal strain. These are generally
introduced through temperature change.
The design consideration of individual loadings
may be approached on the basis of the duration,
frequency, nature, and probability of their occurrence. Individual loadings may be:
a. Present during extended normal operation but
not during off-stream condition.
b. Maintained throughout the service life.
c. Occasional and of short duration as well as low
cumulative duration (including start-up and shutdown conditions).
d. Emergency or abnormal conditions of short
duration.
For proper establishment of design assumptions,
it is necessary to have an adequate appreciation of
all direct and contingent requirements to which the
piping system will be subjected, and also to understand the interrelations between the behavior of
structures and materials, according to our present
state of knowledge. It is the aim of this chapter to
provide useful assistance toward the first objective.

34

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Chapter 1, together
prove valuable in
broad fundamental
fracture of metallic
2.3

with the references cited, should

establishing a reasonable and
understanding-of the flow and
materials.

Design Limits, Allowable

Allowable Stress Ranges

Stresses,

and

In the preceding section of this chapter, piping

system loadings have been grouped into two categories: external effects which, if excessive, might
cause direct failure, and strain effects attendant to
temperature change.
Categories for individual
loadings were also suggested, depending on the duration, frequency, and nature of the loading. This
section is devoted to the discussion of the nature of
stresses for the various forms of loading common to
piping, as well as to a consideration of allowable
stresses and an examination of the design limits
which are not directly provided for by conventional
allowable stresses and nominal safety factors.
When considering basic allowable stress values, it
is appropriate to distinguish between primary,
secondary, and localized stresses. Although there
is probably no accepted definition of primary and
secondary stresses in piping systems, the following
criteria will be advanced for purposes of this discussion:
Primary stresses are the direct, shear, or bending
stresses generated by the imposed loading which are
necessary to satisfy the simple laws of equilibrium
of internal and external forces and moments. Among
the primary stresses due to external effects are the
direct longitudinal and circumferential stresses due
to internal pressure and the bending and torsional
stresses due to dead load, snow and ice, wind, or
earthquake. In addition there are the direct, bending, and torsional stresses due to restrained thermal
loading, the external forces being supplied in this
case by the line anchors or other restraints. In
general the level of primary stresses directly measures
the ability of a piping system to withstand the
imposed loadings safely. Accordingly, those stresses
due to sustained external loading (categories (a) and
(b) of Section 2.2) are controlled to the Code allowable stress value for the operating temperature.
Some overstress is allowed for temporary external
loadings (categories (c) and (d.
Secondary stresses are usually of a bending nature,
varying from positive to negative across the pipewall thickness and arising generally because of differential radial deflection of the pipe wall. A most
important example of secondary stresses is that of
the circumferential bending stresses in a curved

pipe subject to bending, discussed in Chapter 3.

Secondary stresses are not a source of direct failure
in ductile materials upon single load application.
If above the yield strength they merely effect local
deformation which results in a redistribution of the
loading and a reduction of the stress in the operating
condition. If the applied loading is cyclic, however,
they establish a local strain range corresponding
essentially to their full original magnitude. They
thus constitute a potential source of fatigue failure.
Localized stresses are those which die away rapidly
within a short distance from their origin. Examples
are the bending stresses in the hub of a flange, at a
sharp cone-to-cylinder junction, or at the inside
diameter of a branch connection. Localized bending
stresses can be considered equivalent in significance
to secondary stresses. It is possible in some cases for
the plastic flow which may result from an initial overstress to alter the contour of the pipe to a stronger
shape. This would lower the local strain range during subsequent applications of the loading and the
fatigue resistance would be raised accordingly.
Allowing large initial amounts of localized deformation carries the risk, however, of propagating flaws
in the base material, particularly in welds, and of
initiating cracks in less ductile heat-affected zones
adjacent to welds.
The Pressure Vessel and Piping Codes contain
tables of allowable stresses at various temperatures
which are related only to the primary static-loading
stresses (categories (a) and (b) of Section 2.2). The
level of localized stresses at nozzles, branch connections, in heads, etc., is only loosely and indirectly
controlled by formula and shape requirements and
may easily be 100% or more above that of the
primary circumferential pressure membrane stress.
Due to the lack of adequate analyses or to the difficulty attendant to their evaluation, many secondary
and localized stresses are neglected by the Codes,
such as the bending stresses in vessel or pipe shells
due to piping reactions, although the Code may warn
the designer to consider such loadingc,
Two criteria are associated with piping stresses.
One is the so-called "Code allowable stress" at the
operating temperature, familiar to all designers of
pressure equipment; the other one is the somewhat
less known "allowable stress range," which is derived
from Code allowable stresses and which has appeared
in the Piping Code since 1942 as the basis for expansion and flexibility design. The application of each
of these criteria is covered later in this section in
connection with specific loadings.
The allowable stress is a function of the material

--_j

DESIGN

ASSUMPTIONS,

STRESS

properties and safety factors as associated with specific design, fabrication, and inspection requirements.
Experience with the pressure vessel Codes as presently constituted has shown that pressure and other
maintained loading can be sustained by average
equipment within this allowable stress limit for an
indefinite period. Also, it is not uncommon to allow
moderate short durations of overload or overtemperature due to abnormal or emergency circumstances. In a more precise approach, however, such
overloads should properly be assessed on an integrated basis with respect to duration and frequency.
In the following pages, the various considerations
influencing the serviceability or safety of piping systems are summarized and augmented by current
opinion as to advisable limits of stress, or other design criteria.
For Pressure
Loading: In the 1952 ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, the basis for the
allowable stresses for ferrous materials in both Section I, Power Boilers, and Section VIII, Unfired
Pressure Vessels is given in Appendix P of Section VIII. This appendix is important as a general
reference not only for its explanation of the basis of
allowable stresses given in the Code but also for its
guidance in setting stress values for similar materials.
For nonferrous materials Appendix Q (Section VIII,
Unfired Pressure Vessels) similarly establishes the
basis of allowable stresses.
The allowable stresses for Section 1, Power Piping,
of the ASA B31.1-1955 Code for Pressure Piping
are identical with those of the ASME Power Boiler
Code; those of Section 3, Oil Piping, within refinery
limits, are in agreement in the creep range with
Section VIn of the ASME Code. At lower temperatures, the safety factor on tensile strength is lower
than that of the Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, allowable stresses being limited to one-third of the minimum tensile strength or 60% of the minimum yield
strength. The other sections of the Code for Pressure
Piping are intended for either ambient or relatively
moderate temperature service, with allowable stresses
in varying percentages of the yield strength 8" or
tensile strength 8u as indicated below.
Section 2. Gas and air piping: 0.6 to 0.72 811
Section 3. Oil transmission lines outside refinery
limits: 0.85 8"
Section 4. District heating systems: 0.25
Section 5. Refrigeration piping systems: 0.25 8u
Section 8. Gas transmission and distribution piping systems: 0.72 8" max.

s;

The assignment of higher allowable stresses for high

l_

EVALUATION,

AND DESIGN

LIMITS

35

yield-strength materials operating at temperatures

below the creep range, and recognition of yield
strength enhanced by cold work and/or heat treatment, reduces the margin of safety provided by the
Piping Code for unassessed stresses and for fatigue
life under cyclic conditions. In addition, Sections 2
and 8 use nominal rather than minimum pipe-wall
thickness, which further diminishes safety margins.
The dependence of fracture (and bursting) stress
upon the shape of the part is quite properly recognized in Chapter 1. This effect, however, is one that
is commonly ignored in ordinary design practice and
in the Codes which represent such practice. Hence,
the Code safety factors against bursting, related
only to fracture of conventional tensile test specimens, must be regarded as nominal values which are
not necessarily the actual safety factors for the bursting of a cylindrical vessel under pressure, or for any
other general shape. While an exact evaluation of
the disparity between safety factors for a tensile test
specimen and those for a tube requires a complete
knowledge of the plastic stress-strain properties of
the material, a general evaluation for a wide range
of materials is made possible by certain reasonable
assumptions.
At first, the material under consideration is considered to obey the effective stress-strain relationship
of eq. 1.8, stresses being dependent upon strains in
accordance with the deformation theory of HenckyMises (eq. 1.7). Further, it is assumed that a function of the type
(2.1)
where

UI
E*I

Band n

= true stress in uniaxial tension

= logarithmic strain in uniaxial

tension
assumed material constants,

can adequately describe the stress-strain curve in

uniaxial tension. The types of stress-strain curves
obtainable from eq. 2.1 through a variation of the
constant n (sometimes referred to as the strainhardening exponent) are shown in Fig. 2.1.3
From the foregoing assumptions, it can be shown
that the engineering (conventional) stress in a tensile bar, at the instant of attaining the maximum
load, is given by
(2.2)
S; = B(n/e)"
where Su = ultimate (conventional) tensile stress
e = 2.71828 = base of natural logarithms
Band n are as previously defined.

'B, also called the "hardness factor," is simply the true

stress value at a logarithmic axinl etrain of 1.0.

logarithmic

I~lG. 2.1

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

36

Strain.

Ei

Analytical representation of the tensile stress-strain

curve for various values of n.

This instability stress value is identical with the

conventional "ultimate tensile stress."
In a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel the
conventional circumferential stress at instability (at
the maximum sustainable pressure) can be expressed
as
(2.3)
For a structure in uniaxial tension a design based
on Ilk of the ultimate tensile stress (as given by
eq. 2.2) represents a true safety factor of k. For
pressure vessels the safety factor should appropriately be applied to eq. 2.3. If, instead, safety factors are related to the ultimate tensile stress for
pressure vessel design, then the quotient
Q

= S.ISu

(2.4)

= 1.155(0.577)n

will indicate whether the real safety factor against

bursting, on a single application of overpressure, is
larger (Q > 1) or smaller (Q < 1) than the nominal
or presumed value of k, i.e.,
(S.F.\"c.sscl)

=Q

X (S.F.tcnsion)

(2.5)

A plot of eq, 2.4 in Fig. 2.2 gives values of Q for

values of n ranging from 0 to 0.5 and shows that
(for materials behaving as assumed) the safety factor for bursting of thin cylindrical vessels will be
larger than the tensile safety factor when n is less
than 0.263 and smaller when n exceeds this value.
In commonly encountered materials the strainhardening exponent n varies from about 0.05 to 0.15
for greatly cold-worked or tempered materials and
is within the range of 0.2 to 0.45 for soft annealed
metals. Carbon and low-alloy steels generally have
n values from 0.15 to 0.25. Within this range Q has
a value barely exceeding 1.0. Thus, if of the ultimate tensile stress is used as a basis for design, an
actual safety factor equal to or somewhat higher

than 4.0 on bursting will apply to cylindrical pressure vessels (of carbon or low-alloy steel), as proved
by numerous static destruction tests. Similar comments apply to Codes using a different fraction of
the ultimate tensile stress as a design basis. Thus,
for the ASA B31.1 Code, Section 3, which limits design stresses to t of the ultimate tensile stress, a
safety factor of around 3.0 will be available against
bursting of thin-walled cylinders. With other materials or with departures from the simple cylindrical tube, however, it would appear that the shape
effect may bear investigation for more accurate
assessment of bursting conditions.
In the creep range a similar safety factor does not
exist. That is, if creep continues while the pressure
is maintained, fracture will inevitably take place
after a sufficiently long time. Hence, the design
stress is selected to avoid failure within the service
life period.
For the case where 100% of the extrapolated 105
hour creep fracture stress is allowed by the Code,
and if this value governs the design stress (i.e, it is
lower than the stress causing 1% creep extension
in 105 hours), it would appear that the "life factor"
(actual vs, desired life) may be no more than 1.0.
In other words, if the desired design life is also
105 hours (about 11.4 years), fracture should follow
when the design life is exhausted. Admittedly, there
are only a few ferrous metals whose extrapolated
stress value for creep fracture is less than the stress
producing 1% creep in 105 hours. However, even
for these metals, no case of fracture following intended life is known in the annals of the industry,
although many pressure vessels have operated in the
creep range for periods considerably exceeding
11.4 years.
One reason for this lies in the fact that the allowable long-time design stress values (for both creep
and creep rupture) are obtained by extrapolation

1.2
~

.!!

v 1.0

a
a ~
u

i~
.8

~~
"0 g
~ ."tl E
-<

II

.6

.~

a
.2
Volvo of n

o~----~----~--4-~----~----~--.S
.~
.2
o
.1
~ .3

':

FlO.

2.2

The "safety factor ratio" Q as n function of n.

DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS,

STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS

from short-time tests. Although not strictly admissible, this extrapolation generally leads to acceptable
results for the creep values as shown in Fig. 2.3. On
the other hand, in the very short-time creep rupture
tests comparatively high stresses are used. As mentioned in Chapter 1, this tends to promote intracrystalline deformation, with an ensuing high
ductility. At the longest commercial testing periods
(generally 104 hours) the stresses are much lower;
intracrystalline deformation is largely absent, and
the ductility is considerably lower, although the
stresses are still higher than those producing 1%
elongation in the same time. The respective position of these stress values does not change even
when the loading period is increased to 105 hours.
However, the conventional log-log extrapolated value
based upon test results up to 104 hours in duration
may in some cases yield a fictitious rupture strength
at 105 hours which is below the 1% creep stress
value, as shown in Fig. 2.3. The unrealistic aspect
of this extrapolation partially explains why pressure
vessels do not fracture after 11-12 years even if
extrapolated test data would predict this in cases
where the creep fracture value governs design.
Structural Effects.
The Piping Code rules
ASA B3 1.1-1955 require that primary stresses due to
weight of pipe, fittings and valves, contained fluid
and insulation, and other sustained external loadings
be maintained within the hot allowable stress Sh.
Occasional effects such as wind and earthquake
should have little influence on the fatigue life of the
piping system or creep at high temperature. Therefore, they can be treated more liberally, similar to
AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction)
practices, where 33i% higher stress is allowed for
the separate effects of wind or earthquake superimposed on the basic loading,
In average piping systems, structural loading is
not investigated in an overall fashion; instead it is
controlled by standardized practices and details. In
extreme cases of large or stiff piping it is advisable to
evaluate the complete loading. Attention should be
directed to those loadings which can occur simultaneously, so as to obtain an integrated equivalent
cyclic strain as discussed in Section 2.6 and under
"Temporary Loadings" in this section.
Structural instability or collapse of piping under
longitudinal loading, such as is encountered in
columns, is possible only under unusual circumstances. Collapse by circumferential buckling is
more likely to occur, although the thickness-to-radius
ratios ordinarily used in piping applications are
usually high enough to prevent this. As a design

0 Creep

"",

x Cre.p Rolc

Creop Sir... CU~'

for 1% Creep Ral.

~C1

Fracture Te,., note

--

E.lropololed
p-fraClure CUf\'e

~ _ r>
"~_

37

Crtop-rracture
Curve

............

Sit... for 1% Creep Role

;.
in 10' hours
---r--~-'1---E.lrapolalcd Sir... lor fradur. in 10~houn _/
(dinigr'l Itran)
10

103
Tim., ha"n (log. cetel

10'

FIG. 2.3 Comparison of extrapolated and actual creep ..Iracture curves for a typical material at constant temperature.

criterion to guard against circumferential buckling,

it is suggested that primary longitudinal compressive
stresses should not be permitted to exceed 0.07Et/r,
where E is Young's modulus of elasticity, t is the
wall thickness, and r is the radius.
The allowable stress range was suggested initially
by Rossheim and Markl [I] as a measure of the
permissible strain range in a cycle of load application
to guard against the possibility of a fatigue failure
after a given number of cycles. It is selected so that
it will be applicable to ductile materials and to
average commercial pipe surface conditions at the
location of highest stress (strain) range. The principal cyclic loadings are restrained thermal expansion and pressure, although weight of contents and
occasional effects such as wind and earthquake are
also repetitive in nature. A cycle of external loading
usually varies from the full presence of the loading
during operation to its complete removal under offstream conditions; the distribution of the associated
internal strain between the cold and hot ends of the
cycle may on the other hand vary due to the dependence of strains on the material properties at each
temperature and the presence of initial fabrication
stresses or residual stresses set up as the result of
plastic flow.
With the erection and completion of the final
joint of each leg of a piping system, internal stress
may be introduced by cold pull, weld shrinkage, or
flange makeup. This establishes an initial state of
stress, limited only by the yield point of the material.
With temperature change on the first period of
operation, expansion strain is superimposed on the
residual fabrication strains. If the total exceeds the
elastic limit at any point, yielding occurs, leading to
relaxation of the initial fabrication stresses and a
redistribution of the thermal strain.
Prolonged
elevated temperature will serve to further reduce the

38

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

A2
~A"

'",
~

L2
~L
FIG.

2.4

:1

Representation
of bar for calculation
strain concentration factor.

of plastic

hot stresses by creep, at a rate proportional to the

combined stress (expansion, pressure, weight, etc.).
The reduction of the stress due to thermal strain
loading by plastic flow or creep at the operating
temperature is termed "relaxation."
The relaxed
strain reappears at the cold end of the temperature
cycle with reversed sign.
For moderate-temperature piping, the division of
thermal strain between the hot and cold condition is
adjusted during the initial cycle in an amount
dictated by the initial residual fabrication stress and
the thermal-stress magnitude. The imposition of a
temporary overload during operation can effect a
further strain shift from the hot to the cold condition.
For higher temperatures, where creep occurs, strain
adjustment continues until the combined stress at
the operating temperature is reduced to the relaxation limit. For convenience in design this is generally
assumed to he the Code allowable stress level. Although such adjustment takes place, it is important
to grasp the fact that the strain range per cycle does
not change and that the ability of the pipe material
to sustain the range is a function of both its hot and
cold properties. The process wherein the pipe line
seeks an equilibrium condition, and the resulting
self-adjustment accomplished by yielding and creep,
is termed "self-springing."
Self-adjustment may be minimized by presprinqinq
(cold springing) which consists of incorporating prestress during erection. Since this practice is particularly useful in controlling initial reactions so as
to protect connected equipment it will be discussed
in that regard under the heading of Piping and
Equipment Intereffects in Section 3.14.
As to whether prespringing offers advantages
beyond controlling the initial hot reaction, a general
answer cannot readily be given. In the 1942 edition
of the Piping Code, the allowable stress range could
in effect be increased when 50% or more prespring
was provided by the permissible reduction in the
expansion loading to two-thirds. The 1955 edition
provides a uniform stress range regardless of the
initial strain condition. This is based on the reasoning that fatigue life is primarily dependent on the
range of strain which is unaffected by prestress, and

that the piping system seeks an equilibrium condition by self-springing. Credit for prespring is, however, still permitted when estimating maximum hot
and cold reactions on terminal equipment. By
prespringing, the plastic flow which the line may
have to undergo on the first, or first few cycles, in
order to effectively self-spring itself, can be avoided
entirely or appreciably reduced. This is sometimes
considered advantageous in minimizing the risk of
an early failure due to "follow-up elasticity" effects
should there be a highly localized weak link in the
system. However, from a fatigue standpoint, no
benefits are attributed to cold springing once selfspring has been effected. The advantage of prespring in this respect is more important for piping
which is to operate at temperatures in the creep
range. The proposition has also been advanced that
the hot plastic flow associated with self-springing
will detract from the final available ductility under
high temperature "creep" conditions; in reality, the
mechanism of self-springing is probably more nearly
akin to fabrication hot forming operations. In this
light, the only clearcut conclusion that can be drawn
is that prespringing can have only advantageous and
no deleterious effects, especially as concerns initial
terminal reactions. Therefore, it is a desirable
practice when economically justified and effectively
carried out.
The 1955 Piping Code rules call attention to the
possibility of an undesirable amount of creep in areas
of reduced strength, such as short runs of reduced
size in highly stressed zones under certain conditions.
The possibility of the unit strain in local highly
stressed areas being magnified under conditions of
plastic flow by reason of the follow-up elasticity of
the more lowly stressed areas is not generally appreciated. In order to gain a better understanding, it
is of interest to study a simple analogue consisting
of a bar having a section of reduced area, as shown in
Fig. 2.4, restrained at the ends and subjected to
cyclic heating and cooling. The bar will be assumed
to be made of an ideally elastic-plastic material
(non-strainhardening).
Let this bar now be SUbjected to cyclic heating
and cooling of constant amplitude, to a level which
causes plastic flow in member 1 on each cycle. It
can be shown then that during any thermal halfcycle
(from heating to cooling or vice versa), other than
the first heating operation, the total (elastic plus
plastic) unit strain in member 1 is given by
(2.6)

I
I,

DESIGN
where

Ee

ASSUMPTIONS,

SlIe, SlJII
Ee, Ell

(2.7)

Ell

39

All volu.. tcl",'oled

for A,/A2=0.5

7
'"
6
.l:

= unit

linear thermal expansion for a

temperature rise of t:.T.
= total length.
= lengths of members 1 and 2.
= cross-sectional areas of members
1 and 2.
= yield strength at the cold and hot
temperatures, respectively.
= Young's modulus of elasticity at
the cold and hot temperatures
respectively.

Had this bar been analyzed on the assumption that

all strains remained elastic, the calculated unit strain
range in member 1 would be given by:
L
eEe

= __ Ll..:,__
1

(2.8)

+ A1L2
AzLx

The strain given by eq. 2.6 is higher than that

indicated by eq. 2.8, and the ratio of the two can be
termed the strain magnification factor f3. which is
given by the following equation, valid for Ee ~ Ee

e, = + A1L2
A2Ll

[1 - ~J

(2.9)

Ec

This is an extremely interesting result, since Ec is the

maximum unit strain calculated by application of
elastic theory and f, is the maximum unit-strain
range which the material can accept without allowing
plastic flow on each cycle. So long as Ee does not
exceed E. there is no magnification factor. The
magnification factor for Ee greater than Ee is given by
eq. 2.9. Figure 2.5 is a plot of this equation for a
specific ratio of AdA2 = 0.5 and shows the magnification factor as a function of fe/fe and L2/L1; high
values can be reached which would materially reduce
the fatigue life of such a bar. The magnification
factors increase as area Al approaches area ...12, At
first thought this might be unexpected; the explanation is that, as At! A2 approaches unity, the portion
of the calculated strain in member 2 which is never
developed, but instead causes plastic flow in member
I, increases as a direct function of Ad ...1~.
From this simple analogue it can be generalized
that, in any system which is stressed so that plastic
flow occurs over a portion of the total length only,
the unit strain is magnified in the portion undergoing

AND DESIGN LIMITS

;;

+ Sill..

s,
L
LI> L2
AI> A2

EVALUATION,

elastic strain range limit

= SIIC

STRESS

oL_-L __L--L __L-~

1

FIG. 2.5

"

__ ~~

__ ~~

__ ~

__ ~~

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Ralio 01 Colculaled Elall!e Sirain Range 10
Availabl. Elal,ie Siroin per Hall Cyel.

Strain magnification in a locally weakened bar.

such flow by the follow-up elasticity of the more

lowly stressed portion. It is not necessary that the
area of the critical portion be less than the remainder.
All that is necessary is that plastic flow occurs prefer, entially in the critical portion rather than over the
rest of the system. Lower mechanical properties can
have the same effect as reduced area. Systems
stressed in bending are subject to this effect even
when of uniform properties and size due to the nonuniform stress distribution which prevails. Strain
magnification will occur whether the plastic flow is
due to exceeding the clastic limit or is due to operation at high temperature where the plastic flow and
strain magnification factor would be a function of
time per cycle.
Similar conclusions were obtained in a recent
paper by Robinson [2J. Analyzing a few selected
piping systems operating at elevated temperatures
(in the creep range), he found that severe strain
concentrations can exist in layouts where the, maximum stress is limited to a very short length of the
piping, and where the follow-up elasticity of the
remainder of the system is great. These findings
are in agreement with those of the previously presented analysis for strain concentrations under
plastic flow conditions.
The allowable stress range limits established by
thc Piping Code are such that plastic flow due to
expansion effects is not permitted to occur with each
cycle. Both yielding and creep effects have been
considered in basing the hot portion of the allowable
range on the hot yield or creep strength, whichever
governs. Repetitive strain magnification over substantial lengths of the piping should, therefore, not
occur. For lines which are not presprung, it is, however, possible for some such strain magnification to
occur during the initial operating period, while the

40

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

line is undergoing self-springing. Since this occurs

only once it must be considered in an entirely different light and would have no influence on fatigue
life.
The bar analogue presented above was used to
derive magnification factors assuming that the weak
area was initially known and that an elastic analysis
of stress conditions was made. The analogue could
be readily modified to show the extremely high local
magnification factor which would exist at a defect
in a bar of uniform area, which is sufficiently serious
to cause local plastic flow. It is well known that
fatigue failure follows rapidly in the presence of such
. a defect.
The allowable stress range, as associated with the
various types of repeated loading, is discussed in detail in the following treatment of specific loadings.
Expansion Stresses. Since thermal expansion
occurs as a finite strain load associated predominantly with bending effects, fracture on initial application is unlikely to occur in ductile materials.
Fractures resulting from repeated applications of
thermal strain loading are similar to fatigue failure
under mechanical loading. Therefore, the allowable
stress or strain range must be related to the number
of cycles anticipated during the life of the piping
system. Failure will occur in the zone of highest
cyclic strain, whether primary, localized, or secondary. For this reason it is necessary to apply stress
intensification factors for any individual piping component wherever stresses above the level of the primary stresses are introduced. Due to the importance
of such stresses from a fatigue standpoint, Chapter 3
is entirely devoted to recording present knowledge
of stress intensification in various components of
piping systems as well as their influence on flexibility.
Overall design is based on the stress range for the
critical component, as established by its intensification factor and the nominal primary stress at its
location.!
The basic allowable stress range established for
thermal expansion stresses in the 1955 Piping Code
1.25So

where S;
Sh

+ O.25Sh

allowable stress at ambient temperature

= allowable stress at operating temperature,

has been selected with the objective of providing a

'Since the pressure vessel codes do not provide rules for
thermal expansion loading, it is desirable to check the effect
of comparatively stiff piping on vessel sheila of low thickness!
radius ratio. This is accomplished in the manner outlined in
Chapter 3 for terminal connections.

minimum of 7000 cycles of operation without failure.

Local and secondary stresses are kept within this
limit by the stress-intensification factors. For a
number of cycles greater than 7000 the stress range
is reduced by a factor relating the allowable stress
range to the number of cycles as determined by
ambient temperature fatigue tests on carbon-steel
pipe. The reduction factor has a lower limit of 0.5.
Some adjustment of these factors, particularly for
materials other than carbon steel, will undoubtedly
be necessary as further fatigue information is
obtained.
The possibility of fatigue failure under the cyclic
straining conditions present in piping systems has
been questioned by many individuals. The propositions were variously advanced that the internal
strain loading associated with thermal cycling cannot initiate fatigue cracks, or that the stress-relieving
and annealing effects at elevated temperatures would
prevent the propagation of such cracks. As indicated in Chapter 1, reasoning should lead to the
opposite conclusion; furthermore, experimental verification that fatigue under constrained thermal
loading does occur. is provided by the work of
L. F. Coffin, Jr. [3, 4,], who demonstrated that
fatigue failure is primarily associated with the range
of cyclic plastic strain, while stress or strain relief is
of a secondary order of influence.
The Code allowable stress range cited above assumes that longitudinal stresses due to pressure and
other sustained external loadings are not over the
basic hot allowable stress, Sh. For hot lines the
expansion stresses at operating temperatures are
assumed to be gradually lowered by yielding and
creep, so as to be carried essentially as an off-stream
or cold stress. If the longitudinal stress due to sustained loadings is less than Sh, the Code permits the
unused portion to be applied to extend the stress
range available for expansion effects. Therefore the
Code, in effect, permits a total maximum allowable
stress range equal to 1.25(So
Sh), for thermal
expansion stress combined with stresses from other
sustained loadings. For service temperatures below
the occurrence of significant creep, the total permissible longitudinal stress (both bending and direct)
is equivalent to approximately 1.25 times the yield
strength for power piping and 1.38 to 1.5 times the
yield strength for oil piping.
In general, Code design is simplified for general
use; at best it considers only average static conditions and establishes minimum design requirements.
placing dependence on the safety factor to take care
of unassessed stress conditions. The cyclic nature

DESIGN

ASSUMPTIONS,

STRESS

of loading and the possibility of fatigue failure are

not specifically considered, except in the Piping
Code's treatment of piping flexibility for thermal
expansion. It might be asked why the fatigue design
approach is currently limited to piping expansion
analysis. This is due to the fact that the Unfired
Pressure Vessel Code rules limit primary pressure
stresses in Ierritic materials to 62~% of the yield
stress and 25% of the tensile strength. This provides a reasonable margin against the possibility of
fatigue due to localized and secondary stresses, which
may be 100% or more above this allowable stress,
for the type of cyclic conditions normally encountered in most pressure vessel services. By comparison, thermal strains play a greater role in the design
of piping, which would be seriously affected economically (and would be virtually impractical in the
case of large stiff systems) if total stress including
expansion effects were to be held within the Code
allowable stress at the operating temperature.
Spurred by this necessity, experience and analytical
work have led to the Piping Code's more advanced
treatment of thermal strains, and to rules which
recognize the influence of number of cycles, hot and
cold material properties, and local stress intensifications.
It remains for the piping engineer and designer to
recognize any unusual demands imposed by the design or service on piping systems. The following
topics, in particular, are not at present adequately
covered by the minimum Code design.
Shock or Dynamic Loading. Shock or dynamic
loading conditions warrant special consideration because of the added stress which can be introduced
by the rate of application of the motivating influence
and the fact that the yield point of steel can be appreciably raised by very rapid loading. Localized
yielding at points of stress concentration may be
inhibited under such conditions and fracture more
readily initiat.ed. The general subject of vibrations
which arc a source of concern from a fatigue standpoint is treated in Chapter 9. The more significant
dynamic loadings which enter into piping design can
be listed as follows;
Earthquoke.
The accelerations associated with
earth tremors are generally of the order of 1 to
8 ft/sec2. These values represent about 3% to 25%
of the 32.2 ft/scc2 acceleration of gravity. For this
reason, earthquake design is commonly approached
by applying a horizontal force acting at the center
of gravity of the structures; this force is 10% to 20%
of the structure weight, depending on the maximum
accelerations recorded for the locality considered.

EVALUATION,

AND DESIGN

LIMITS

41

Earthquake loading is not normally assumed in design unless it is specifically required for the locality
concerned. Some consideration has been given to
requiring that all structures be checked for some
minimum lateral thrust of this type, lower than in
recognized earthquake zones, but this is not the
practice at present.
Gun Fire.
Piping on warships is sometimes
checked for the dynamic effect due to the firing of
guns.
Water Hammer or Flow Surge EjJect.~. The Piping
Code contains water hammer allowances for cast
iron pipe, in the form of a required increase in design
pressure. On steel pipes no standard allowance is
made for flow surge or hammer, and allowances are
usually made only on high-head water flow lines,
such as penstocks. The shock pressure due to sudden stopping of a liquid is a function of its velocity,
stoppage time, and the elasticity of the pipe. Pressure surge effects are present wherever reciprocating
pumps or compressors are used. The accompanying
mechanical vibrations may in certain cases be sufficient to result in fatigue failure, if not promptly
corrected. This subject is treated in more detail in
Chapter 9.
Brittle Fracture in Ferritie Steel. The potential dangers of the brittle fracture of steel structures
were made clear during World War II and after by
the numerous failures of merchant ships, and by
occasional partial or complete failures of bridges,
pressure spheres, gas-transmission piping, and storage tanks. The phenomenon and conditions under
which fracture may occur were discussed in Chapter 1. From the practical design standpoint it has
been realized for a long time that, as ambient temperatures are reduced, the hazard of brittle fracture
in ferritic steels is increased. As a result, the Pressure Vessel Codes have required for many years that
for services below -20 F (excluding applications
for service at prevailing ambient temperature, such
as outdoor pressure storage tanks), ferritic materials
have an impact value of at least 15 ft-lb, at the lowest intended service temperature as determined by
keyhole or U-notch Charpy specimens.
The numerous fractures of ships and other structures have resulted in extensive investigations for
the causes underlying brittle behavior. While no
complete practical remedy for avoidance of brittle
fracture has resulted, several factors have been recognized to have important influence. Although individual impact or equivalent testing of each plate,
bar, or tube at the lowest service temperature still
provides .the best assurance as to its transition tern-

.....................

_._--_-

42

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

perature, there is definite evidence that average

transition temperatures are lowered and the incidence of failures significantly reduced, within the
range of ambient temperatures, by using openhearth or electric-furnace steels, controlling the
manganese-carbon ratio of plates over ! in, thick,
and by employing killed steels made to fine-grain
practice, particularly for 'thicknesses over 1 in. (see
ASTM Spec. A131-53T for example). Normalizing
is also desirable for important plate applications over
1 in. although none of the ASTM Specifications for
structural steel at present requires this in any thickness; however, ASTM Specification A131-53T in
paragraph 4 (b) mentions that plates over 1i in. may
be required to be produced to special specifications.
The ASTM Specification A373-54T covers structural steel for welding and is similar to A131 except
that it makes no reference to fine-grain practice for
plates over 1 in. or to special requirements over
1i in. The development of these specifications and
their gradually more widespread use in the construction of ships, tankage, and other structures at insignificant increase in cost is an encouraging trend.
Though it represents only a modest start it indicates
that much more could be accomplished by economic
steel specification control and that its extension to
all pressure services is a necessary undertaking.
The experimental work also showed that a significant improvement in performance can be achieved
through careful design by the avoidance of high
stress concentration or areas of high local restraint
(e.g., ship hatch corner design). Significantly, all
such failures have been triggered off by a relatively
minor flaw or notch, the majority of which were
associated with welds. Apparently, in addition to
the possibility of welds containing small cracks, the
local residual stress pattern associated with them is
a factor. The latter plays a significant role, not only
in initiating crack propagation, but in accelerating
the crack propagation speed to a level where it can
continue as a spontaneous process through a much
lower stress field. This is in keeping with the theory
given in Chapter 1.
Non-ductile Materials.
Cast iron and other
non-ductile materials are usually confined to relatively low temperature service when used for pressure parts. Bending stresses for these materials
must be kept within well-defined allowable values
(for cast iron, usually It times the allowable stress
for tension). Bell-arid-spigot or packed joints of a
design incapable of taking longitudinal stress are
provided with anchors at the end of each run, with
expansion absorbed by movement at the packed

joints.
For low-temperature underground lines
expansion provision is usually not necessary.
Temporary Loadings. An allowance of 33i%
above the basic allowable hot stresses established
for oil piping in the Piping Code has been suggested
for temporary loadings due to wind or earthquake.
Stresses due to occasional brief overloads in operation can be similarly treated i such might be occasioned by minor upsets in operating conditions or by
starting-up or shutdown conditions. For power
piping applications the ASME and ASA Codes
specifically recognize occasional operating variations
in pressure and temperature, allowing the following
increase in the calculated stress due to internal
pressure:
1. 15% during 10% of the operating period.
2. 20% during 1% of the operating period.
This permissible overstress is intended to cover the
surges expected to occur due to the heat lag of large
boilers when the output is suddenly decreased. It is
not recommended as a general design practice for
normal operation variations in pressure or temperature as it is better to design for the maximum pressure and temperature conditions expected to occur
in regular operation. However, brief temperature
or pressure upsets may be treated on this basis,
provided they are such as to require quick remedial adjustments in operation to restore normal
conditions.
Severe upset or emergency loadings sometimes call
for immediate drastic corrective measures and may
require shutting down the unit. Wherever practicable the same limit as proposed for temporary
loadings should be observed, but the nature and
probability of the emergency often requires special
consideration. In the case of piping where design is
controlled by creep and stress-rupture properties.
analysis of the ability of the system to sustain an
occasional short duration emergency can be based on
the short-time properties of the material or, if more
frequent, on the permissible creep stresses for the
shorter time period involved, by evaluation of the
cumulative creep for service and unusual conditions.
No standard guide can be given. More study and
tests are desirable to assess the cumulative effect of
short-duration high overloads and long-duration
normal loads. It is known that, for a given total
period of overloading, the number of times the
loading is applied has a significant effect, being more
damaging as the frequency of application increases
for a constant total duration of the overload.
Where basic allowable stresses arc set higher or are
established by cold-worked properties (e.g. gas

DESIGN

ASSUMPTIONS,

STRESS

transmission line piping), overstress due to temporary loading should be avoided.

Abnormal temperature differences may occur due
to upsets or during start-up operations, which can
cause thermal expansion stresses higher than assumed
for the normal design condition. When infrequent
compared to the normal design condition, some
increase in the permissible stress range can be justified. For example, when working to the rules of the
1951 ASA Piping Code, The M. W. Kellogg Company designed for emergency thermal expansion conditions using a 50% increase over the basic allowable
stress range. A more appropriate design approach
would be one which would determine the number of
cycles at the Code allowable stress range which
would be equivalent to the number of cycles under
the diverse conditions actually anticipated. Assuming a basic relation between number of cycles Nand
stress range Sit of the form
N

(K/Sn)n

the equivalent number of cycles N. at a stress SA

can be established roughly as

Ne (~Jn
=

Nl+(~~y
N + (~:rND
2

(2.10)
where K and n are constants for the material.
Nl is the number of cycles producing an overload stress SI.
N2 is the number of cycles producing an overload stress S2, etc.
N D is the number of expected operating cycles
on the normal design basis.
S D is the corresponding calculated stress.
SA is the Code allowable stress range for
7000 cycles.
Since the Code stress range is intended to provide for
a minimum of 7000 cycles at a stress SA, if N. does
not exceed 7000, the design may be considered
equivalent to a Code design. Tests on carbon-steel
pipes [5) indicated that n can be taken equal to 5.
Without similar test data, the use of n = 5 for other
materials is open to some question.
2.4

Stress Evaluation

Stress evaluation is commonly limited to primary

direct, bending, and torsional stresses which, in piping, result from the effect of pressure, weight, and
thermal expansion. Localized and secondary stresses
which do not affect the overall system are not ordinarily evaluated directly although their influence on

EVALUATION,

AND DESIGN

LIMITS

4:)

the cyclic or fatigue life under thermal expansion is

taken into account through so-called stress intensification factors. The following discussion presents
background information and comments to aid understanding of the current approach in treating various
loadings.
.
2.4a Internal Pressure up to 3000 psi Maximum. In their present status, the Pressure Vessel
Codes already mentioned arc stated to be applicable
when the pressure does not exceed 3000 psi. Pressures above this may require special attention to
design and fabrication details, closures, branch COIlnections, etc., in view of the heavier wall and thickness/diameter ratio involved. Actually, any such
limit is strictly arbitrary and should more properly
be established as a pressure/stress limit so that the
influence of different materials and the effect of
temperature would be included.
For the most common surface of revolution; the
cylinder, the so-called inside diameter (or membrane)
and outside diameter (or Barlow) formulas were
first used for thickness/diameter below and above
0.1 respectively. These were later supplanted by
the mean diameter formula and, more recently, by
the universally adopted formula approximating the
results of the Lame formula. All these formulas
may be expressed in 11 common manner as follows:
S
where

p
ri

t
K

= (pr;/t)

+ f{p

(2.11)

= internal pressure.
= inside radius.
=
=

wall thickness.
constant having values between 0 and 1.

If K is given the value of 0, the inside diameter for-

mula is obtained; for K = 0.5, the mean diameter;

for K = 1.0, the outside diameter. When the value
of 0.6 is used, stresses are obtained which correlate
reasonably well for values of t up to about 0.5ri with
the recognized inside circumferential stress formula
of Lame. This approximation, discovered by H. C.
Boardman, was rapidly adopted for moderatetemperature piping by both Pressure Vessel and
Piping Codes, while for piping in the creep range it
is considered applicable if a further adjustment of
K is made as covered later in this section. Similar
relationships, which approximate the direct circumferential pressure stress at the inner-wall surface for
other shapes of revolution, are presented in Table 2.1.
For dished heads it may be noted that the Code also
relates the design of torispherical and ellipsoidal
heads to the sphere formula, which is suitably modified by a correction factor to correspond with the

44

DESIGN OF PIPING

SYSTEMS

Table 2.1 Internal Pressure-Circumferential

Stress Formulas for Elastic Conditions

....'

Shape
Cylinder

SE - 0.6p

Cone"

p
pr,

Use

T;

(__!2_) in place of

rj

SEt
+ 0.6t

P
El [r;

+ 0.6tl

in the cylinder formulas.

COSa

prj

Sphere

2SE - 0.2p
prj

Torus (pressure inside)t

SE - pK

[R R- - 0.5r'J
r;

General shape of revolution]

where To

r;

2SEt
+ 0.2t

2Et [r,

SEt

R -

e R-

0.5r,)
r.

Ti+

Kt

SEt

(1- 2~)

To

+ Kt

+ 0.2tj

Et

[(R R- -";0.5r,)

1?_
Et

[(1 - ~)n,

J!...

ri

+ KtJ

+ KtJ

= inside

radius (use meridional radius in general formula, i.e., radius from axis of revolution and normal to
surface, see Fig. 2.6).
E = weld joint efficiency.
R = torus center line bend radius.
Rl = actual radius of curvature in meridional plane at the point in question (positive if concave to pressure)
(Fig. 2.6).
a = ! cone included (apex) angle.

0.6

C + ~r;/R)

(use absolute value).

stress.
internal pressure.

S = circumferential

Not covered by Piping Code at present.

tNot given in any code at present.

membrane stresses associated with their contour.

The pressure design of shell openings for nozzles,
manholes, and branch connections is based on the
simple maintenance of the original cross-sectional
area, by replacement of the removed metal by reinforcement immediately adjacent to the weakened
area. Flanges and cover plates involve primarily
bending stresses j the direct stresses in these components are commonly neglected due to their lesser
magnitude. Specific formulas are given in the Codes
for their pressure design.
2.4b Internal Pressure over 3000 psi. The
Codes at present (1955) do not cover the design of
high-pressure vessels, although this subject has received considerable attention in the last two decades.
Many problems arise at high pressure for which conventional code details are either totally unsuited or
present an undesirable choice. Examples are: nozzle
reinforcements which, within Code limits for reinforcement, entail extremely abrupt changes in section, cones, etc., involving inside corner radii which
are small in comparison with the wall thickness. As
the pressure is increased, practical limits are reached
for design as covered by Code rules. In the following it is attempted to summarize the practices which

FIG. 2.6

The meridional radius of curvature for

shells of revolution.

are followed in the design of shells, heads, closures,

and connections of high-pressure piping.
The Lame formula and the Rankine (Maximum
Principal Stress) criterion, on which the ASME
Boiler Code and ASA Code for Pressure Piping are
based, no longer predict general yielding or rupture
within reasonable limits when the thickness/diameter
ratio exceeds approximately 0.20. Although the
error is on the safe side, the deviation becomes
greater the more the thickness/diameter ratio is increased. For initiation of yielding the Maximum
Shear or Maximum Shear-Strain Energy Theories
are in good agreement with experimental evidence,

DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS,

STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS

as mentioned in Chapter 1. Either of these theories

may be used to practical advantage as general yielding or bursting criteria when applietl in conjunction
with plastic stress analysis.
For thick cylinders, yielding of the inside fibers
leads to compressive residual stresses in the plastically deformed portion of the wall when pressure is
removed, increased stress in the outer fibers under
pressure loading, and greater uniformity of shear
stresses throughout the wall thickness. This redistribution of stresses due to plastic flow is termed
"auto-frettage"; it was first employed for casting
guns in the early nineteenth century. Later, greater
control and uniformity of stress distribution was attained by shrinking successive closely machined shell
layers on to each other, thus producing a thickwalled cylinder, whose inner layers are in a state of
precom pression.
The fact that initial yielding of the inner fibers
occurs at only a fraction of the pressure corresponding to general yielding distinguishes thick-walled
vessels from thin-walled shells. Since the pressure to
produce failure in thick-walled vessels is more
properly associated with plastic rather than elastic
criteria, a valid design of these structures can be
based on plastic analyses, and related to the general
yielding and bursting conditions.
The various
approaches which have been suggested are discussed
in the following paragraphs.
Modified Elasticity. This approximate solution
assumes that a safety factor of 4 on bursting is maintained so long as yielding of the inside fibers is
avoided at the design pressure. This approach also
requires that the stress at the mean wall thickness,
as calculated by the Lame formula, does not exceed
the usual allowable (O.25Su) value. The safety
factor assumed by this analysis is likely to be in
error on the unsafe side.
Auto-frettage.
The wall is assumed to be in two
layers with the inner layer taken to be in a state of
precompression, attained by applying a suitable
overpressure and yielding the inner fibers. The
stress is then calculated by the Lame formula considering the initial prestressed condition. The results
will be similar to the preceding approximate approach for the same safety factor.
Partial and Complete Plasticity. Stress analyses
of cylinders having an inner plastic-elastic zone and
an outer elastic zone are available in many text
books dealing with plasticity. These solutions are
generally based on the assumption of an idealized
material which is elastic up to the yield stress and
plastic (non-work-hardening) at the yield value.

45

CircumfarClntial
Siro ..

AxialH:-+-+-~

Sir,,"

Ton,ilo
I
Zora

I
Compr,,"i

FIG. 2.7

'Typical stress variation in a pipe under clastic

or creep conditions.

For a severely cold-working material the assumption

that the strain is the sum of an elastic strain obeying
Hooke's law and a plastic strain can be considerably
in error. Special analyses have also been worked out
for strain-hardening materials.
Plasticity analyses are generally based on the
assumptions that (1) elastic strains are negligible in
comparison with plastic strains; (2) the volume of
the material remains constant during deformation;
and (3) the length of the pipe is unchanged under
the application of pressure. The distribution of circumferential stresses changes completely from the
elastic results, the maximum in the plastic range
occurring at the outside fiber. The shear stress also
tends to be constant through the wall thickness, but.
remains a maximum at the inner fiber. Figure 2.7
illustrates the difference in stress distribution. For a
thick-walled cylinder of an ideally plastic (non-workhardening) material, Nadai (6) gives the following
formulas at the onset of general yielding:
Sex

p[1 - log. (rQlr)}

log. (rolr;)
Sf::

2S,

So", - Srz

-p[log. (rolr)}
= ---=-=--....::::.:._..:,_:.:...._.:_:
loge (ro/ri)

og,

(I)

r, ri

(2.12)

(2.13)

(independent of r)
(2.14)

DESIGN

46
where Se.,
Sr7'.
S.
To

r:
r

OF PIPING SYSTEMS

circumferential stress at any radius r.

= radial stress at any point r.

= shear stress.
....

=
=

outside radius.
inside, radius.
radius at point in question.

The value of 2S, is equal to S, at the outside radius.

If this is accepted as a suitable criterion of general
yielding or bursting, it is interesting to know that
eq. 2.14 can be closely approximated by the simple
mean diameter formula.
Spurred on by an interesting paper by Burrows
and Buxton (7] on available formulas for cylinders
under internal pressure, the ASA B31 Committee
appointed a special task group to study the subject
and recommend a simple appropriate formula for the
design of heavy-walled piping in the creep range.
This task group recommended that the value of K in
the simple formula of eq. 2.11 be gradually modified
from 0.6 to 0.3 at temperatures over 900 F for
ferritie steels and over 1050 F for austenitic steel.
This recommendation was approved and the formulas
for piping in the ASA Piping Code, Sections 1 and 3,
and the ASME Power Boiler Code now include this
provision.
The formulas given in eqs. 2.12 to 2.14 will provide
a reasonably good answer for the behavior of thickwalled cylinders made of materials with only a mild
strain-hardening tendency. Where a more exact
evaluation of probable performance is desired; the
stress distribution should be evaluated from the
actual stress-strain characteristics of the material [8,9, 10J. An analysis of thick-walled cylinders
under internal pressure in the creep range has also
been advanced by Bailey [I1J.
Concerning the practical design details of thick
shells, an effort should be made to avoid stress raisers
in the form of abrupt changes of section at the location of openings, nozzles, and intersections. The
observance of these rules, coupled with careful control of materials and fabrication, and with adequate
testing, may permit a reduction in the overall
nominal safety factor without diminishing (and
possibly improving) the real safety factor. 'With the
trend to higher pressures and temperatures, more
adequate use of material is imperative. Lower safety
factors for simple surfaces of revolution or for construction of controlled low stress intensification is
also necessary [12).
2.4c External
Pressures.
External pressure
loading involves, in addition to control of direct
stresses, the consideration of stability.
Direct

stresses for external pressures are governed by the

same formulas as for internal pressure, except that
the signs of all of the equations containing the pressure p have to be reversed, indicating compression
stress.
Stability of cylinders -against collapse is well
covered by the rules of the ASME Boiler Code,
Section VIII, which provide for the design of both
unstiffened and stiffened cylinders of all Code
materials. For an explanation of the Code charts,
reference should be made to a paper by E. O. Bergman [13J. This paper also contains an extensive
bibliography on this subject. Similar to columns,
the limiting compressive load which a cylinder will
sustain is related to its equivalent slenderness, end
conditions, and deviations from true contour. In
the case of long unstiffened cylinders (length/
diameter over about 10), the collapsed contour
approximately follows a figure 8 outline, consisting
of two complete lobes. Consequently, an unstiffened
cylinder may be compared with a fixed-end column
whose length equals one-half of its circumference.
For stiffened cylinders, the number of lobes increases
as the length-between-stiffeners/diameter
is decreased, with a corresponding increase in collapse
pressure. The Code design of a stiffened shell
establishes a shell thickness and combined moment
of inertia for the stiffener and shell to assure the
stability of the entire shell section. This results in
heavier stiffeners than would be obtained by a
design approach wherein the stiffener loading is
based on division of load between the connected
shell and stiffener under pressure, and the elastic
conditions up to the point of collapse. The collapsing pressure of heads (which in early Code
editions involved a flat reduction in allowable
external pressure to 60% of that allowed for internal
pressure) is now predicated on the collapse pressure
of a complete sphere having a radius equal to that of
the spherical part of the head.
The ASME rules attempt to maintain the same
nominal safety factor of 4 against collapse under
external pressure as is used against bursting under
internal pressure. There is some reason to question
whether this is entirely logical, since the effect of
localized stresses or stress concentrations, such as at
branch connections, may be entirely different. Also,
the degree of hazard in the event of failure will
generally be appreciably less for external pressure,
although hazard must still be judged independently
for individual applications. In addition, the Code
rules maintain the same safety factor for failure by
clastic instability as for failure by plastic yielding,

DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS, STRESS EVALUATION, AND DESIGN LIMITS

except for small tubes where a variable lower safety
factor is recognized. The practice of the Structural
Steel Codes in reducing the safety factor on columns
as the length/radius-of-gyration is reduced appears
logical, For vessels or pipes a similar practice could
be followed by lowering the safety factor to 2 on the
yield point as a suitable function of diameter/thickness, but this practice is not yet recognized.
2.4<1 Expansion.
The evaluation of external
reactions at terminal points and intermediate restraints of piping systems is given in detail in
Chapters 4 and 5; The expansion forces in space
systems will generally result in 3 force and 3 bendingmoment components at each terminal point. The
number of such components is reduced with partial
end fixation.
The evaluation of the terminal reactions permits
the calculation of the three moments (2 bending and
1 torsional) at any point in the pipe line by the
application of statics. These moments, in turn,
permit the designer to calculate the stresses by
utilizing the section moduli of the pipe. The contribution of direct forces for the expansion stresses
in piping systems is generally insignificant, unless
the piping layout is extremely stiff.
For simplicity the Piping Code provides that
expansion stresses be calculated with the cold
(ambient temperature) modulus of elasticity. The
design values of Poisson's Ratio and the torsional
modulus for expansion stresses likewise refer to this
temperature.
The Code also provides thermal
expansion data for evaluating the change in length
over any temperature range. This use of roomtemperature data avoids the necessity of using
elevated-temperature properties, which may be less
accurately determined. With the principal strain
generally present at atmospheric temperature due to
pre- or self-springing, the Code practice of using the
"cold" values of mechanical properties is entirely
sound.
2.4e Other Loading, Other loading which may
act on piping systems includes: the weight loads of
the piping, including structural members i the weight
of the insulation, and contents i snow and ice loading;
wind loading if exposed; loading due to acceleration
imparted by earth tremors; special shock loading,
such as gun fire or moving vehicles; and unbalanced
static pressure or flow effects.
It is possible to include any or all of these loads in
a complete solution, following the methods of
Chapter 5. Ordinarily, these effects are not sufficiently critical to warrant the extra engineering cost
of this more precise approach. Instead, they are

47

indirectly controlled in a standardized way (e.g.,

support standards) or individually estimated and
controlled so that the sum of all effects will approximately meet the same combined stress criterion.
For large-diameter or otherwise stiff piping systems,
particularly where expensive materials are involved
or where the increased space for additional flexibility
would require enlarged buildings or other considerable expense, every contribution to the overall strain
should be evaluated by a simultaneous solution.
Weight effects are conveniently minimized by the
provision of adequate supports. Where such supports
just balance the weight reaction, they can be validly
ignored in the expansion analysis. This condition is
seldom achieved even with elaborate compensating
spring hangers. However, average piping is sufficiently stiff so that the local restriction due to some
support friction or unbalance is not a serious factor.
For separate estimation, conventional column and
beam analysis of individual critical. members, or
frame analysis of combinations of members is recommended. Wind and dynamic effects can be similarly
treated. Unbalanced pressure effects are resisted
wherever possible by rigid stops or ties which are
taken into account in the flexibility analysis, unless
such provisions would adversely affect the behavior
of the line. In the latter case a careful analysis may
be made to determine whether the pipe itself can be
designed to carry the loads. If not, the unbalanced
pressure effect must be handled by special design
arrangements.
2.5

Combination of Stress: Stress Intensification and Flexibility Factors

The 1955 Piping Code rules for flexibility contain

the following equation for the combination of stresses
due to thermal expansion:
(2.15)

where SE = equivalent stress to be compared with

the allowable thermal expansion stress
range, psi.
Sb = resultant longitudinal bending stress
psi = {3ivh/Z.
S, = resultant torsional shear stress psi =

Mt/2Z.
Mb = resultant bending moment, lb-in.
Ml = resultant torsional moment, lb-in,
Z = section modulus of pipe, in.3
{3 == stress intensification factor.
This equation is based on the Maximum Shear
Theory and for convenient comparison with Code

......

-...-..---.-~... -------------

48

DESIGN OF PIPING

allowable stress range, eq. 2.15 represents two times

the maximum shear stress due to expansion loading.
As stated in Section 2.3, the Piping Code establishes
a separate limit of Sh for the maximum longitudinal
stress due to pressure, weight, and other external
sustained loadings, with the provision that, if such
loadings do not add up to Sh, the difference may be
used to increase the allowable stress range for expansion effects. This approach has been adopted for
convenience in practical design calculations. It is
obvious that, when using combined-stress formulas
and a specific yield criterion, stresses from all loadings should be included to determine the principal
stresses before combining them. On the other hand,
from a fatigue failure standpoint, the loadings which
cause cyclic stresses are the most significant. There
is, therefore, reasonable logic in combining these
separately for comparison with an allowable stress
range. Actually, so long as the allowable stress range
is adjusted to suit the methods of calculation and
stress combination which will be used, designs arrived
at by various approaches can be made substantially
the same. Simplicity of application has been the
objective of the Code.
The Code's use of the maximum shear-stress
criterion for expansion stresses represents a departure
from the evaluation of stresses elsewhere in the Code,
where only principal stresses are considered. While
a uniform criterion would be preferable to avoid confusion and permit better assessment of safety factors,
there is greater need for closer evaluation of cyclic
strain loadings which may lead to a fatigue failure.
The approach laid down above is recommended for
ordinary practice, in view of the mandatory requirements of the Code and the relative simplicity of
handling expansion stresses separately. For critical
applications, or where loadings are simultaneously
analyzed, it is more appropriate to evaluate all
stresses prior to combining them and compare them
to the total allowable stress range 1.25 (Se + Sh).
The additional provision that the principal stress
due to long-time sustained loadings other than expansion should not exceed Sh, must also be observed.
For convenient reference the following formulas
are given:
Let SL

Sp

S,

maximum longitudinal stress due to

pressure, weight, and other sustained
loading plus expansion stress Sh as defined above.
circumferential pressure stress.
shear stress due to torsion as previously
defined.

SYSTEMS

Then the resultant principal stresses at the outside

fiber can be written as

+ Sp + V4S/ + (SL S2 = O.5[SL + Sp - V4S,2 + (SL Sl

S3

O.5[SL

Sp)21
Sp)2)

(2.16)

and the combined "equivalent" stress for the respective yield condition becomes
Maximum Shear Theory (Tresca)
The greater of SI as given above or
(2.17)

Distortion-Energy Theory (Mises)

V3Sl

+ Sr} + Sp2 -

SLSp

(2.18 )

Use of the maximum shear theory is favored for

consistency with the Piping Code.
In the sample calculations in Chapters 4 and 5 the
Piping Code rules are followed. The examples in
Chapter 4 involve expansion alone; in Chapter 5,
Sample Calculations 5.14, 5.15, and 5.16 include
weight or wind effects.
In the General Analytical Method, the influence
of localized effects on deflections and rotations is
provided for by the inclusion of flexibility factors
with the shape constants. In effect, this compensates
for the additional displacements by providing an
increase of the length of the member to a so-called
virtual length, producing the desired relative deflection. The net influence of this increased flexibility
is to decrease reactions and nominal primary stresses.
This greater flexibility of local components, such
as bends, is the result of localized stresses whose
magnitude above the nominal primary stress level is
expressed by a stress-intensification factor, whose use
is mandatory in the new Piping Code rules. These
rules contain suggested flexibility and stress factors
for usual piping components, with the provision of
allowing the alternate use of experimentally determined factors.
2.6

Evaluation of Deflections and Reactions

Line movements or deflections are of interest in the

design of yielding supports, such as spring hangers,
and in establishing clearances for the free expansion
movement of a large-diameter or complex line.
Sample Calculation 5.10 in Chapter 5 illustrates that
the evaluation of deflections by the Kellogg General
Analytical Method requires little extra effort after

DESIGN

ASSUMPTIONS,

STRESS

the reactions have been determined. Line movements at any point are also readily determined by
Model Test for any condition of liniding, as discussed
in Chapter 6.
It must be appreciated that calculated deflections
establish only a range of movement; the absolute
position of any point at a given time is, in addition,
dependent upon the combined. effects of initial fabrication stress, relaxation and creep, changes in dead
load, adjustment of hangers, and local temperature
differences at the cross section. Except for temporary
overload of terminal equipment, etc., a line may be
adjusted to any desired initial position so that the
movement range occurs over the desired location.
Equipment may be protected against erection overload by thermal unloading (controlled local stress
relief) as discussed in Chapter 3.
Since maintained loads, such as piping weight and
insulation, are essentially constant, deflection calculations are ordinarily confined to expansion effects.
In general, the effect of maintained loads (such as
piping weight and insulation) and transient loads
(such as contents, snow, and wind loads) are effectively limited by properly placed and designed supports, guides, or ties. The significant movements
will then be associated only with thermal expansion,
and deflection calculations can be confined to this
effect.
The calculations in Chapters 4 and 5 and the model
tests in Chapter 6 give, as their first result, the
reactions of the supports on the piping system.
These forces and moments are determined on the
basis of a strain equivalent to the total expansion
and using the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's
ratio at atmospheric temperature.
They do not
include the influence of initial stresses due to fabrication. The resulting reaction range will be immediately realized in its full magnitude only for piping
systems subjected to 100% cold spring. Beyond this
consideration, it is important to know the maximum
reactions to be expected in the hot and cold conditions for the purpose of examining their effect on
terminal equipment. The Piping Code provides the
following rules on this subject:
(2.19)
R;

= Clc; or

u,

(1 _ SE EhEe) u;
Sh

(2.20)
(2.21)

The value of Rc is taken from equations 2.20 or 2.21,

EVALUATION,

AND DESIGN

LIMITS

...9

whichever is greater, and with the further condition

that

s,

-S

where C
SE
E,
Eh
R;
Ii;

s.,

X -E

IS

less than 1

'h

cold spring factor varying from 0 for no

cold spring to 1 for 100% cold spring.
= maximum computed equivalent expansion stress (per eq. 2.15).
= modulus of elasticity in the cold condition.
= modulus of elasticity in the hot condition.
= range of reactions corresponding to the
full expansion range based on Ec.
and Rh represent the maximum reactions
estimated to occur in the cold and hot
conditions, respectively.

Obviously, the Code formulas for reactions, based

upon a division of strains between the ambient and
service temperatures,
are somewhat arbitrary.
Equation 2.19 attempts only to establish the initial
magnitude of the hot reaction for purposes of checking the capacity of equipment to take such effects.
Equations 2.20 and 2.21, in turn, are aimed at establishing the maximum value of cold reactions, either
as obtained through initial cold springing, or due to
subsequent self-springing under service conditions.
The signs (directions) of the hot and cold reactions
are always opposed to each other. For temperatures
in the creep range, the hot reaction will eventually
be lowered to a value roughly corresponding to the
design allowable creep stress Sh. This value approximately corresponds to Rh

Sh
S
R

r,

whereas the cold

reaction increases to the value given by eq. 2.21.

Equations 2.19 and 2.20 are applicable to a multiplane system only when the prespring is applied as a
uniform percentage in each direction. In practice
there may be instances where prespringing in a preferred direction only may be sufficient and be utilized
because it is simpler to carry out. For such a case
the reactions for the actual prespring to be applied
should be calculated by an appropriate analytical
method in place of eq. 2.20. For the most complete
control of prespring, an analysis of the type shown
in Sample Calculation 5.13 is recommended.
When prespring is not specified, or is not adequately
controlled, the reactions due to fabrication may in
exceptional cases correspond to yield-point stress in
the system, unless thermal unloading has been employed. Fabrication residual strains will be reduced
when the piping system is first heated if the combined

50

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

and residual stresses exceed the yield

strength. The fabrication strain so relieved is not
reestablished during subsequent=service, nor will it
affect the fatigue life of the piping system. Its
significance lies largely in the load which it introduces
on equipment or foundations as long as it. lasts.
The individual hot and cold reaction values are of
interest mainly for judging their effect on sensitive
equipment, such as pumps and turbines which involve
maintaining close clearances and alignment; they are
also of interest in connection with foundation design.
In regard to localized stresses in the shell of terminal
equipment, however, the reaction range rather than
the magnitude of the individual hot and cold reactions
is the significant factor. This aspect is dicusssed in
more detail in Chapter 3.
expansron

2.7

Design Significance of Inspection

Tests

and

Wall thickness calculations, when dealing with

pipe or a cylindrical shell, have always included a
so-called "joint efficiency" for welded seams which
has usually been applied only to circumferential
pressure stresses. For structural loading the joint
efficiency is sometimes neglected. It is also generally
disregarded in flexibility calculations or compressive
loading and most situations where only bending
stress is involved.
The term "joint efficiency" is a holdover from
riveted construction, where a definite breaking
strength could be associated with a specific design.
On welded joints, where weakening effects such as
rivet holes are absent, it is not difficult to provide
design strength equal to the base material as
evidenced by procedure tests of sample welds, even
for lapped joints. Better criteria of the reliability
and performance of a welded joint are its capacity to
take deformation as a measure of its safety against
cracking, the absence of weakening defects as assured
by examination, pressure tests, and mechanical tests
of occasional complete joints or specimens; for hightemperature service the tests should be carried out
both at room and service temperature, but this is not
current practice except for special applications.
Assessment of performance tests and degree of
examination would lead to establishment of a
"quality factor," rather than a "joint efficiency."
Where repetitive loading is involved, the potential
influence of the design details, fabrication quality,
and basic structure of the weld- and heat-affected
zone of the parent metal can apparently be accurately
evaluated only by full-scale fatigue tests under combined loadings and temperature cycling. However,

scale tests and the use of small specimens have

proven valuable in investigations of certain aspects
of this problem, particularly for establishing general
trends or for the quality control of procedures and
actual fabrication.
The level of quality of design, materials, and fabrication attained, as assured by adequate inspection
and tests, is at maximum economic effectiveness when
the individual factors are controlled to the same degree [12]. Overemphasis on any aspect does not
ordinarily lessen the hazards attendant to the
neglected factors, so that the probability of failure
is not proportionately reduced.
There is some opinion that pipe girth joints are less
critical than longitudinal welds. This view stems
from the fact that longitudinal pressure stresses are
approximately only half the circumferential stress.
It ignores the fact that expansion and structural
effects usually make longitudinal stresses the criterion
of design, and that weakness in a longitudinal direction causes a local weakness circumferentially. In
addition, initial flaws, in propagating, tend to change
orientation for maximum influence from the maximum stresses present.
Adequate pressure testing, as practiced on pressure
vessels, often presents economic problems in piping.
Shop tests of irregular or large-diameter runs require
special fittings or else extra welds for closures.
Adequate field.pressure tests require the installation
of blinds and often extra flanged joints, in order to
protect lower pressure vessels and terminal equipment; they sometimes require special rigging for
inspection access, and temporary supports. Such
cases require individual treatment. When the field
test is adequate the shop test can be waived by
mutual agreement. In judging the adequacy of the
field test, the degree of inspection and level of test
stress should be jointly considered.
A water- or liquid-pressure test fulfills dual functions. The design, materials, and fabrication are
checked to a reasonable minimum extent by a pressure test based on 1.5 times the design pressure increased by the ratio of cold to hot allowable stresses
(SjS/i).
During testing, there is an opportunity to
detect leaks due to cracks, porosity, or other flaws
which extend through the wall. These objectives
are accomplished at minimum hazard when the
testing fluid is essentially incompressible, thereby
limiting the stored energy. During such a test,
should a break initiate, there is immediate loss
of pressure, usually before extensive damage is
done or fragments detached and propelled through
space.

DESIGN

ASSUMPTIONS,

STRESS

The detection of leaks can be accomplished with

equal or greater effectiveness at lower pressures by
using liquids of lower surface tension properties, or
. by reducing the surface tension by additives, or by
the use of air or other gas. Air pressures of 5 to 10
psi usually suffice for the detection of leaks with
equal or better effectiveness than water at full test
pressure. The Vessel Codes permit air tests as a
substitute for water tests at a reduced stress level
(83.3% of hydro test for ASME Code and 73% for
_-\.PI-ASME Code), while Section 3 of the Piping
Code limits air tests to 50 psi. The Vessel Codes
require that pressure be applied in successive stages
to minimize high-energy rupture hazards. The precautions exercised should be in step with the size,
volume, stored energy, test stress level, and quality
of inspection.
The effectiveness of a test in proving the soundness
of a structure decreases rapidly as the pressure recedes
from I! times the equivalent cold working pressure.
It is doubtful that air tests, at the level prescribed
in the Codes, accomplish much in this direction other
than detection of gross omissions or deficiencies.
These, for the most part, should have been revealed
by careful visual inspection. In addition, one application of pressure at or near normal design stress will
often not reveal poor welds or even lengthy cracks,
unless already extending through the wall. Higher
pressure tests are more effective as a result of greater
overstress in weak areas, and the initiation of plastic
flow in distorted or poorly fit-up areas. However,
there is certainly no complete assurance that a structure is safe as a result of successfully passing a single
pressure test.
Equal or greater assurance of soundness can be
obtained by radiographic examination of all welds
coupled with a pressure test at the design pressure.
For magnetic materials where thicknesses do not
exceed! in., a magnetic powder examination inside
and outside in lieu of radiographic examination can
also be considered acceptable. This is not intended
to imply that weld inspection and tests are interchangeable.
Instead, they must be considered

EVALUATION,

AND DESIGN

LIMITS

51

simultaneously in evaluating safety. For heavywalled or critical-service piping, all practicable

inspection procedures and tests are desirable and
necessary for adequate safety.
References
1. D. B. Rossheirn and A. R. C. Mark!, "The Significance of,
and Suggested Limits Cor, the Stress in Pipe Lines due
to the Combined Effects of Pressure and Expansion,"
7'rans. ASllfE, Vol. 62, No 5 (HI40).
2. E. L. Robinson, "Steam Piping Design to Minimize Creep
Concentrations,"
presented nt Annual Mtg. of ASl\IE,
New York, 1954.
3. L. F, Coffin, Jr., "A Study of the Effects of Cyclic Thermal
Stresses on a Ductile Metal," ASME Paper No. 53-A-7(),
presented in December, 1953.
4. L. F. Coffin, Jr., "The Problem of Thermal Stress Fatigue
in Austenitic Steels at High Temperature," presented at
ASTM meeting, Chicago, June, 1954.
5. A. R. C. Markl, "Fatigue Tests of Piping Components,"
TrailS. ASME, Vol. 74, No.3, pp, 287-303 (1951).
6. A. Nadai, Plasticity, McGraw-Hili Book Co., New York,
1931.
7. W. J. Buxton and W. P. Burrows, "Formula for Pipe
Thickness," Trans. A SlifE, Vol. 73, pp. 575-587 (July,
1951 ).
8. W. R. D. Manning, "The Overstrain of Tubes by Internal
Pressure," Engineering, Vol. 159, pp, 101-102, 183-181
(1945).
9. C. W. MacGregor, L. F. Coffin, Jr., and J. C. Fisher,
"Partially Plastic Thick-Walled Tubes," J. Frank!in Insi.,
Vol. 245, pp. 135-158 (1948).
10. C. W. MacGregor, L. F. Coffin, Jr., and J. C. Fisher,
"The Plastic Flow of Thick-Walled Tubes with Large
Strains," J. Appl. Plujs., Vol. 19, pp. 291-297 (1918).
11. R. W. Bailey, "Creep Relationships and Their Application to Pipes, Tubes, and Cylindrical Parts Under Internal
Pressure," Proc. Insi. Mech: Enqre. (London), Vol. 164,
pp. 425-431 (1951).
12. J. J. Murphy, C. R. Soderberg, Jr., and D. B. Rossheim,
"Considerations Affecting More Economic but Equally
Safe Pressure Vessel Construction Utilizing Either Present-Day Ductile or New High-Strength
Less-Ductile
Materials," API Paper presented at St. Louis, May 10,
1955.
13. E. O. Bergman, "The New-Type Code Chart for the
Design of Vessels Under External Pressure," ASME Paper
No. 51-A-137, presented at Atlantic City, November,
1951.

CHAPTER

......

Local Components
leads to greater flexibility than could be accounted
for by bar theories. A year later, the first theoretical
treatment of the subject was published by von
Karman [2], who investigated the stress distribution
in curved tubes subjected to in-plane bending.'
At about the same time Lorenz [3] and Marbec [4]
independently furnished a solution of this problem,
using Castigliano's theorem in their work instead of
the principle of minimum potential energy as used by
Karman. Hovgaard continued Karman's work and
arrived at an identical solution through a different
approach [5] while Karl [6] refined the solution by
considering more terms in the series expansion for the
basic variables. In 1943 Vigness (7] extended the
theory to include the case of out-of-plane bending of
curved pipes. These theoretical investigations readily establish the following points:
1. The elementary bending theory for bars, which
assumes a linear variation of longitudinal stresses,
cannot account for the actual stress distribution in
curved tubes under external bending loads. In
reality, the longitudinal bending stresses in the
extreme fibers are greatly relieved by the ovalization
(flattening) of the cross section, which, under different loading conditions, takes the forms shown in
Fig. 3.1. At the same time the maximum stresses
are shifted nearer the neutral axis, as shown in Fig.

HIS chapter will consider important components of a piping system other than straight
pipe, including flanges, bends, miters, corrugated pipe, branch connections, and terminal connections, all of which are designated herein as "local
components" since individually they usually occupy
a limited length of the total pipe run. The localized
stress pattern which they introduce often significantly increases the flexibility of the entire piping
system at the expense of stress intensification or
strain concentration at their location. It is the
intent of this chapter to offer a digest of current
knowledge about each local component, and discuss
practical application to the design of piping. Accurate evaluation of stress and deflection for localized
effects is often complex, or even impossible with
present knowledge; as a result simplifying assumptions and shortcut solutions are resorted to, some
of which will be discussed herein.
3.1 Pipe Bends:
and Cyclic)

Structural

Loading

(Static

Pipe bends are curved bars with an annular cross

section, whose reaction to external loading is complex. Visual observation, as well as scattered tests,
established quite early that the elementary theory of
elasticity is inadequate to account for the peculiar
properties of tubular bends. Despite this fact, considerable time passed before a satisfactory analysis
was undertaken.
While theories are sufficiently
advanced today to account for the major aspects of
the behavior of pipe bends, many refinements of this
problem still demand clarification and a further extension of theoretical inquiry.
Systematic investigation of pipe bends began in
1910, when Bantlin [1] observed and reported on the
phenomenon of ovalization, and on the fact that it

3.2.

2. This altered bending-stress distribution, in

turn, decreases the bending-moment resistance of
the section. The ratio of the resulting increased
lIn-plane bending refers to the case in which the pipe is
subject to bending by forces or moments applied in the plane
of the bend. Out-of-plane bending designates the case in
which the forces or moments act perpendicularly to the plane
of the bend. Obviously, these two cases can be combined to
give a solution for forces or moments acting in any arbitrary
plane.

52

LOCAL COMPONENTS
deflection to that predicted by conventional beam
theory is termed the "flexibility factor" for that
member.
.~
3. The maximum longitudinal
stresses in pipe
bends will differ from those generated in straight
tubing of equal dimensions.
High circumferential
bending stresses are set up as well. For pure (inplane) bending, theory indicates that the peak
stresses will be the circumferential
stresses near the
neutral axis (a = 0) of the pipe. The ratio of the
maximum stress in the curved pipe bend to that
which would exist in straight pipe subjected to the
same moment is termed "stress intensification
factor. "
These findings were subsequently
reexamined by
Beskin [8], who found that the previously established
results were applicable only when the bend charact eristic2 was comparatively
large; as the characteristic diminished, the results became increasingly divergent.
Instead of a maximum flexibility factor
for in-plane bending of 10, and a maximum stress
intensification
of about 3.5, as implied by earlier
analyses for the mathematical limit of h = 0, Beskin
found that both flexibility and stress intensification
factors become infinite at this extreme
value.
Further investigation
showed that Karman's solution would have yielded results identical with those
of Beskin, had the Fourier expansion been carried
to more terms than one.
Treating the problem of in-plane bending of curved
tubes by means of the theory of thin shells, Clark
and Reissner [9, 10] found that the Lorenz, Karman,
Karl, and Beskin solutions
merely represented
higher order approximations
(in the order mentioned), and confirmed Karl's findings [6] that alter-

(0) Elementary
Bending
Theory

(0)

In-plane
8ending

FIG. 3.2 Distribution of longitudinal stresses in curved pipes.

nate solutions by the principle of minimum potential
energy (used by Karman) and the principle of least
work (adopted by Lorenz, Karl, and Beskin), establish upper and lower limits for the true rigidity of
the tube. The Clark-Reissner solution is obtained in
terms of a trigonometric
series expansion for the
stress function and meridional angle change.
By
retaining only two terms of each series expansion,
and limiting the range to h > 0.5, the Clark-Reissner
approach becomes equivalent
to Karl's solution.
For h < 0.5, the number of terms needed for satisfactory accuracy increases rapidly; therefore,
an
asymptotic
solution
was investigated.
Making
assumptions which hold true when h is much smaller
than 1, closed-form solutions were obtained which
are startlingly simple. All analyses dealing with the
problem of bending of curved tubes predict equal
flexibility factors for in-plane or out-of-plane bending.
Karman's original solution (first approximation)
for the flexibility factor, k, is

(fcoge"h
forced
logolhor)

k=l+

9
12h2+1

--=---

Second, third, and nth approximations

form

A-A

(b) to-plene
a."ding
(tongent'
Forced
opOt1}

(b) Thoory of
Curved
Pip'"

Max. Tongitud,nal itreu occurs

at cng'o al (see fig. 3.8)

~The bend characteristic is h = tR/r",2, where t = wall

thickness of pipe, R = radius of bend, and r", = mean radius
of pipe.
SECTION

53

(c}Our-cl-plene
Sonding

[11] have the

9+0.255/h
= 1+ 12h2+ 1.3400+0.00750/h2

(3.2)3

9+0.3003/h2+0.0010587/h1

-l+-~--~--~--~~--~----~
2
4
-

12h2+ 1.4004+0.013946/h +O.00001276/h

(3.3)3
I

..J
A

In eq. 3.4, j is a function of h; for known values of h.

FIG. 3.1

Ovalization (flattening) of pipe bends under external

bending moments. Exaggerated.

3In eqs. 3.1 to 3.4 the rigorous mathematical analysis would

demand that h(l - ~2)-~ be used instead of h.

__

_._-------_

DESIGN OF PIPING
the magnitude of j can be obtained by interpolation
from the following table:

.....

h
j

0 0.05
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.75
1.0
1 0.7625 0.5684 0.3074 0.1764 0.07488 0.03526 0.02026

0.84/h3~

(3.6)

bending

"Ii =

1.80/h%

(3.7)5

Circumferential

0.3 is assumed in eqs. 3.5, 3.6,3.7, and 3.10.

5Rigorously, the correct value in eq. 3.7 should be:
4" =

'Y'
II

bending

'Yo =

Circumferential

1.80 (1 _ ,,2)-~
h~s

(1) -

0.82hH

A~ymplolic Solulion 1.~5 (Clark - Roi"ner)

(2)----S"'l<.in"

(Large.radiu.

(3)---Symond.

and Pardue',

(.()--VonKarmclns
(5) ----Approximate,

bends)
(Smo!i-rodiu. bend,)

nih Approximation
1.40
-h-

(Vinal-

OoIS.ono)

(For smallradius thick-walled bond,)

h=~

r'

FIG. 3.3

1.08/h ~

(3.8)

1.50/hH

(3.9)

(3.10)

Equations 3.6, 3.7, and 3.10 are obtained from the

asymptotic analysis of Clark and Reissner. Equations 3.8 and 3.9 represent empirical proposals made
by The M. W. Kellogg Company, and Markl (12).
respectively. The various stress intensification factors are charted in Figs. 3.4 to 3.7, whereas al is
plotted in Fig. 3.8.
These results convey that for either in-plane 01'
out-of-plane loading, the circumferential.stress in the
neighborhood of a :=: 0 will first exceed the yield
point. This stress is a pure bending stress (excluding
internal pressure effects), varying from a positive
maximum at the outer surface to a negative maximum
at the inner wall. A slight amount of yielding, leaving the elasticity of the pipe wholly unimpaired, will
materially relieve this-stress, as has boon observed in
experiments [13). Similar deductions can be made
concerning the maximum longitudinal stress at the
outer surface. Pronounced yielding will ensue only
when the maximum longitudinal stress at the middle
surface also exceeds the yield point. Therefore, in

Stress intensification factors, unfortunately, differ

for in-plane and out-of-plane bending. In general,
in-plane bending leads to higher circumferential
stress maxima than out-of-plane bending for identical
pipe bends subjected to equal bending moments.
For longitudinal stresses exactly the opposite of this
statement holds true, as witnessed byeqs. 3.6 to 3.9.
The stress intensification factors at the outer surfaces,
valid only for small values of the bend characteristic
(h < 0.5), have the following expressions:

Pi =

/30

al

(3.5),1

In-plane {LOngitUdinal

Out-?f-plane {LOngitUdinal

In this same range the variation of angle al (pertaining to the largest longitudinal stress, as shown in
Fig. 3.2) with the characteristic h can be given as

Beskin's solution for the flexibility factor cannot

be expressed in closed form; his numerical results,
which merge with Karman's nth approximation, are
plotted in Fig. 3.3. Clark and Reissner's asymptotic
solution yields the following expression, valid for
small values of h:
k = 1.65/h

SYSTEMS

Flexibility factors for in-plane or out-of-plane bending.

55

LOCAL COMPONENTS

described above reveals that, in addition to dealing

only with pipes having a constant curvature of the
center line, constant cross-sectional properties, and
being made of an isotropic and homogeneous material obeying Hooke's law, the analyses are based on
the following assumptions:
1. Plane sections remain plane and the neutral
axis retains its original length after loading.
2. Longitudinal and circumferential stresses are
principal stresses.

the opinion of many investigators the stress intensification factor of greatest practical significance is the
one pertaining to maximum longitadinal stress existing at the middle surface of the pipe wall thickness. G
Closer scrutiny of the theoretical developments
6Fatigue tests do not support this. In fatigue, cracks open
up perpendicular to the actual maximum stress which is the
circumferential stress at the inner pipe wall. This is to be
expected, since under reversed strain loading beyond the
elastic range, as applied in a fatigue test, initial plastic flow is
of little help in alleviating the range of strain at each point.

O.S.
SoMion h~1l (Clark - Roinn.,)

(1)--Alymptotie
(2) -

Be,kin', (larga .. odiU1 bend,)

(3)--.-Symond.

and Parduo',

(SmaU-radiu, bond,)

1.2

(.) - - - - Appro.imalo. hVl (Viuat - Dol Buono)

(for unaU-rodiu. Ihid-wallod bond.)

.6

.4

.2

.02

.8

1.0

h-!!
- 2

rro

FIG.3.4

In-plane bending: outer surface longitudinal stress intensification

I.S0
Solution h'/l (Clark - Roinner)

(l)-A,ymptotic
3)

(2) -

factor.

Be.kin', (largO-1adiu.

bend,)

10
8

(3)----Symond.

(.)_.

and Pardue',

--Appraxima'o,

~~8

(for ,mallradiu.
(;
'U

(Shortradius

bends]

(Vinat - Dol Buono)

thicl:.-wallod bond.)

...
tl

"
0

'"

1)

!!

on

.8
.6

.4

.3
.03

FIO.3.5

.04

.06 .08 .1

.2

.6

In-plane bending: outer surface circumferential

.8 1.0

stress intensification factor,

56

DESIGN

OF PIPING

3. The bending moment has a constant value for

the entire' length of the bend.
4. Radial and longitudinal strains are uniform

through the wall thickness.

5. Circumferential strains produce pure bending,
and thus vanish at the middle surface of the pipe
wall.
6. The radius of the bend is much greater and the
wall thickness is small compared with the diameter
of the pipe.
Assumption 1 is fundamental to the theory of
elasticity and can be accepted as being true. The
second and third conditions will be satisfied only if

SYSTEMS

the curved pipe is acted upon by pure bending

moments. According to St. Venant's principle, local
disturbances imposed at the boundaries will cancel
a short distance therefrom. In this light, assumptions
2 and 3 can also be adopted as having reasonable
validity.
The remaining assumptions deserve closer scrutiny.
Assumptions 4 and 5, dealing with the strains developed under loading, are idealized simplifications of
the actual strain distribution, and will be in accord
with the actual strains only when R/r", > 10 (i.e.,
larger than a "five diameter" bend), For shortradius bends, characterized by 1 < R/rm < 10, it

(1)- -- a..l<in's (largo-radius

(2) - ---Symonch

and Pardu.'s

(3)--Approximale,

FIG. 3.6

(Small-radiu.

bend.)

~.~~ (WeiI)

Out-of-plane bending: outer surface longitudinal stress intensification factor.

(1)--ApproximQlo,
10

betnd,)

(2)- -Seskin',
(3)--- -Symonds

1.50
h2/J

(Markl)

(lorge radiU1 betnd.)

and Pardue',

\~mall radi", betnd.)

;;

1.0
.8
,6

,3~--~~--L-~~~------~--~--~~~~~~------~--~~
.02
.0-4 .06 .08 .1
:%
.4.6.8
1.0
2
FIG, 3.7

Out-of-plane bending: outer surface circumferential

stress intensification factor.

LOCAL COMPONENTS
has been shown [7, 13] that under in-plane bending
(reducing the radius of curvature) the circumferential stresses do not vanish at the middle layer (see
assumption 5).
The last assumption plainly limits the accuracy of
the foregoing theories to thin-walled, large-radius
tube bends; the generally accepted view is that these
analyses are proper only if both conditions, namely
that Rlr.", and rmlt be greater than 10, are simultaneously satisfied. Since Beskin's derivation indicates
that at h > 1.0 the flexibility and stress intensification factors become generally negligible, it is of
interest to note that this development is not conditioned upon the above-stated limitation on wall
thickness.
To extend the validity of previous analyses,
Symonds and Pardue [14] undertook to investigate
the effect of RITm ratios considerably less than 10,
(2'::; Rlrm ~ 3). It may be pointed out that under
these conditions the wall thickness ratio assumes a
much greater importance; the fact that the "shortradius" development is based on thin-shell theory
plainly limits the range of accuracy to about
It = 0.2 for Rlrm = 2, or h = 0.3 for Rlrm = 3.
The Symonds-Pardue theory represents a first-order
approximation to the influence of RIT"" , and shows
that for short-radius bends (long- and short-radius
welding elbows), the flexibility factor suffers little
change, but stress intensification factors are generally
higher than for large-radius pipe bends, as seen in
Figs. 3.3 to 3.7. As might be expected, the results
of this work merge with Beskin's solution, as RITm
increases to 10.
Lastly, all of the theories described apply rigorously
only to endless toroidal sections. If the curved tube
is not endless, the theory is accurate only if the end
conditions allow the development of idealized strains
(I) --Clark

; 50

57

and displacements (flattening or ovalization). End

restraints tending to oppose ovalization, (straight
pipe tangents to a minor degree, flanges or terminal
connections to a severe degree) will lower flexibility
and stress intensification factors; in these cases the
theory will give higher values than those actually
operative. Thus deviations between theory and
actual behavior will be greater the more severe the
end restraint, or for a given end restraint, the lesser
the subtended arc of the pipe bend.
Having elaborated on the underlying assumptions
and results obtained from an analytical approach,
it is enlightening to examine how the theories compare with results obtained from experimental work.
Investigations must be separated into tests performed under static conditions and those relating to
fatigue conditions, since they represent fundamentally different types of loading.
The first significant static tests were made by
Hovgaard [5, 13, 15, 16], who proved that experiments were in close agreement with theoretical predictions for the flexibility, distortion and stresses of a
given system, although calculated stresses showed
smaller extremes than those actually observed. It
must be added that Hovgaard's tests were performed
mostly within the limitations of his theory: stress
distribution measurements were confined to sections
remote from the disturbing effects of type-of-loading
or end-fixity conditions, and most of the experiments
were limited to large-radius bends (RITm > 10).
Similar observations were made by other investigators [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22], who again found the
longitudinal stresses to be slightly in excess of theoretical values. It was also observed [211 that the
flexibility of pipe bends for in-plane bending was
greater than that predicted by theory. This deviation was small, but consistent, and was ascribed to

- Rehmer

(1)

(2)----Asymplolic
Solulion 0.82h1/l
(Clark and Roi.. "er)

..

cn400

.!;_

300

.02

.04

.06

.08

.1

FlO. 3.8

In-plane bending: angle

ctl

...

.2

h=

.6

.8 1.0

2.0

4.0

.!!
<;'

corresponding to location of mnximum longitudinal fiber stress,

58

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

the fact that the theory of curved tubes did not take
into account secondary influences predicted by the
theory of curved bars. Tests conducted under outof-plane bending [7], in turn, showed that the rigidity
of pipes was greater (i.e., the flexibility less) than
indicated by analysis.
This was attributed
to the
restraining effect of straight tangents applied to the
ends of the quarter pipe bend. Stresses meanwhile
were smaller than was anticipated from theoretical
research.
A thorough investigation on the effect of end conditions was carried out by Pardue and Vigness [23].
Dealing first with flexibility factors, they found that
even the most detailed theory [14] was capable of
predicting flexibility factors for out-of-plane bending
only if the pipe bend merged with a straight tangent
of sufficient length.
Substituting
a flange for the
tangent at either end resulted in a drastic drop of
flexibility; when both ends were flanged, flexibility
dropped
even further.
Right-angle
bends were
subject to these reductions in a greater degree than
l.l-bends, confirming the logical expectation that the
smaller the sub tended angle of a pipe bend the
greater will be its sensitivity to disturbances caused
by end restraints.
Almost identical statements
apply to the stress
intensification
factors.
The theory is in agreement
with actual behavior only insofar as the bend is
furnished with sufficiently long straight tangents,
the experimental
values being generally a shade on
the high side.
With an increased degree of end
fixity, this correlation
breaks down.
Applying
flanges to both ends of the bend initiates a much
greater reduction of the stress intensification factor
than using one flange and one straight tangent; and
again, right-angle bends were subject to these modifying effects to a greater degree than U-bends.
Additional
confirmation
of theoretical
results
was provided by a series of tests carried out by
Gross and Ford !24, 25, 26]. These tests proved
that, in line with theoretical predictions, the circumferential stress in the vicinity of a = 0 was the
largest absolute stress; in the tests carried to failure,
the cracks always ran along the side of the bend at
about the location of the neutral axis. Contrary to
assumption 5 of the theory, however, the circumferential stress at the middle layer did not vanish.
Application of strain gages to the external and internal faces proved that the maximum stresses were
always situated on the inner surface of the bend,
which may explain the observation
[25, 27] that
cracks in pipe bends are initiated on the inner face
and penetrate outwards.
To account for this defi-

ciency in the theory, Gross [25} suggested that the

transverse
compression, ignored in the analytical
work, be taken into account.
He also presented an
approximate derivation for this quantity, and proved
that adding this stress component to the others
included in the theory actually brings experiments
and analysis into good accord.
The examination
of test results also confirmed
that the theory of maximum distortion energy predicted quite accurately the load and location at
which incipient yielding occurs. No such criterion
could be advanced for the ultimate load-carrying
capacity of the bends, except for noting that failure
(which took place by collapse under a moment shortening the chord of the bend) occurred at a load which
was generally twice as large as that required to
initiate yielding.
Vissat and DelBuono [28] describe the results of
tests on welding elbows with a ratio of R/rm equal
to 2 or 3. Restricting the tests to in-plane bending
and fitting experimental
points by analytical expressions, the following relations were proposed for
flexibility and stress intensification factors:
Flexibility factor
k = 1.40/h
Stress intensification
{3,

(3.11)

factors (in-plane bending)

1.2/h%

'Y; = 1.07/ho.78

(3.12)
(3.13)

As seen in Figs. 3.3 to 3.5, these proposals result in

lower flexibility and circumferential
stress intensification factors, but higher longitudinal stress intensification factors as compared with the data of all
other theories.
While these results can be used on
welding elbows having the characteristics
investigated, some reservation should be exercised, since
on the thick-walled short-radius bends used in this
work the restraining influence of straight tangents
or flanges has not received sufficient evaluation.
The next point of interest is to examine whether
the conclusions drawn above remain valid if the
bend is acted upon by repeated cyclic loading rather
than a single static load. Obviously, fatigue conditions will hardly modify the flexibility of a sound
local component.
What is sought through a fatigue
test, therefore, is the practical effect of stress intensification on the number of cycles to failure.
In addition to manner of loading, fatigue tests
differ in two aspects from static tests: in the manner
of measuring stress intensification, and in the weight
given to plastic flow. In static tests, the stress

LOCAL COMPONENTS
intensification factor denotes the ratio of actual peak
stresses to those developed in a straight member of
identical dimensions (for pure bending, the reference
stress is M /Z). 7 In fatigue, the effective stress
intensification factor relates the stresses causing
failure over a given number of cycles in a straight
pipe tangent (or polished bar) to those initiating
fracture in the test piece subjected to an equal
amount of stress cycles.
As regards the significance of plastic strains,
static-stress measurements are strongly dependent
upon the presence of plastic flow with its attendant
redistribution of loading and stress-mitigating effect.
In the fatigue test the local strain range per cycle is
the significant value determining performance;
therefore, a redistribution of stresses due to plastic
strains has only a minor significance. While it is
common practice to use and establish design practices in terms of stresses based on elastic theory,
it should be appreciated when dealing with fatigue
that in reality these stresses are being used as a
suitable index of the strains involved.
Fatigue tests on piping components were initiated
by Rossheim and Markl {29],followed by a detailed
research program carried out by Markl [12, 30].
Since it was felt that the stress peaks developed in
local components as compared with straight runs of
pipe constituted the desired fundamental information, stress intensification factors were based on a
comparison with S-N diagrams obtained for straight
commercial finish pipe, containing butt welds, a
clamped edge or similar stress raisers. A stress
intensification factor of unity was assigned to the
latter for practical reasons.
The first finding of interest was that, while the
S-N curves for both straight pipes and welding
elbows of carbon steel seemed to reach no endurance
limit within the number of cycles employed (2 X lOG
cycles max), both curves were approximately straight
and parallel to each other on a log-log plot. This
indicated that the stress intensification factor could
be given as a constant, regardless of the number of
stress cycles involved.
In comparing test results with theory it was
found that Beskin's 01' the Symonds-Pardue theory
predicted quite accurately the flexibility of the bend
or elbow, as well as the type and location of failure.
The agreement between tests and theory for stress
intensification factors was less satisfactory; however,
a reasonably good correlation was obtained if the
test results were drawn into comparison with only
one-half of the maximum theoretical stress intensi7Where Z = Ur; is the section modulus of the cross section.

59

fication factor (referring to circumferential stresses

for both in-plane and out-of-plane bending).
When considering the significance of this finding,
it is important to note that Markl's reference point
of unity for the test results is not a theoretical but
a practical, one. In the first place, Markl [301found
that the clamped edge used in the earlier tests involved a stress intensification factor of about 1.5, as
compared to pipes with a tapered end. The remaining factor of about 1.4 needed to bring experiments
and theory into agreement may perhaps be attributed to the stress raisers inherent in commercial
finish pipe as compared to the theoretically considered smooth homogeneous tube. Markl could
have changed his reference point of unity and assigned different test factors; however, he found that
butt welds involved the same stress intensification
as the clamped edge. Therefore, he reasoned that a
base line which would include the effect of such
normally encountered stress raisers would be much
more satisfactory for practical design. This reasoning has been supported by practical designers and
by the ABA Code for Pressure Piping Committee.
It is, nonetheless, an important point which should be
kept in mind, particularly in connection with the
practical application of any theoretically derived
factors for other piping components.
Recourse to eqs. 3.7 and 3.9 indicates that the
experimentally found reduction factor of 2.0 leads
to design stress intensification factors (when referred
to the aforementioned base line) of the following
magnitude:
'Yi

'Yo

= 0.75/h'H for out-of-plane bending

0.90/h% for in-plane bending,

It happens that these stress intensification factors

are very close to the theoretical value of the longitudinal factor for in-plane bending, which has long
been in customary use instead of the more proper
circumferential factor. The seeming justification
of this latter practice stemmed from Hovgaard's
findings that permanent overall deformation of the
pipe bend occurred only when the longitudinal stress
at the middle surface exceeded the yield stress.
The recommendations of the revised ASA B31.1
Code for Pressure Piping are derived principally
from these experimental observations. For both
in-plane and out-of-plane bending, the Code recommends that the stress intensification factor
{3

'Y = O.90jh%

2:: 1.0

(3.14)

be used, the choice of a single factor having been

60

DESIGN OF PIPING

~R+'..
__ +(_R_+_'~-\'C"o

FIG. 3.9

Distribution of circumferential stresses in pipe bend

subjected to internal pressure,

accepted for practical reasons only. The flexibility

factor, as proven by theory and experiments, is
given as
k

1.65/h

The resulting stress distribution is shown in Fig. 3.9.

A more elaborate investigation [32) and tests carried
out on curved pipes under internal pressure (251
confirmed the general validity of eqs. 3.15 and 3.16,
and showed that maximum stresses will be reached
at the line of the bend having the least radius of
curvature (crotch), as predicted by eq. 3.16. Yielding will first occur at this point. Despite this, it is
not normal practice to apply these formulas to the
design of pipe bends.
When external loading and internal pressure are
imposed simultaneously on a pipe bend, experiment~l
results [26) show (as should be expected) that maximum circumferential stresses occurring for external
moment loading alone will be reduced by the presence of internal pressure. While the presence of
internal pressure will slightly reduce the flexibility
of the bend [13, 24}, the stress, whether referring to
principal stresses or combined stress, will also be
mitigated [261.

(3.5)
3.3

Additional fatigue tests again proved the restraint

of straight tangents upon the full development of
the flexibility and stress magnification factors; as in
static tests, this influence was increasingly accentuated with reduction of the subtended angle of the
pipe bend. As a rough measure, it could be stated
that both flexibilty and stress intensification factors
were reduced from their full value for a quarter-bend
elbow to unity, as the subtended angle of the bend
approached zero. This rule was upset only at the
very small arc bends, where the disturbing effect of
closely spaced welds obliterated the restraining
influence of the straight tangents, causing a concomitant rise in the stress intensification factor.
3.2

Pipe Bends: Internal

SYSTEMS

Miter Bends

Particularly for the less severe services, changes in

direction are not infrequently made by mitering
straight pipe (Fig. 3.10). Yet miter "bends" have
received much less attention in the literature than
curved pipes. Nevertheless, it was shown by Zeno
[33},who investigated the flexibility of a five-section
right-angle miter bend (h = 0.0158), that the theoretical flexibility values of curved pipes were ap-

Pressure

The foregoing theories and experiments dealt

solely with pipe bends subj ected to external loadings.
In addition to this effect the pipe wall will be stressed
by the pressure of the fluid in the system. For a
curved pipe subjected to a pressure p, the longitudinal and circumferential membrane stresses are
given approximately by [31}
111

11

=
=

TmP

2t

2R
2(R

(3.15)8

... miter "",ang

Tm

+ Tm

sin a T mP
-sill ex) t

<P .. miter anglo

(3.16)8

8Notice that these formulas are identical with the equations for straight pipes, except for the first fraction appearing
in eq. 3.16.

R'" equivalent

b<lnd ,adi ...

= 1- col

'm= moan radi ... of pipe

FIG.3.10

Geometry of miter bends.

<P

LOCAL

C01\1PONENTS

proached as the tangents were made sufficiently

long." Similar indications were obtained by Gross
and Ford [26], who measured stre'&ses and flexibility
on a miter bend of h = 0.0483, and found them
reasonably well predicted by the theory of curved
tubes.
Little additional information is available concerning the properties of welded miter joints under static
loads, since in addition to difficulties encountered
with plain pipe bends, miter joints are subject to
variations introduced by differences in fit-up and
welding as well as in the arrangement of segments.
Available evidence, however, seems to indicate that
the flexibility is less and stress intensification
is
greater for miters than for plain bends of the same
major dimensions.
Miter bends have also been subjected to intensive
cyclic testing [12] with the finding that their behavior could be predicted with reasonable accuracy
through analogy with curved pipes when the proper
characteristic
variables were included.
From geometry (see Fig. 3.10) the radius of the tangent arc of
a bend can be expressed as R =
cot 4>, where
s = miter spacing at center line, and 4> = miter
angle, If there is but a single miter or if the miter
spacing becomes large, however, this radius loses its
significance and an effective radius was suggested,
empirically
expressed
as R = T", (1
cot 4/2.
Thus the bend characteristic
assumes the following
form:

ts

II

tR

cot cjJ ts f

= --

T'"

--2
T",

- tan 4>

T",

It

+ 2cot

cjJ

T",

or small miter spacing,

< 1 (3.17)

..

for large miter spacing,

-

T",

- tan 4>

>

(3.18)

By using this bend characteristic with the expression

derived for curved pipe, eq. 3.14, values of stress
intensification
are obtained which show a good correlation with the tests. The flexibility factor was
somewhat smaller than for plain curved pipes, and
resembled that for welding elbows with one flange
and one plane tangent.
The flexibility factor for
9Without tangents, i.e., with flat plates welded directly to
the end of the Jast miter segments, the flexibility for in-plane
bending was found to be reduced to only 3% of the theoreticnlly predicted value for a bend.

61

miter bends can hence be given as

Ii,

= 1.521h;6 2:

1.0

(3.19)

with h taken as the lesser of the values obtained from

eqs. 3.17 or 3.18. These results are incorporated
in the recommendations
of the ASA B31.1 Code
for Pressure Piping.
3.4

Bends and Miters: Summary

Pipe bends depart from conventional beam theory

chiefly as a result of distortion (ovalization) of the
cross section under bending.
Under static loading,
theories predict the flexibility, maximum stresses,
and occurrence of incipient yielding with good
accuracy for bends with plain tangents whose subtended angle is larger than 90. At present theories do
not consider the restraining influence of straight
tangents
(particularly
significant for curved pipes
whose bend angle is less than 90), nor can they
effectively deal with the inhibiting tendency of severe
end restraints, such as flanges or terminal connections.
To evaluate the characteristics
of components falling into this category, reference must be
made to such test data as are available.
In actual service, idealized static loading conditions are seldom encountered.
A certain amount of
plastic flow will always take place, enabling the bend
to carry loads in excess of those predicted by the
classical elasticity theory. The significance of theoretically calculated stress values is further reduced
by the fact that even straight piping with a commercial finish carries an inherent stress-raising factor,
and that the performance of bends is, for practical
reasons, referred to that of butt-welded or clampedend pipes rather than polished test specimens.
Not
only experimental evidence but also a long history of
successful design practice support these facts.
These considerations will hardly affect the flexibility factor.
Therefore, it is sound practice to use
the theoretically
derived value of this factor, as
given by eq. 3.5. When considering stress intensification factors, however, it is sufficient to base
calculations on only one-half of the theoretically
predicted value; as supported by Markl's fatigue
tests, the appropriate equation for this factor is given
by eq. 3.14.
The increase of membrane stresses in pipe bends
subjected to internal pressure loading (as compared
to straight pipes), is generally not significant,
In
fact, tests demonstrated that a static load alone will
lead to higher localized stresses than a combination
of this static load and a moderate internal pressure.
The effect of internal pressure on bends can, there-

DESIGN

62

OF PIPING

3.5
He<nfer

FIG. 3.11

Types of reinforcement

for branch connections.

fore, be ignored in normal applications. An investigation of this effect, in line with the principles laid
down in the text, is warranted only for very critical
service.
The stress intensification and flexibility factors of
short bends (subtended angle less than 90) are
known to be less than those indicated above. Despite this fact, it is recommended that no reduction
for either factor be used on short bends, since the
experimental evidence on this subject is not conclusive.
Miter bends, as a rule, have lower flexibility and
higher maximum stresses than those pertaining to
curved pipes of similar dimensions. By this token,
the appropriate design value for the flexibility factor
of miter bends can be obtained from eq. 3.19. The
stress-raising factor will be given by eq. 3.14, with
the bend characteristic given by the smaller value
obtained from eqs, 3.17 or 3.18. These design criteria for miter bends originate from tests conducted
on 4 in. miters only. For large-diameter miter bends,
fit-up and fabrication difficulties are likely to lead to
more severe conditions than would be indicated by
the design rules stated above.

SYSTEMS
Branch
Loading

Connections:

Static

Pressure

The junction of a branch with a header, usually

referred to as a branch connection, is inherently a
point of structural weakness in piping. Not only
the absence of metal in the header opening but also
the abrupt directional changes and oftentimes sharp
variations in cross section give rise to severe stress
intensification. While this handicap of 11 branch
connection can be overcome to a large extent by
reinforcement and by the use of favorable contours.
it is difficult to achieve the ideal of developing a
strength equal to that of the intact pipe.
Branch connections must be designed first in regard to their ability to resist static loads. This will
be the concern of the present section, while the effect.
of repeated loads will be considered in Section 3.6.
S~ction 3.7 will present a short review of various
pertinent Code rules, and Section 3.8 will give a
summary together with practical design recommendations.
An involved geometrical shape and the strong
influence of certain secondary effects'? make the
analytical investigation of branch connections subjected to pressure or structural loading prohibitively
difficult. Consequently, investigations dealing with
this subject are largely confined to experimental
research. The salient information on the action of
branch connections subjected to internal pressure:
is summarized in Table 3.1 although mention should
also be made of a few tests reported in references
[34, 35, 36,37, 38, 39]. Figure 3.11 shows various
types of reinforcements which have been proposed.
From Table 3.1 and its underlying tests, the following conclusions can be drawn: Unreinforced fullsized connections aloedeficient in both yielding and
bursting strength. This deficiency decreases as the
branch becomes smaller in comparison to the header.
The limited number of tests seems to indicate that
an unreinforced 90 intersection develops the full
bursting strength when the ratio of branch to header
diameter does not exceed ~. Unpublished tests on
30 in. diameter pipe and the general experience with
pressure vessels, however, show that this rule cannot
be extended beyond the commonly available sizes of
commercial pipes.
The addition of a pad reinforcement is beneficial
in that it permits the fabricated connection to develop almost the full bursting pressure of the header.
lOSuch as the existence of longitudinal bending in the header
due to removal of part of its wall, and the interplay of radial
displacements of both header and branch under internal.
pressure.

LOCAL COMPONENTS
Pad reinforcements, however, afford little restraint
against plastic flow and are, therefore, ineffective in
raising the yielding pressure of--the intersection to
the desired value [42, 43].
Several alternatives have been advanced to eliminate the shortcomings of unreinforced or pad-reinforced intersections. The reinforcing saddle [44],
shown in Fig. 3.11b, adds reinforcement around the
highly stressed areas of the crotch and shoulder.
The complete encirclement pad is pictured in Fig.
3.llc. This proposal [451extends the reinforcement

63

beyond the region where most failures of the padreinforced branch connections originated. An extension of this concept [46] supplements the encircling band with shoulder pads, as shown in Fig. 3.l1d.
While no test results are presented, the authors of
these proposals have stated that the performance of
full-sized branch connections reinforced in accordance with these alternate details was entirely adequate under pressure loading. On the other hand,
the horseshoe-and-gusset reinforcement (Fig. 3.lIe),
due to its extreme rigidity, led to stress concentra-

Table 3.1 Summation of Internal Pressure Test Results on Piping Branch Connections
Angle
of
Intersection,

Size of
ReI.
No.

Authors
Header
in.

--35

Everett

Type
of
Reinforcement"

Pressure as per cent

Pressure as per cent of
of that supported by
that supported by
right-angle
intact header
intersection

Branch
in.

CC6l"CCS

90

None

38.5

69.6

4
6
8
12

90
90
90
90

None
None
Pad
Pad

76.9

101.1
91.4
98.9
93.0

24

90

Horseshoe
and gusset

38.5

--

at Propertional limit

at
Bursting

sin

Remarks

IX

at Proporat
tional limit Bursting

&

40

41

McCutchan

Crane
Co.

8
12
8
12

Scabloom

24

--

--

-- --90
-

H.9
10
48

6.2

7.5

6
N. Gross

None

4.2

90
90

None
None

7.5
7.5
7.5
7.5

90
80
80
80

90

Pad
Collar
Gusset & pad
Unbalanced
triform
Balanced
triform

--8

-8

48

61.5

~70.0

}SI.O

~70.0

test values
{ValUes averaged for
two tests

}82.5

Blair

90

--- --90
-

11.9
6

10

11.9
6

10
4

11.9
6

10

.j

.j

90
90
60
60
60
45
45
45
60

30

Welding

--e
NOM
None
None
Nona
None
None
None
None
None
None
None

79.0
85.0
110.0

96.0
90.0
90.0
>100.0

121.0

>100.0

-96.0

74.5

70.0
79.0
83.0

60.0
56.0

50.0
43.0
51.0
63.0
31.0

70.0
79.0
86.0
60.0
66.0
66.0
50.0
44.0
61.0
65.0
40.0

See Fig. 3.11 Cor identification of types of reinforcements.

tLast column denotes l/(co9CC a - 0.5 cot IX) instead of sin IX for equal-sized Y-interscctions .

.......

Averaged

Blair
11.9
11.9
11.9

--49

Averaged
values

Averaged
value

85.6
70.9

85.6
83.5
76.7

71.4

71.4

54.5

55.7
70.9
92.8

61.5

90.0
18.6

57.1

}1.0

Averaged
value

}0.866

Averaged
value

}0.707

Averaged
value

0.880
0.502

Y -connectlonj

DESIGN

OF PIPING SYSTEMS

tions of such magnitude that the intersection sustained only 38.5% of the bursting pressure of the
intact header.
Collar reinforcements of the type shown in Fig.
3.11f were pioneered by the Swiss firm of Sulzer
Brothers, Ltd. [47], as early as 1928. Experiments
[48] indicated that this method had characteristics
similar to the pad-type reinforcement. As a further
improvement, Blair [48Jsuggested that the stiffening
collar be supplemented by a third horseshoe encircling the bottom of the header. He gave the name
"triform" to the resulting arrangement, shown in
Fig. 3.11(7. As Table 3.1 shows, triforms performed
very satisfactorily, considering both yield and bursting pressures.
While tests confirm the effectiveness of triforms,
this type of reinforcement requires intricate fitting
and welding which does not lend itself to radiographic
examination. In high-temperature service the ribbed
construction leads to thermal gradients. Furthermore, the sharp re-entrant corners suggest high
stress concentrations which may not be revealed in
static-pressure tests but would become critical under
repeated loading, American experience with the triform is quite limited, hence in the United States it
is regarded as a novel approach until its performance
is more adequately assessed.
Welding tees, Fig. 3.11h, are preferred structurally
to fabricated welded intersections, especially where
the size of the branch is equal to or approximates the
size of the run. Recently, cast tees proven to be
sound by radiographic and magnetic particle examination and by hydrostatic test, are finding increased
acceptance. Only a few articles [49] are published
concerning the design and strength properties of
drawn tees SUbjected to internal pressure. The reason for this lies in the requirements of ASA Standard
BIG.9, which prescribes that welding tees must be
able to withstand the full bursting pressure of
straight pipe in sizes for which they are intended.
On the other hand, the Standard makes no demands
regarding the pressure to be supported by drawn
tees at their yield strength.
Despite the presence of high stresses at the internal
surface of the crotch [49], welding tees, in general,
involve lesser fabrication difficulties and stress concentrations than those associated with welded intersections. Their performance with regard to bursting,
based on the Standard and the meager test data that
are available, is also satisfactory.'!
Welding tees
llThe cylindrical tee tested by Gross (49], which failed at
96% of the pipe bursting pressure, would not comply with
American Standard requirements.

having a "spheroidal" intersection zone are claimed

to develop an increased resistance to yielding under
internal pressure. Branch connections subject. to
extremely high internal pressures are usually forged
and bored [50].
Test results dealing with acute-angle (inclined)
branch connections are even more scarce than those
for right-angle intersections, being confined to those
reported by Blair [48], and assembled here in Table
3.1. This evidence indicates that within the limits of
the experiments (i.e., branch angles from 30 to 90),
the strength of such intersections is roughly proportional to the sine of the branch angle for both full and
reducing sizes, which is equivalent (as Blair proposed) to basing reinforcement simply on the area
removed from the sidewall of the header. The
quantity of test data, however, is hardly sufficient to
support any such conclusion. Intuitively it would
seem that acute angle branch connections are further
weakened by the increased stress concentration at the
crotch due to the elliptical shape of the cut-out, and
by the pressure load transfer through the reentrant
crotch corner. Recognition of these effects has led
to the current ASA Code requirements which will be
discussed in a subsequent section.
The foregoing material deals with branch connections in pipes SUbjected to internal pressure loading.
Closely related to this field is the subject ofnozzles
and openings in pressure vessels. While no welldrawn division exists between these two fields, two
criteria may be mentioned, which help to separate
these problems. First, in pressure vessels the diameter of the branch (nozzle) is usually small as compared to that of the header (vessel). This fact
diminishes some of the secondary effects to lower
levels. Secondly, the wall thickness to diameter ratio
is also exceedingly small in large-sized pressure
vessels. This permits the investigator to study the
effects of openings in pressure vessels by means of
fiat-plate analogies, which would otherwise be of little
use or validity to the designer of piping branch connections. It should be remembered that even on
pressure vessels, the theoretical flat-plate analogies
cannot assess the effect of the hydrostatic end pull
exerted by the branch on the vessel. This effect can
be evaluated on the basis of recent contributions by
Bijlaard [51] and Hoff [52].
The theoretical approach to the problem of
stresses around nozzles in pressure vessels has
traditionally consisted of the investigation of flat
plates with a circular opening reinforced in the
manner shown in Fig. 3.12. Among these analytical
studies [53, 54, 55, 56] Beskin's work (56] is the most

LOCAL

COMPONENTS

complete. In this study, combinations of "rim-type"

and "flat ring-type"
reinforcements,
applied symmetrically on both sides of the plete, are investigated.
Based on the principle that the distortion energy
governs yielding, stress intensification
factors are
lfiven in terms of the "effective stress" rather than
'"anyone of the principal stresses.
The results of Beskin's investigation are shown in
condensed form in Table 3.2. Since the idealized
stress condition in shells under internal pressure can
be decomposed into a hydrostatic and uniaxial circumferential
stress of equal mangitudes,
the last
column of stress intensification factors in Table 3.2,
headed by "Average" reflects upon the conditions
prevailing around nozzles in pressure vessels.
As
can be seen, both the rim-type reinforcement and
the doubler-rim combination
(with at least 50% of
the reinforcing area supplied to the rim) are quite
effective in diminishing the peak stresses existing
around unreinforced openings.
In both cases, best
results are obtained when the ratio of total reinforcement to hole area (reinforcement
ratio) is in the
neighborhood
of 0.8-1.0; at this ratio the average
stress intensification factor is reduced to a level of
about 1.35. By contrast, the pad-type reinforcement

Table 3.2 "Effecth-e Stress" Concentrations around

Circular Holes in Flat Plates, Reinforced by
Various Methods
Stress Intensification Factor

HI.

t'..

RI

R'

Biaxial
Tension

Area of Reinforcement
Area of Cut-Out

Uniaxial A
Tension
verage

Rim

Doublerl Total

Rim Reinforcement only

0
0.4
0.8
1.2

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

----

1.0
1.0
1.0
La

2.0

1.32
1.08
1.01

I
i

3.0
L52

2.50
1.42
1.35
1.38

1.63
1.76

0
0.4
0.8
1.2

0.4
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.2

0.4
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.2

0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6

0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6

0.4
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.2

0.4
0.8
1.2

Doubler Plate Reinforcement only

2.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
5.0
5.0

1.4
1.2
1.8
1.4
1.2
1.3

1.52
1.43

1.37
1.22
1.03
1.00

I,
i

2.30
2.04
2.17
1.90
1.75
1.85

1.91
1.74
1.77
1.56
1.39
1.42

Doubler and Rim Combined

0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6

2.0
2.0
3.0
5.0
5.0

L2
L4
1.2

1.1
1.15

1.36
1.01
1.02
1.04
1.00

1.78
1.61
1.73
1.72
1.85

1.57
1.31
1.38

1.38
1.43

I
I

65
Rim (Pipo collo.'

FIG. 3.12

Edge reinforcement of circular cut-outs

in flat plates.

(doubler plate only) is less efficient in reducing stress

peaks.
The dimensions incorporated
in Table 3.2
are characterized by Fig. 3.12.
The plastic behavior of flat plates having a circular
cut-out reinforced by a pipe collar was also investigated [57J. The analysis was restricted to ideally
plastic materials (no strain hardening) which obey
the maximum shear-stress flow condition.
It was
found that for a "full-strength"
reinforcement (load
at fully plastic condition in reinforced plate equal to
or greater than that referring to intact plate), the
dimensions of the pipe collar, as shown in Fig. 3.12,
must satisfy the equations:

+ tn/R
tn/R

Il

1 + tn/R

Vl + 2(tn/R)2 -

for

R/tn S !
(3.20)

for

R/tn ;:::!

These equations bear resemblance to the results of

the elastic analysis, indicating that, for a given
amount of reinforcement
(inIl = constant),
maximum effectiveness is achieved when the reinforcement is concentrated near the opening (small in and
large Il). Naturally these results can be considered
to retain their validity only within consistent limits.12
Furthermore, for strain-hardening
materials or large
plastic strains eqs. 3.20 can be used, at best, only as
a rough guide. This plastic analysis was recently
extended [58] to reinforcements
of various cross
sections.
Experimental
work has corroborated
the basic
findings and, in some respects, the numerical results
of theoretical work. It was found [59) that unreinforced circular openings in either heads or cylindrical
vessels led to stress concentrations in excess of those
12For instance, the assumption of a very high and very
slender rim would violate the fundamental condition that the
stress distribution be constant over the height of the rim.

66

DESIGN OF PIPING

predicted by flat-plate theory. 13 These peak

stresses diminished, in general, with a reduction of
the ratio of the diameter of the opening to that of the
vessel.
Full-scale tests also indicated that excessive stiffening led to greatly increased bending moments just
beyond the toe of the weld attaching the nozzle.
Optimum conditions were obtained [55, 59, 60] by
concentrating the reinforcing metal near the opening. With appropriately reinforced openings the
stress concentration factors were successfully limited
to the theoretically predicted value of about 1.35.
For small openings these optimum results were
achieved by a pipe collar whose height-to-thickness
ratio varied between 3 and 4. Flat doubler-type
reinforcements were found to be ineffective, as predicted by theory; the stress concentration in these
cases was in the vicinity of 3.0 at the longitudinal
axis of the opening.
Further proof of these results was offered by
Schoessow and Brooks [61]. Heavy rim-type reinforcements (reinforcement ratio 1.013-1.15) were only
moderately effective, reducing stress concentrations
from 2.50 for an unreinforced hole to about 2.05.
Heavy doubler and thin rim combinations, however,
effectively reduced stress intensifications to between
1.26-1.51, roughly in line with the predictions of
the flat-plate analogies.
The tests described above were all conducted with
the reinforcement being applied only to one side of
the vessel. Stress measurements were likewise
limited to the external surface. In contrast, theoretical predictions are based on the assumption that
the reinforcement is applied in equal proportion to
both faces of the plate. The question, therefore,
arose: if reinforcement is applied to one face only,
what conditions will prevail on the unreinforced side?
An experimental answer to this question was soon
forthcoming. It was shown [62] that the analogue
prediction indicated the correct trend only as long
as the reinforcement was applied symmetrically,
as assumed by theory. Reinforcement applied to
one face benefited only the surface onto which it
was attached [55]; the stress pattern in the other
face, however, remained essentially the same as it
had been in the unreinforced opening. Further proof
came from tests conducted more recently by Gross
[49]. The reinforcement was applied to one side
only, by welding nozzles to the vessel opening in the
13Stress concentration maxima for the hoop stresses occurred
at the ends of the hole diameters parallel to the axis of the
vessel, with some values as high as 5.5 in contrast to the
theoretical prediction of 2.5.

SYSTEMS

conventional manner. Strain readings, however,

were taken on both faces of the vessel. For reinforcement ratios'" of roughly 0.23, 0.615, and l.0,
the maximum stress concentration factors 011 the
nozzle side were about 2.8, 2.3, and L8, respectively.
These results are in reasonable agreement with
previous experimental and theoretical work. Significantly different values were, however, found on the
internal face, the maximum stress concentration
values here being equal to 3.7, 2.8, and 2.4. This
showed that an increase in thickness alone cannot
bring about the desired reduction of peak stresses.
and that only a moderate improvement in the stress
distribution on the unreinforced face can accrue from
reinforcement applied to the opposite side.
Actually, the circular opening is not the ideal
shape for a cut-out in pressure vessels. Stress concentrations in a plate are minimized if the shape of
the opening is an ellipse with an axis ratio equal to
the "ratio of biaxiality," the major axis of the
ellipse being aligned with the direction of the
greatest principal stress. In pressure vessels, this
would call for an elliptical cut-out with a majorto-minor-axis ratio .of 2 with the minor axis being
in the longitudinal direction; the stress concentration
associated with the unreinforced opening then becomes 1.5 (as contrasted to 2.5 for the circular hole).
Both an analytical investigation [63] and experimental work [61] verified the desirable qualities of
reinforced elliptical openings. In the tests, all increase of the reinforcement ratio from 0.16 to 1.13
lowered the maximum stress intensification factor
from 1.40 to 1.19. While these results establish
the sound concept of elliptical nozzles, it must be
added that the fabrication and preparation of nozzles
of this type would be beset by severe difficulties.
These may overshadow the desirable aspects by
increasing the cost of elliptical pipe attachments to a
prohibitively high level.
3.6

Branch Connections:

Repented Loading

Having considered the performance of branch COIlnections under internal pressure, attention will now
be focused on their behavior under repeated external
loads, such as imposed by thermal expansion of the
pipe line. Although this subject received some consideration in Blair's paper, the most detailed information is found in Markl's work [12, 64].
These tests produced the following results: Failures of. full-size unreinforced intersections occurred
at locations similar to those of curved pipes. The
HEfTective height of reinforcement
finished opening.

taken equal to radius of

LOCAL COMPONENTS
stress intensification factor could be correlated
reasonably well with that for a single miter bend
(see eq. 3.14) if the characteristid'variable was taken
to be
(3.21)15
h = tiT",
Reinforced fabricated intersections cannot be
categorized with equal facility, since the amount of
metal incorporated in the reinforcement and the
manner of its distribution will affect the stress intensification and flexibility factors. In an attempt
to formulate a rule which would correlate reasonably
well with limited tests on 4 in. size pipe and be applicable to most reinforced branch connections,
Markl [12J proposed that the average thickness of
the header and branch at the crotch, te, be assumed
as the governing factor. Assuming that reinforced
intersections otherwise behave like unreinforced
ones, the characteristic variable would then become
h =

(~)2.5..!:_
t

(3.22)16

T",

while the stress intensification factor is again obtained from eq, 3.14Y
These results refer to tests where the assemblies
were loaded through the branch; loading straight
through the header proved to be less severe in all
cases. Furthermore, it was shown that the direction
of bending (in- or out-of-plane) did not seriously
influence these results, so that one factor can be used
in practical design. While Markl's work represents a
marked advance in practical design approach, it
must be conceded that the experimental data are
rather limited. More work would certainly be desirable to check its applicability to large-diameter
piping and to reducing-size branch connections.
Data regarding the performance of full-size ASA
standard welding tees under repeated external loading can again be found in Markl's papers. Assuming
that the metal thickness available in the crotch zone
and the crotch radius are the controlling variables,
the characteristic variable was expressed in the form:
h

(~)2.5'.
(1 + Tc)
t
r",

(3.23)18

67

t, = effective thickness

where

Tc =

= average of crotch
and side wall thicknesses.
crotch radius.

Experimental results for three different 4 in. commercial welding tees were in reasonable agreement
with stress intensification factors obtained from eq.
3.14, if eq. 3.23 was adopted for determining the
characteristic variable.
The flexibility [actors associated with unreinforced
and reinforced fabricated intersections or welding
tees have not received sufficient attention. Rough
tests seem to indicate that the added flexibility of
full-size branch connections is small i that is to say,
the branch will act as if it were fixed at the header,
whereas the header will retain the flexibility of an
intact pipe. These results, however, are open to
question since full-sized intersections should approach single miter bends in flexibility. In addition,
flexibility of the branch would be expected to increase
for reducing-size intersections (see, e.g., eq, 3.27 in
Section 3.14). Lacking specific theoretical or experimental results, and in order to remain on the safe
side, it is suggested that a value of 1.0 be assumed
for the flexibility of all types of branch connections.
3.7

Connections:
Code Requirements

Comparison

Branch

with

It is of interest to compare now the experimental

data with established design practice as expressed
by Code requirements for 90 (perpendicular) branch
connections. The Code for Pressure Piping, ASA
B3l.1, Section 6, utilizes the area replacement
method, requiring that the area removed from the
wall of header (referring to the required minimum
wall thickness times the diameter of the finished
opening) be replaced by the excess thickness available in the header or nozzle wall plus any metal
applied to the intersection in the form of reinforcement. This reinforcement is considered to have
value only within the rectangular "reinforcement
zone," the length and height of which is limited as
shown in Fig. 3.13. In the subsequent derivation,
the following nomenclature is used:
0

Tm

l~his equation is obtained by simply substituting <i> = 45

in eq. 3.18 for single miter bends.
16The design formula of the Code is given in a modified
form of eq. 3.22.
17The quantity tin eq, 3.22 is the thickness of the pipe used
in the stress calculation.
The intensification factor of eq.
3.14 is again applied to this pipe. These results refer to fullsized intersections and should be used with discretion for
other cases.
18In the Code, the recommended formula for the charac0

t[{ =
tn =

Rll
RB

=
=

w =

minimum thickness of header} less corrosion

minimum thickness of branch allowance.
radius of header} tsid
ra dIUS 0f branc h OU 81 C.
leg of fillet weld.

tcristic variable of welding tees has been simplified to h = 4.4

tlr by making assumptions for t. and Tc which conservatively
reflect customary proportions.

68

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

The .maller
.Reinfotcemeol

2.SI,

lone

1~IG. 3.13

PH

of

+ '.

"Area of reinforcement," as specified by the Piping

Code, ASA B3Ll, Section 6.

= maximum service pressure permissible for

intact header.
S = allowable stress at operating temperature.
t1 = thickness of header required by Code for
given size, service pressure, and operating
temperature.
tz = thickness of branch required by Code for
given size, service pressure, and operating
temperature.
p = allowable pressure permitted by Code for
the completed manifold.
tp = thickness of reinforcement pad (if used).
According to the Code, the required thicknesses
can be expressed as
tl

pRJl
OAp ;

= S

t2

pRB
RB
+ OAp = -RJ{ t1,

PllRll

t 11=

+ O.4PH

The "area to be replaced" is A = 2t1 (RB - tB)

For an unreinforced intersection with a branch
not heavier than the header, the available excess
metal within the "zone of reinforcement" can be
given by
AR

2(t/l

tt) (RB - tB)

+ 5tB(tB

t2)

+ w2

Equating An to A, and using the wall-thickness

expressions, yields the following result:
RIl _ 0.4
p
PII

til
0.8RJ{(Rn

OAtll(Rn

- tB)

tn) ~ RBtn

+ tn + O.2w

-0.1

(3.24)

The "pressure reduction ratio," p/PIl, expresses

the decrease in allowable pressure for vhe completed

unreinforced branch connection as compared to the

intact header of the same size. As an example
assume standard pipe sizes, W = t in. for 4 in .
branches or smaller, w = i in. for larger branch sizes,
and a corrosion allowance of 0.1 in. The "pressure
reduction ratios" may then be obtained for various
header and branch sizes from eq. 3.24. The results
of these calculations for the specific case are tabulated in Table 3.3 except that branch connections
not exceeding 2 in. or 25% of the header size are
shown with a 100% rating since the Code permits
this arbitrarily.
An examination of this table indicates the following trends:
1. For equal-size intersections (proceeding along
the diagonal of Table 3.3), the pressure reduction
ratio decreases with increasing pipe sizes to a limiting
value of 50%. This is in reasonable accord with
experimental evidence, although tests carried out
on full-size intersections up to 12 in. did not show
bursting-pressure reduction ratios below 65%.
2. Increasing the size of the branch connection
for a given header (moving from left to right in a
given row of Table 3.3) decreases the pressure reduction ratio. Although this trend is borne out by
tests, the Code reduction ratio appears conservative
for small-size headers, since it permits only 56% of
the "intact header pressure" to be applied to halfsize intersections with an 8 in. or 12 in. header, as
contrasted to the 90-100% obtained in experiments.
More complete and more searching experimental
data would, however, be necessary to justify closer
evaluation of certain sizes and proportions.
3. An increase of header size for a given branch
size over 2 in. (traversing Table 3.3 from top to
bottom of a specific column) results in a reduced
allowable pressure. This is contrary to the limited
experimental evidence, which shows that the bursting pressure developed by a branch connection
increases as the diameter ratio between the branch
and header pipes becomes smaller. Again more
searching experimental data are desirable.
4. The arbitrary Code provision assigning 100%
for welded branch pipes not exceeding 2 in. or 25%
of the header size, while reasonable from test results,
introduces abrupt breaks in allowable ratings. A
smoother transition is desirable.
The ASA B3Ll Code rules applicable to oblique
branch connections are mandatory for branch angles
not less than 45 and when the branch/header
diameter ratio is not less than 1/4. These rules, which
recognize the higher stress intensification in the
acute crotch, require that the replacement area be

LOCAL COMPONENTS
equal to the area removed from the header multiplied by a factor of (2 - sin a) where IX is the branch
angle. The rules (for branch/header ratios of 1/4
and larger) make no distinction between full-sized
and reducing branches, a practice which appears
somewhat contrary to experience.
3.8

69

1. The design stress used provides a considerable

margin for local overstress.
2. Highly localized stress can be relieved by local
yielding. Such yielding induces local residual stresses
of the opposite sign in the off-stream condition, so
that the area can operate on a "stress range" basis
in the same manner that thermal expansion strains
may be absorbed in piping systems.
3. Most applications do not involve a very large
number of cycles. Therefore, the design need not
insure that stresses be kept at all times below the
endurance limit of the material.
4. Experience to date is largely confined to steel,
which normally acts in a ductile manner.
Thus, although this experience has been generally
satisfactory, those service failures (and all of the
laboratory fractures) that occurred in pressure
vessels and pipe lines to date have, almost without
exception, been shown to originate at branch connections 01 local attachments.
Therefore, good
engineering demands that careful judgment be
exercised when selecting designs and fabrication
details, and that fabrication quality be adequately
controlled. Poor fit-up, welding, and lack of root
penetration on welded branches, can easily furnish
added stress-raising effects which can lead to
failure.

Branch Connections: Practical Considerations and Summary

In the foregoing sections giving the highlights of

available test and analytical data, it has been noted
that stress concentrations can be expected to be
present around all circular openings and branch
connections, and that even for the most carefully
designed reinforcement, the factor' is not likely to
subside below 1.3. The question naturally arises
as to the practical significance of such effects. The
answer at present must be sought primarily in experience. Service experience using nominal design
allowable stress values (as established by Section 3,
Oil Piping, of the ASA B3Ll Code for Pressure
Piping, and the concept of the simple replacementof-area method) has been reasonably good despite
the fact that design and attachment details and
fabrication quality used have not always been as
good as they should be. This fact may be accounted
for by the following considerations:

'Table 3.3 Pressure Reduction Ratios in Per Cent for Unreinforced

I"

I!"

2"

2l'i"

3"

66
64
62
60
58
56
56
56
56
56
56
56

63
61
58
57
55
55
55
55
55
55
55

4"

6"

8"

1011

57
55
55
56
56
56
56
56

55
55
55
55
56
56
56

Intersections*

12" 14"

16"

18" 20"

53
54
54
54

53
53
53

24"

~
I"

I!"
2"
2J2."
3/(

4"
6/1

8"
10"
12"
1411
16"

18"
20"
24"

100
100
100
80
77
100
100
100

100
100
100
100
100
100

100

100
100
71

69
65
100
100
100
100

100
100
100
100
100

89
67
65
62
59
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

59
57
56
54
54

55
54
55
55
55

60

58
56
56
57
57
57
57
57

54
55
54

55
55
55

54
54
54
55
55

53
53

"Based on the Code for Pressure Piping, ASA B3l.1 for: standard weight pipe with 0.1 corrosion allowance; leg of fillet weld
for branches 4" or smaller, and ~" for larger branch sizes.

52

til

70

DESIGN OF PII)ING SYSTEMS

As design stress levels and temperatures increase,

greater attention
must be given to reinforcement
details.
The same is true when design stresses are
raised in proportion to enhanced physical properties
of material obtained by cold work, since the effect of
localized stresses becomes much more serious.
Full-size 900 branch connections are difficult to
fabricate by welding without appreciable distortion,
particularly when a pad-type reinforcement is used.
This difficulty increases with the size of the header.
It is best to avoid such connections wherever it is
economically justified.
In critical service, welding
tees, when available,
should always be used in
preference to fabricated welded intersections.
Integral reinforcement obtained by using a heavier pipe
for the header (or for both header and branch) is
generally preferred to built-up construction and is
satisfactory
for most applications.
Sharp corners
at the intersection should be avoided by the use of
concave weld fillets. Fabrication
presents considerably greater problems as the size of the branch
relative to the header is increased and must receive
special care when this ratio exceeds 50%, particularly
for header sizes above 12 in. On headers of large
size with small openings (branch to header diameter
ratio less than 50%), the method of reinforcement
should be guided by the principles established for
the reinforcement of nozzles on pressure vessels.
The greatest benefit from a given amount of reinforcing metal will be obtained by concentrating the
reinforcement
nea~ the finished opening.
Flow
considerations
permitting,
the effectiveness of the
reinforcement
can be increased by application of
the reinforcing metal to the inside, as well as outside,
surface of the header.
The use of elliptical nozzles
may be considered for extremely severe service
conditions, since they extend the possibility of reducing stress concentrations
to the limiting value
of l.
For the design of special heavy-walled .fittings in
critical service The M. W. Kellogg Company has
found the rather simple design approach given in
Fig. 3.14 satisfactory.
This is, in effect, an analysis
designed to control the average membrane stress
within the chosen limits, and includes a correction
for non-uniform stress through the wall thickness
equivalent to using the mean diameter cylindrical
hoop stress formula instead of the inside diameter
formula.
Therefore, it assures a fitting strength
roughly equal to the connecting pipe. The regions
over which the pressure area and metal areas are
averaged are arbitrarily selected as being in reasonable accord with experience.

The use of gusset or rib stiffeners is not recommended, due to the high stress concentrations likely
to exist at their ends or adjacent to the attachment
welds. They are even more objectionable
on hot
piping, since the ribs act as cooling fins and local
thermal stresses are imposed; if such stiffeners are
used on hot piping the thermal effects should be
minimized by the application of heavy insulation.
The effect of structural loadings other than pressure and cyclic loadings must be given due consideration. Markl's work in establishing suggested stress
intensification factors for piping flexibility analyses
is a good start, but more work is necessary on other
sizes and reducing branches.
Where an individual
flexibility analysis is not warranted, yet expansion
stresses are expected to be at or near Code levels at
the branch location (with the moment loading being
carried through the branch), it is recommended that
branch connections be reinforced to develop the full
strength of the header, even if the operating pressure
may not require it.
The selection of design and fabrication details as
well as the methods and extent of inspection must
be in line with the expected severity of service. Weld
details which minimize distortion and promote best
root-welding conditions are to be favored.
As an
example, setting a branch on a pipe and welding it
before the hole in the header is cut will reduce distortion when the branch pipe is large compared to the
header; set-on construction also permits the use of a
backing ring.
Regarding inspection methods, a magnetic particle
examination should be favored for magnetic materials; for non-magnetic
materials, a penetrant
oil
examination is quite practical and is recommended
for important services. Radiographic examinations
of branch attachments are being increasingly used as
a quality control check; although they are useful in
controlling the general quality level of an individual
operator's work, such radiographs cannot be interpreted to assure the absence of cracks unless many
angled shots are taken.
An indiscriminate appraisal
of radiographic examination may create an unwarranted degree of assurance regarding absence of
harmful defects.
3.9

Corrugated

Pipe

As pointed out in the introduction and in Chapter

7, straight corrugated pipe provides intermediate
flexibility' between a rigid piping system and an
p.xpansion joint system .. Its use may be advantageous
where acute space limitations exist, or where reactions on equipment attendant
to stiff or large-size

LOCAL COMPONENTS

71

..
o

p(E+iA)

p{E+tA)

TEE

90

ELBOW

p(F+i:B)

USE ALSO rOR

.. !to [LBOW

50;;--B-WYE OR 45

LATERAL

ELBOW

NOMENCLATURE
A, B

1:1, D:i_,E, F G,h,k -

P
s ....

Sa -

\. '2 -

'3<><:./9 -FIG. 3.14

UETAL
INSID[

AREA, (SQ.IN.l
D1AIoI[T[R
Of fITTINGS,I1H.1

I~OICATEO

PRESSURE

...RE"',

(SQ. IN'

INDICATED I.EHGTHS,
DESIGN PRt:SSURE.
ALLOW"'SLE
STRESS

hN.'
AT DESIGN TEIIPER ...TUR',
AT DESIGN TEIIPERATUAE.

INCICATED

THIC~HESS.

AVERAGE
INDICATED

IIHAL

METAL, THIC~NESS

lPSICl
(PSI}

(IN.l
or

flAT

SUR'ACE,

(INJ

ANGLES.

Special heavy wall fittings: check of reinforcement for internal pressure.

72

DESIGN OF PIPING

pipe must be reduced without further addition to

pressure drop, process problems or similar factors.
The fact that corrugations greatly increase the
flexibility of a straight cylindrical tube has long been
appreciated. However, it is less well known that this
reduction in stiffness is obtained by the introduction
of bending stresses, the level of which must be controlled for satisfactory service; also, it is not always
appreciated that a corrugated bend may be less
flexible than a plain pipe bend due to the fact that
the corrugations resist ovalization.
Corrugations were initially obtained by hot rollforming processes such as are used for shaping the
flues of Scotch Marine boilers. This imposed limitations on the depth and pitch so that resort was made
to uniform localized heating and controlled collapsing.
This process resulted in some upsetting and a
sharper radius of curvature at the crown. More
recently, equipment has been designed which provides rolled corrugations of greater depth. The
mean diameter of rolled corrugations is usually that
of the original pipe, while those formed by controlled
collapsing have a mean diameter roughly equal to
the initial outside diameter of the pipe. Corrugating
can only be accomplished on straight pipe, so that
bends must be formed afterward. Creased bend
construction is usually limited to sharp radii bends,
commonly 2 to 3 diameters in radius; these are formed
by heating plain pipe on one side and bending so as
to bulge out the corrugations on the inside of the
bend.
Early tests [21, 65) showed that, for bends having
a five-diameter radius, corrugated construction provided no greater flexibility than plain bends, and
that for smaller radii corrugated or creased curved
pipes are usually less flexible than plain bends; also,
that the torsional stiffness of corrugated pipe was
slightly greater than that of straight pipe of the same
nominal diameter.
In the foregoing tests, as well as later ones [66], it
was established that a corrugated bend derives its
flexibility in bending or direct loading mainly from
a change in axial length (through an increase on the
tension and a decrease on the compression side), as
compared to a plain bend, which derives its increased
deflection from ovalization of the cross section, and
the attendant modified stress distribution.
A
creased pipe bend takes an intermediate position
between these extremes, deriving its flexibility on
the plain portion by ovalization, and on the creased
portion by change in length.
Consistent flexibility values for corrugated and
creased 6 in. diameter pipes were obtained from static

SYSTEMS

tests by Dennison [67], who related test results to

the calculated values for plain pipes of the same
dimensions.l" as given by elementary beam theory.
Corrugated bends were found to have higher flexibility factors than creased bends, although a good
approximation for both configurations was 6.0.
Nominal stress intensification factors (denoting the
ratio between the endurance limits20 of small
polished specimens to that of the actual piping component) were obtained from fatigue tests, indicating
an average factor of 8 for both corrugated and creased
pipes of the type tested. With one exception, incipient cracks in corrugated pipes originated on the
inside surface and penetrated outward, while 011
creased bends the cracks always initiated on the
external surface.
The foregoing tests have led to the acceptance of
an assumption of uniform flexibility factors for commercial corrugated or creased pipes. For the stress
intensification factors, however, it was felt that unduly conservative values resulted by basing the
comparison on the endurance limit of polished bars.
Therefore, further tests were carried out by Rossheim and Markl [29], in which the fatigue strength?'
of plain tangents was taken as a basis of comparison
for stress intensification factors. Based on these
experiments a stress intensification factor of 2.5 was
suggested as reasonable for "non-cyclic" service (i.e,
less than 20,000 stress cycles), whereas for "cyclic"
service (up to 500,000 reversals) a stress intensification factor of 5.0 was proposed. A flexibility
factor of 5.0 was suggested as a conservative value
for average commercial creased or corrugated pipe.
These values form the basis of the current suggested
values in the ASA B31.1 Code, viz: a flexibility factor of 5.0 and a stress intensification factor of 2.5
for usual commercial corrugated or creased components under bending or direct axial loading. The
Code also suggests a flexibility factor of 0.9 and
stress factor of unity for torsional loading.
In contrast to the uniform values recommended
by the Code for all sizes and shapes of corrugated
pipes, the actual flexibility and stress factors are a
function of the size and wall thickness of the pipe
19The term "plain pipe of the same dimensions" refers to a
pipe having the same diameter and wall thickness !\S that used
for making the corrugated (creased) pipe in consideration.
2o"Endurance limit" denotes the alternating stress which a
specimen can infinitely sustain in u fatigue test. In nctual
tests 2 X 106 cycles arc taken to be equivalent to "an infinite"
number of cycles.
21"Fatigue strength," as opposed to "endurance limit,"
denotes the average maximum alternating stress which :t
specimen can sustain for !l. given number of stress cycles.

LOCAL COMPONENTS
and particularly the depth and pitch of the corrugations. Test results show that an increase in the
depth of the corrugation will improve its flexibility,
but increase the stress intensification factor.
The greatly simplified case of a curved beam
shown on Fig. 3.15, which is obtained after segmenting a corrugated pipe into strips of unit width, can
be analyzed readily. This analogue will indicate
higher flexibility and lower stresses than those existing in the actual structure. Nonetheless, it is useful
in roughly predicting the influence of dimensional
changes, and for comparison with established service.
The results obtained from this analogue, assuming
that II = 0.3 and the corrugation pitch is 4r, are:

100

1000

70

700

20

:100

10

100

+ .09]

2.0

Flexibility factor

= 1r[(3r/t)

Theoretical stress intensification

factor

Stress intensification factor compared to plain pipe (Code basis)

[(6r/t)

+ 1]

73

7.0 ~ 70
.l!

~.O :ii 40

.~

Piping Cod. Sirouintonoil'_ion foetor.

1.0
0.7
Piplng Codo A.. iblily Fodor

+ 1]

= O.5[(6r/t)

0.4

These relations are plotted in Fig. 3.16, which shows

the strong. dependence of both of these design factors on the ratio of r/t.22 An increase in the pitch
of the corrugations with other items unchanged
would decrease the flexibility factor; likewise, a
change in the shape of the corrugations to a more
rigid shape would decrease the flexibility, but also
decrease the stress intensification factor.
A detailed analytical evaluation of stresses in corrugated components is extremely difficult. Moreover, if the manufacturing tolerances and variations
in shape or between successive corrugations are considered, the theoretical treatise becomes impractical.
An approximate solution was developed by Donnell
22Due to the simplifications assumed here, the ratio of pipe
radius to pipe wall thickness Rlt does not enter the solution.
4r

I
M

.z, (

)~

FIG. 3.15

Analogue representation
corrugated pipes.

for analysis of

UwaI Rang. 01 Com ... ,o;ial ComlQOtions

0.2

2.0 L-_--L __

-'- __
....L__
,!__--L__
_J
8
12
16
20
24
2 r/t Retio 01 Com>gotion Dopth '" Pipe won Thld<.n... (Pitch a Twice o.pthJ

o
FIG. 3.16

Stress intensification' 'and flexibility factors

"analogue" solution for corrugated pipes.

in

[68] for V-shaped and semicircular corrugations under

concentric axial loads, and the results were extended
by inference to corrugations of elliptical and sinusoidal cross sections. Tests on thin-walled corrugated
pipes, having corrugations in reasonable accord with
the specific shapes analyzed, were in good agreement
with theory. For corrugation shapes as normally
produced in heavier-walled pipe, the analysis can
be accepted only as a rough approximation.
A more recent theoretical approach [9] treats the
effects of both axial loads and internal pressure, but
restricts the analysis to thin-walled cylindrical bodies
of relatively large diameter, so that the results are
applicable to corrugated light-gage expansion joints
rather than pipe. This analysis is not readily
adapted to design, since the final results are given
in terms of unfamiliar functions, whose numerical
values are not tabulated in standard mathematical
tables. For a more detailed treatment of the expansion joint bellows, reference should be made to
Chapter 7.
In summation, corrugated pipes have practical
application when added flexibility for stress or endreaction reduction must be obtained in extremely
limited space, thereby permitting the retention of

DESIGN OF PIPING

74

a rigid piping system and avoiding the use of expansion joints.

Its use is best confined to straight
lengths, since it will have little, if any, advantage
over plain pipe when used for bends. The same may
be said for creased bends, which offer no significant
advantage
over plain bends in flexibility and may
involve higher stress intensification.
Corrugated
pipe, properly designed, is capable of carrying the
axial internal
pressure thrust in common with
straight pipe, but it is important to note that the
stress intensification factor applies to the longitudinal
pressure load, as well as other loadings; yielding, or
creep, will result if the combined static or dynamic
loadings exceed established limits. For applications
in the creep range an accurate evaluation of the
stress intensification
factor for the particular corrugation used is desirable.
Occasionally, corrugated
pipe is used to localize plastic deformation which
might occur during extreme upset conditions; for
such service the range of local unit plastic strain
determines the number of cycles which can be sustained (see Chapter 7). It is advisable that limit
stops or equivalent means be provided to limit overall yielding.
3.10

Bolted Flanged
Background

Connections:

General

Flanged connections provide for the ready joining

or separating of portions of a piping system to facilitate inspection or cleaning, or to avoid in-position
welding or heat treatment.
Their influence on the
performance of a piping system involves evaluation
of (1) the effect of the flange as a local component,
and (2) the effect of the forces and moments transmitted through a flange on its ability to maintain a
tight seal.
Analysis of flanged joints was limited to cantilever
approximations
until the advance made in 1927 by
Waters and Taylor [69]. Combining the elastic
behavior of a flat plate with a cylinder treated as a
beam on an elastic foundation,
they obtained expressions for the circumferential,
radial, and axial
stresses in flanges with short cylindrical hubs of
constant thickness.
These theoretical results were
reasonably well substantiated
by tests, and offered a
reliable basis for the evaluation
of loose-hubbed
flanges (Vain Stone, threaded, lapped) within the
ASA range of dimensions [70, 71, 72]. In subsequent
years this derivation was extended by Holmberg
and Axelson [731 to flanges integral with the pipe
wall.
These analyses were limited to hubs of uniform
thickness, although the desirability of increased hub

SYSTEMS

thickness at the flange-hub intersection

was generally recognized.
An exhaustive theoretical analysis of this problem [74, 75] was undertaken
by
Waters, Rossheim, Wesstrom, and Williams.
It
included both bolt-moment and pressure effects, and
could be applied to straight, single, or double taper
combinations of hub contour, with fillets simulated
by tangent tapers.
A complete analysis, including
direct pressure and pressure discontinuity
stress, is
complex for other than a straight hub; the considerable effort involved in this approach is justifiable
only on high-pressure,
large-diameter
flanges in
critical service.
For usual services and flange
proportions it has been found that the direct-pressure
and pressure-discontinuity
effects can be neglected,
and the flange subjected to a uniformly distributed
external moment equal to the product of the bol t
load, gasket load, end pressure load, and their respective lever arms. The junction of the ring and
hub is assumed to undergo zero radial displacement,
the bolt load to be unaffected by changes in pressure,
and ideal elasticity to be maintained without yielding
or creep. Despite these simplifying assumptions, the
analysis has proven adequate for most problems
when coupled with' a suitable choice of design
stresses, gasket factors, etc. to provide
ample
margin for these effects. Originally introduced into
the ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code on a 'permissive basis, its general acceptance soon led to its
adoption as a mandatory requirement.
One widespread usage is on exchanger flanges, for which it
has been approved by the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) and applied to the
standard flanges in their rules; it has also been widely
used in connection with rerating ASA standard
flanges.
Experimental work [76, 77, 78J has shown that the
theoretical
formulas closely predicted the stresses
developed under various loading conditions.
It has
also been shown that a reasonably uniform gasketload distribution
can be expected only when the
maximum bolt pitch is a function of the bolt diameter
and the flange thickness, and that, within the normal
range of flange dimensions, the width of the flange
has no appreciable effect upon the load distribution.
Taylor Forge & Pipe Works' Modern Flange Design
[79] presents the formula in terms of bolt diameter,
flange thickness, and gasket factor.
This formula
originated in the M. W. Kellogg Company and has
been widely and successfully used in practical design.
Present ASME flange-stress formulas are stated
for flange and hub dimensions assumed in advance,
leading to time-consuming
trial-and-error
solution.

LOCAL COMPONENTS
Simplified methods have been developed [80, 81] to
aid the designer in quickly arriving at well-proportioned economical flanges. Oth~ practical suggestions are contained in Modem Flange Design [79].
For certain relatively mild low-pressure services,
such as water works, thin and relatively wide flanges
with soft gaskets located inside the bolts have been
successfully used. Such flanges usually cannot be
justified by the Code design approach. The explanation of their satisfactory use must be sought in
recognition of higher stresses, use of soft gaskets, and
the possibility of the flanges contacting each other
at the OD, establishing thereby a limiting countermoment before excessive strains are developed. For
considerations involved in such special service,
reference can be made to the paper by Waters and
Williams'[82] and the discussion thereof.
The design assumption that the initial bolt load
remains constant for any magnitude of the internal
pressure has also been explored. It has been shown
[74, 76, 83, and others] that a hydrostatic end force
may either increase or decrease the initial bolt load,
depending upon the relative position of the gasket
reaction and the elastic properties of the assembly.
With customary flanges, exemplified by ASA Standard B16.5, the bolt load decreases slightly with application of internal pressure, since the net moment on
the flange ring increases, which in turn causes increased flange rotation and a decrease in the distance
between flanges at the bolt circle. The bolt stress
is at all times a function of the summation of the
strains of the entire assembly, and their individual
moduli of elasticity. Since the modulus decreases
with temperature rise, the bolt load will likewise
decrease as the temperature of the assembly is uniformly raised. If the temperature of the components
is not uniform, the differential strains will alter the
bolt stress in proportion. Except in unusual cases
these effects are not of practical significance, since
the flange design permits pretightening to a level
sufficient to compensate for bolt-load reduction,
local yielding, or creep over the period of time
established by the material properties and temperature.
An understanding of flange leakage may be obtained by idealizing the assembly as two elastically
coupled bodies, the bolts on one hand, and the flanges,
including the gasket, on the other. The complete
joint is then represented schematically as two springs
with different initial lengths and stiffnesses. When
the joint is tightened, this initial length difference is
eliminated by submitting the bolt spring to tension
and the stiffer flange spring to compression. A

75

superimposed hydrostatic load would have the simple

effect of subjecting both springs to equal amounts of
added tensile strain. In this simplified representation; leakage would occur when the tensile strain
imparted to the flange due to the hydrostatic load
offsets the compressive strain set up by tightening
the bolts (i.e., the spring representing the flange is
under no force and returns to its original length).
This concept was presented by Dolan [84] who gave
pictorial representation to this interpretation by
means of a simple force-extension diagram. N eedless to say, the elastic coupling concept is a considerable oversimplification of actual conditions in a
flange which must include all components, changing
moment and rotational effects, temperature, creep,
etc. as treated, for example, in [82J.
Code rules establish two criteria which must be
satisfied to maintain a gasketed joint free from
leakage. The one establishes a minimum initial unit
gasket seating load, and the other a ratio of gasket
load to internal pressure for operating conditions;
both are related to the gasket material and construction. As to the effective width of gasket, arbitrary
assumptions are made which are related to the
flange-facing details arid relative concentration of
loading; double this width is used for application of
the gasket operating pressure factor.
Actually, the performance of a gasketed surface
depends not only upon the elastic properties of the
gasket material as influenced by its design details,
but also upon the bolt load and deflection of the
flanges (initially and under pressure); the maximum gasket load (at the inner and outer edge or at
projections); the gasket thickness and physical
properties; and the surface finishes of gasket and
flange, which determine the elastic and plastic
deformation attendant to an initial seal. In actual
installations, the varieties of gasket stiffness, surface
finish, and imperfections of gasket and flanges, as
well as the properties of the contained fluid or gas,
can cause wide variation in the minimum load and
gasket pressure to maintain tightness. The Code
rules for minimum load and gasket factor are, therefore, approximations of average conditions for flanges
of usual proportions. For this reason, these rules
are not mandatory but merely tentative.
Where very stiff flanges or minimum-width gaskets
are involved, the entire width of the gasket may be
at essentially the Same unit load; conversely, for thin
flexible flanges or wide gaskets, the gasket load may
be much lower than predicted by Code rules. Extremely soft gaskets, such as gum rubber, deflect
directly under the internal pressure, and flow later-

76

DESIGN OF PIPING

ally to equalize and distribute the gasket load. Due

to this behavior, they can often be made tight under
very low unit gasketloading or, at "times, even in the
absence of a net gasket load from the bolts. Special
facing details or gasket designs to promote selfsealing tendencies are successfully used where the
service permits the use of soft gasket material, or
where extremely high working pressure can be
utilized to provide sufficient load to seal harder
gaskets. Some facing details are based on mechanical concepts, such as ring-type joints; others, as for
instance, lens rings, benefit from reduced or line
contact.
Where elastic conditions are maintained, leakage
of a properly fabricated and assembled flanged joint
should not occur if the initial bolt load is sufficient
to maintain the required gasket load above the
longitudinal loads developed by pressure and structural effects, and to compensate for the expected reductions in bolt load due to flange deflection and
change in elastic modulus. The influence of structural loading is treated further in the next section.
Flange bolts are ordinarily made up at ambient
temperature; as the temperature is raised in service,
the temperature of the bolts, flanges, and pipe may
no longer be the same, either during the transient
heating period or in the equilibrium service condition.
Since the bolts receive heat through limited contact
with the flanges they will respond more slowly to
changes; similarly, non-integral flanges, such as the
Van Stone type, will lag behind the pipe under temperature change. In the absence of insulation, these
temperature differences will be much greater. Where
flow temperatures fluctuate rapidly or where external
influences (such as rain on exposed flanges) upset the
equilibrium between bolts and flanges, joints may
leak due to loss of gasket sealing load. This reduction in sealing pressure is traceable either to expansion differences, or to yielding resulting from temporary overload. If serious yielding does not occur
the joint will eventually re-establish the same gasket
load, although it is possible that the temporary
leakage will have caused wire-drawing and prevent
re-establishment of a seal.
In actual installations, completely elastic conditions are almost never realized; aside from localized
yielding, creep will be present in high-temperature
service and to some extent at all temperatures,
particularly for non-metallic, non-ferrous, or highly
stressed gaskets. Under repeated load applications
the degree of yielding or creep with respect to time
is increased.
In order to deal with the effects of plastic flow or

SYSTEMS

creep due to temperature effects, it is necessary to

consider both transient and constant thermal conditions. Of these two, the transient thermal state is
often the more important, since it will generally lead
to higher stresses and a greater amount of yielding.
This case was investigated by Bailey (85] for loosering and integrally welded flanges. Making a few
simplifying assumptions, he showed that stresses in
welded integral flanges were only 60% of those in the
less intimately connected loose flanges under transient temperatures. As a continuation of this work,
Bailey undertook to investigate the effect of creep
upon the elastic stress distribution. Again both the
loose and welded integral flanges were considered for
various creep strength ratios of bolt material to
flange material. The effect of bolt holes was taken
into consideration through an analogy with the
tensile creep-relaxation properties of a solid strip of
metal versus a strip of metal with a series of holes of
varying pitch and diameter. The effect of thermal
bending moment acting on a joint due to pipe expansion was omitted, on the assumption that under creep
conditions external forces would in time be reduced
to negligible magnitude. The analysis showed that
the tightness duration of the flanged joint (as defined
by the time at which the stresses would fall below a
permissible level or permit leakage) is a function of
flange thickness for given material properties of
flange and bolts. It was also found that an optimum
flange thickness exists for each joint, which increases
as the ratio between the creep resistance of the bolts
and flanges becomes greater. These optima were
generally greater than required by the Code. As
would be expected the analysis indicated the desirability of having high elastic strains in bolts and
flanges combined with high creep resistance. These
properties are in opposition, since high stresses cause
accelerated creep. For given materials certain
changes in design will, however, provide increased
elasticity without increased stresses, e.g, increasing
the effective bolt length; similarly, changing the
material of any component to one of equal elasticity,
but greater creep resistance, will improve high temperature performance.
Bailey'S analytical work was not followed by experiments of sufficient extent to prove or disqualify
the conclusions reached. However, an interesting
report, including some test data on various aspects
of flange design, was published by Gough [86] on
this subject.
The fatigue characteristics of various types of
steel flanges subject to repeated bending strains received attention in an investigation carried out at

,;...

..

LOCAL COMPONENTS
atmospheric temperature by Markl and George [87).
Using a constant-displacement type fatigue-testing
machine, on 4 in. standard weight and 0.080 in. wall
pipe with 300 lb ASA standard RF flanges, fatigue
failure occurred almost invariably in the pipe proper
adjacent to the flange attachment, where there is a
marked change in contour, and not in the flange or
bolts. A few tests were made with 600 psi internal
pressure; in these tests leakage well in advance of
failure was noted only on threaded joints. Gasket
leakage was not experienced when bolts were pretightened to 40,000 psi, although it was encountered
when they were tightened to only 20,000 psi. The
S-N diagrams of all types of flanges investigated
were represented by straight lines on a log-log plot,
which were parallel among themselves and with the
lines obtained for straight tangents or butt-welded
pipes. This made it possible to assign single stress
intensification factors to each of the various types
of flanges investigated; these results are listed in
Table 3.4. The superiority of the welding neck
flange is in line with service experience with regard
to suitability for critical service.
The relatively poor performance of the lap joint
flanges was rather surprising since such flanges have
a fairly good service record; the lap thickness used
was the same as the pipe wall and the poor results
were attributed to inadequate strength of the lap
to carry the high bending moments imposed, the
lap apparently rocking back and forth on the gasket.
In general, stress intensification factors increase with
increasing abruptness of cross-sectional changes in
the flange at the pipe connection. The welding neck
flange with its smooth transition exhibits no perceptible stress-raising tendency, whereas threaded
flanges, due to stress concentrations present in the
threads, carry an intensification factor of about 2.30.
The effect of a seal weld covering all exposed threads,
as used in some services, was not investigated. It
should also be kept in mind that in elevated-temperature service the load distribution on flange
details involving double welds would be less favorable, and that additional thermal stresses would
result from temperature differences between the
pipe and flange.
For services where creep or severe cyclic effects
are present, greater attention must be paid to the
reduction or elimination of stress raisers. Fillet
radii should be generous, and sharp corners should
be avoided. Stud bolts with continuous threads or
with unthreaded portions machined to the root diameter should be used in preference to headed bolts,
which involve sharp fillets under the heads and the

Table 3.4

71
Stress Intensification
Various Flanges

Factors for

Welding neck flange

Socket welding flange (double welded)
Slip-on or forged ring flanges (double welded)
Slip-on or socket welding flanges (single welded)
Lap joint flanges
Threaded flanges

1.00
1.15
1.25
1.30
1.60
2.30

thread runout. For satisfactory performance, bending in studs should also be held to a minimum.

3.n

Bolted .Flanged
Considera tions

Connections:

Practical

Experience indicates that the design rules of the

ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code are generally
entirely adequate for the design of special flanges,
with gaskets located inside the bolts, for service
under internal pressure. For flanges having full
face gaskets, or for any design which permits the
development of a counter-moment reaction outside
the bolt circle, there is no recognized standard design approach; a special ASME Code Committee is
currently (1955) working on this problem.
For piping applications it is necessary to consider
the effect of other loadings in combination with internal pressure. These are usually longitudinal
forces and bending or torsional moments due to
weight, wind, or thermal expansion of the pipe line.
By far the majority of piping flange applications in
the United States utilize ASA Standard BIG.5 flanges.
The ASA Standard gives allowable pressure-temperature ratings but offers no guidance as to permissible
bending loadings. These flanges have been customarily used up to the allowable ratings without
any check of their capacity to carry additional loadings. While occasional difficulties due to such loads
have been encountered, their service record must be
considered very good. Unsatisfactory performance
occurred generally only with pipes having an aprreciable excess strength or corrosion allowance and a
high value of thermal expansion. An example is the
use of 150 Ib standard flanges with low-pressure,
high-temperature heavy-walled pipe. A discussion
of the influence of bending and torsional moments
on ASA flanges is included in the paper by Rossheim
and Markl (29); results of tests on 4 in. 300 lb standard flanges are given in the paper by Markl and
George [87]. ASA flange strengths, when judged by
ASME Code analytical methods, are by no means
uniform, and the piping designer should be aware
that there is greater reserve strength in the smaller
sizes and lower-pressure classes than in the larger
sizes and higher-pressure classes. Good design prac-

78

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

tice indicates the desirability

of keeping flanged
joints at a minimum for operating and maintenance
conditions and, insofar as possible, locating needed
flanges in the most advantageous
location with respect to applied moments.
For routine design investigations of the effects of
loading other than internal
pressure on flanges
covered by ASME Code rules, The M. W. Kellogg
Company has found if is satisfactory
to calculate
first the maximum load per inch of gasket circumference due to the applied longitudinal
bending
moment and force. Then the internal pressure equivalent to this loading is determined.
Fi~ally the
Code design approach
is applied, assuming an
internal pressure equal to the design internal pres:"
sure plus the calculated pressure equivalent to the
other loads,
The equivalent
pressure, expressed
in formula form, is: Pc = (16MhrG3)
4FhrG2,
where M = longitudinal bending moment in-Ib; G=
diameter of effective gasket reaction as defined by
Code, in.; and F = longitudinal
force, lb. The
flange is checked for a pressure of p = P. + Pd,
where Pd = design operating
pressure.
Taking
the moment on the gasket center line is consistent
with analysis and experience which indicates that,
with a properly pretightened
flange, the bolt load
changes very little when a moment is applied,
whereas the gasket loading changes appreciably.
The most important point for practical design is
to establish a proper allowable stress- for such checks.
For steady loading other than thermal expansion the
same allowable stress as for internal pressure alone
should be used; for temporary
(short duration)
loading, an increase of 33.3% in the basic design
stresses is suggested. . Loading due to thermal expansion can be treated on a "stress range" basis
similar to the treatment
of thermal stresses in the
pipe itself; allowable stresses for both holts and
flange can he established accordingly.
From a stress
standpoint
there should be no question about this
procedure.
From a flange leakage standpoint the
validity of this approach is somewhat questionable,
particularly
under creep conditions.
Nonetheless,
it is only by such an approach that the demonstrated
capacity' of flanges to take rather sizeable moment
effects can be reasonably justified.
The M. W. Kellogg Company's satisfactory experience in checking
thermal moment effects has been based on an allow ..
able stress for both flange and bolts of
(Se
Sh)
as prescribed by the 1951 ASA Standard B31.1 Code
for piping
With adequately
pretightened
flange bolts the
thermal moment appears during the first heating

cycle. If the operating temperature

is sufficiently
high, both the holt stresses and thermal flange
moments will gradually relax due to creep in the
pipe line; leakage while hot would then depend on
the relative relaxation rates. Assuming substantial
hot relaxation, a sizeable thermal moment of opposite sign would develop when the line returns to
atmospheric temperature, and leakage may occur if
pressure is applied in the cold condition.
Thus there
are probably factors in the problem not adequately
assessed, and whether the increased stress range now
permitted by the Code can be applied to flange design without affecting tightness is not established.
The influence of torsional moments may be investigated
as indicated
in the Rossheim-Markl
paper [29]; as shown therein the capacity of ASA
flanges to take torsional moment is less than for
longitudinal moment.
This is generally true of all
flanges, unless special mechanical means such as
dowels or keys for transmitting torsion are provided;
caution is therefore in order when high torsional
moments may be imposed.
Generally, however,
flange leakage is not as much of a problem under
torsion as it is under bending.
Occasionally, special applications may warrant a
more extensive study of stress-strain relations in the
flanged joint.
This may be done by adapting the
approach presented by Wesstrom and Bergh [83],
and Blick [88, 891.
When selecting gasket dimensions for hot flanges
it is well to make the gasket as wide as can be satisfactorily seated by the initial ASME Code design
bolt load, rather than use a narrow width which will
just avoid extensive initial yielding or "crushing."
This will insure maximum resistance to creep under
operating conditions.
In petroleum service applications
the tightness
performance of high-temperature
flanges is usually
improved by leaving the flanges uninsulated
and
providing a weather shield only. The flange and
bolts then operate at a lower metal temperature and
relaxation is slowed. Where heat loss requires it,
the shield can be lightly insulated.
In power piping,
however, heat loss is much more a matter of concern,
making full insulation generally a necessity.
By -far the greatest leakage troubles with flanged
joints arise due to rapid temperature
changes or
quenches which create sizeable temperature
differences within the flange components.
Where these
conditions can be anticipated, flanges are preferably
avoided; if used, great care is warranted in their
selection and location.
The mating of dissimilar
types of flanges, such as Van Stone and integral

LOCAL COMPONENTS
types, generally tends to exaggerate difficulties
arising from temperature differences.
The problem of dissimilar flanged joints is briefly
discussed in Section 3.12.
3.12

Joints Between Dissimilar Materials

Individual piping systems may involve more than

one material, or may be connected to equipment
of different metal analysis, so that the influence
of intermediate or terminal joints between materials
of different physical properties must be considered.
A principal factor influencing these dissimilar joints
is the difference in expansion characteristics; others
are variations in hardness, electrolytic potential,
structure, ductility, and stiffness.
The transition in material may occur at a bolted
flange, a threaded coupling or union, a rolled connection, a weld, or at a special transition piece.
Potential difficulties in the form of leakage or failure
due to thermal cycling are related to the range and
frequency of temperature change, the differences in
material properties, and the details of the dissimilar
joint.
For low-temperature service, all of these types of
connections are successfully used. As the temperature is raised, threaded and rolled joints require
that the higher expansion material be inside. With
further increasing temperatures, the elastic stress
interaction is no longer maintained; this leads to
leakage and finally structural failure. Seal welding
does not permit appreciably higher temperatures, as
structural strength is not usually improved. All of
these forms of connections involve significant stress
raisers and localized areas of high deformations.
Hence, where repetitive cycles of wide temperature
range are involved, the probability of fatigue failure
dictates against their use.
For flanged joints consisting of integral buttwelded flanges of dissimilar material, (but each of
like analysis with the pipe to which it is attached),
leakage is dictated by the initial bolt stress and
gasket sealing properties, as compared with the
differential expansion between the bolts on the one
hand, and the flange and gasket on the other.
With certain types of gaskets, leakage may also
depend on the differential radial expansion at the
gasket center line. By using lapped or Van Stone
flanges, the flange and bolt temperatures are reduced, and the flanges and bolts can be made of the
same type of material, with differential expansion
limited to the Van Stone lips and gasket. The gasket
load must be sufficient to restrain the relative radial
movement of the lips, or the gasket must be of a

79

design which will maintain a seal under differential

expansion movement. While severe local stresses
proportional to the restraint are caused in the lips
(which must also carry the bending due to pressure
and structural loading), these stresses can and should
be confined to wrought, carefully contoured material,
so that reasonable fatigue life and satisfactory tightness can be obtained for high temperatures.
Dissimilar flanged joints of special design using bellowstype gaskets or pressure sealing have been utilized
in power plant service [90J. For joints between
ferritic and austenitic steel, the design selected should
be such as to permit the use of ferritic alloy bolts;
austenitic bolts are unsatisfactory because of their
low yield strength and high coefficient of expansion.
Bolted joints generally are avoided for extremetemperature service, a construction not involving
gasket sealing being preferred. With welded construction, leakage is no longer a factor. Satisfactory
service in this case depends upon the local strainrange differential, on the number of applications of
this strain range, and finally, upon the metallurgical
factors associated with presence of a weld.
Using the most common material combination
as an example, the austenitic steels have a coefficient
of expansion of about lOA X 10-6 in./in./F (within
the temperature range 70-1200 F), whereas the
low-chrome-alloy steels have a coefficient of about
8. X 10-6 in./in.jF.
When joined with a sharp
interface, this difference will induce stresses when the
joint is heated or cooled. For a butt joint between
pipes of equal thickness the maximum thermal
stress will be the circumferential (hoop) stress
developing at the junction, which has a magnitude of
a

=!E

AT Aa

(3.25)

Here E represents the modulus of elasticity (assumed

identical for both metals), AT the temperature
change, and Aa designates the difference between the
coefficients of expansion for the two metals. Applying a stress-relief at 1200 F to the junction and cooling the pipe then to 100 F, AT becomes 1100 F,
Aa is equal to 2.4 X 10-6/F.
Taking now E =
29 X lOG psi, a circumferential stress of 38,300 psi is
calculated (tensile in austenitic material and
compressive in Ierritic material).
The foregoing analysis assumes a thin cylinder
and evaluates only the differential radial deflection
at the mean radius. In addition to this effect, there
is also a discontinuity at the interface due to the
differential change in thickness of the two materials
which will introduce further local radial stresses of
equal magnitude, tensile in the one material and

..............

~... -...--'----------------

80

DESIGN OF PIPING
Au!.lenilrc

AUitcnilic.

Steel

Weld

Insidl!! and outside grOIJlld s.mooth and

wbslon.liolly flush elree we!dltl9

FIG.3.17

Dissimilar weld joint, 15 interface.

compressive in the other. The resulting state of

equal biaxial stress will raise the calculated stresses
by a factor of 1/ (1 - v). A more detailed analysis
would disclose some edge-bending stresses across the
junction.
A simple butt weld approaches the above assumptions and appears at least the equal of other possible
details from a standpoint of stress magnitude. Stress
is, however, only one factor determining performance; its influence must be weighed along with that
of other factors. One of these factors is the particular
detail of the joint. For example, connecting an
austenitic pipe branch to a ferritic header would
force almost all of the differential strain into the
austenitic part. This would increase the maximum
stress by a factor of about 3.6, <1S compared to the
simple butt weld.
Al:. in the case of overall thermal expansion strains
in piping systems, the performance of dissimilar
joints would be dependent on the number of cycles
and the strain range per cycle. While such joints
generally give satisfactory service in constant
temperature operation with relatively few temperature cycles and an absence of sudden quenching
conditions, many joints subjected to more severe
conditions have failed. Investigations conducted
on this subject [27, 91, 92, 93], and experience
indicate that metallurgical factors and flaws seriously
affect performance when associated with plastic
deformation due to yielding or creep. The heataffected zone on the ferritic side of the dissimilar
weld has been shown to be the most critical zone,
due possibly to reduced ductility of the mixed analysis in the fusion zone and metallurgical changes
during the course of the test or service which result
in strain concentration at this location. From a
stress standpoint the superposition of internal
pressure loading and external longitudinal loading
reduced the number of cycles which could be withstood in a hot fatigue test at constant temperature.
While all welds withstood a large number of cycles,
a somewhat improved performance was obtained by

SYSTEMS

changing the weld bevel so that the heat-affected

zone on the ferritic side was more inclined (Fig. 3.17).
These tests did not, however, include the effect of
differential expansion stresses, so that improved
performance resulting from inclining the ferritic
heat-affected zone may in this case be attributed
largely to the lower axial stress component in this
critical zone.
When Carpenter et al. [92] changed from a hot
fatigue test to a thermal quenching test, the number
of cycles which could be withstood dropped drastically, failures being experienced after76 to 318 cycles,
as compared to 89,000 or more for the hot test.
Weisberg and Soldan {93], in a separate series of
tests, obtained no failures after 100 quench cycles.
Under such drastic quenching appreciable additional
thermal stresses are introduced because of transient
temperature differences across the wall thickness.
The possibility of improving the performance of
dissimilar joints by inclining the bond line originated
with The M. W. Kellogg Company and was aimed
at a largely longitudinal interface rather than one
transverse to the pipe axis. This method has been
incorporated in the design of special joints made by
the Kelcaloy process (Fig. 3.18). Tests [91, 93] and
service experience over a period of six years show
excellent performance. Whereas differential expansion stresses are likely to be somewhat higher
than in a simple butt joint, the primary advantages
over a conventional weld or a weld simulating the
construction lie in the essentially longitudinal
interface and in the unique manufacturing process. 23
The physical properties of metal deposited by this
process are consistently superior to those obtained
23Described by Blumberg and Bunn in their discussion of
Weisberg's paper [91].
tntericce

Intorface

FIG. 3.18

AIJ'lenitic

SIeo1

Au.lonitit SI I

Kelcaloy transition pieces.

LOCAL COMPONENTS
by ordinary casting or welding methods. Austenitic
sections, for example, are significantly free of microfissuring. In addition, progressiverand rapid solidification around the entire circumference of the bond
zone occurs simultaneously, resulting in greater uniformity, minimum residual stresses, and less acute
material transition and heat-affected zones.
The Kelcaloy process is also being used to produce
joints with a simple butt bond substantially transverse to the pipe axis. Their principal advantage
over welded joints again lies in the metallurgical
superiority and relative soundness inherent in the
process of manufacture.
Additional advantages
are: only one heat-affected zone compared to two in
a conventional weld, and adaptability of the process
to produce and closely control special chemical
analyses. As an example of the latter advantage,
carbon migration at the interface (which has been
experienced at ferritic-austenitic junctions and
which hastened some failures) can be combated by
introducing a carbide stabilizer, such as columbium,
into the chrome-molybdenum steel, leading to an
analysis which is not generally available.
While this discussion has emphasized that metallurgical aspects greatly influence dissimilar weld
performance, detailed discussion of this subject is
not within the scope of this book. Principal factors,
however, can be listed as follows:
1. Carbon migration resulting in a carbon-depleted zone in the ferritic steel near the austenitic
weld interface.
2. Formation of sigma phase in the austenitic
material near the interface.
3. Abrupt change in structure and physical properties of weld metal and heat-affected zone resulting
in a "metallurgical notch."
4. Tendency of austenitic weld deposits toward
microfissuring.
5. Oxidation or other corrosive notching at the
ferritic material junction accelerated by local strain.
The discussion in reference [92] will be found interesting and instructive. There is still a great deal to
be learned about austenitic and dissimilar-joint
welding and the service performance of austenitic
welds. The same can be said in general about the
high-temperature performance of the heat-affected
zones of all types of welds under plastic deformation
and creep conditions. Where weld difficulties have
been encountered in service, the preponderance of
cracking has been associated with heat-affected
zones.
In important practical applications of dissimilar
joints for high-temperature service, no matter what

81

type of design and fabrication technique is decided

upon, every effort should be made to eliminate
mechanical stress raisers.
Weld reinforcement
should be built up to effect an anneal of the preceding
layer and then should be removed without notches
or other surface stress raisers near the weld; machining is preferred where practicable. Backing rings
should be avoided, and controlled inside contour
welds (K-Weld) should be used where back welding
cannot be accomplished. The joint should be examined for soundness by the best nondestructive
methods applicable.
3.13 Other Components

Various components other than those specifically

mentioned in individual sections of this chapter
may be encountered, but insofar as their influence on
the flexibility and fatigue performance of the system
is concerned, the principles outlined in this chapter
usually can be applied as necessary. Some deserve
at least brief additional comment.
A valve should be able to carry loading from
attached piping similar to a standard tee of comparable pressure-temperature rating, but as a further
consideration should be sufficiently free from warpage or distortion to permit operation and tight
shutoff. These problems are within the province of
the individual manufacturer; their engineering has
advanced considerably in recent years, particularly
for high-pressure, high-temperature service. As
in the case of flanges, care should be exercised in using
low pressure rating valves with relatively heavy
walled pipe, since the imposed moment as erected
or due to expansion may be beyond their structural
capacity.
For large-diameter piping, valves are
sometimes used with venturi ports (particularly
when motor operated) or standard valves one or
two sizes smaller are used with reducers in conventional lines. The bodies of venturi valves are usually designed with consideration for the moment
which may be applied by the larger piping. Similarly, when using standard smaller valves, such
piping moments must be given consideration.
Flanged fittings of either cast or wrought steel
(ASA Standard BlG.5) are capable of developing the
full structural strength of their flanges; for further
comments on the moment capacity of flanges see
Section 3.11 of this chapter. This applies to tees,
crosses and elbows. The pressure rating of such
fittings is given in the ASA Standard and commented
on in Chapter 2.
Screwed and socket welding fittings (ells, tees, crosses,
unions, and couplings), whether cast or wrought

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

82
M:: Applied

Momenl (in 11x.)

....-----....

.."

p
inl.rnol
proUUr.
p.i

(I)

......._M---F '" El<1.mal axial end forto (Ibl.)

(po.iliv. in diredion .now.)
(Total end Iorce '" f pi hydro.lolic
end load d". 10 pre .. uro p)

FlO. 3.19

Conical transition.

steel, are similarly furnished to nominal pressure

ratings and are limited to small sizes and generally
to moderate service conditions. Screwed joints are
obviously limited in their capacity for transmittng
torsional moment. Actually, in plumbing practice
they are often relied upon to relieve thermal expansion by permitting a small angular rotation of
one thread upon the other. a practice, however,
which not infrequently results in leakage. In tension or bending, screwed fittings can be depended
upon to be equal in strength to unthreaded pipe of
the same rating, but due allowance for metal removed
in threading must be made in determining the wall
thickness of the pipe. For cyclic effects (mechanical
or thermal), screwed joints involve the stress-raiser
effect of the threads, an effect not entirely eliminated
even with heavy seal welds. At the higher temperatures, seal welding is usually necessary to prevent leakage. Socket welding fittings also involve
the stress intensification effect of fillet welds, but are
superior to threaded joints if the welds are adequate.
Threaded and socket-welded fitting joints would be
expected to involve stress intensifications in line
with the fatigue test results obtained for flanges of
threaded and single-welded socket types.
The thicknesses of blind flanges in ASA Standard
B16.5 are the same as those of functional flanges.
For nonstandard cover plates, the rules of the
ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code may be used;
it should be mentioned, however, that the ASA blind
flanges are of lesser thickness than those resulting
from the application of these rules. Ellipsoidal

welding caps are commonly used, as presently covered by ASA Standard BlG.9. Individual applications for larger sizes or special shapes, including flat
heads, may be checked using the rules of the ASME
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code.
Markl [12] has fatigue-tested smoothly contoured
commercial reducers and finds a stress intensification
factor of unity justified. For the design of special
conical reducers reference can be made to the interpretive report of the work of the Design Division
of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee [94] on
pressure vessel heads. For the particular case of a
sharp cone-to-cylinder junction the local stresses
at the intersection can be closely approximated by
using the familiar beam on an elastic foundation
analysis and treating the cone as though it were a
cylinder having a radius equal to the meridional
radius of the cone at the junction. The resulting
stresses due to an internal pressure p and external
loads F and 111 are given by the following formulas
(with Poisson's ratio 1', taken as 0.3):
Outside intersection (Point (1) in Fig. 3.19)
Sa

Cone {

= -C1

ScI

SI =

Cyl.

=F1.81GCa+ (pRj2tn cos a)

(pR/tn cos a) =F 0.546C3

=F1.816n2C3

= -

Se

C2

+ (pR/2t)

(pR/t) =F 0.546n2C3

Re-entrant intersection (Point (2) in Fig. 3.19'

Cone

== 1.816C3

Sl

SIZ

C~.

+ (pR/2t2n

cos a)

{
ScI

scz

== C1 + (pR/t2n cos a) 0.546C3

= 1.816nzC3 + (pR2/2t2)

= C2 + (pR2/tZ) 0.546n C3
2

In these equations upper signs refer to the stresses in

the outer fibers and lower signs to those in the inner
fibers. The subscripts land c refer to longitudinal
and circumferential stresses, respectively; a positive
sign denotes tension. The constants appearing above
are given by the following expressions:

~'l[C5(

vncosa+

~2)

- c, (2vn
C2=~4

cos a + 1 +

1~2)]

[C5(vncosa+~2)

+ c, (n2 + 1 + Y.n 2cos a)]

LOCAL COMPONENTS
03

n 04

[Os(Vn

COS

+ 1) + C (n

1)]

< ...

04
Os

=n

12

+ 2 (Vn

VR[PR -= 2.57 -l5

t.

cos

a+ 1+

MJ

+ 211"R
-F + 'K'R2
-

Vn

tan

1
COS

, for m-

tersection (1)
= 2.57 ~v'R;[PR2t2 .
2

F + --2
M ]
+ -211"Rz 1rR2

.
tan o.f'or in-

tersection (2)
06

0.85pR (1
t

= -0.85 pRz
t2

1_)

for intersection (1)

n cos a

(1__n cos1_) for intersection

(2)

= ttlt for intersection

= h/tz for intersection

(1)
(2)

It has been assumed in the above that the intersections are far enough apart (about 2

rnt:'
\}~

min) so

that their local effects do not influence each other

significantly. The maximum fiber load due to the
external moment is taken as though it were uniform
around the circumference; this approximation is
considered to be on the safe side.
The special case when tl cos a = t is of interest
for intersection (1). When n = l/c08 a the stress
formulas for this intersection reduce to:
Cone

Sel

= - (1 + cos" a 1.089cos2 a)C7

S/

Cyl.

SII
{

S,

=F3.63C7 cos" a

(pR/2t)

+ (pR/t)

= =F3.63C7 + (pR/2t)
= - (1 + cos2 1.089)01 + (pR/t)
C(

where C7
=

2.57 sin a cos a

[v'RJ[PR
1 + 6 C052 a + cos" a F "2

M ]

+ 27('R + 'lfR2

For consistent treatment with other stress intensifications in the ASA Code for Pressure Piping, rolledpipe data should be chosen as a basis of comparison.
Therefore, the calculated maximum stress as given
by the above formulas should be divided by two when
comparing with the usual expansion stress limits.
3.14 Piping and Equipment

IntcrcfTccts

In the over-all picture a piping system and the

mutually connected equipment, structures, Iounda-

83

tions, and soil constitute an integrated structural

system with equilibrium of interloading effects.
Each part of this structural system is influenced by
its individual environment, e.g. pressure, temperature, weight, etc.,.as well as by the effects transmitted
from attached parts of the system.
Ordinarily, supporting structures, foundations, and
soil are subject only to ambient temperatures, and
are sufficiently rigid so that deflections under pipe
expansion, etc., are small enough to be neglected.
Sometimes, however, temperature rise is unavoidable in .steel structures; slender or high structures
may also, in combination with their foundations,
involve significant deflections under even moderate
reactions. Connected equipment will undergo dimensional changes which may augment or decrease
the thermal expansion loading. The fabrication and
assembly of such an integrated structural system
necessarily involves deviations from nominal dimensions. Hence the fitting of piping, in combination
with weld shrinkage, sets up initial internal stresses
which at the weakest location of the system may
equal the yield strength. All such conditions must
be recognized and provided for by the piping
designer.
For simplification in analysis, the ends of a piping
system are usually considered fixed at the equipment
connections. Obviously, this is a limiting condition
for the maximum reaction ilocalized bending or direct
loading of the equipment, by causing deflection or
rotation, serve to reduce the piping reaction. The
result will be an intermediate fixity between fixedand hinged-end conditions. While the conventional
assumption of complete fixation may seem unnecessarily severe, it must not be inferred that excessive
additional safety results. It is possible to deviate
from fixed-end assumptions without increased risk
of fatigue damage to connection equipment only
when analysis is made of the bending stresses in the
equipment whose localized deflections are being
utilized. When dealing with rotating or other equipment where alignment is sensitive to distortion,
piping can seldom be permitted to exceed the stiffness obtained with fixed-end assumptions.
Considerable misunderstanding on the part of
equipment designers relative to piping reactions has
existed in the past. Manufacturers sometimes have
made it a condition of their warranty that no piping
reactions be transmitted to their equipment.
In
other cases, forces have been limited to unreasonably
low values, while completely ignoring the more important effects of bending moments. Such impractical
criteria, however, are detrimental to all concerned,

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

including the equipment manufacturer, as the piping
designer is left without a usable guide.
At present, the more progressive manufacturers
attempt to provide more realistic load carrying capacities or offer to check their equipment, on large
critical units, for the reactions of the proposed piping.
The problems which they face should be appreciated
by the piping designer. With moving parts and the
need for close clearances, all strain must be carefully
controlled to avoid misalignment, rubbing, binding,
excessive wear, or other maloperation, At the same
time, the involved and discontinuous contours usually
required are not amenable to a reliable evaluation of
either deflections or stresses. Thus, the manufacturer is often forced to rely on the judicious use of
experience or the projection of occasional test data
to individual equipment.
The magnitude of effects at sensitive equipment
should be kept low particularly when cost is not
significantly increased by so doing. This objective
may be approached by providing local pipe flexibility in complex systems to favor the equipment,
using local restraints to take reactions directly or
to force deflection into other portions of the system
(discussed further in Chapter 8); by an over-all
increase in the flexibility of the system; or by a
favorable relative positioning of the equipment.
The potential influence of effects on equipment may
often be moderated by the selection of types which
are relatively insensitive to distortion and misalignment. Also, the location of equipment should be
such as to keep pipe sizes to a minimum insofar as
practicable, a point of particular concern in regard
to the larger lines (e.g. pump suction and driver
exhaust lines).
In the absence of suitable manufacturer's data or
applicable experience, approximations for limiting
Table 3.5

Allowable End Reaction

reactions on such equipment have been suggested.

These are no more than rules of thumb which represent experience alone without supporting analysis.
Various factors are used as indices, either individually or in combinations, such as weight, cross section,
suction or discharge nozzle sizes (and rating), cubic
volume, and pressure shell thickness-to-diameter
ratio. For many years piping reaction limits of
1000 to 3000 pounds were specified regardless of
size or details of the equipment involved. Such
limits are now generally considered meaningless.
Other approaches relate metal cross section to
different unit values for resultant forces and moments. Pressure shell thickness/radius ratios are
also employed sometimes to establish the potential
maximum pressure which that portion of the shell
can withstand.
A more accurate evaluation of
local moment capacity of surfaces of revolution is
given elsewhere in this section.
Cubic volume is not a significant parameter. It
has been used largely in the absence of equipment
weight, by assuming an overall density 2 to 5 times
that of water. Weight, where obtainable, is a more
suitable parameter and is usually increased by the
estimated weight of the contents. In either approach, the weight is considered as the maximum
value which the resultant force may attain.
Suction or discharge nozzle sizes provide a more
comprehensive index of rotating equipment design,
since they reflect equipment size. Pressure may be
assumed to maintain a rough balance between pipe
and equipment stiffness. Based on a survey of
acceptable piping designs for equipment piping,
Rossheim and Markl [29] proposed the cube of (pipe
OD plus 3 in.) as a criterion to which constants were
applied to establish the maximum axial and lateral
forces in pounds or bending moments in foot pounds.

Exerted by Connected Piping on Pumps,

Vessels

Type of End
Reaction
Forces,lb
Moments, in.-Ib
Radial reaction, including weight of pump riser,
etc.
,
Tangential reactions, any direction .
Longitudinal bending moment .
Circumferential bending moment
Twisting moment

Turbine

Casings, and Pressure

Wolosewick for Maximum Temperature 650 Ft

RossheimMarkl*

4-Point Support
Actual
Value

Maximum
Allowable

2-Point Supports
Actual
Value

Maximum
Allowable
2,700
900
10,000
22,000
18,000

3.25DJ
1.50D3

250D
100D

4,000
1,500

300D
85D

60DJ

2700D

40,000

1700D

*In this column D denotes the OD of the pipe increased by 3 in.

tD is equal to the sum of the nominal diameters of suction and discharge decreased by 15% for every 50 F increase over 650 F.

'.:,..

LOCAL COMPONENTS
Wolosewick [951additionally varied allowable reactions to suit the type support (2 to 4 point), and
service temperature. The limitS advanced in these
two papers are tabulated in Table 3.5.
The Rossheim-Markl study also brought out the
fact that expansion stresses in the piping studied
ranged from 1000 to 6000 psi. This and subsequent
experience led to the following practice used with
success by The M. W. Kellogg Company for the
past five years. The combined stress due to bending
and torsion is calculated for an assumed pipe having
a size and wall thickness equal to that of the nozzle
and connecting pipe, respectively. This stress is
limited to 6000 psi.
In establishing limits for pipe loads, consideration
must also be given to the capacity of equipment
supports: that is, anchor bolts, bed plate, steel structure, and foundation each in turn must be able to
accommodate the pipe loads.
The effect of localized concentrated forces and
moments on shells is of widespread importance in the
design of piping. The resulting bending and direct
stresses and their effect on fatigue life are important
factors in establishing satisfactory structural design
not only for tees, branch connections on pipes, and
nozzles on pressure vessels, but also for supporting
saddles, lugs, trunions, legs, hangers, and similar
attachments.
Due to a lack of symmetry and
variation in cross section, the theoretical analysis
of these local effects is not only laborious but, up to
the present time, has been accomplished only for
special limited cases.
An intensive investigation of the problem of local
loadings on cylindrical shells was begun in 1952
by a special subcommittee of the Pressure Vessel
Research Committee Design Division. The first
results of this program were presented in P. P.
Bijlaard's papers [51, 9GJ dealing with the effect of
radial loads and local moments, and evaluating the
case of a localized uniformly distributed radial load
acting over a finite area of a cylindrical surface.
A comparison of analytical results [51J with values
extrapolated from experimental results available in
the literature [97, 98] shows reasonable agreement.
An additional theoretical treatment covering the
application of local circumferential and longitudinal
bending moments has recently been published [52).
These investigations, as well as experience on the
behavior of surfaces of revolution under localized
effects, provide a general understanding of the moment distribution and stress patterns attendant to
such loading. Individual analyses, however, are
exceedingly lengthy and involved, so that the aim is

L,

85

to provide simplified approaches with a reasonable

understanding of the extent of their deviation from
more accurate solutions.
Along this line, The M. W. Kellogg Company has
made use of an approximate solution based on the
bending of a beam on an elastic foundation, to evaluate the local shell stresses resulting from a nozzle
bending moment, or radial thrust on a cylindrical
or spherical shell. The piping moment is simulated
by a uniform circumferential radial line load equal
to the maximum reaction (lb per linear in.) at the
edge of the nozzle neck. With this unit load, the
shell bending and resulting stress is established
similar to the effect of a narrow shrink ring loading,
the unit moment being applied to the shell thickness
or combined shell and pad thickness where remforced. The formula used in this approach is:
S =
where S

1.17VR
t1.5

[Pi

+ 1.5F 1
2

(3.26)

local longitudinal bending stress m

shell, psi.
R = meridional radius of shell, in.
t = effective local thickness of shell, in.
(shell thickness plus reinforcing pad
thickness).
Fl = unit loading due to applied longitudinal'" bending moment (lb per linear
in.).
= M /rrR/ where M = moment, in-lb,
and R; = mean radius of nozzle connection.
F 2. = unit loading due to a radial thrust, lb
per m.
=' P /27rRn where P = total thrust, lb.
=

The combined local stress due to thermal reactions

and internal pressure is held to the same total allowable stress range as for the piping itself [1.25
(So + SII )]. As noted previously, the thermal reactions must be based on the full expansion and the
cold modulus of elasticity. The individual hot and
cold reactions cannot be used for this purpose,
While this check is not precise, it has resulted in
safe designs over a considerable period of years. At
least, it provides a simple method for consistent
design and, when more precise methods are developed, it will afford a basis by which the results of
the new proposals may be assessed in terms of past
experience. There is one further interesting observa24For a circumferential moment it is believed that the
bending stress (circumferential) may be in some cases up to
several times that indicated for a longitudinal moment.

86

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

tion which can be made. If a moment loading only is

1.11VR
M
assumed, eq. 3.26 becomes S = . ;.5 X --2' If
t
"lrRn
the thickness of the nozzle is t this may be written as
S

_/ -tn)
( 1.17v R""l:5
t

--2-u;
i.

The portion of this expression enclosed in brackets

represents the stress intensification factor as used
in the Piping Code. For identical shell and nozzle
thicknesses the factor reduces to 1.17 (R/t)H. The
similarity of this to the factor suggested by the Piping Code for full-size tee intersections, O.9(R/l)%, is
noteworthy.
The same shrink ring loading approach has been
used by The M. W. Kellogg Company to determine
the rotations of nozzle connections due to the local
deflection of the vessel shell under the influence of
piping moments, viz:
cp

2.46M
E

[_!i_J~~
rm2t

(3.27)

where

cp = angular rotation, radians.

M = moment acting at nozzle, It-lb.
r- = mean radius of nozzle, in.
R == radius of vessel, in.
t = thickness of vessel shell, including reinforcing pad, in.
E = modulus of elasticity of shell material,
Ib/in.2
.
As is the case with the preceding treatment of
stress, this equation for rotation is connected with a
longitudinal moment. Where this moment acts in a
circumferential direction, tests indicate that the
flexibility may be several times greater. However,
the localized stress is not likely to be lowered, so that,
for the sake of simplicity the same approach is used
for moments in either direction. This approximation
enables the piping designer to deal with partial end
fixation by introduction of a virtual length as follows:
The end rotation of a cantilever subjected to a
moment applied at the end is
cb =

144MLjEI

(3.28)

where M and L have dimensions of ft-lb and ft

respectively. Equating this expression to eq. 3.27
yields
(3.29)

where L represents the virtual length of a fictitious

extension having the same rigidity as the pipe line.

Thus, as shown in Section 5.13, the rotation of the

nozzle becomes expressible in the form of shape coefficients which can be added to the usual summations
to obtain the equations. No deformation of the shell
plate is assumed to occur as a result of torsional
moment, making no correction necessary for such
loading.
An influence which is sometimes neglected, save
for its effects on the piping proper, is end pressure reaction. Sometimes a piping system is referred
to as an "open end cylinder" with the implication
that longitudinal pressure stresses are absent. This
would be true only in straight runs between infinitelv
stiff vessels wh'ich undergo no deflection under th'e
pressure reaction of the pipe cross section, or where
frictionless expansion joints are provided.
With the introduction of expansion joints, 01'
other provisions incapable of transmitting the full
longitudinal pressure stress, the end pressure reaction at each fitting, or opposite each nozzle on a
vessel, must be considered in the overall structural
design. Provisions for carrying this unbalanced
reaction must not. adversely affect the freedom of the
joint to absorb intended movements. Further discussion on this point will be found in Chapter 7.
Piping Reactions.
When a piping system is designed to the Piping Code, the maximum expected
hot and cold reactions, and the reaction range due
to thermal expansion, are established by the Code
rules (see Chapter 2) for the design of anchors and
checking of terminal equipment. Erection stresses
and hence the 'initial cold reactions are not included,
however, since these are related to fabrication and
erection details and cannot be predicted in magnitude or sign unless adequate means are provided for
their control. Upon heating, the initial effects combine with those due to expansion, their magnitude
being limited by the yield point at the service
temperature.
Subsequently, relaxation lowers the
maintained service stress as dictated by the material
creep properties and the relieved strain reappears
as a cold stress at ambient temperature, the adjustment of strain between service and ambient conditions being termed "self-springing." The Piping
Code cold reaction reflects this self-sprung state and
does not consider the initial (as erected) condition;
the Code hot reaction on the other hand reflects
the maximum expected reaction (without erection
stresses) rather than the final reaction after adjustment.
Careful erection and, in particular, controlled prespringing before service can be used to limit the
maximum reactions, by assuring their occurrence

LOCAL COMPONENTS
predominately or entirely at the ambient temperature. The Piping Code rules for reactions allow for
the effect of prespring, which gains practical significance in this respect only when it is 50% or greater.
Emphasis on the provision of maximum prespring,
approaching 100%, is usually limited to large critical
equipment where maximum assurance against possible distortion at high service temperatures is
essential.
Where a. piping system is designed to meet limiting reactions, or for other reasons is to operate at
stresses of a low order, (as is the case with large
turbines, compressors, etc.), the magnitude of the
initial cold reactions as erected may be many times
that of the reactions corresponding to expansion, if
special procedures are not followed. For such systems prespring is a necessity, and should be accomplished in an effective manner. Temporary supports
should involve no restriction which will not exist in
service, making it usually desirable that the final
joint be at a low elevation, and located where the
permanent supports alone will suffice. Formerly,
prespring was accomplished by the accurate fabrication of a final section to offset the free (and presumably unrestrained) line by the desired amount
of prespring on each axis. Subsequent forcing of the
ends together was then presumed to provide the required amount of prespring. This approach ordinarily ignored the rotations. Recently, therefore,
The M. W. Kellogg Company has followed the practice of establishing, by precalculation (see Chapter 5),
the desirable locations of forces and moments to be
applied to introduce the moments required for the
desired magnitude of prestress, and simultaneously
bring the ends for the final joint into alignment.
This carefully measured loading is maintained while
the final joint is welded or bolted up, and post heattreated. To avoid possible additional plastic deformation in this final weld, an adjacent location in
the pipe can be stress relieved before this operation
is accomplished on the weld. Prespring can be
further controlled by the use of strain gages to check
the degree of accuracy to which the desired result
is being achieved.
In the conventional assembly of piping to pumps,
turbines, etc., damage by distortion or misalignment
due to fabrication effects can be avoided by thermally unloading the completed piping near the
terminal equipment. This is accomplished by controlled local heating similar to stress relief, or, in
less critical instances, by merely locally heating a
circumferential area with one or more torches to
reduce the fabrication effects at that location to

87

the yield stress of the material for the applied

temperature.
References
1. A. Bantlin, "Formsnderung und Beanspruchuag federnder
Ausgleichrobre," Z., V.D.I., Vol. 54, pp. 43-49 (1910).
2. Th. von Karman, "Uber die Formsnderung dunnwandiger
Rohre, insbesondere
Iedernder
Ausgleichrohre,"
Z.,
V.D.l., Vol. 55, pp. 1889-1895 (1911).
3. H. Lorenz, "Die Biegung Krummer Rohre," Z. Physik,
Vol. 13, pp. 768-774 (19l2).
4. M. Marbec, "Flexibilite des tubes," Bulletin de l'Associalion Technique Maritime, Vol. 22, pp. 441-457 (1911).
5. W. Hovgaard, "The Elastic Deformation of Pipe Bends,"
J. Math. and Phsjs., M.l.T., Vol. 6, No.2, pp. 69-118
(1926).
6. H. Karl, "Biegung gekrummter, dunnwandiger Rohre,"
Z. Angew, Math. Mee}!., Vol. 23, pp. 331-345 (1943).
7. I. Vigness, "Elastic
Properties
of Curved Tubes,"
TraM. ASME, Vol. 65, pp. 105-120 (1943).
8. L. Beskin, "Bending of Curved Thin Tubes," J. Applied
Mechanics, Vol. 12, pp. 1-7 (1945).
9. E. Reissner, "On Bending of Curved Thin-Walled Tubes,"
Proc. Nal. Acad. Sci. US, Vol. 35, pp.204-209 (1949).
10. R. A. Clark and E. Reissner, "Bending of Curved Tubes,"
Advances in Applied Mechanics, Vol. 2, pp. 93-122,
Academic Press, InG., 1951.
ll. H. E. Jenks, "Discussion to W. H. Shipman's paper:
'Design of Stearn Piping to Care for Expansion,' " Trans.
ASME, Vol. 51, pp. 443-444 (1929).
12. A. R. C. Markl, "Fatigue Tests of Piping Components,"
Trans. ASME, Vol. 74, pp. 287-303 (1952).
13. W. Hovgaard, "Tests on High-Pressure Pipe Bends,"
J. Math. ami Phue., M.I.T., Vol. 8, No.4, pp. 293-344
(1929).
14. P. S. Symonds and T. E. Pardue, "Characteristics
of
Short-Radius Tube Bends," Naval Res. Lab. Report No.
0-2761, Feb. 18, 1946.
15. W. Hovgaard, "Deformation of Plane Pipes; Further
Research on Pipe Bends," J. Math. ami Phys., M.l.T.,
Vol. 7, Nos. 3 and 4, pp. 198-238 and 239-297 (1928).
16. W. Hovgaard,
"Stresses in Three-Dimensional
Pipe
Bends," Trans. ASME, Vol. 57, pp. 401-415 (1935).
17. A. M. Wahl, "Stresses and Reactions in Expansion Pipe
Bends," TraM. ASME, Vol. 50, pp. 241-255 (1923).
18. J. R. Finniecome, "The Flexibility of Plain Pipes," Engineer, Vol. 146, pp. 162-165, 199-200, 218-219, 246-248
(1928).
19. A. M. Wahl, J. W. Bowley, and G. Back, "Stresses in
Turbine Pipe Bends," Mech. Eng., Vol. 51, pp. 823-828
(1929).
20. S. Crocker and A. McCutchan, "Frictional Resistance
and Flexibility of Seamless-Tube Fittings Used in Pipe
Welding," Trans. ASME, Vol. 53, pp. 215-245 (1931).
21. E. T. Cope and E. A. Wert, "Load-Deflection Relations
for Large Plain, Corrugated, and Creased Pipe Bends,"
Trans. ASME, Vol. 54, pp. 115-159 (1932).
22. F. M. Hill, "Solving Pipe Problems," MIlCh. Eng., Vol. 63,
pp. 19-22 (1941).
23. T. E. Pardue and I. Vigness, "Properties of Thin-Walled
Curved Tubes of Short-Bend Radius," Tram. A,')M E,
Vol. 73, pp. 77-84 (1951).

88

DESIGN OF PIPING

24. N. Gross, "Discussion to J. R. Finniccome's paper,"

Inst. Mech, Eng., Proc., Vol. 158, p. 377 (1948).
25. N. Gross, "Experiments on Short-Radius Pipe Bends,"
British Weld. Res. Assn. Publ. FE'1.6/9, 1951.
26. N. Gross and H. Ford, "The Flexibility of Short-Radius
Pipe Bends," Heating and Air Treatm, Engrs., Vol. 16,
PJl. 152-155, 197-200, 210-216 (1953).
27. W. C. Stewart and W. G. Schreita, "Thermal Shock and
Other Comparison Teats of Austenitic and Ferritic Steels
for Main Steam Piping-A
Summary Report," 1'rans.
ASJlfE, Vol. 75, pp. 1051-1072 (1953).
28. P. L. Vissat and A. J. DelBuono, "In-Plane Bending
Properties of Welding Elbows," 1'rans. ASME, Vol. 77,
pp. 161-175 (1955).
29. D. B. Rossheim und A. It C. Markl, "The Significance of,
and Suggested Limits for, the Stress in Pipe Linea Due to
the Combined Effects of Pressure and Expansion," Trans.
ASJlfE, Vol. 62, pp. 443-460 (1940).
30. A. R. C. Markl, "Fatigue Tests of Welding Elbows and
Comparable Double-Mitre Bends," Trans. ASME, Vol.
69, pp. 860-879 (1947).
31. H. Lorenz, "Theone der Rohrenfedermanometer,"
Z.,
V.D.I., Vol. 54, pp. 1865-1867 (1910).
32. W. R. Dean, "The Distortion of a Curved Tube due to
Internal Pressure," Phil. Mag., Vol. 28, Scr, 7, pp. 452464 (1939).
33. D. H. Zcno, Discussion to reference 23, Trans. ASME,
Vol. 73, pp. 84-87 (1951).
34. D. S. Jacobus, "Openings in Cylindrical Drums," Mech.
Eng., Vol. 54, pp. 368-370 (1932).
35. F. L. Everett and A. McCutchan, "Investigation of Stress
Conditions in a Full-Size Welded Branch Connection,"
Trans. ASME, Vol. 60, pp. 399-410 (193S).
36. T. W. Greene, "Importance of Design Control for Welded
Piping Systems," Welding J. (N.Y.), Vol. 15, pp. 7-11
(1936).
37. S. Crocker, "Welded Fabrication of Manifolds and Special
Fittings for Piping," Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol.
9, pp. 15-20 (1937).
3S. A. i\!CCUt.chUD,"Dripping High Pressure, High Temperature Steam Piping," Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol.
10, pp. 501-503 (1938).
39. E. W. P. Smith, "Tailored Pipe Joints," Power, Vol. 82,
pp, 142-145, 200 (193S).
40. Crane Co. Reports, "8" Pipe Header with S" Reinforced
Side Outlet," R. L. No. 4455, Aug. 26, 1937; "Welded Steel
PipeHeaders,"RL-4455,EP-D-62,
Mny25, 1939; "Welded
Nozzles on Piping," RL-4857, EP-D-82, Aug. 9, 1939.
41. E. H. Seabloom, "Welded Pipe Headers and Their Reinforcement,"
Welding J. (N.Y.), Vol. 20, pp. 577-586
(1941 ).
42. L. W. Tuttle, "Importance of Controlling Design and
Fabrication of Welded Joints for Gathering Lines, Manifolds and Drips," American Gas Association, Distribution
Conference Paper, April, 1!l36.
43. F. C. Fantz and W. G. Hooper, "Welded Nozzles and
Their Reinforcement," WeldingJ. (N.Y.), Vol. 19, pp. 119125 (1940).
44. F. C .. Fantz, "Design and Fabrication of High Pressure,
High Temperature Welded Piping," Heaiinq, Piping and
Air Cond., Vol. 10, pp. 329-332 (1938).
45. E. R. Scabloom, Discussion to reference 35, Tran.s.
ASME, Vol. 61, pp. 170-175 (1939).

SYSTEMS

46. A. McCutehan, "Fabrication Details for High Pressure

and Temperature Piping," Heating, Piping and Air Cond.,
Vol. 11, pp. 141-144, 215-218 (1939).
47. Sulzer Technical Reviews No.3, 1934, ct. seq., to No.2,
1941, Sulzer Brothers Limited, Winterthur, Switzerland.
4S. J. S. Blair, "Reinforcement of Branch Pieces," Engineering, Vol. 162, pp. 1-4, 217-221, 508-511, 529-533,
553-556,577-581, 588, 605-606 (1946).
49. N. Gross, "Researches on Welded Pressure Vessels and
Pipelines," British Welding J., Vol. 1, pp. 149-159 (1954).
50. J. H. Snndaker, J. A. Markovits, and K B. Bredtschneider, "High Pressure (10,300 psi) Piping, Flanged
Joints, Fittings and Valves for Coal-Hydrogenation
Service," Trans. ASME, Vol. 72, pp. 365-372 (1!)50).
51. P. P. Bijlaard, "Stresses from Radial Loads in Cylindrical
Pressure Vessels," Welding J. (N.Y.), Vol. 33, pp. 615s623s (1954).
52. N. J. HafT, "Line Load Applied Along Generators of ThinWalled Circular Cylindrical Shells of Finite Length,"
Quart. Appl. Math., Vol. 11, pp. 411-425 (1954).
53. G. W. Watts and W. R. Burrows, Discussion to reference
56, Trans. ASME, Vol. 56, pp. 136-140 (1934).
54. S. Timoshenko, "On Stresses in a Plate with a Circular
Hole," J. Franklin. Insi., Vol. 197, pp. 505-516 (1924).
55. E. Siebel and S. Scbwaigerer, "Neuere Untersuchungen
an Dampfkesselteilen und Behiiltern,"Z.,
V.D.l., Forschungshelt 400, Vol. 11 (1940). Also abstracted in
"Reinforcement
of Openings in Pressure Vessels,"
Weldi11g J. (N.Y., Res. Suppl., Vol. 19, pp. 2388-2408
(1940).
56. L. Beskin, "Strengthening of Circular Holes in Plates Under Edge Loads," J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 11, pp, 140148 (1944).
57. H. J. Weiss, W. Prager and P. G. Hodge, Jr., "Limit
Design of a Full Reinforcement for a Circular CUVlUt in a
Uniform Slab," J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 19, pp. 397-401
(1952).
58. E. Levin, "On. Reinforced Circular Cutouts," J. Appl.
Mechanics, Vol. 20, pp. 546-552 (1953).
59. J. H. Taylor and E. O. Waters, "The Effect of Openings
in Pressure Vessels," Trans. ASlI1E, Vol. 56, pp. 119-132
(1934).
60. E. Mikocki, "Verstarkung VOll Ausschnitten in Zylindrischen Manteln von Druckbcbnltern,"
Die WamIC,
Vol. 61, pp. 660-664 (1938).
61. G. J. Schoessow and E. A. Brooks, "Analysis of Experimental Data Regarding Certain Design Features of
Pressure Vessels," Trans. ASAfE, Vol. 72, pp, 567-577
(1950).
62. W. G. Marskell, W. B. Carlson, A. A. Wells, A. N. Kinkead and A. L. Tannahill, "Experimental and Analytical
Determinations of the Stress Systems in a Welded Pressure Vessel," British Welding Res. Assn., Report F.E.
12/20, London, 1952.
63. A. A. Wells, "On the Plane Stress Distribution in an
Infinite Plate with a Rim Stiffened Elliptical Opening,"
Quart. J. lIfech. Appl. Math., Vol. 3, pp. 23-31 (1950).
64. A. R. C. Markl, "Piping Flexibility Analysis," ASME
Trans., Vol. 77, pp. 127-149 (February, 1955).
65. A. 1\1. Houser and S. Hirschberg, "Flexibility of Plain
and Creased Pipe Bends," Power, Vol. 74, No. 16, pp.
56S-571 (1931).
66. E. T. Cope, and E. A. Wert, "Some Changes of Shape

LOCAL COMPONENTS

67.

68.

69.
70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.
80.

81.

't,.

Cheracteristica of a Smooth, a Corrugated, and a Creased

Bend Under Load," abstracted in Mech. Eng., Vol. 54,
pp. 875-876 (1932).
R. L. Dennison, "The Strength an1rFlcxibility of Corrugated and Creased Bend Piping," J. Am. Soc. Naval
Enqrs., Vol. 47, pp. 340-432 (1935); see also Engineering,
Vol. 14, pp. 103-105, 215-217,297--300 (1936).
L. H. Donnell, "The Flexibility of Corrugated Pipes Under
Longitudinal Forces and Bending," Trans. ASME, Vol.
54, pp. 69-75 (1932).
E. O. Waters and J. H. Taylor, "The Strength of Pipe
Flanges," Mech. Eng., Vol. 49, pp. 531-542 (1927).
C. O. Sandstrom, "Bolts and Flanges for Tanka and Heat
Exchangers," Chem. & Melallurg. Eng., Vol. 40, pp. 67-71
(1933).
R. W. Bailey, "Flanged Pipe Joints for High Temperatures and Pressures," Engineering, Vol. 144, pp, 364365, 419-421, 490-492, 538-539, 615--617 and 674-676
(1947).
T. M. Jasper, H. Gregersen, and A. M. Zoellner, "Strength
and Design of Covers and Flanges for Pressure Vessels
and Piping," Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 8,
pp. 605-608, 672-674 (1936); Vol. 9, pp. 43-47, 109-110,
112, 174-176, 178,243-244,246,311-312
(1937).
E. O. Holmberg and K. Axelson, "Analysis of Stresses in
Circular Plates and Rings," Trans. ASME, Vol. 54,
pp. 13-28 (1932).
E. O. Waters, D. B. Rossheim, D. B. Wesstrom, and F. S.
G. WilliallliJ, Develvpment of General FcmnuLM fer Bolied.
Flanges, Taylor Forge & Pipe Works, Chicago, Ill., 1937.
E. O. Waters, D. B. Wesstrom, D. B. Rossheim, and
F. S. G. Williams, "Formulas for Stresses in Bolted
Flange Connections," Trans. ASME, Vol. 59, pp. 161169 (1937).
D. B. Rossheim, E. H. Gebhardt, and H. G. Oliver,
"Tests of Heat Exchanger Flanges," Trans. ASME,
Vol. 50, pp. 305-314 (1938).
J. D. Mattimore, N. O. Smith-Petersen, and H. C. Bell,
"Design of Flanged Joints for Valve Bonnets," Trans.
ASME, Vol. 60, pp. 297-303 (1938).
G. W. WattsandE.
C. Petrie, "The Design of Flanges and
Flanged Fittings,"
Valve World, VoL 36, pp. 121-129
(1939).
.Madem Flange Design, Bull, 502, 3rd Ed., Taylor Forge
& Pipe Works, Chicago, Ill., 1950.
W. F. Jaep, HA Design Procedure for Integral Flanges
with Tapered Hubs," Trans. ASME, Vol. 73, pp. 569571 (1951).
J. J. Murphy, "Discussion to W. F. Jaep's paper 178],"
Trans. ASME, VoL 73, pp. 572-573 (1951).

89

82. E. O. Waters and F. S. G. Williams, "Stress Conditions in

Flanged Joints for Low Pressure Service," Trans. ASlIfE,
Vol. 74, pp. 135-148 (1951).
83. D. B. Wesstrom and S. E. Bergh, "Effect of Internal
Pressure on Stresses and Strains in Bolted-Flanged Connections," Trans. ASME, Vol. 73, pp. 553-558 (1951).
84. T. J. Dolan, "Load Relations in Bolted Joints," Mech,
Eng., Vol. 64, pp. 607-611 (1942).
85. R. W. Bailey, "Thermal Stresses in Piping Joints for High
Pressures and Temperatures,"
Engineering, Vol. 137,
pp. 445-447, 506-507 (1934).
86. H. J. Gough, "Pipe Flanges Research-First
Report of
the Pipe Flanges Research Committee,"
Engineering,
Vol. 141, pp. 243-245, 271-273 (1936).
87. A. R. C. Markl and H. H. George, "Fatigue Testa on
Flanged Assemblies," Trans. ASME, Vol. 72, pp. 77-87
(1950).
88. R. G. Blick, "Bending Momenta and Leakage at Flanged
Joints," Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 29, pp. 129-133 (Hl50).
89. R. G. Blick, "Interaction of Pressure and Bending at
Pipe Flanges," ASME Paper No. 51-Pet-9, (1951).
00. E. C. Bailey, H. C. Schroeder, and I. H. Carlson, "Mechanical Joint Experience in High Pressure-Temperature
Steam Piping," Valve World, Vol. 49, pp, 34-39 (1952).
91. H. Weisberg, "Cyclic Heating Test of Main Steam Piping
Joints Between Ferritic and Austenitic Steels-Scwaren
Generating Station," Trans. ASME, Vol. 71, pp. 643649 (1949).
92. O. R. Carpenter, N. C. Jessen, J. L. Oberg, and R. D.
Wylie, "Some Considerations in the Joining of Dissimilar
Metals for High-Temperature
High-Pressure Service,"
Proc, ASTM, Vol. 50, pp. 809-860 (1950).
93. H. Weisberg and H. M. Soldan, "Cyclic Heating Test,
Main Steam Piping Materials and Welds, Sewaren
Generating Station," ASME Paper No. 53-A-15I, December, 1953.
94. Pressure Vessel Research Committee, Design Division,
"Report on the Design of Pressure Vessel Heads, "
Welding J. (N.Y.), Vol. 32, pp. 31s-51s (1953).
95. F. E. Wolosewick, "Equipment
Stresses Imposed by
Piping," Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 29, pp. 89-91 (1950).
96. P. P. Bijlaard, "Stresses from Local Loadings in Cylindrical Pressure Vessels," ASME Paper No. 54-Pet-7
(1954).
97. G. J, Schoessow and E. A. Brooks, "Stresses in a Cylindrical Shell Due to Nozzle or Pipe Connection,"
J.
Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 12, pp. 107-112 (1945).
98. R. J. Roark, "Strength and Stiffness of Cylindrical Shells
under Concentrated Loading," 'l'rans. ASME, Vol. 57,
pp. A147-A152 (1935) .

CHAPTER

.......

Simplified Method for Flexibility Analysis

simple piping configurations of two-, three-, or fourmember systems having two terminals with complete
fixity and the piping layout usually restricted to
square corners. Solutions are usually obtained from
charts or tables. The approximate methods falling
into this category are limited in scope of direct application, but they are sometimes usable as a rough
guide on more complex problems by assuming subdivision into anchored sections fitting the contours
of the presolved cases. However, the inexperienced
analyst is cautioned not to extend these solutions
beyond the restricted proportions of their geometry.
2. Methods restricted to square-corner, singleplane systems with two fixed ends, but without limit
as to the number of members.
3. Methods adaptable to space configurations with
square corners and two fixed ends.
4. Extensions of the previous methods to provide
for the special properties of curved pipe by indirect.
means, usually a virtual length correction factor.
This chapter covers a number of approximate solutions including a recently developed simplified version of the General Analytical Method presented in
Chapter 5. It discusses the fundamental assumptions and range of applicability of each of these
methods and is complemented by illustrative examples. In the interest of a clear and concise
presentation, detailed derivations and procedures
are omitted but references are given to published
technical literature.
The shortcut solutions presented here were selected either for their ease of
application or for their relative accuracy; numerous
other approaches proposed in the literature involve
various combinations of simplicity and accuracy but
those given are generally deemed to be most representative. The methods described all involve the
usual assumptions for analyses to the Theory of

ITH piping, as with other structures, the

analysis of stresses may be carried to varying degrees of refinement. At one extreme
lie mere comparisons with layouts which have met
the test of service; at the other extreme are comprehensive methods involving long and tedious computations and commensurate engineering expense. 1
The many approaches lying in between are compromises which have a scope and value not readily
definable since their accuracy and general reliability
are so heavily dependent on the skill and experience
of the user. These so-called "simplified methods,"
nevertheless, fulfill an important need. In capable
hands, and with ample allowance for their limitations, they serve to provide the quick rough check
demanded in establishing an initial layout while
avoiding the use of the more refined calculations
unnecessarily for false starts. Moreover, their use
allows the final confirmation by comprehensive
methods to be more safely postponed, when necessary, in order to even out the work load of specialists
usually employed for the purpose. In cases of noncritical service, moderate expansion requirements,
or small pipe diameters, the availability of generous
safety margins may make certain simplified methods
acceptable for final analysis.

4.1

Scope and Merits of Approximate Methods

Approximate approaches
of simplifying assumptions
to drastic significance. All
classified in four groups, as
1. Approximate methods

are built upon a variety

which range from minor
such approaches may be
follows:
dealing only with special

IThe economic disadvantage of the comprehensive methods

has been offset considerably by developments in model testing
(ace Chapter 6) and, more recently, by the rapid progress in
programmed automatic computers (see Chapter 5).

90

SIMPLIFIED

METHOD

FOR FLEXIBILITY

Elasticity which have been incorporated in the

General Method itself, and which are discussed in
Appendix

A3.

l y '" Projected length for

computing

I!..y

....

The principal weakness of all approximate methods

is that, with current limitations of mathematical
analysis in treating the unbounded geometrical complexity of piping layouts, there exists no means of
assessing the maximum error involved. With any
given approximate method, a layout can be devised
for which the analysis will lead to vastly misleading
results. Hence, the "accuracy" of an approximate
method is largely hypothetical, while considerations
of "degree" or "probability" of accuracy are also
not realistic. In this vein, there is no intent, in the
use of examples common to the methods, to convey
any true comparison of their accuracy, but rather
to give an appreciation of the manner of application
and, only in a general way, to indicate limitations in
their use.
Piping flexibility calculations provide accuracy in
proportion to their completeness. Once simplifying
assumptions of unassessable accuracy are incorporated, it serves no purpose to employ excessive
refinements in the remainder of the work. When
close results are essential on important or intricate
piping systems, the use of approximate methods is
questionable. It is usually more effective and less
time consuming for organizations equipped to
handle comprehensive solutions to proceed directly
with the General Method, particularly if programmed automatic computation and model testing
are available.
4.2 Thermal Expansion
Most engineering materials respond to a temperature rise by a nearly proportionate increase in linear
dimensions. If the temperature change is uniform
throughout a homogeneous part, the dimensional

Anthor
Point

FlO. 4.1

91

ANALYSIS

Expansion at various points on a. header.

L~ = Projected length for computing

FIG.

4.2

I!...

Computing components of restrained

thermal expansion.

increase will likewise be uniform along all directions.

The change t1 of any dimension L is calculated from
the relationship

A = Le
where e

= unit linear thermal

(4.1)
expansionf

(dimensionless if both
are in the same units)

and L

The application of this equation to the determination of unrestrained expansion is illustrated in

Fig. 4.1 for a header with a single point of anchorage
and with the two ends free to expand.
In the usual case, however, the piping will have
more than one point of anchorage or connection to
equipment and consequently will be subject to restraint whenever expansion differentials arise. If
the piping is not uniform in temperature throughout
or if it is made up of several materials having different coefficients of expansion, the differences in temperature or material must be taken into account in
the expansion calculations. The expansions of the
equipment to which the piping attaches must be
similarly treated.
The first basic operation in the determination of
the thermal expansion stresses (set up as a result of
restraint) requires the calculation of the unrestrained
expansion of the piping, which is the expansion that
would take place with regard to an assumed single
reference point, all movement proceeding from that
2Values of e in the Code, ASA B 31.1, cover most of the
metals commonly used in piping. These tables arc based
on a datum temperature of 70 F, which is considered as most
nearly representing the' condition under which the average
instnllation' is made. A more careful selection of this datum
may be warranted if its effect on the temperature difference
is significant.
Chart C-2 of Appendix C gives the slightly
different values of e used in the sample calculations of this
book, which were in preparation before the Code values were
adopted.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

92

point without interference of any kind. If there is

no displacement of the anchors, the calculated resultant expansion between them ia.called the resultant restrained thermal expansion of the piping system.
The components of this expansion are conveniently
computed directly from the projection of the anchor
distances on the respective axes. This procedure is
illustrated in Fig. 4.2, where, by eq. 4.1,
Al' == el.;

net restrained expansion in the x direction.

AIl = eL" = net restrained expansion in the y direction.
A = eU = resultant restrained expansion, i.e.,

A = VA/+

t:.v2

More complex cases involving more than one temperature range for parts of the -systern, or terminal
displacement due to equipment expansion, will be
treated in the illustrative problems in this and in
the following chapter. Only cases where the temperature is constant over a measurable length of
piping are shown; however, thermal gradients along
piping runs can usually be readily approximated as
to their contribution to the expansion of the leg in
which they occur.
The second basic operation in calculating stresses
due to thermal expansion is the determination of the
forces and moments which must be applied to the
ends of the system (which are imagined to have
temporary initial freedom for expansion) in order
to return them to their actual fixed positions. This
operation of structural analysis is distinguished by
its involvement with irregular configurations and
the necessity for conversion of deflection (expansion)
into reactions and stress. It occupies the principal
role in the General Analytical Method of the next
chapter and is equally involved in this chapter, although it is obscured in certain of the approximate
approaches.
4.3

Preliminary
Segregation of Lines
Adequate Flexibility; Code Rules

with

A large amount of piping in conventional layouts

possesses satisfactory inherent flexibility for the intended service. Thus the piping engineer, faced
with the problem of effectively apportioning the
time to be spent on a project, is immediately confronted with the need for recognition of such piping
with a minimum of attention to each line. Approximate solutions or simple rules of thumb are therefore essentiaL The results obtained cannot be ex-

pected to compare with those established by the use

of acceptable analytical methods, but in the hands
of a competent designer they serve to assist in the
recognition of' totally inadequate flexibility, and
serve as a base line for sharpening judgment by association of occasional results with accurate analysis.
Piping flexibility, in providing for the changes in
length which result from thermal expansion of piping and connecting equipment, must be adequate
to serve two purposes:
1. To control within acceptable limits the piping
reactions on connected equipment located between
or at the terminals of the line.
2. To maintain stresses in the pipe itself within
a range so that direct or fatigue failure and joint
leakage are avoided.
Where sensitive equipment (due to close clearance
on moving parts, high speed, etc.) is involved, an
accurate flexibility analysis is usually advisable,
since approximate approaches are apt to be particularly unreliable for reaction evaluation. Accurate
calculations are also advisable for hazardous contents in relation to an installation location where
strength is seriously reduced, as at high temperatures; for unusually stiff piping due to size, thickness,
configuration, etc.; for economic use of expensive
materials; for definitely cyclic service; or when approximate analyses indicate overstress. Most of
these criteria are quite general and subject to opinion in their significance and manner of application.
They may be grouped under four headings: strength
requirements; reaction hazards; service hazards;
economics.

Positive assurance that the minimum required

strength for satisfactory service is attained is possible only by complete analysis; however, for not
too complex piping systems which consist predominantly of straight runs not concentrated too near
the line of thrust through the anchor points, approximations of reasonable but varying accuracy are
attainable. A designer can develop, for a given
shortcut approach, an idea of its limitations and
range of accuracy for average problems provided
he has a reasonably adequate knowledge and experience with both approximate and accurate analyses.
Hazards attendant to excessive reactions are covered in Chapters 2, 3, and 8. It should be noted
that approximate methods generally do not give the
reactions. In many of those which do, the indications are unreliable. In particular, neglect of the
flexibility of curved members will result in abnormally high values which provide little guidance in

SIMPLIFIED

METHOD

FOR FLEXIBILITY

assessing the capacity of sensitive equipment to

absorb such effects.
Service hazards are related in'part to the character of the line contents and the energy contained;
and in part to the type of plant, its location, and
the operating conditions (pressure, temperature,
etc.). For example, a line containing light hydrocarbons at moderate pressure and at a temperature
approaching their flash point would be considered
to require complete design; a line containing the
same material at the same pressure but at a much
lower temperature would be considered average
service in a refinery, but might properly be considered a critical service in a gas generating system
located in a populated area. Definitely cyclic service, by increasing the hazard of fatigue failure, makes
it necessary that lines be analyzed. A limit of 7000
complete cycles during the full life of the system is
considered consistent with present design criteria in
defining noncyclic service.
Regarding considerations of strength, reaction
hazards, and service hazards, some opinion has
favored the establishment of arbitrary limits of
pipe size, pressure, and temperature above which
piping would be considered critical with detailed
analysis required. It would be typical of such an
approach to require analysis when, simultaneously,
1. Maximum nominal operating metal temperature exceeds 800 F.
2. Service pressure exceeds 15 psi.
3. Nominal pipe size exceeds 6 in.
Others have favored a single criterion based on the
energy stored which would be a function of compressibility, volume, and pressure; as an alternative it
has been proposed that a maximum temperature be
also applied.
Such a criterion is more logically established for
a particular industry or type of plant; for this reason such provisions have not been incorporated into
the Piping Code. To provide a substitute simple
criterion for the recognition of those systems requiring detailed analysis, efforts have been made to establish a rule of thumb capable of giving a rough
idea of relative flexibility. Various attempts to
devise a parameter expressing the dominant effects
of configuration geometry have led to the selection
of the ratio of developed length to distance between
anchors as the simplest useful stiffness index for the
purpose. This is the basis of the formula in the 1955
edition of the Piping Code (ASA B31.1), which contains requirements for mandatory examination of
the flexibility of piping systems to avoid requiring
complete analyses on all piping if

ANALYSIS

93
(4.2)

where D
Y

nominal pipe size, in.

= resultant of restrained thermal expan-

sion and net linear terminal displacements, in.

U = anchor distance (length of straight line
joining terminal or anchor points), ft.
U = ratio of developed pipe length to anchor
distance, dimensionless.
This formula is given graphically in Chart C-4 of
Appendix C. *
Equation 4.2 does not directly evaluate stresses;
however, its formulation provides that when the
left side reaches the value of 0.03, the inherent
flexibility of the piping is at the acceptable limit.
Thus, the actual maximum stress range SE contained
in eq. 4.2 can be found from:
SE

33.3DY
U2(R _ 1)2 SA

(4.3)

where SA = allowable stress range.

It has been stated that the Code equation represents no more than a rule of thumb, and in cases of
unfavorable configuration it can doubtless be
grossly misleading. Nevertheless, it is interesting
to note that in the few' examples of average configuration presented in Sample Calculations 4.1 to
4.4, inclusive, it comes very close to the results calculated by the General Analytical Method. This
comparison is shown in Table 4.1.
Sample Calculation

4.1

Material: ASTM A-lOG,Gr. A

Design temperature: T = 900F
Unit expansion from 70 F:
0.078 in./ft
Type of service: Oil piping
Code allowable stress range:
SA = 21,625 psi
Nominal pipe size: D = 10 in.
Developed length: L = 100 ft
Anchor distance: U = 56.6 ft
U/D = 5.66
R = L/U = 1.77

,15'[

~
~

From Chart C-4

R'
R'

= 1.68

< R; formal calculations are not mandatory.

The Piping Code formula (Section 621) is given as

DY / (L - U)2 ::; 0.03. This can be rearranged into the form
of Eq. (4.2) by the substitution of R = L/U.

94

DESIGN

Sample Calculation

OF PIPING

SYSTEMS

U/D = 5.85

4.2

Y/U = 0.065

Material:
ASTM A-106,
Gr. A
Design temperature:
T =

900F

ASA B3l.l Code Criterion

R'

Sample Calculation

Rt < R; formal calculations are not mandatory.

Table 4.1
Method
Maximum Longitudinal Thermal
Stress for:
Sample Calc. 4.1
Sample Calc. 4.2
Sample Calc. 4.3

Chart C-4

Resultant

Sample Calculation
ASTM

those

of Sample

Calcu-

A-106,

Gr. A
Design temperature:
T =
650F
Unit expansion from 70 F:
0.052 in./ft
Type of service: Oil piping
Code allowable stress range:
SA = 23,000 psi
Nominal pipe size: D = 10 in.
Developed length: L = 115 ft
Anchor distance: U = 58.5 ft

x-direction:
y-direction:
z-direction:

V2.082

+ ::i.OS2 + .0782

4.4 Selected Chart-form

4.4

and terminal

General Analytical
Method, SquareCorner Solution
16,750
11,650
8,900
= 3.8 in.

While a rule of this nature fills a very definite

need, good judgment must still be exercised in the
case of certain lines, exempt by this rule, as to
whether detailed analysis should be made in consideration of combinations of size, temperature, pressure, nature of contents, etc. previously discussed.

4.3

with

ASA B3Ll
Code
Criterion
16,800
10,250
10,250

are not mandatory.

Material:
ASTM A-106,
Gr. A
Design temperature:
T =
900 F
Unit expansion from 70 F:
0.078 in./ft
Type of service: Oil piping
Code allowable stress range:
SA = 21,625 psi
Nominal pipe size: D = 10 in.
Results identical
lation 4.2.

Chart C-4

Rt = 1.61

= 1.67

R' < R; formal calculations

Expansion

L/U = 1.97

ASA B3l.l Code Criterion

Unit expansion from 70 F:

0.078 in./ft
Type of service: Oil piping
Code allowable stress range:
SA = 21,625 psi
Nominal pipe size: D = 10 in.
Developed length: L = 115 ft
Anchor distance: U = 58.5 ft
U/D = 5,85
R = L/U = 1.97

Material:

displacements:

0.052 X 40
0.052 X 40
0.052 X 15

= 2.08 in.
2 .- 1 = 3.08 in.
= 0.78 in.

Solutions

Special solutions have been frequently presented

in the literature by means of a variety of formulas,
charts, or tables {I, 2, 3J, which are both time saving
and convenient
for simple configurations.
Each
solution applies only to a particular configuration,
although the proportions of the legs are permitted
to vary. Since the number of variables which may
be conveniently handled is limited, these solutions
are restricted with regard to the number of legs in
the configuration.
With judgment and experience,
segmenting of more intricate systems permits wider
use, although generally at the expense of considerable hazard of error and with little saving in time
over a complete solution by a more versatile approach. The selected cases included herein are limited to four which are believed unavailable elsewhere
in the form given. These cases, shown in Fig. 4.3.
are set up primarily for convenient use in establishing preliminary layouts, and provide directly the
dimensions required rather than the stress for a set
of assumed dimensions.
An assumption common to all of the chart solutions presented is that the modulus of elasticity is
taken to be 29 X 106 psi. The charts are based on
accurate analysis so that for the square corner cases

SIMPLIFIED

...~

METHOD

FOR FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

95

_---L,
l~Kl.
c

C
(0) Two-meml><lr Syll.m Subj.<led
10 Thermal bpon"on

(b) Two-member Sylle .... wilh On.

Support Displaced in iii.
Diredion of Ihe Adjoining Membe,

,
\

-- i-.\

1.1.

r,

(c) TWo-IIIe.,l><IrSY'te .... with

One Support Displaced
Normal 10 Initial Plane

~I

K,l

K1

-_

Go. d.

~----_f:
8

"S'

r,

L
(d) Symmetrical E.ponsion loop Subjected
10 Thermal ExpoMion

FIG. 4.3

Representative

given the results obtained will be as accurate as the

charts can be read. These chart solutions (see
Charts C-5, C-7; C-9, and C-11 in Appendix C)
may be used for the determination of the length of
leg required for a given allowable stress range. For
cases where terminal reactions on connected equipment are important, such reactions may be obtained
from Charts C-6, C-S, C-10, and C-12, also in
Appendix C.
The charts are constructed so that stress is given
in terms of the SA, which may be selected to suit
the material, etc. involved. For partial solutions,
the designer may vary the value of SA to suit his
judgment as to the contribution of the remainder
of the system to the overall flexibility, or, where
such is not involved, to use a fixed value (such as
SA = 18,000 psi) in applying these charts for design purposes.
The first case, Fig. 4.3(a), deals with a twomember right-angle system under thermal expansion. The required data are the nominal diameter
of the pipe, the length L of the longer leg AB, the
allowable stress range, SA, and the unit linear thermal expansion e. The length KL of the shorter leg
BC which will hold the stress to the allowable limit
is then found with the aid of Chart C-5. From the
supplementary Chart 0-6, the moments and forces
acting on the end points are easily computed.
The procedure is readily apparent in Sample Calculation 4.5.

cases for chart-form

solutions.

Sample Ca1culation 4.5. Given a two-member

right-angle system made of 4 in. Schedule 40 ASTM
A-53, Grade A carbon-steel pipe. The leg AB is
10 ft and the operating temperature in oil piping
service is 530 F. Find
a. The required length of BC and
b. The moments and forces at A and C.
a.

The unit expansion e from a 70 F datum of carbon

steel at 530 F = .040 in./ft, and SA = 23,220 psi.
Enter Chart C-5 with LSA/107e = 10 X 23,220/
10,000,000 X 0.040 = .581
Read over to the curve representing 4 in. pipe
and then down to the value of J( which is 0.59. The
required length of leg BC is therefore J( X L =
0.59 X 10 ft = 5.9 ft.
b.

Enter Chart 0-6 with K = 0.59

Read

Al

0.6

A2

0.245

A3

0.102

A4 = 0.212
The moment
pipe = 7.23 in."
fe/L2
Ief I.

of

inertia I for 4 in. Schedule 40

7.23 X .040/100

.00289

= 7.23 X .040/10 = .0289

----~-----

96

DESIGN OF PIPING

Therefore:

The reactions therefore become:

]I'.rA

_]i':rC

= -

P 111

- File

= +245,000

600,000 X .00289

102,000 X .0289
Msc

SYSTEMS

= -212,000

X .0289

X .00289

= -

1730 lb

F:d

= +710 lb

a.
Under the conditions given above, SA = 18,000psi
and L2S.1/I07 b. = .435. If Chart 0-7 is entered
with this ordinate, one can read over to the line for
G in. pipes and down to an abscissa value of K = 0.8.
The required length of leg BC is therefore 17.6 ft.

-18,800 ft-Ib
The third case is shown in Fig. 4.3(c). It is concerned with a two-member right-angle system which
is subjected to a displacement normal to the plane
of the members. Given the nominal diameter of the
pipe, the length L of the longer leg, the allowable
stress range S_.., and the displacement A, the required
length KL of the length BC is found by the use of
Chart C-9. From Chart C-10, the moments and
the forces acting on the end points arc found. This
procedure is illustrated in Sample Calculation 4.7.
Sample Calculation
4-.7. End C of the twomember system shown in Fig. 4.3(c) is displaced
upwards by 1 in. The members consist of 14 in.
OD X i in. thick ASTM A-106, Grade B pipes.
The length of leg AB is 15 ft, and the design temperature is 950 F. Find
a. The required length of BC and
h. The moments and forces at A and C.
a.
SA = 26,125 psi for oil piping.
Enter Chart C-9 with
L2So4/1076,

The moment of inertia, I, of 14 in. OD X

pipe is equal to 372.8 i 1.4

40.49 in."

Enter Chart C-8 with K

= 0.8 and read

.588

b.

The moment of inertia for a 6 in. Schedule 80 pipe

= 7(H and 105(1b./L2) = 16,740

Read over to the curve representing 14 in.

pipe and then down to the value of K, which is
0.24. The required length of leg BC is therefore
K X L = 0.24 X 15 = 3.60 ft.

h.

5780 ft-lb

= -6120 ft-lb

The required length of leg BC

h. The reaction forces and moments.

10 (1 A/L3)

= -1750 lb
=
785lb

111 .1 =

a.

-Fzc

FIJA = -Fvc

2940 ft-Ib

The second chart-form solution was developed for

a two-member system subjected to a terminal displacement in its own plane. Figure 4.3(b) shows
end A displaced in the direction of the adjacent leg
(in this case, leg AB). Structurally, this is equivalent to a horizontal movement of support C to the
left. This displacement, however, is now perpendicular to the supported leg BC. With proper discretion, therefore, this solution is adaptable to
support movements both parallel and perpendicular
to the supported leg.
The required data are identical to those of the
previous case. The length of leg at which the stress
equals the allowable value is found from Chart C-7.
The reaction forces and moments are then secured
from Chart 0-8.
Sample Calculation 4.6. Support A of the system shown in Fig. 4.3 (b) is transposed in the
direction of leg .1B through a distance of 2 in.
Leg AB is 22 ft long; the system is made of 6 in.
Schedule 80 ASTM A.-106, Grade A carbon-steel
pipe to be used in power piping service at 580 F.
Find

is I

I b./ L3

= 372.8 X 1/3375 = .1105

Ib./L2

372.8 X 1/225

Enter Chart C-I0 with K

Read

i in.

1.657

= 0.24

.1}= 115

A.l = 2.30

.12

.12

= 1.03

A3

= 70.0

.13

= .345

.14 =

24.5

.14

1.12

As =

43

2.1

,
~,

SIMPLIFIED

METHOD

FOR FLEXIBILITY

Therefore:

ANALYSIS

97

Read
FilA

-File

= 12,700 lb

AI.,A

Ai

- 3480 ft-lb

.12 = .90

116,000 ft-Ib

F:r:A = -FzB

M.,c

=
=

-40,600 ft-lb

111.0

+71,300 ft-Ib

1I1zA.

111:.4 = -M:B
4.5

The fourth case is a graphical solution for the

familiar and important symmetrical expansion loop,
shown in Fig. 4.3(d). Chart G-ll is entered with
the outside diameter D, the effective distance L
between the anchors or guides, the allowable stress
range SA, and the expansion II between the anchors.
The required height K2L is found for any value of
KiL. From Chart C-12, the forces acting on the
anchor points and the moments acting on the guides
are computed.
Sample Calculation
4.8.
Given a loop of
20 in. OD X! in. thick ASTM A-I35, Grade A
pipe. KiL is 20 ft. Guides are located 10 ft on
either side of the loop, so that L = 40 ft. The distance between anchors A' and B' is 100 ft. The
line temperature is 425 F and is used for oil piping.
Find
a. The required height of 1(2L and
b. The forces acting at points A' and B' and the
moments acting at points A and B.
a.

The unit linear thermal expansion for carbon steel

at 425 F = 0.030 in';ft.
ll, therefore, = 100 X
0.03 = 3 in. SA = 19,890 psi (ignoring Code permission to exclude longitudinal joint efficiency)
L2SJ1

---7

10 Dll

= .0531

Enter Chart o-n with .0531

Read over to the curve representing K, = 0.5
and down to the value of K2 which is 0.32. K2L is
therefore 40 X 0.32 = 12.80 ft.
b.
The moment of inertia for 20 in. OD
pipe = 1457 in."
III
L3

1457X3
64000
,

X!

in. thick

= .0683

1457 X 3
1600 = 2.73
Enter Chart C-12 with

= .55

1(1

0.5 and K2

0.32

-68,300 X .55

+273,000 X .86

Approximate

-37,6001b

= 235,OOOft-lb

Solutions

The methods covered in this section are approximations, all of which are limited to square-corner
configurations. Although several solutions which
fall in this category have been advanced, the two
presented are selected because they appear to
achieve fair reliability with the greatest simplicity.
These are the Guided Cantilever and the MitchellBridge Methods, both of which are applicable to
three-dimensional
piping systems. The fundamental
assumptions and guides for application will be given,
followed by illustrative examples. For a more detailed description of these methods, the reader is
referred to the literature [4, 5, 6]. For important
piping these methods should not be relied upon as
the final check; their use by personnel other than
those with adequate background and experience is
apt to lead to serious errors. They can be used to
advantage, however, for the following purposes:
a. For approximate assessment of the flexibility
of average piping, and to check lines not meeting
the criteria of Section 4.3.
b. On critical piping, for layout assistance in
arriving at a suitable system for detailed analysis.
c. On noncritical piping, to establish the location
of restraints without unduly impairing the flexibility
of the system.
The Guided Cantilever Method.
This method
is intuitively familiar to many piping designers. Its
fundamental concepts are partially used in the sidesway analysis of frames. The assumptions underlying this method can be listed as follows:
1. The system has only two terminal points; it is
composed of straight legs of pipe of uniform size
and thickness with square-corner intersections.
2. All legs are parallel to the coordinate axes.
3. The thermal expansion in a given direction is
absorbed only by legs oriented perpendicular to this
direction.
4. The amount of thermal expansion a given leg
can absorb is inversely proportional to its stiffness.
Since the legs are of identical cross section, their
stiffnesses will vary according to the inverse value
of the cube of their lengths.
5. In accommodating thermal expansion, the legs

DESIGN OF PIPING

98

1 _--

where

------~<5ya

no rotction

li~~mpiionl
.1>

01

:1
.III ....=_"'"0' ......s,

----=--..,
o!f

L.

<5

ya

_...:

liya=Expanslon of leg b,

Fro. 4.4 Deflections assumed to occur in n single-plane system under the guided cantilever approximation.

act as guided cantilevers; that is, they are subjected

to bending under end displacements, but no end rotation is permitted.
This condition is pictured in
Fig. 4.4 for the simple two-member system.P
According to assumptions 3 and 4 the individual
legs absorb the following portion of the thermal
expansion in the z-direction:

L3
Oz.
where

"J:-L3

= "J:-L3

"J:-L:r?

s,

permissible

deflection of leg, in.

SA = allowable stress range, psi.

L = length of leg, ft.
E = modulus of elasticity, psi.
D = external diameter of pipe, in.

tcngenl> at ~met

1I'

SYSTEMS

(4.4)

Oz. = lateral deflection in the z-direetion

for the leg under consideration, in.
L = length of the leg in question, ft.
Il" = overall thermal expansion of system
in z-direction, in.
r.Lz 3 = sum of cubed length of all legs perpendicular to the direction considered (in this case meaning the legs
parallel to the y- and e-directions).

Similar equations can be written for the lateral deflections in the y- and z-directions.
The schematic
distribution
of thermal expansions to the various
members of a space-bend is shown in Fig. 4.5.
The deflection capacity of a cantilever of the type
stipulated by assumption 5 (and shown in Fig. 4.4)
can be given as:
(4.5)
"A refinement taking end rotation into account is explained
later.

For convenience, this equation has been plotted in

Chart C-13, Appendix C, based on the value
E = 29.0 X 106 psi.
A first (preliminary) evaluation merely requires
now the calculation of Ox, all' and oz from eq. 4.4 and
o from eq. 4.5 (or Chart C-13) for each leg. If ox.
0Il' and o. are all less than 0, every leg possesses a
sufficient deflection capacity, and the system can
be regarded to be adequately flexible.
This comparison is most conveniently carried out.
on Form R as shown in Sample Calculations 4.9,
4.10, and 4.11. The stepwise process of the analysis
is clearly indicated in these forms, which are selfexplanatory in conjunction with the foregoing discussion.
In Sample Calculations 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11, the
condition that 0 > Om (where Om denotes the largest
of Ox, 0Il' and Oz in any leg) is satisfied for all legs
save the one next to the far terminal.
In this case
a further refinement is warranted in recognition of
the actual rotation which takes place at intersections. This refinement is accomplished through the
use of a correction factor i, which allows for the
reduction of bending moment, due to the rotation of
the leg adjacent to the one considered.
The value
of i for the appropriate
case is obtained from
Chart C-14, depending on the position of the leg
and its length relative to adjacent members.
If the
corrected deflection capacity of the leg, fa, is larger
than Om, the leg is considered to be sufficiently
flexible. The use of the correction factor is shown
in Steps 9 and 10 of the Sample Calculations.
The ratio of om/fo indicates the proportion of the
allowable stress range that has been used up by the
leg in accommodating
thermal expansion.
This

,
/

(0) x-cliroc1ion

.1;::// (b)

0-"1
FIG. 4.5

y-clireclion

Ax, fir, A. = n..tmcl txpansrons

In the X-, y-, zdiredionl, re'peclivory

Deflections assumed to occur in a. multi pInne system under the guided cantilever approximation,

SIMPLIFIED

METHOD

.....

FOR FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

99
v

1715~-t

1,1

... ~

.~

1-25:-f
UOlt't

SIZE

"'All

TH><:

~:u.

6.-

L'

I~

/(J'

0-1

~~5'

1-2

/0'
/~I

29.9

;/- fJ
5-4

</

EO'

;lSI

~~

1-'.I\Tt'Q'tAl,.

NO

LEG

PIPE DATA

la(jt)

L.

6. -

I~: I~
'

.0.1

.131.5

.0(;

~51(;

125M{) .}.og
156[5

~.

LTS;"

(Fllo'1
cKA"T
e-I!>

10'

:;:

.335'

1-"'7~
ZZI

J.....

c,lse

""0,,",

p;

c- ''''''

C.I'I""'T

.&7

/.&.1

.r:

.So

1.717

St.-

I~

.545

1190

.7&

7. '37

.t.-I

3.1;8

2..1

3.57 /5550

9001'

T01P.

I~:'~., 078 '}f,

Sf~VIGl:

q;''i;,/H~

-?_d/?) :llbj5
ll.. M>'.078~ 3./;>
.1y 4<J';.0713~.J./Z

:! (1'&-1..0') 12(;1700
1. (L'-l,~
/9()OO

.:1.

HL'-L:J

& "MC::UD" 6....(~".n,"

0'"
I!iiJE.5,:j, ... 6,,-) HO "v,e."~
CAc,.(U'l,,
'r~OH.5 "'R~
N.fCRSS,A ., lJwu~:S$
Se
W1ot .. ~

MOMENT

RANG!!

HAleII1UM

5tHOI~6

~Hb

COMPO>I."r
AT
TUMI.~L 5 (fT La

lIo1olvt ....

T" .......

"'15..,

AT

T.e:A"'.~Ai.S

POINT

0
4

AII:III!: OC~II:l!b.

[IjE MW . KELLCX?J3 col PIPING FLEXIBILITY

AND STRESS ANALYSIS
ROUGH APPROXIMATION

A~

..J880()
FORM
R
CALC NO

G.

A.Le.

HI!.CKI:D

~Z

29GO

:s

.-

,;=Pi
\'
a

~
~

'

,.1
1--25,-J

l.t

PIPE DATA
10'

I!"OKSllE
"'AU

TH><:

z
~Tl'l:l'lAL.

.5'5
Z9.9

LEG
NQ

MJc1iIOH

sesvrce
SA('S,

f,~

!THE

i
1

1-

6.a.L'

~- ....

15'

J~75

.081

.{.7

It) ,

/000

.0.14

Z'3

'l::

IS'

'I

.1'0'

.k

25'

3.'37S
1?5'orx S.OI
1.5'(;Z

5.Lis.
!:~,
~&~

1"""",

'1

.47

(FRo,",
(~~)

:>: L

..

2.!!1

.7C

.008

1.47)

.335

.027

2.21
7..$7

/1_4

!J.el!

2./

1.00

,13

:2.18

J.....

aSE

C..,oIUlT

I'''DP1

/.5

f~

c.-fa.

/.4.1

/.0/1'"

1.70

!I.~

s..-

S-,f~
93'0

,7(;
i:

.50

/;JZ2P

~"
..
PtP,,;./$

21GZti
.4Jx.d7,8

- ,$,12

,,,, .()7S~ 3.1;'>

o7t1~ 1- 17
.:1. It: ~_
.d.

L'

z:

t,~:3-./

~;~t~ .olS

ttl-I
I-Z

.joo ,t: 4'.5

T01P.

~:u,

:! (L-I..o') I:?!J !J75

! (L'-l~~ :?;! JlS
I,(L'-L: I4So00

"""""" a

110"3"'R Iii:
....NI) MOM.'"
,All:"

6,.. -{......
IIUo(."

IhI'CUOG-

'6,.#I5J1,.~S")

1!;)e!~llI:rt-.

NO

,.v,:..,.ttHt

*'II'C .s.SA....,.

r It..o\,.a.., A'

.... 0.,.

~L(f,I'A'

S Se
1"tl:AP'C'''''Ai-$

IJM:'~:S

MW . KELLCX?J3 col PIPING FLEXIBILI1Y

AND STRESS ANALYSIS
ROUGH
PPROXIMA,'ION

MOM("'T
HAle/MUM

RAHGf tI
6tllOUl6

COI1""~(~r
TUMI~AL5

,o.T

Crt U

At.

HlC::IC&O

..~" ..

POINT

~
2335"0
33000
R
FORM
CALC NO 4.KJ

100

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

y

zrr
1,151~

......

)(

z.

~
~

~7

~L/
PIPE. DATA

10'

THK

z
TeMP.

01

6.-

L'

IS'

.!H5

.03

11

/0'
IS'

1/JOt)

.aos

..,;;~

z-s

:x;

.J-4

1/

9001'

4'5

..... .. 0787f.
sewree

~-~.

6. -

!~. ... I~: I~

Lt.

Z!J.9

~Tf"~L

-:-

.JG5' /2

HO","Sllf

~l~

NQ

L.ee;

'1375
sd [;25~
25' /5G2.5

I.Ol)
.15

.o:
-

.47

LTS;"

~
e.er

S ..
(Faa",

/.473

.JJ5

2.2/

.7(;'

3.0/

7.'1 B.t

2./8

3.GB

''''_T

I'fto'"'

.7C;

.0U
.081

..b_

CAse

C';:~J

2./

fS

c.-f ....

So-

I~

15

/.43

/Jl88

x:

Q.!>

/.7tJ

';.57 /~zztJ

R.,oHotct
8tHOIHG

POINT

AT

23350

33000
FOWM ~
CALC NO~/I

?FdO

1~7'~
""'

Oil

?'I.'PI$

2/G25
.d" Hi -.07tJ -/'17'
lly -It) '.0711 ""3./2
.dz .Ill' .078""-$.12

SA('"

tTHE

MW. KELl()G3

6 .. ,53,

I(L-t.: 121J.lS

ANb
.... &~'C'~b.

""""Df

"'~""t"

Om

6~ (~"T
0"
MOMeNT
"II~T""-: "-'L.c:4IlA- HArIHUt1
"""LtSS
Sr COMPONENT

~.u
p.f()

Hfces.5ART'

I\T TC~I"AL$

col PIPING FLEX1B.IUAY AND STRESS

ROUGH

PPROXIMATION

(4.6)
=

"'5%)

TCOtt3 A,R~

permits an estimate of the actual stress range in the

leg by the formula

where SE
SA

IJ."~

~ (L-L.,.') N50()O
~ (L'-l~~ Z2375

TfC"'I~ALS

ANALYSIS

=
b

where M b

8EZ
12

..

Table 4.2
jI.1ethod
0"" 0ll'

or 0: by eq. 4.4, in.

o = deflection capacity of leg by Chart
C-13, in.
f = correction factor by Chart C-14.
The estimated moment range, which is of interest
at the terminal points, is then found from the relationship
M

"To:.

cal Method in Table 4.2. While these results are

indicative of the accuracy for average configurations,
for extreme conditions the results may be much less
favorable

estimated stress range in leg, psi.

= allowable stress range, psi.

= largest of component deflections

(,r If

"L
.
e:C:KC

(4.7)

moment range of maximum bending

component, It-lb.
section modulus of pipe, in., from
Table C-l, Appendix C.

In Sample Calculations 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11 the

evaluation of the stress and moment ranges are
shown in Steps 11 (last column) and 12, respectively.
For a partial indication of the reliability of the
Guided Cantilever Method, the stresses so obtained
are compared with the results of the General Analyti-

Layout according
to:
Sample Calc. 4.9
Sample Calc. 4.10
Sample Calc. 4.11

Guided Cantilever

General
Analytical

Maximum Stress

Maximum Stress

Value
15,550
13,220
13,220

Location
4
5
5

Value
16,750
11,650
S,900

Location
4
0
5

The greatest asset of the Guided Cantilever

Method is extreme simplicity, and applicability to
any space configuration with two points of fixity.
In general, least accuracy is realized when the system consists of legs of greatly disproportionate
length, or when terminal displacements are present
in addition to thermal expansion. From the limited evidence available to date, it appears that the
error will normally be on the safe side.
The terminal moment range given by the Guided
Cantilever Method is no more than a crude indication of the moment reactions actually present at
the supports. In cases where the moment reactions

SIMPLIFIED

METHOD

FOR FLEXIBILITY

govern design, this method is of use only as a preliminary evaluation.

The Mitchell-Bridge Method. Consider an
arbitrary piping system limited to two terminal
points, and subjected to thermal expansion; if all
restraint is removed at one terminal, this end of the
piping would move out through a distance determined by the linear expansion. To restore the
actual fixed condition, end forces and moments are
applied to the "freed" end, of such magnitude as to
return it exactly to its initial position. These forces
and moments can be expressed as a single force the
line of action of which is called the thrust axis. This
approximate method is based on the proposition
that on most piping systems the thrust axis can be
located empirically with reasonable accuracy. Once
the thrust axis is established, the problem is rendered
statically determinate.
Mitchell [4] originally assumed the thrust axis,
which passes through the center of gravity of the
piping system, to be parallel to the line connecting
the anchor points. This assumption, valid only for
limited configurations, was subject to variable and
extensive error for the many shapes of piping layouts encountered in practice. Figure 4.5 shows a
configuration subjected to thermal expansion, in
which terminal moments are obviously present, yet
the original Mitchell Method would predict them to
be zero.
Improvement of the original Mitchell Method
required a more reliable location of the thrust axis.
Bridge [5J proposed that the layout be divided into
two halves of identical developed lengths. The
centers of gravity of these half portions are then
connected to form the "gravity axis," the center of
gravity for the whole system lying half way between those of the two halves. The Mitchell axis
is now drawn (line through c.g. of system parallel
True Thru.t Axi.

FIG. 4.6

Illustration
of the error involved in Mitchell's
assumption regarding the thrust axis.

ANALYSIS

101

Controid 01 Pipe from 0 to 1

Centroid 01 Entire
Configuration

Midpoint of Ihe
Dev.loped Longth

C.ntraid af Pipe ,from 1 10 A

Th""t Axi, Auvmod by Bridg.

FIG. 4.7

The modification to Mitchell's thrust axis location

suggested by Bridge.

to the anchor line) and the thrust axis is taken as

the line bisecting the angle between the "gravity"
and Mitchell axes. This sequence of operations for
locating the thrust axis is shown in the representative example of Fig. 4.7 for a single-plane layout.
To preserve simplicity, the centers of gravity for
the halves of the layout are located by eye. For
single-plane systems of not too great complexity,
usable accuracy can be achieved; for multi plane or
involved one-plane systems, considerable error is
likely to arise. For these latter applications Randolph {5] proposed that the centers of gravity be
located by calculation. The labor involved, however, then approaches that of the General Analytical
Method and since the results are still of unassessable accuracy, the choice over the General Method
is decidedly questionable.
Once the thrust axis is located, the problem becomes statically determinate. There remains the
conversion of the evaluation of linear expansion to
the reaction resultant force along the thrust line
and subsequently the stress at any location, which
involves conventional structural approaches, with
the conversion of thrust to moment usually accomplished graphically.
The basic limitations of the Mitchell-Bridge
Method are: (1) Two terminal points; (2) Proper
orientation of the thrust axis is dependent on experience and ability of the user.
Variation of the cross section of various runs of a
system can be taken care of by assigning specific

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

102

weights (inversely proportional to the moments of

inertia) to the individual legs when locating the
centers of gravity of the half-systems, It is not
necessary that all legs be in an orthogonal arrangement. The flexibility of bends can also be incorporated by means of the approximations of Section 4.7,
one of which was advanced by Randolph [6}.
The layouts investigated by the Guided Cantilever
Method in Sample Calculations 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11
were re-evaluated by an experienced designer using
the Mitchell-Bridge Method. While detailed calculations are not reproduced," a comparison of the
magnitude and location of maximum stresses with
those obtained by the General Analytical Method
is given in Table 4.3, which shows that the maximum stresses are consistently underestimated;
furthermore, the most highly stressed lo~ation is in
sharp contrast to the results obtained by comprehensive calculations.
It has been claimed {6}that the Mitchell-Bridge
Method gives results within 20% of an accurate
method, which is quite optimistic in view of the
limitations discussed above; also, the comparison
in Table 4.3 indicates an error of 26.1% for Sample
Calculation 4.9.
Table 4.3
Method
Modified Mitchell

General Analytical

Maximum Stress

Maximum Stress

Layout according
to:

Value

Sample Calr. 4.9

Sample Calc. 4.10
Sample Calc. 4.11

12,350
8,3\)0
6,580

Location
2
4
4

Value

Location

16,750
11,650
8,900

4
0
5

4.6 The Simplified General Method for Squarecorner Systems

The solution presented in this section is a limited
form of the General Analytical Method, which can
be followed step by step by anyone accustomed to
routine arithmetical computations. This Simplified
General Method is applicable to single- and multiplane configurations subjected to thermal expansion
and external movement, which satisfy the following
conditions:
1. Two completely fixed ends.
2. No intermediate restraints.
3. No branches. 5
4. Straight runs only.
For n detailed description of a systematic step-wise solution, the reader is referred to the available literature [4, 5, 6].
5J'he effect of branches of the main system may generally be

5. All legs orthogonal (at. right angles to each

other, with square-corner intersections).
For systems accurately represented within these
limitations, the accuracy is the same as that of the
General Method. Because of this accuracy and the
methodical attack, this method is highly recommended over any approximate method involving a
comparable degree of effort.
Before describing the actual procedure in making
the calculations, a brief discussion of fundamentals,
conventions, and terminology is in order.
First, the unrestrained expansion of the system is
determined. One end is then arbitrarily chosen as
the fixed end to reduce the analysis to a cantilever
system. The other end, the so-called free end, is
imagined to be loaded with forces and moments of
unknown value. These unknowns can then be
found from the condition that they must produce
deflections of the free end which nullify the displacements of that end due to thermal expansion.
The coordinate system is standardized as:
X-axis-horizontal and positive to the right.
Y-axis-vertical and positive upward.
Z-axis-horizontal and positive towards the observer.
The directional signs are consistently applied to distances, displacements (expansions or deflections),
and forces. Signs of angular displacements (rotations) and moments will be positive in the counterclockwise direction facing the related positive axis.
The origin of the coordinate system may be at any
point on or outside of the pipe line. A location
toward the center of the system promotes accuracy
by a more nearly uniform level of dimensional coefficients. Where members coincide with the axes
certain coefficients will be zero, and where symmetrical adjacent runs are present, extension of this
symmetry to their placement with respect to the
origin will advantageously duplicate the coefficients.
The pipe line is subdivided into individual straight
legs, which are called members. If 11 straight run
contains a change in stiffness, such as a size reduction, it must be treated as two members.
To assist the reader with the actual application
of the method, a step-by-step procedure will be
given, followed by sample calculations presented on
form sheets which arc largely self-explanatory. The
use of a calculating machine is convenient although
not essential.
neglected if they arc less than 50% of the size of the mnin run.
Of course, the necessary flexibility of the branches themselves
must not be overlooked.

SIl\1PLIFIED METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY

The solution involves three more or less distinct
stages:
1. Setting up the problem.
2. Making the computations.
3. Interpreting the results.
The first and third stages require familiarity respectively with the method and the general requirements of the Piping Code; the second is purely
routine computation.
The set-up procedure, following Form Sheet A,
consists of the following steps:
Step 1. Gather prerequisite data. Include pipe
material, nominal size, design temperature, as well
as the dimensions of the layout.
Step 2. Draw a working sketch. This should be
to scale, or at least to reasonable proportions, as an
aid in interpreting results. If simplifications are
made, show the piping as it is to be calculated.
Where there is significant expansion of the equipment to which the line connects, indicate the distances to the anchor point as infinitely stiff members
by the use of broken lines. Designate one end as
the fixed end, denoting it
the other end as the
free end, denoting it A. Locate the origin a so as to
minimize computation.
Number the remaining
points 1, 2, 3, etc. proceeding from the fixed to the
free end.
Step 3. Enter the following:
Outside diameter D, in., from Table C-l, Appendix C.
Wall thickness t, in., from Table C-l, Appendix C.
Moment of inertia I, in.", from Table C-l,
Appendix C.
Section modulus Z, in.", from Table C-l, Appendix C.
Bend radius R, and bend characteristic h, not
used unless the approach of Section 4.7 is used.
Flexibility factor k, and stress intensification
factor, {3, not used for curved members unless the
approach of Section 4.7 is used. In such a case and
for other components obtain k and {3 from Piping
Code (see also Chapter 3 herein).
Hot modulus of elasticity, Eh(lb/in.2), and cold
modulus of elasticity, Ec(lb/in.2), from Piping Code,
ASA B 31.1.6
Stiffness ratio Q = El/ENI N, which expresses
the relative stiffness of any member N. The product
EI of a group of members is considered as unity,

a',

6eode values for modulus of elasticity and linear expansion

are not used in the sample calculations of this book as these
calculations were in preparation before the Code data were
adopted. The data used arc given in Appendix C, Charts C-3
and C-2 respectively.

ANALYSIS

103

and the shape coefficients for members of different

moment of inertia are corrected by Q. The stiffness
ratio should be selected so as to keep the magnitude
of the coefficients within reasonable limits.
Material and temperature as given.
Unit thermal expansion, e, ft/ft, from Piping Code
ASA B 31.1.
Cold spring factor, C.
Hot allowable stress, Sh, and cold allowable stress,
Se, from Piping Code ASA B 31.1.
Step 4. Calculate the component free expansion
movements !lx, .6.11, and .6.z. Include the expansion
of the equipment and of other members assumed to
be rigid. Prefix the sign in accordance with the
direction of the imaginary movement of the free end
with respect to the fixed end.
Step 5. Compute the products EhI.6.",/144,
Ehl.6.I1/144, Ehl.6../144,
being careful to use the
value of EhI/144 for that size pipe for which Q = 1
was selected.
The work now proceeds to the second stage which
consists entirely of computations. The form sheets
involved depend on the problem as follows:
a. For a single-plane system with expansion in the
plane, Sheet B is used.
b. For a single-plane system with expansion normal to the plane, Sheet C is used.
c. For a single-plane system with expansion both
in and normal to the plane, the forces and moments
at the coordinate origin, 0, are computed on Sheets
Band C. The remainder of the calculation, including the transfer of moments to the various
points and the combining stresses, is done on Sheet F.
d. For a multiplane system Sheets D, E, and F
are used.
The steps of the computation stage are:
Step 6. Select Sheet B, C, or D depending on
the problem. Identify the members as 0'-1, 1-2,
etc. at the top of the page. List k, Q, and L from
Sheet A. Compute 2/12. Indicate the position
(I, II, or III) of each member and determine the
distances a, b, c for each in the position involved.
Enter a, b, c with the proper sign. Compute the
shape coefficients A, Aa, Au, etc. for each member
in accordance with the formulas listed in the columns at the left. Sum A, Aa, Ab, etc. across and
enter the totals in the last column at the right.
Step 7. Determine the forces and moments at
the origin.
a. On Sheet B: This computation is made immediately below the calculation of the shape coefficients, and the symbols A, Aa, Ab, etc., refer to the
sum of these coefficients shown in the last column.

104

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

First, the coordinates of the elastic center, x. and

Yr, are calculated. Second, the constants in relation
to the elastic center, m12, m22, and mn, are determined. Third, the constant n33 is calculated after
which N", and Nv can be determined. The forces
F", and Fv can now be computed in accordance with
the formulas given, and finally, the moment at the
origin, M., is calculated.
b. On Sheet C: This computation is also made
immediately below the calculation of the shape coefficients, and the symbols B, s; Bbb, C,
c:
refer to the sum of these coefficients shown in the
last column. The order of computation is the same
as above: Xv and y" are calculated, B' bb and C' aa
are computed, m33 is determined, after which F.,
M x, and M 11 are obtained.
c. On Sheet E: The symbols A, Aa, Ab, etc., B,
Bi, Be) etc., and C, Ce, C, etc. refer to the sum of
the shape coefficients in the last column on Sheet D.
After the elastic center coordinates have been calculated the constants ?nU,.1n12, 11t22, m23, 1n33 and
m13 can be computed.
From these a second set of
constants, n11, n12, n22, n13, n33, and n23 are calculated, and ~1' ~2' N", s; N. are computed. The
forces are now determined followed by the moments.
Step 8. Transfer the moments obtained in Step 7
to the various points in the line. For a single-plane
system with expansion in the plane only, the computation is made in the space provided at the bottom
of Sheet B. For a single-plane system with expansion
normal to the plane, the computation is made at
the bottom of Sheet C. For a single-plane system
with expansion both in and normal to the plane,
Sheet F is used as an aid in properly combining the
stresses. For a multi plane system, Sheet F is used.
Indicate consecutively from the free end A the
points at which the moments are required. Enter
the coordinates x, y, z of point A with their proper
signs in relation to the origin. Enter x, y, z for each
succeeding point in relation to the one preceding it.
Fill in at point A the moment M z, Mil, M I, obtained
from Step 7. Perform the operations indicated on
the next three lines using the F x, F ", F. from Step 7.
For example, on Sheet B, enter' M: (the moment at
the origin) under point A, multiply F" by the coordinate y previously listed, and - F" by x. Add
M: + yF", - xF v to obtain 111' :A, the moment at
point A. Enter the M'.A in the following column
on the Ai. line and perform the multiplications, yFx
and -xFI1' using the x and y coordinates in that
column. Add to obtain M: for the 2nd point.
Proceed in this manner to point 0'. A check at
point 0' may be obtained by setting in the coordi-

c;

nates z, y, of a' in re.ation to the origin, and transferring the moments directly from the origin to
point a', using the same procedure as at point A.
Step 9. Choose the point of maximum stress.
On Sheet B where only the bending stress in the
plane is involved, this presents no difficulty, but in
Sheets C and F, it may be necessary to evaluate
the stress at several points in order to find the maximum. Once the position of the point is selected,
the stresses are combined as indicated.
In all of these steps (6 through 9) in the computation stage it cannot be emphasized too strongly
that careful attention must be given to the algebraic
signs involved. Checking at the completion of each
step by a person other than the calculator himself
is strongly recommended.
Step 10. Complete the analysis by entering 011
Sheet A the results for the cold and the hot condition in accordance with the formulas given in Section 2.6 of Chapter 2. The signs given are those of
acting forces and moments at the terminal points
and are determined from the calculation as follows:
Fixed End 0'
Free End ~1

Cold Condition
Opposite sign
Same sign

Hot Condition
Same sign
Opposite sign

Also included in the summary of results is the

maximum expansion stress and the point at which
it occurs, and, for purposes of comparison, the allowable stress range.
The final stage, the interpretation of results, will
be discussed in Chapter 5. The calculator is cautioned to examine the results:
a. In order to determine whether they are in general agreement with what is expected from the configuration and the displacements.
Calculations
giving unlikely results should be inspected for sign
and arithmetical errors.
b. In the light of the assumptions made, to decide
whether the results are on the liberal or conservative
side and to make a judgment concerning the practicality of the layout.
The following examples are given to illustrate the
procedure:
Sample Calculation 4.12. A single-plane system
of uniform size with expansion in the plane only.
The infinitely stiff member 0'-1, normal to the
plane, is cold. It is shown only in order that the
numbering of the points may be consistent with the
examples which follow.
Sample Calculation 4.13. The single-plane system
of 4.12 above with expansion both in and normal to
the plane. The forces and the moments at the

SIMPLIFIED
MEMBERS
D.

/60.7
c?9.90

I
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~~ !i5

1~,50U.

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STP 10

AND FORCES

(Le)

E'l500 p"j
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ACTING ON RESTRAINTS
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OFGR.4V,T'( Of- I'1r:H~fq

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CALC NO.412

Z06.33
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psi

SA~i~~:~""'~

90a
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2-0

1 ~~}lf:~

14.T POINT

...

P1P1NG.I:_U:;l':I.E!ILlTYAND STRESS ANALYSIS

ORIGINAL
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k
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MOMENTS (FT -1.8)

COI..D CONDITION

POINT

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rl(

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I
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FOR FLEXIBILITY

0'-1

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10.75
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SUM THE.
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= +IGlo.38 -F,c.~%
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CO NVERSIOI( TO CoDE RUUS:
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A
A6
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THE M

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CO

PIPINa FLEXIBILITY
AND STResS ANALYS'S
SINGLE PL. ... NE SYSTEM. EXPANSION IN PLANE

c"..

e, .....4.12

106

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

I-A'

MEMBE.RS
D.
t,
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ACTING ON RESTRAINTS
MOMENTS(n 'La)
AND FORCES (Le)
COlD 5PRIliG
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COLO CONDITION
HOT CONDITION
O'
A
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30
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Y AND STRESS ANALYSIS
H
.
.
ORIGINAL
DATA AND RESULTS
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+!l! ...-2925.00=_21;.11+~G.~+
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3-.4

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PI'ING

FL[I(IIILITY.
MOMENTs

AND STRESS
STR(sSES

,,~o

origin used on Sheet F to transfer the moments to

every point in the system are those which have previously been computed on Sheet B for 4.12.
Sample Calculation 4.14. A multiplane system
similar to the single-plane one used in 4.12 and 4.13
above, but here the infinitely stiff member 0'-1 is
replaced by an equivalent length of 10 in. pipe.
Sample Calculation 4.15. A second multiplane
system.
4.7

ANALYSIS

"D

5'D"

TH[

996

II'

so"

vSb

2085

. - Z.

f,.

rr

101' 0

My

-Fl"

.r ..::.J

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y .z

101'.
Mz

[I-tel

CALCUI.ATD
REACTIONS
BASED ON h

"211S5.2.fi
f "'1.70
1089

.Fr
foZ

:~ ,I
R'

fy

loll

FOR FLEXIBILITY

-,904.13

tJ

F.
fz

'"5J.
OR

.R4. zs; ~
R'

+ 25.00
- .5"0.00

'1..3S"

",un

CONVERSION
TO CODE RULE S

METHOD

Approximating the Effect of Curved Pipe

and Othcr Components.

A principal factor contributing to the complexity

of accurate piping structural analysis is the differing rigidity and attendant secondary stress distribution of local components (discussed in Chapter
3). As pointed out, the increased flexibility (i.e.
deflection and rotation) which they introduce re~
suits in reduced reactions (forces and moments),
while the concurrent localized stresses serve to limit
the fatigue life in proportion to the strain range at
their location. The Piping Code Rules provide adequate coverage of flexibility and stress intensification factors for curved pipe and approximations for
miters and corrugated pipe, but for the present
(1955) are confined to rough stress intensification

AtUt.Y&IS

~,,":~C.<-....i

CAte.. MJ.6.
~~~~oc(D

fOR .. Ko.
CAte."Q

4.13

factors alone for other components whose flexibility

factors are either not satisfactorily established or
else not reduced to usable criteria. The significance
of flexibility factors diminishes as the relative run
of curved to straight pipe or number of other components is reduced; 011 the other hand a single stress
intensification at a location of maximum primary
stress constitutes the weak link on which the fatigue
life of the entire system is based.
Repeated reference has been made to the "square
corner" defined as a direct intersection between connecting straight runs, which allows no angular displacement of one tangent with respect to the other.
It is commonly portrayed as a single miter in which
uniform stiffness exists without local effect. Actually this condition is never attained. A miter involves sizable intersection stress with proportionate
influence on flexibility and local stress as explained
in Chapter 3. Relatively heavy pipe fittings probably constitute a closer approach although at the
expense of some local increase in stiffness. This
subject is mentioned here in clarification of terminology and not as a contributing factor for evaluation
in approximate solutions.
The assumption of "square corners" contributes
materially to the simplification of piping structural

DESIGN OF PIPING

.l08

MEMBERS
O.

ALL
10.75

es.so

~
E~'IO'"

0'

<:

STeP"

21.5
t!!9.0
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2 Eh til 4 4~

SYSTEMS

MATERIAL W;ap 6R.A

TEMP.
e

900 _c
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til
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til
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COLOSPRIIJ~
MOMENTS (S:T La)
FACTORC'O
COLD CONDITION
POINT
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A
MK
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M:
- Z 900
- (POZS
F"
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Fy
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f- 460

AND FORces (t.6)

ACTING
HOT

O'

S ..." (;500
p~i
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SA.~~~~~t~~ ..~...'"

f-IZ77S
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RESTRAINTS
CONDITION

ON

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ff 1.510

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---4

THE MW. KELLOGG COl.

PIPING.'=.LEXI.E!ILlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS

ORIGINAL
DATA AND RESULTS

~
ATE

"0,.,
7

psi

I FORM A
CALC NO. ..I(/4

STEP G
fORMULAS

fOlII "[WBERS

YAXIS

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TO

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fBI,ZSO,OO

0
6500

32.50

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"+

{-

1.12.5.00

.;-

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/33.00

0
31Z.50

220.00

25.00

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f 1.125.00

195.00

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I,e~o.oo -

1,Iz'5.00

19.50
0

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--

10.00 -I

eTC

T/(e COU/lt71l'

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333.30

/5.00

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13.00

25.00

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.,.

208.33

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SHAP

25.00

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150.00

of,

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1,500.00 .,.

50.00

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III

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d.AQ""

18.75

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III

II

15.00 -

10.00

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15.00 -

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1.00

1.00

'.00

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0'3
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1.00

1.00

2-0

I.{)()

L ~

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1-2

0'-/

STftlSS,
s'tTtwa

1-1125.00
ANALYSI$

CALC.
c;tttC"O

O.Tt

5.208-25

K.&

:!t..T~
'e?/

7.

5~

/I~50

" l<?t033.Z!

'O'U.

eALe. "0.

4./4

<'"

SIMPLIFIED

METHOD

FOR FLEXIBILITY

STep

f,'

.,.112,.50

AI>!> '

.A.,:.I._

'Ccc

-C.l/
.C~c
.A1bb

.etcc

...85 '..'

"".33.00

IIZ5.00

96.09

"'A ... /

102.8.9/

43 ..3'1'1.21
1 OUJ.91
44,428.12

..

.. (mu)'

-/7.51,

..

2.60

..

144000

N ._~

'I

144000

E Ill.
N, -~

mlZ

.m ..,mJ)

...

-(m,s)'

<-

84Z.23

.miZmU

n IJ
H.,nlt

~t

NJ.nu

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:t',

'1'.3<1-473

1
r:.=

1'./Z'127

Nt,nll

F,

".

f ,ll

... w.

KELLOGO

C;;OMPAf'CY

CONVERSION
TO CODE RULES

y
z
F.
Fy
Fz

kSi:
H

Sf .II.S66

..B..c.. .f..L c
R'

.R.L
RI

.fL ~

Eh'

WHICH[Y(R

PS.'

M.

011

Y"
-F,Y
S(

M'x

.33

(I'

t Cl

=~-/

R' - CALCULA1'EO
REACTIONS
BASED ON Eh
I

II

,
..,
W'

'

-..3:3.37

.J

-n

mil
"f

37.,420.28

306.95'

-mlt,nIJ

....

19, 251.

.,

18J<>8.9s

.mlS,nlJ

NI.
Nz

- 4- Z8

- 27.36
-15,~/4

2
-15.00
0

7.,2"'53

I
0
-10.00
0

NO

CALC.

liO

+15.00

-0-

.,.1077

4414

- '1'13 7

+1077

-4414

.,.1077+ 177q

-.;:;-n

-3!J37

-428

- 2207

a
- 42B
- 18. 211

n
4::>Fl

/324-

-42A
+15

-n

slii
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.,..1.3,72'1

-I-1.f'511?

-IA.2.fZ

- 3~'17

4.14

-15.00
- 10.00
+/'5.00
-(,.75.40
d34Q.IC,
I-BfL2R

- -- -- - 0

O'(c#ECK)

-NS4-

-.3337

a
rAM

.,. 70.7.;17

- 2-;;-;;;;'
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1-177/H

-1-17783

0
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0
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+ 07.,Q

+8739

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r:

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79

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/

71.37
H(;'3
35tJ7

1.0Mb

s'b"{IMj,

2sr"
MI
Sb'+S~+4Sr
"s'b +45r S',
1iC(I,.t,.OGG

- 18,252.

I.Fa"'N

+177113

0'

NO

St'

w,w

'II

-~(b

{3

fH[

1'88.2<3

w'

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F,

POSITION

ft

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DATE

7Z.Cid

... 14C.

CHECKtD

33

/G',70
.. 33.72...37.05(;,

nIl

N,.n ...

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I~AlC.

-1.50

I:, 1<5.1'-8.95
I; . Id,09(,.Z7

- 574

c.

My.

0
0
+50.00
0

L,

1349./,

7'

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p",AHE
IY5TUIS

- 2S 00

t
.mll,nll

.,.(;2.58

m,n'"

292.8,

fUXUIILIT"
..

/Cl"'.20
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71.5.3
+ 97.81

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-/200

1(0<37.50

'
f

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. .,. 378.<90
-. ..r 9$7.7,
'2.(;.4-

F,

-2.1.37

74437.24
50,.312..56

N'

..

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III

I-

+/077
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+2207
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0
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M,
18252
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f ,. -.:n 7?Q
M'
-18211
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IS GA[ATU~

'* '.

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A
+ 25.00
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0
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.,. 88.ZB
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0

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124,749.60

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2778./8

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-..3075.00
+ 127.00

12,271.49
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62,584.05

1000l1li
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nt, ~ -1098.82
.mll,mU

ebb
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loZ4.t;,7
12.478.41
13,503.08

...
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..

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fe-'nn

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.COQ
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12.478.41

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1000

844.<33

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2.03

492.34

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Im

mil 11.+ 44. 43

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12.970.75

f_

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r.89

1024.67

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- /1. 950.00
-A.r,.I.{ ~ _ 5572.29
100Om,,-17;522.29

"'I)

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&

+127.00

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+//9.50
1125.00
tetc.

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100,33
l

63,050.59
43.399.2.1

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A

106,449.80

.
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.~.-Z.745.00

ANALYSIS

eON PAlfl'

74550

()(J{/

Rc,':Z.4
P,PING

FLXIBILITY I ''''0
STRESS
WO&.tNT$ AND S'h~S$

.AHALY$I$

tAlC

,.7. ..r. 8

l roR'''

1~~~~'(~_1;:":
i4

HO

CALC. Ho.

4.14

DESIGN OF PIPING

110

r~r
);) /~'

lilt.

MEMBERS
D.

10.7~
.)(,5
1"0.7
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t.
I
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R
h
k
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Z E",. 10-'"

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Ul

"l

1
I
2/.,5
Zq.o

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-6.238.280
~Z38.?80

COLD SPRIIiG
F,lCTORCO
11) POINT

M~

U)

My
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:5

Ul

c::

0'
/:75

50

F"

.,.10

Fv
Fro

20

10

ss

\)

..

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~

~
h!?.,

STcP/O
ACTIN~
HOT

X-AXIS

WEWB(RS

Y-AXIS

'A".U(L

TO

:tAXrS

tfi

.,.

l(l~

'.00

II

'.00
fO.OO

(I

-/:>.00

- 15:00

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f-

7. SO

.. 30t.

ux

8.33
;a

18,75

+ 10.00

+ 19.5'0

a,A

a.,

-292.50

b,A

1>..

b.'

'b

-195.00

a.Ab

Q"b

'b

'ob

+ 2925.00

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a ... o

LIII'I.

...

b,Ab

.-. ..

G-"o
b . .lb

LZ/IZ

b, 'b

'bb

kOc

ka.

+-

b,B

bs

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- 150.00

e.a

es

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+112.50

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b Be

b Be

e ee -1125.00

b.sh

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+19,5.0
0

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ae

C.

<t"

c.c"

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c.Ga

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a.to
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to

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--

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kal

1-2250.00

+ 1$,00

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0
18.7

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0

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e ee -1-1125.00

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/,00
15,00

50.00

1950,00

b.B

b,Ob'.

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4-387.50

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1.00

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0
0
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1.00
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0

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00

ETC. IN 7N
COLUMN
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5'2.08
III

/
+

+ 3.2.50

127.00

- 555.00

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-'<;25',00

+3(,75.00

0
'81150.00

t77'i!.!;0
~12S.1
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-1'50.00

+ 25.00

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- 2700.00

0
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- 31C.50

- 200.00

tIS '25,00

+- 14-,SO~.00

r'ZSoO.oo

tlOS9'1P.80

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-I-C;333.25

f-,S:OO

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0
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0

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25.00

0
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SHAPE
COEFFICIEI(TS

I
+50.00

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4.15

SUM Tilt:

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CALI; NO.

1.00

0
208.33
II

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p.5i

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0
-!i'0,00

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Coo +3375.00

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p,.i

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1- it.

.~.-=~n:o
.8900

DATA AND RESULTS

p"j
p5i

~TRt:&:.

+4625
-IBOO

Z,;O
-+ EGO
1090
+ /090
~. ,gso
- .350
Y AND SIRESS ANALYStS

(I

Ltl,2

0'-

aJ ~.
b

",weto

Sr;

+/5 700

STEP
fa"

Sh'~OO
Sc raaoo

CONDITION
II

0'
+/3. ~75
+ 375
+ 7800

eo

~5

ON RESTRAINTS

AND FORCES (La]

MOMENTS (FT -La)

COl.D CONDITION
A
-.!JZ
-100
~ 50
- 10
+
.,. /0

,
(;0

TI- MW. KELLOGG COl'ORIGINAL

PIPING_t:.L,-;!':t.~ILlI
f'OAWUlAS

IFy

IA

o-.zt:,ooo'

EbU'Y/IH
fl,I6z/ H

~X
~y

SrcP Z

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f+z3}'f,.%o

FX!

t:z:

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e.lAJ</rH

I-"

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6'1

'/Z

~
"-

I
~ MATERIAl.. .!-/Old 6R.A
900 F
~
TEMP.
(lOC>O
W
e
BRANCH
o'-A
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.t.IkJ(t;oo&,5Q.
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[I,.
-+.09750'
lLI
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Q_

ii.:

SYSTEMS

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0
0

0
0

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+S20aZS

+~333.2S

-r1l2S.00

0 11".'''51, ANALYSeS
[ SY5TUU

~~~O~.T6'
DAl[
7- U -S!]

,. '1425.0()
'OWN

CALC. NO.

4./5

SIMPLIFIED

METHOD

FOR FLEXIBILITY
STEP

, ~.

- 3120.00
r 127.00

.r.
-A'l" ....

l,t

'

A:bb

'

"Cc.c

_C.I.,l

....

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looOmio'

1000

mil.

mOl'

+ 5'4.57

-(mu-

.mnM:u

99.80

..

144000

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1:,

"1'

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H,'

-"'000

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+-.30'189

fl

E. '1',30989

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fZ

lot.

Ott

y.:

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101'

is

My

Gq,EAT:E~

of z.'
-r x1

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z
fy

*"'*,.~
WtUCI1EVtA

- 50.00

fx

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[j;"
ps.,
5 ,8848
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R'
Eh

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a/

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-(mill'

..

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0

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0
0
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0
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0
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0
0
'1'1795

-mU''''II

+1410

t-/7'1C

STRESS

AKALYSIS

0
0
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- 15.00
0
0

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t1CI.03

f,' +3$2.49
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7- ZZ

I
0
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0

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0
0
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+1C,299
+ 3525
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0

318.07
20448,$3

n. . eo, 130.4(;
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CHECKED
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Z5,C87.1'T
..

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38(;

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99,20

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My

PLANE

0
-I- 6.4."1?
r179C,

-G43?

f'y

1m.,
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r 848.8(;,
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.
0

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50.31

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CI.12
+

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SO

7'18.00
-2485". So

Sf 9. C2
t 24.80
f 545: IS

nu"
Nl

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'UXUIILlT1'

0"

18 I S'

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101' l

2.8
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'F . r

R' CALCUI..ATED

.m".mu

54.'10

5'2 '17.00
45017. 75
50,314.75"

1000"'"

",,'+9.9'1

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4
0

1.35

Eh

+ 9'19/.2'

5'0

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45,017.75

a.

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' - 22.59

2/28.00

.. Ceo ~

- 4.00

5"297.00
IDS, 999. 80

a.

IOOOmJ)

-1-14500.00
4.5'08.74

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.NUlTI

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CONVERSION
TO CODE RULE S

1133,.,4

_ 1'2.9'1
39.59

PI"tHe

CO"PAHY

.-

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C.20

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M.
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533G.80

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Ny.na

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2425. 70

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2745.42

a"

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.-

-lm ,1

- Z4.88

+"\. .mu

....... m

77(.2.

133.00
-2700.00
-I119.50
7425.00

Bb

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A'

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470.72

0 ..

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fOOOmu'

Im

5"70.5"2

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Aao

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6".'YI

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- 99CO. '9'9

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3''15.00

.coa
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III

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C;

C333.25
333.41

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54, S(;C. 44

1 . ~ .

- I.' 7

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II ...

'I

- 5"5"~O(}
of- I Z 7. 00
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(;034.00

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AO

48,532.44

~. - ZOO.00
B rI/9
. .5'0

oil

(;034.00

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-A.l,.,

....

48 S32.44
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299.25"

.
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- 24.57

-200.00
, -/.50
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125,199.80
7(;,t;G7. 3~

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ANALYSIS

-12 BC,4
'0

fl6,2qQ

-/lOG 9

+5230

+3525

-34'1/
+.52.30
,,257.3
0
"'1803

- .528.2.

+385'1
r 3G8

., 38_"itf
~ 3C.8

+7803

-IIOC,q
+2573

0
0
17803

+14Z'l'l
17803

REACTIONS
BASED ON Eh

,,'y
,,'z
u'

PIPE

10

II

POSITION

".

- 15"88

'

y'b

- 4tP3fo

'y

,,',

"I

f179$

N'

01'

,,'.

..r

..

,441)4

IJ

29,9
Sb'

j/3M.

'>b<lpM"
2SIj

loll

S""S~+4S,
ySb

.Dl

+_s'b +451

THf ... W. I([Lt..OCG

' S'.
eO"~A'U'

'Z9~
18(,1
720
4.U;ZOOOI)
~C;OS

PiP,,.,

f'L[lUOIUTY.
"0"("1$

AHO 5T FI(5$

.'fO STA.[SS[S

"'H

A L'f Sl S

CALC

nJCi

I~~W(4'.1(;-:~

fOIH.

NO

calC. flO

4.15

112

DESIGN OF PIPING

analysis and permits the relatively simple application of the General Analytical Method to problems
involving two points of fixation as' covered in Section 4.6 of this chapter. It is continued in the further
approximations, i.e. guided cantilever and assumed
thrust axis approaches, of Sections 4.4 and 4.5. For
Schedule 40 or heavier pipe curved to a radius of
five diameters or over, flexibility factors are neglected
with little error; however, the developed length and
disposition relative to the neutral axis differs from
that of tangent straight elements with a resulting
effect on the system stiffness.
There is fairly extensive successful experience
with the design of piping systems to the stress
range of t(Sc + Sh) (which was in effect until the
1955 revision of the Code) on the basis of squarecorner analysis neglecting both flexibility and stress
intensification factors. These companion assumptions tend to offset each other insofar as stress
evaluation is concerned, provided details involving
high stress intensification are avoided. The reactions obtained, on the other hand, are always on the
high side. Successful past experience might be taken
to indicate that piping has operated safely at somewhat higher peak stresses than nominally calculated.
This experience, however, has been predominantly
with steel pipe of schedule 40 or heavier thickness
which did not involve exceptionally high (3 factors.
With a greater trend toward use of thin walled
pipe, coupled with the recently increased allowable
stress range, there is increased need to take stress
intensification into consideration.
The Piping Code rules, as revised in 1955, require
that, when using approximate methods, the effect
of stress intensifications be taken into account.
This requirement would be satisfied if a correction
factor applied to the stress calculated by the squarecorner approach would always assure that the adjusted stress is not less than would result from
application of the General Analytical Method. An
obviously safe means would be to apply the full
stress intensification factor to the stress at the
square corners. However, comparative calculations
show that this seriously overestimates the effect because of the neglected flexibility, and results in uneconomical and unnecessary provision of excess pipe
length.
Much effort has been devoted toward
developing a simple guide for a safe, yet not unduly
conservative correction. Despite this effort no simple
rule has evolved, since the configuration of the line
and the location, as well as amount of curved pipe,
add up to a complex influence. In the majority of
cases no correction for stress is needed because of

SYSTEMS

the compensating influence of the flexibility factor,

and because the maximum stress, before application
of a stress intensification factor, is sometimes not
located at a bend. Naturally, this is not a generally
safe assumption, since there will be many instances
where a correction is necessary. In such, an empirical correction factor of the order of V~ instead of f3
will usually be ample. It is best, however, for the
designer to explore typical configurations by comparative calculations in order to reinforce his judgment for specific applications. As mentioned previously, it is not necessary to apply the correction
factor to the reactions since they will be on the safe
side. Where the reactions so estimated prove too
high and a more accurate evaluation is desired, there
is no substitute for a solution by the General
Analytical Method.
Efforts have been made to reduce the inaccuracy
of the square-corner assumption by factors which
correct the deflection contribution of the individual
component and apply its influence on the overall
piping system at the correct relative location. The
additional flexibility which curved pipe exhibits
may be conveniently expressed as an increase in
length or "virtual length" which would be required
to produce the same deflection on the basis of unit
flexibility, and may be extended to the squarecorner equivalent of a bend as follows:
Lb = virtual length of bend, ft
R = radius of bend, ft
k = flexibility factor of bend
For a 90 bend the developed length of the squarecorner equivalent is 2R and
0

Lb

= 1.57kR

The additional virtual length to be applied to the

square-corner equivalent in simulation of bend flexibility is given by
Lb - 2R

= R(1.57k -

2)

The simplest locations for the application of this

additional virtual length are at the intersection
forming the square corner, or else at the center of
the bend to which the square corner is equivalent.
The first of these locations overvalues, and the second undervalues, the stiffness contribution to the
piping system. A more accurate location would be
to apply this excess at the center of gravity of the
pipe bend; however, the considerable added effort
is unwarranted in view of the still approximate results obtained. A further alternative would be to

SIMPLIFIED

METHOD FOR FLEXIBILITY

...

'

ANALYSIS

113

114

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

distribute the additional virtual lengths between the

straight members representing the square-corner
equivalent; this will generally -also overvalue the
stiffness contribution to the system. Table 4.4
shows for a simple system the effect on the actual
stress range of these alternate location assumptions
including the stress intensification factor of the bend,
as compared with the General Analytical Method
results and those of a square-corner solution with
both the stress intensification and flexibility factors
ignored. It also demonstrates the futility of attempting to get good correlation with the General Analytical Method by approximate methods, however
refined.
It can be seen, therefore, that although approximate analyses have a place in piping system analysis,
the extent of their utility depends strongly on the
experience and judgment of the designers. When
used for final designs, by far the best results will
be obtained through the simplified square-corner
method of Section 4.6, thus avoiding unassessable
errors in analysis. Added refinements, such as discussed in the preceding paragraph, are usually not
warranted, since where greater accuracy is needed

the General Analytical solution will prove no more

burdensome in the long run and will provide the
only reliable results.
References
1. E. A. Wert and S. Smith, Design of Piping for Flexibility
with Flex-Anal Charts, Blaw-Knox Co., Power Piping Div.,
Pittsburgh, Pa., 1940.
2. S. W. Spielvogel, Piping Stress Calculations Simplified,
Lake Success, New York, 4th printing, 1951.
3. "Z-, t-, U-, and Expansion U-Bends," Paper No. 4.02 of
Piping Engineering, Tube Turns, Inc., Louisville, Ky.,
1951.
4. C. T. Mitchell, "Graphic Method for Determining Expansion Stresses in Pipelines," Trans. A SlifE, Vol. 52, pp, 16776 (Hl30).
5. T. E. Bridge, "How to Design Piping with Required
Flexibility," Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 22, No. 10,
p. 94; No. 11, p. 94; No. 12, p. 92 (1950); Vol. 23, No.1,
p, 136; No.2, p. 107 (1951).
6. L. F. Randolph, "End Reaetions and Stresses in 2 and 3Dimensional Pipe Lines: A Simplified Method of Calculation," Imp. Chern. Industries, Ltd., Billingham Div.,
March 17, 1953.
7. W. A. Wilbur, "Thermal Stresses in Piping Systems,"
Pelroleum Refiner, Vol. 32, pp. 143-148, 163-168, 174-181
(1953).

CHAPTER

Flexibility Analysis by the GeIleral

Analytical Method

Nthe previous chapter, simplified and approximate methods were presented for the calculation
of stresses and reactions in piping systems subjected to thermal expansion. The brevity and ease
of application of these methods was achieved by
the omission or approximation of certain influences
on over-all elastic behavior. Such solutions have
their place in preliminary and rough analyses, but
for final checking of piping systems whose dimensions or service performance are critical, a method
is needed which combines accuracy, versatility, and
comprehensiveness.
These requirements are met
by The Kellogg General Analytical Method.
S.I

consequence, may be included for very stiff lines

where they assume significant proportions.
In
addition to the effects attendant to restrained thermal expansion, concentrated and uniformly distributed loads such as those due to gravity, static
pressure, and effect of wind may be included;
dynamic or impact conditions reducible to an equivalent static loading can also be handled by this
approach.
Naturally, a method of such scope is not as readily
mastered as the simplified or approximate methods;
furthermore, the analysis of an elaborate system is
bound to be time consuming because of the large
number of variables involved in its geometry. It
has been demonstrated that, for equal accuracy, the
required effort cannot be reduced beyond that obtained by the advantageous selection of the coordinate system origin. On the other hand, accuracy and
speed are greatly improved by a universal systematized approach with a high degree of organization and
carefully planned form sheets. Calculating time is
further reduced when the work is performed by a
group assigned more or less exclusively to piping
flexibility problems; for such use, the method is
ideally suited and has been widely adopted. The
organized approach which it provides is directly
adaptable to programmed automatic computing
machines and has been universally employed for
this purpose [3). The economic attraction of automatic machine computations has been greatly enhanced by achievements on programming developed
by The M. W. Kellogg Company, which makes this
approach practical for problems of virtually unlimited complexity even with machines of limited
storage capacity.

Scope and Field of Application of the General Analytical Method

Originally presented in the first edition of the

Systems in 1941 [11, and subsequently by Wallstrom (2), The General Analytical
Method appears herein in its most recently extended
form. By this method, stresses, reactions, and
deformations of any piping system can be evaluated,
confined only by the conditions of elastic behavior
and static loading. The number of straight legs
and local components, such as circular arcs, miter
bends, corrugated tangents and bends, connections,
flanges, valves, is unlimited; individual elements
may be oriented in any direction, arranged in any
order, and may vary in stiffness, size, thickness, or
elastic constants. There is no restriction to the
number of points of complete or partial fixation
either at the terminals or at intermediate locations.
The method is not confined to a consideration of
bending and torsion alone; the effects of axial or
shear forces on the deflection, while usually of minor
Design of Piping

115

116

DESIGN

OF PIPING SYSTEMS

The inherent accuracy of the method itself is

more than adequate for engineering design purposes,
and in some cases might be considered unnecessarily
refined in view of variations in piping dimensions
and tolerances. The significance of substituting
rigid square corners for elbows or tees is discussed in
Chapter 4. Omission of the so-called "secondary
term" and direct and shear effects is discussed in
this chapter along with the treatment of those
subjects.
Apparent errors may arise in the interpretation
of the results of a flexibility analysis. The assumption of linear elasticity would appear to introduce a
gross error in systems which acquire self-spring
through operation under creep conditions. However, if the expansion stress limits are maintained as
proposed in Chapter 2, plastic action will practically
cease as soon as the full self-spring has been realized.
The piping will then operate elastically with respect
to thermal effects, and the range of stress which the
piping undergoes in a single cycle of temperature
change will be dependably predicted. This is likewise true of the ranges of reactions and deflections.
Absolute values of reactions or deflections are not
predictable since the redistribution of stresses which
occurs in the process of acquiring self-spring is not
taken into account with present methods. However,
maximum expected reactions, satisfactory for all
design purposes, can be established by the method
given in Chapter 2 which also makes clear that the
range of stress and the range of reactions are the
important fatigue performance indices.
Computational errors are a serious problem on
occasional calculations and can be equally so on
routine calculations in the absence of proper organization and care. While it is possible to check the
final results obtained when using any method, the
General Analytical Method is advantageous in that
it has been set up to permit the checking of calculations at progressive intervals in the progress of the
work, reducing the time lost to a minimum.
The economics of accurate piping flexibility analysis is greatly improved by the use of automatic
data processing machines. If manual computation
is employed it is advantageous for the work to be
performed by specialists who are able to save time by
memorizing many of the operations. The material
in this chapter is devoted exclusively to application
of the method so as to provide a convenient text
for the training of such specialists and can be readily
mastered by routine calculators without advanced
mathematical training. The supporting derivation,
which is presented in Appendix A together with a

brief history and a fairly complete bibliography on

the subject, does not have to be mastered to perform
the routine calculations described in the present
chapter.
5.2

Calculating

Aids

In all but the simplest cases, computations according to the General Analytical Method invite the use
of some kind of calculating aid. In some cases
slide rule results are not entirely dependable; hence,
for routine work, the ten place digital calculating
machine has become more or less standard equipment
and can be depended upon to maintain sufficient
accuracy. Actually, as will be apparent in the examples to follow, it is rarely necessary to use such
a machine to its full capacity throughout the computation. Experience has shown that carrying two
decimal places in the shape coefficients, five decimal
places for multipliers in the equations, and two
decimal places for the resulting forces and moments
will usually assure a satisfactory check of the equations. Naturally, the accuracy of the results will
only equal that inherent in the data entering the
calculation; hence, in the final tabulations the results
are rounded off.
Automatic programmed computing machines drastically reduce computation time and thereby make
it practical and economical to analyze piping systems
of any degree of complexity. The various computers
available differ primarily in operating speed, and
in storage capacity or "memory," with the larger
installations minimizing the need for intermediate
manual operations. Even machines of relatively
limited capacity may be used effectively for complex
analyses by resorting to inversion procedures described in Section 5.19.
At the present time most automatic computers
represent expensive installations the economic
utilization of which requires broad application to
many accounting and engineering calculations rather
than exclusive use for piping problems. Experience
with piping calculations at The M. W. Kellogg Company Electronic Computer Laboratory indicates
that with proper scheduling of the work the over-all
economies as well as delivery time are significantly
better than those of the most efficient manual piping
computations. It is worthy of note, too, that these
savings are accomplished, in all but the simplest
piping configurations, in spite of the greater time
and care needed for preparing and checking information fed to or processed by the machine. The outlook
is for increasing application of computers in piping
flexibility analysis. It would be a mistake, however,

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

to underestimate the burden and responsibility

resting upon the engineer who must prepare and
interpret all significant information and who originates the program of instructions which prescribes
the steps the machine must follow.
5.3

General Outline of Operations

Before entering into the details of the General

Analytical Method, it may be advisable to outline
briefly the complete process, and in so doing, to note
the relationship with the Simplified General Method
covered in the previous chapter.
The first stage of the work consists of recording
the given data and setting up the problem so that
physical and geometrical properties of the piping
are expressed in numerical form, which operations
are parallel to the set-up procedure of Section 4.6,
but are expanded to include elbows and bends and
the flexibility and stress intensification factors of
these components. This is readily apparent in the
examples which follow. It can hardly be overemphasized that great care must be exercised to
avoid sign errors. This is a particular source of
difficulty to the beginner, who is advised to master
thoroughly the sign convention described in Chapter
4 before attempting any calculations.
Numerical calculations are performed in the
second stage and although the General Analytical
Method and its simplified counterpart involve the
same general principles, they differ to a marked
degree in execution. While in the Simplified Method
the approach is completely formulated, in the
General Method the work is performed in a number
of distinct steps, the basic procedures of which are
the same regardless of variations in complexity of
geometry, loading, constraints, etc. These steps
include:
a. Computation of the shape coefficients for each
member.
b. Summation of the shape coefficients (this operation may include a number of intermediate summations before the final coefficients are obtained).
c. Solution of a system of simultaneous linear
equations in which the summed shape coefficients
become the coefficients of the unknown forces and
moments, while the known terminal displacements,
elastic constants, and moments of inertia are represented in the constant terms.
d. Transfer of moments to various points (the
moments computed are referred to the origin; hence
it is necessary to apply suitable transformations to
obtain the effects at the ends or in other desired
locations ).

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

117

e. Calculation of stresses at significant points.

J. Adjustment of forces and moments to obtain

the anticipated initial and ultimate effects on equipment, etc., taking into account cold spring if it is
employed.
g. Calculation of deflections at significant points.
These are the principal steps, but special operations, discussed later in the chapter, arc required for
the more complex problems.
The third stage of the flexibility analysis involves
the evaluation of the results. Calculated stresses
are compared with allowable stress ranges at significant locations as discussed in Chapter 2, while
terminal and other local effects are considered in
accordance with Chapter 3. Rough comparison
with calculations of similar piping is advisable whenever possible to confirm generally the assumptions
and the reliability of the results. For highly critical
piping, companson by model testing is usually
desirable.
5.4 The Solution of Simultaneous Equations

One of the important steps of the General Analytical Method is the solution of the system of simultaneous equations which appear in every problem.
Although such systems of equations can be solved
by several different methods, the one discussed in
this section has been found to be highly efficient.
Since experience has shown that the solution of
equations is one of the most difficult steps for a
beginner to master, it will be described here in
considerable detail.
The equations are always first degree or linear.
The variables are unknown moments and forces, or,
in special cases, unknown rotations and deflections.
Each equation is related either to a certain rotation,
in which case it is called a moment or rotation equation, or to a certain displacement, when it is called a
force or displacement. equation. In the case of a
single-plane line with two end points and with
expansion in the plane only, three unknowns, one
moment and two forces, must be determined by the
solution of three equations. If another branch in the
same plane is added, three more unknowns must be
computed and so on, the number of unknowns or of
simultaneous equations being 3 (n - 1) where n is
the number of end points. For a line in space with
two fixed ends six unknowns, three moments, and
three forces must be evaluated.
For branched
systems in space, the number of equations is
6(n - 1). Stops or guides providing partial fixation
require one additional equation for each component
of fixation

us

DESIGN

OF PIPING

To simplify the explanation which follows, three

equations are used. However, the procedure is
general and applies to any number of equations of
the type arising in piping analysis. If the unknown
moments and forces are written in a given order in
each equation horizontally, and the equations corresponding to the moments and forces are written
in the same order vertically, the matrix formed by
the coefficients of the unknowns will be symmetrical about the principal diagonal. In the procedure
described below, the top equation is always eliminated in such a way as to maintain symmetry in the
remaining coefficients.
Given a set of three such simultaneous equations:
A F;z;+ B F II

+ D F z = - EI D.,;
B F,; + C FI) + G F% = -EI61)
D F., + G F u + H F = - EI D.%
%

The constants are transposed to the left-hand side

and the whole is written:
Constant

+A
+B
+D

+B

+D

+C

+G

+0

+H

+EID..,

Table 5.1 illustrates the solution. The three

given symmetrical equations 1, 2, and 3 are reduced
to two which are likewise symmetrical, as shown on
lines 5 and 8 of the table. A repetition of the same

SYSTEMS

process with these equations reduces the number

of equations to one and permits the determination
of F .
A complete solution with a description of every
step including the check is given in the following
numerical problem. The equations
10F", + 20Fu 20Fx

-30F", -

100FII
90F!!

30F.

100

90F. =

500

120F.

-1200

are written:
Equation No.
1
2
3

F,;
+10
+20
-30

Constant

Fu

F.

- 30

20
+100
- 90

- 90
+120

100
500

+1200

The complete solution is given in Table 5.2.

It will be noted that the coefficients to the left
of the principal diagonal fall out as the equations
are reduced. The form sheets presented later for use
in solving equations take advantage of this fact by
omitting entirely that part of the solution.
The calculator is. cautioned that all coefficients
along the principal diagonal must be positive ill
sign. A negative sign means that an error has been
made either in the solution of the equations up to
that point, or in the calculation of the shape coefficients.
A complete check by substitution of the unknowns
into each of the equations is essential for the method

Table 5.1 Method of Solving Simultaneous Equations

Line
No.

Equation No.
and Operation

F~

1. Equation 1..........................

+A

2. Divide eq. 1 by (-A)

-1

...............

F.

FII

+B

+D

+EI6%

B
A

EI6~
A

3. Equation ~..........................

+B

+c

+G

4. Multiply line 1 by (-BI A) from line 2 ..

B
--A
A

B
--B
i1

--D

+c--

5. Add line 3 and 4 ....................

6.

Equation S ..........................

7. Multiply line 1 by ( - DI ~1)from line 2..

8. Add line 6 and line 7.................

+D

+G

D
--A
A

- -R
A

Constant

+EJt:,,1I

B
A

B2

+G--

- A
BD

- A

--D

+G _ HD
:1

(6~ - ~ 6,,)

+EI
+EI6,

+H

(EI6~)

(EI6z)

/)2

+H--

+ EI ( D., -

q 6,,)

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

119

the distribution of error in succeeding equations

may form a clue as to the source.

of solution presented. The sum of the products of

the unknowns times the coefficients in each equation
must equal the related constant with reversed sign.
It is recommended that the multiplications for the
check be performed as each unknown is found. In
this manner, the products for the check are completed as the final unknown is determined. When a
summation indicates that a particular equation does
not prove, the error may be sought within that
equation. However, it is advisable first to complete
the check summations for all the equations, since

5.5 Single Plane Calculations

When the General Analytical Method is applied

to a simple flexibility problem, the calculation is
brief and contains only the essentials to the case at
hand. A single-plane square-corner piping system
with two fixed ends is a problem of this caliber.'
IThis type of problem can also be solved by the Simplified
General Method presented in Chapter 4, Section 4.6.

Table 5.2 Complete Solution of Three Equations Using Simple Numerical Coefficients
Line
No.*
1

Equation

IF", =

F",

10
1.00

100.00

20

20

6
7

o
o

F"

20
2.00

40.00

30

90

30
3.00

150.00

Constant

Operation Going
Down

100
10.00

Divide line 1 by -10

60

200

30
0.50

300
5.00

25.00

120.00

60

90.00

300

11

30

15.00

150

12
13

o
o

F. ==
Check

14
15
16

Multiply
F'" coefficients of
lines 1,4,
9 by
-100.00
-1000
-2000
+3000

15.00
1.00

750
50.00

Multiply line 1 by
+3.00, the F. coefficient in line 2
Multiply line 6 by
+0.50, the F. coefficient in line 7
Add lines 9,10, and 11
Divide line 12 by -15

50.00

Multiply

Multiply

F 11 coeffi-

F. coeffi-

cients of
lines 1,4,
9 by
-20.00
-400
-2000
+1800

cients of
lines 1, 4,
9 by
-50.00
+1500
+4500
-6000

"Line numbers correspond to lines on standard

Multiply F. coefficient of line 7 by

-50.00
F" == -25.00
+ 5.00 = - 20.00

1200

Multiply line 1 by
- 2.00, the F" coeffi[ cient in line 2
Add lines 4 and 5
Divide line 6 by -60

5.00

30

10

Multiply F. coefficient of line 2 by

-50.00
Multiply F 1/ coefficient of line 2 by
-20.00
F% == +40.00
-150.00 + 10.00
= -100.00

10.00

Operation Going
Up

500

90

20.001

ii....,.,

60
1.00

100
40

F.

Constant
- 100
- 500
+1200

three equation form sheet.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

120

FIG. 5.1

The a-plane,

Single-plane systems are usually drawn and calculated in the a-plane (Fig. 5.1). The sketch is
made and the given data recorded on Form A in
accordance with Steps 1 through 5 described for the
Simplified General Method. If there is expansion
in the plane only, the following steps are taken.
Step 6. On Form B-1 enter the following as
indicated:
Member number.
Shape (horizontal, vertical, or inclined).
Length of member L, ft.
Distances a and b, ft, i.e. the x- and y-coordinates
respectively, of the midpoint of the straight member.
Value of 2/12.
Step 7. Have Steps 1 to 6 checked.
Step 8. Compute the shape coefficients for each
member in accordance with these formulas:
Shape
Coefficient

Horizontal
Member

Vertical
Member

kQ

kQ

Sa

aXs
bXs
b X
a X
b X

aXs
bX
b X
a X
b X

Sb

Sab
Sau
Sbb

sa(or
Sa
Sb

aX

Sb)

+ s2/12

The foregoing procedure is exemplified in Sample

Calculation 5.1. The same system is calculated in
Chapter 4 as Sample Calculation 4.10, and a comparison between the two shows that identical results
are obtained. While the Simplified General Method
has the advantage of ease of computation for the
uninitiated, the method in the present chapter is
more fundamental and hence, more versatile. Both
methods involve the same amount of work.
A single-plane system with expansion perpendicular to the plane only, requires the solution of two
rotation and one displacement equations. These
equations are entirely independent of those for
expansion in the plane. For a line such as that
shown in Sample Calculation 5.1, if there is expansion in the z-direction, M:;, M II~ and F z must be
found. This case can be solved by following the
procedure and using the form sheets described fOI"
multiplane systems in Section 5.12.
5.6

Inclined
ness

Members and Changes in Stiff-

The procedure for calculating a line having straight

members which are inclined to the coordinate axes
departs but little from that described in Section 5.5.
The only difference lies in the use of the general
formulas in the calculation of the shape coefficients.
S

= kQ

Sa

= aX

Sb

b X

Sab

Saa

= (a X

+
Sa) +

Sbb

Sb)

(b X

(b X

S
sa(or

a X

Sb)

Sa
8b

+ 82/12

Sum the shape coefficients, s, sa, Sb etc., across to

obtain the final coefficients.
Step 9. Enter the final coefficients and the constants into the equation as indicated on the form
sheet. For complete fixation at the ends, end rotation 0, is zero and the constant in the moment
equation is therefore Zero. The constants El* 6:;
and BI*6" are transferred from Form A, the term
EI* = Ehl/144 denoting stiffness expressed in Ib-ft2
Step 10. Have Steps 8 and 9 checked.
Step 11. Solve the simultaneous equation and
substitute the values obtained back into the equation to check the answer, as explained in Section 5.4.
Step 12. Compute the moments at the various
points, find the point of maximum stress, and tabulate results.
Step 1S. Have Step 12 checked.

sa)

s(2/12)

cos a sin a

8(2/12) cos2 a

+ 8(2/12)

sin2

where a is the angle of inclination measured from

the positive horizontal axis to the member as shown
in Fig. 5.2, positive in counterclockwise and negative in clockwise direction.
Sample Calculation 5.1 is calculated for 10 in.
standard pipe, A-106, Grade A material.
It is
apparent that for the same expansion the magnitude
of the moment and the forces is in direct proportion
to the stiffness lEI. Hence, for any pipe with a
stiffness of ENIN the moment and forces may be
attained by dividing those shown in the example by
Q = EJ /E",(v, or multiplying the summation coefficients by Q and solving the equations.
r

L-

FIG. 5.2

b
~~

__x

'---1.

Angle of inclination of straight members.

FLEXIBILITY

O:"A

MEMBERS

Eh.'O'"

~ MATERIAL
~
TEMP.
e
W
a BRANCH

l1J
/::;y

ii:

t:.~

IF)

J!

C.S. - A~{)('GR.A

~
ss~

..,
!'S

!A

ZI

es.oo:

MOMENTS (I=T - La)

COLD CONDITION

c-

ANO FORCES_(La)

ACTING ON RE5TRAINTS
HOT CONDITION

p~i

5h' b sao
Sc -/6000

psi

SE ~A~~~~n;o
~TRC:$~

- 19 ns

- IZSOO

or- 19S50

or- seo

- seo

- 1390

,.. 1..:190

THE MW KELLOGG col.

MEI.t&

~
~
...
-1-0--

900 I'
.00650

COLD ~PRI~t;

til POINT
IM.
Mv
II)
M1
W
I=~
0:
I=v
F~

I.i)(~r

0
I

-rGZ38280
G Z.i11280
0

~10~44
E~IOYIr4-4
(0.16:/144
IFACTOR

F~L7\

/S-OO

"'"40.00 (.0 06S0)=

+.2"000
'40.00 (.0 ()&SO)-.2"'00t)
0

fj,x

121

Mz

21.50
29.00
2399,]400
1.00

Z Ec _IO-e.
52 ~,l/r44
til
Q

METHOD

'

Q.

ANALYTICAL

1100.7
29.90

<{

GENERAL

.J(,S"

k
IJ

BY THE

...

10.7S

D
1:I
'Z
R
h
~

ANALYSIS

0'-1

1-0

.,..

1./6
7ZS
AT POIMt"

+.70900

,..

900

Z 170

<tOt)

0-2

SA"~i~;'t~ ......
~",
Z""Zs p5i
FOKM A

Z170

~ c.
A

PIPING FlXI.~ILlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS

ORIGINAL
DATA AND RESULTS

.r:

KED

0 ....
'1

,.z. ... I

psi
A

CAL

~.r.3

NO. S.I

0".1/

2-A

SHAP~
k

I 00

A
L

a
b

L'/,Z
s
!>

Sb

--

/0

10 0
SO 00

~~b

00

15 00
5 00
8 3

25 00 208 :13

IS 00

SO 00

liZ SO

0
I Z5 170 -/

33330

EQII-fT'II1N.s-

So 00
a

18 1S

()
/25 00

Z50"W0

Sbb

1 S(J

~OO

i750,ao

15 oo

0
0
41 1'6650

4(J

12
50
S2
25
IZ
250

SO
00
08
00

I(JO(/0
SO 00

SO
00

Z 55" 0<:

-/4 875_;p'0~'O;r--+-i-T--+-i-T--+-i-T--+-t-i
8
.:3 ~5
1014 ~t8'~(0:';t--i--j-+-t--j-+-t--j-+-I--j--i

-15625 O()
SI208'2.oS
'21500 ()()

M,

25'

Fy

1'.

CONSTANT

.. s
r + lot> 00 T5b -2. $Sooa -~. - St> 'OD~./././.
VVVVA- I.COOoOV//o~2550
() VV/_/.; ... scoool'l'/_/.;

5TRE'SS

POIP.jT

v//~,

02S00///_/';-/Z750()V//_/.;
0
IJ
~
(101-"//0 ~G2.382 f IZjZ
V//_/.; -1.00000 /'//_/.; J44lnV//_/,;V//'I'l'//-0
s't_'fll""l_
F.
90f 11 -:/'/0
74<;.1411'l'/_/'; - /580
COI-IVER510N

"

O'
-I.?OO

-10.00

M',

..

POINT

I'ISS-

I
0
...10.00

0
..'S.OO

.../0513

~ 2197.3

THE MWKELLOGG

co. I

PIPING

J9 474180
-:/'//'i'/.3

0
-050.0()

.;rJ2.J<i.

A
.. 2500
0

-.10'08

A
.....;..+-';<~S.o=-o:'-t----t-

CALCULATION

A
29.90
.44134
12400

1b COPI! RVLE~:

-i

-So.ao

-30

F~h~~~tLl~~A~'iP
g~~f~~
ANALYSIS

'108
FOf? I
O"'T1:

"tl,;<--;.-,-t

]22

DESIGN OF PIPING

MEMBE.RS

()oz,

O
t,
I
Z
R
h
k

8.4>ZS

SYSTEMS

Z-A

MZ

bIo2!>,..
.280

.S22

z:

l5
~

+'07280

"1"10.00

i!:.y

ii:

430

~
~
_ c--

:s10

.0 {)2S4)c

+.OZS40

i!:.z

+ 1004

e"tov/,H

"1"",.'.0350

E"IO:/,H
OLD SPRIIiG
FACTORC
III POINT
I-'
Mx
Mv
I/)
Mx
III
F"x
0::

ISO

MOMENTS (FT 1.8)

COLO CONDITIO""'

AND FORCES (La)

1410

COl

/-0

0'1

S/~':3<:3.,.s~
~3 .

100

7 07

--

2.

12

so.

0
50

7 07
'7 1(,8
,Ill/

232,. 174
S894
I 119 4'1

0-2

10

00

DO

2. 58

1.5 00

/0 00
19.3
Z 50
8.J'J
2S 60
14>98 7/

'.50

8 3J
10 00

18

IS
112

0
00

0
0

t1(J

"-

..

F.

Fy
C\oIr;;CK
~209S10
0
-389"'0
-.lOO'J 1#-.5
:3 5083"85
-1S'S6]"S' j-.387766~ -~SO'50
0
PO'NT
t
0'
2.
x
C
rJS_.DO
~S.O"
=r:' -I.r: ';0
~5.oo
0
+IO.D"
M~
-BS6S
..F,,"Y
~ UIS7
- 7,,52-14-IDS
Q.
-17l>S
o
+-SZ.95
..,.
"'-5
#I08Z7
fJ;S40
-.3'270
M"
-85"'5
PIPING F~P(IBILITY
PAz

+-2861S6

-S,,,,,

-F,,~

THE MWKELLOGG CO

1.4 .so

-4'5'",
~.lJ~1T-f~5U~

12-

CALC NO. S.I!

S7 8

4-

psi

2=:

0
-I 3J9 /9
J 125 00 9 801 2.5
J3J 30
o
2/4 98
M.
F~
...
+ S7~7 H
202 IBe -~.
'l'//A- I. 00000 I"///r .. 3 50 79V//h
1.(,
'/, -4- 94~81 'l'/fi
-8j"t):'jl7
a +,s,tlb fl Gco 77 -Eo
W//, - 7" U; ij'/h
95(0
'l'//r
v///, -1.00000 ij'//F
I .,/OJ''1] 'l'//r

OA"fE

F:)HM

.J.
-S"

Cos

00

500

SO

.. c.
K<O

CH

0'-11

'.f~
't.ZS
ecJ~;CS.1S
'0(J/N'

10.'"
I

5A'~f~~~~~L.Al!""a.

"foSSO

2-11

0
-

4 17

5
5

psi

/t..T POINT"A

PiPING FLEXI.~ILlTY AND SIRESS ANALYSIS

ORIGINAL
DATA AND RESULTS

--

W5~.$O

k
Q
R

I ;:

- {'85"0
... 1410

.2<140C

/#{-C"S".f4

.~:..~;:&~JCO

Sf

10 22S'
1082.S

- .3S0

THE MW KELLOGG

p"i
psi

"TRCS:!.

F:z:.

a.

Sh' /.3600
5c' /10 000

Fv

V/'2

ACTING ON RE5TRAINTS
HOT CONDITION

O'

~H"'Pf

1/'

o'

E"ll1""44

IMHI&

~)

<:"oS>A'IOb-GR,A
.00<354

8.6(:

+ <38.(,10(0 ~2"4)

i!:."

.t.

2.58

1.00

~ MATERIAL
~
TEMP.
UJ
e
a BRANCH

Q.

/s.oo:

5.00'

27.40
29.00
13793240

IF)

2.</."1'-

Eh'IO'"
Z Ec. IO'~
2 EhI/144
III

:;:Zthr

8.4910

fJ

7\

Fx

28.14

72.49
It.. 81

+ ....

Vffh
'l'.-0

Fy_

/0

fi.3 ~3
202 ~8
4$

/03

'fiis 19
Q>7 77

Fy

PI

CONSTANT

159J 1.>.1'l'//~
256 2"V///r

1i2()
+1 103

--'

-z
-

~"
..5.. u .,.,
+

."-"'l'

7 ,//,0
3~~6
'/_
flO 985 19 tU"h .,.
08
I"///r
- 99<'1 (,~///h +1
.. .5 eqq I '/'
+1
?oS .9~ 'l'//r

-~
-

.,.7~S"<

r~".:s
""8<19

0
OC4S;

CALCULATION

0'

POINT
M',
Z

.11

/082.7

.~~-{--

1~.8,

o
OBO 79 ///,0
IJ
0 +1 004 ~( f 12/:z.
7
f

.,. / 02.1

A
fo8C:_6
-5. DO

BTRE'SS

,71.M"
/. '1-fl.."."
S,fJ'l).of',
9"0
049 I~~ COtJVER5'ON
TO COPf RULES;
35"0 !jr. 5< =(Lo/I:,) 51:' 10 22S
0
Rc R. </:~\ e o~('S'rh\
1SGRt=AT~fl
_
Or
026 O/. WH\CHEVER
36
Rh/R'= 1-'1'1 C)=

uss

.::2JJ

RwCIILC

REACTIONS

BASEO o,nh

A
+ 23. >c.
-.<;.00
-Ac:.':'O<;

+-70.52
+-8352.
of (,(J.39_

AND SlRpS
ANALYSIS
NGLE PLANE SYS EM

H.

'"

CH'Ctc(O
OAT':

fOf?Vo
.A'

B-

.N

~.2.

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

Sample Calculation 5.2 solves a system having

two sloping members one of which is of smaller size
than the remainder of the pipe ....' The shape coefficients are computed from the formulas given above
using an inclination angle, a = +45 for member
0'-1, and a = -30 for member 2-A. It will be
noted that the members for 0' to 2 are of 8 in. pipe
while member 2-A is of 6 in. pipe with a Q value of
2.58. In evaluating the stresses, the reduced section
modulus of the 6 in. pipe accounts for the fact that,
while the maximum moment is at point 0', the
maximum stress is at point A.
0

5.7

Circular

Members

Members such as bends and elbows which are in

the form of circular arcs require more labor in the
calculation of the shape coefficients than do straight
members. Hence, the substitution of square corners
is common practice in flexibility analysis. This
matter was discussed at some length in Section 4.7
wherein it was shown that, in many cases, squarecorner solutions are not advisable.
The calculation of circular members is introduced
by means of another single-plane line. The procedure of Section 5.5 again applies with a few exceptions. In the Pipe and Expansion Data on Form A,
it is necessary to enter the values of R, the radius
of the are, in feet. The flexibility characteristic h,
the flexibility factor k, and the stress intensification
factor {3 are determined in accordance with the
Piping Code (see also Chapter 3 herein). The shape
coefficients for the circular members are calculated
from the following relationships:
s = kQR"P

Sab=

(sXab)+ (s'cXb)
+ (s' bXa)+s' ao

sa= (sXa)+s'a

saa= (SXa2)+(s'aX2a)+s'aa

Sb= (sXb)+S'b

Sbb= (sXb2)+(S'bX2b)+s'ob

where
s' a=kQR2ca
s'b=kQR2Cb

S' cb

kQR3caa
bb= kQR3cbb

S'aa =
Sf

and

= lcQ R3 Cab

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

= vertical distance from origin to center of arc,

<I>

= arc of member, radians (when used directly).

ft.
a =

angle measured counterclockwise from positive horizontal axis to the initial tangent
(more easily visualized as the angle between
It negative vertical axis and the normal at
the initial point of tangency).

The calculations of the shape coefficients for circular members are facilitated by the use of Form D.
This form has space for two different members and
also provides for the calculation of the additional
coefficients needed for expansion out of the plane
or for multiplane lines.2 The arrangement of the
form provides for a convenient sequence of computation. The procedure is as follows:
The given constants, k, Q, R, a, "P, a, and bare
listed in the respective spaces and 2a, a2, 2b, b2, and
ab are calculated. The trigonometric constants <P,
in radians, Ca, Cb, Cab, Caa' Cbb are entered. For the
most commonly occurring shapes ("P = 90 and
a = 0 90
180 or 270 numerical values of the
trigonometric constants are given on the form sheet.
A more complete tabulation of these constants will
be found in Table C-15 in Appendix C, which
includes additional values for both "P and a. The
functions IcQR, kQR2, kQR3 are then calculated,
.
The coefficients
s, e""c, S 0, S ab, S aa are compu tde ,
each succeeding coefficient being the cross product
of column 1 by the adjacent trigonometric constant.
The multiplications s X a, s X b, etc., s' a X b,
S'a X 2a, etc., are performed and the summations
made vertically to obtain Sa, Sb, etc.
To illustrate the solution of a system with curved
members, the line calculated previously with square
corners as Sample Calculation 5.1 is presented as
Sample Calculation 5.3. It is assumed that the
bends are made with long-radius welding elbows,
since they are the most commonly used fittings.
0
,

0
,

0
,

),

2Multiplanc shape coefficients are given in Section 5.8.

y

=
=
Cab =
Caa =
Cbb =
Ca

Cb

cos a - cos (a + <1

sin a - sin (a
<1
0.25[cos 2(a + <1 - COS 2a}
O.5el> - 0.25[sin 2(a + "P) - sin 2a1
O.5el> + 0.25[sin 2{a + <1 - sin 2aJ

As indicated in Fig. 5.3

a

= horizontal distance from origin to center of

are, ft.

123

FIG. 5.3

Angles for circular members.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

124

MEMBERS

O'-A

10,7S

t.
I

~S

29.90
I.2S

R
h
I<

w
a

BRANCH

t:.x

UJ
e,

6y

-GR.A

AND FORCES {La}

- '110

-14

(lZS

.~~;:~n:D

--

I,,,,
12

17<
1$
.5
t;

DO

I~

9('8
It fhM

:;

1?5

()

1.5

l~:
""
7

333 I~

;2.2. SI
7 IN

,~
0

.. ~ .,.

-1370

as-o psi

AT POINT4

5A~it&~:~'"A~~

J-b

CALC.
H~C.t(1!
reATE

" --

2S dO
Its 42
-41 a

1'5-

J.5 71
1 147 1/4 -I : IA L5'()

"

18r:;,

., 38

"0

-~

- 177"

-:;~

.,.

...

&3 ...
1311 IR~

""1'

sc.

I}:~

"

-3 I3It JIM

00

-15 "I 9
1/ ~2 lM
'.J ~ T4.i:1

~7r,J~

1.(
2./.
11~ 5q Ln,

J'II

l,'l I;::l
- I'll 1':7

1<;(.

CONSTANT

2/t, Iqa

IH~

4-7 a

-/

1/////
////A- ."00000 '/"//. .n piA r'i V///, - 1)14-61 V///,
I,A,
-12 "I'1'lI3/;V///, .{/ ,.y # 0//~ -I 13'i'~ 2~V//h
....

SO

IS
1
7 14

G(8 45 38

F.

1_?91,

H 75
13 13

I 25
4fJ '5 -

100

So

"

.1:

7 -

"

on

D'-R

--

800
I 00
I 7<;

psi

FORM
A
CAL NO. 53

-//

\J

I~

19R

.3 .)26 1/(,
.5.5'
M,

rl370

'.3 Ool.

~J>

Ii 7i
25 -

/J
4<;

,.soo

80a

I 2$

2.ZS

- soo

4S

3-4

23

I 00

11

17

PIPING.'=-~XI.E!ILlrr AND STRESS ANALYSIS

ORIGINAL DATA AND RESULTS

Bce

2...
.J!.

Se

- ZI ~Z5"

col.

LJ

+ee

rIZ$7S

-.5'30
.,.. '110

12

0'-1

"!.b --

p"j
p!oi

(f;

!lTAe~$

Fv

5.,
soo
sc:-x;ooo

ACTING ON RESTRAINTS
HOT CONDITION
A

Z5.00'

MOMENTS (FT -Le)

COLD CONDITION

- -9450
r 3:10

b
L'/12

{,

THE MW . KELLDGG

!:>

sH
I

Fr.

(.OlJ650)=

u8zeol
-~ z30'zeoi

"1x
Fx

.. -

b
<;)

,. I(;

FACTORClI) POINT
IMx
.J
"1v
::l

SHAP(

'8

I'

-40.00 (.O(X,~O)~
-,Z&'OOO
0

COLD ~PRIIJG

M!M&

IF)

esooo

tnIl.",,~.
E.IOy/,H
EhIA'"H

0:

::

f--o,

.ooeso
r 40.00

6%

til
IlJ

Iii

AID

900

a:

)(

.: L!-{,y

/.00
C.s.

~ MATERIAL
~
TEMP.

+4

18-

8.00

FX/7\
a

r.

,zo

Z.~O
IJ
Q Eh' 10-e>
U.SO
29.00
2: E,,IO-"
Z999~4()O
9 Eht114'"
lI)

Mz

is.co:

1G<J.7

~
!(

STRESS

POINT
M',
Z

,.,

CALCULATION

4
12 ~I

//
22'23<7:;>9.9"

29. Q"
+/5 101 '9 .\:'1.0., r~ '238 1');1
0
~3 :?b.3 19"V///,
8
Z6.0
///h
t{, 23~ 1:7.",. f 12/Z.
4IJ I!J 4
.4,,1.34"'/1/ l.S
;///1'7
~'fflJ,(,
128$,3
89z3
- zen 14~ ///~
F
V///, - Iqq :3 CO)JVERSIOH 'ltl ceoe RVLI!j-~
- I"-rell?, V///, - 401 1<74
!;>oR.
2.El,.1' -<. z~8
~ ,,(fC/T.) S', '" /7350
3 +h .. 11138t
le 0..:.1
CH{;'CK
o
RC/II '.(T/.l c (t<;tt.l
M,
F.
Fy
all/, - 14;
I
0
V///, -5
-J8177211~ tl(,IZ6(JO fI'l? "'"
I :5 W~ -I IBM
"'"'C"""" IS(iRf~T<R)=
l
r~
1",; '/"//, -8 "62 I( RhlR =(1-'4' C)"
2 ''1163 .55ql-~",*f~="2.38.3q_r
R..c~"C REACTIClH.s BASED OIHh
F
'11:?1 V///,
3J:. 83. 6BQ - 'S 032
.,.is(.'Il.38.5 '~2 1,8370
'I
<;
If,
POINT
fi
fi
.3
0'
/
2.
.5
><
.,-25.000
.,. /. 25
-15.110
of 12.50
0
r-/.2.$
+ 23.7.!'
0
of /.25
y
0
r-8.?
- /. 26
-50dO
- 10 00
0
<17"50
+ /. 25
- 1.25
-12-94.3
M,
- 129'13
.F.y
.,. 'Z3811
a
~ SOI.3
(.27
r (,,,
-;:25065
--1-38';'
0
+ ~ii
+20(.1,3
32
<:'3
-Fv"
a
1718
-1717.<1
- 3<1-3.55
0
- 17/8
- 1718
M'
.,. /,,~3
- 2Z" '2~q.
-r .596Z
- Z:2 23'~
...
1Z'83
-1122C.
-n.3i7 rll<}94
+t!z'17

1i0..1:1Ii -S&"b
IJS"V//h
::i.
! 7~/ 13V/-
////, - 1.00000 V///,
5 bb

V///. ~~

f'

.,~

THE M W KELLOGG Co.

PIPING F~El(IBIUTY AND STRfSS ANALYSIS

INGLE PLANE SYS EM

?J~

~U'iO

~~:.....,....._tF~.

~::io7."

:A.

B-

rID

53

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL

The sketch on Form A shows the location of the

curved members. The data are taken from Sample
Calculation 5.1, with the addition of the R, h, k,
and {3. On Form B-1, the a and b distances of the
members are set up in accordance with the instructions given in Section 5.5 and the straight members
are computed. The circular members are computed
on Form D-1, Sample Calculation 5.5, and the
results are transferred to Form B-1. The rest of
the calculation is made as in previous cases.
5.8

b =

= perpendicular distance of the projected plane

To expedite the calculations, it is recommended that

the formulas for horizontal (a = 0) and vertical
(a = 90) members be committed to memory.
For circular arcs in space problems, the shape
coefficients to be calculated are as given in Table 5.4.
The symbols k, Q, R, the trigonometric constants
Ca, Co, etc., and the distances a and b are defined
in Sections 5.6 and 5.7. The distance c is defined as
for straight members.

General Shape Coefficients

125

from the parallel coordinate plane, ft. (See

Section 5.11.)

When either the expansions or the members lie

outside a single plane, it is necessary to calculate
additional shape coefficients beyond those already
given in the preceding sections. For straight members the complete set of coefficients to be computed
are given, together with their formulas, in Table 5.3.
The quantity Tm denotes the mean radius of the
cross section in feet and the distances a, b, and c
are defined as follows:
a

METHOD

5.9

The Secondary Term

The shape coefficient q, known as the secondary

term, represents the effect of a transverse bending
moment on torsional rotation and a torsional moment
on transverse bending rotation. Its magnitude is
relatively small when compared with the other
shape coefficients and varies with the transverse
flexibility factor, becoming zero when this factor is
equal to 1.3. It is also zero for vertical or horizontal
straight members and for circular members if the
trigonometric coefficient Cab is zero.
The effect of omitting q in the calculations of a
particular pipe line is illustrated in Fig. 5.4. A
quarter-circular bend with equal tangents is fixed

horizontal distance of the midpoint of the

straight member concerned from the coordinate origin, ft.
vertical distance of the midpoint of the
straight member concerned from the coordinate origin, ft.

Table 5.3 Shape Coefficients for Straight Members

Coefficient
s

So
s~
q
cq
1.1
1.10

cu
v
cv

+ c2q

cu.
ev.

kQL
aXs
b X s

kQL
aXs
bXs

0
0
s
So

0
0

S
Sb
c x

(1.3 - k)QL cos a sin a

e
q
(k cos' a
1.3 sin2 a)QL
(a X 1.1) - (b X q)
eXu
(k sin' a
1.3 cos? a)QL
(b X v) - (a X q)
e x v

b X Sa

b X Sa

b X So

e X u.
e X Vo

e x u,
c Xv.

eX
eX

SL2

+ e2v

a X

8~b

+cu

b X Sb + eX cu

+ Vo.

a X

1.100

S
U
V
TV

Sa

tlo

1.3QL
aXu
cXu

So.

a==a

kQL
aXs
b X S

cXu
1.3QL
7) Xv
eXv

Vo

Sob

a = 90

a=O

+ 12 + c
+b

X v.

Ct'

a X S.

+c X

b X S~

+ 12 + e X

a X

+b

cv

aL2

8L'
+ 12

1.10

2.6Qr",2L
2.6Qrm2L
O.5Qrm2L

2.6Qrm2L
0.5Qrm2L

2.6Qrm'L

cu
8L2

X v.

+ 12

SL2

+ 12 COS a

sin a

+e X

u.
v.

a X So

/!iL'
+ 12
cos

b X Sb

+ 12 sin

a X

+b

tlo

+c X

ev

+c X

cu

aL2

SL2

X v.

+ 12

2.6Qr",2L
Qrm2L(2.6 C082 a
0.5 sin2 a)
2
Qrm L{2.6 sin' a
0.5 C082 a)
Qr".'L(2.1 sin a cos a)

+
+

cq

DESIGN

126

OF PIPING

Table 5.4 Shape Coefficients for Circular Members

Sa

+ (b

X s)

Sb

S'6

Uc

QR(k - 1.3)Cab
cXq
QR(kc66
+ 1.3caa)
u'o + (u X a) - (q X

cu

(c Xu)

cq

oso: + 1.3c

+ (v X

v',

Vo
C;J

+ c2q

cUo

c X

Uo

CVo

Vo

+cp
8bb + c2u
Uoa + Voo
Saa

(S'a

+ (eq

b)

bb)

b) -

(c Xv)
S'ab

8ab

at both ends against rotation but one end is displaced

relative to the other in a direction perpendicular to
the plane of the line. The moments and forces
resulting from the displacement of end A are plotted
for various values of the bend radius and for the
flexibility factors k = 1, 1.3, and 5. The continuous
lines include the term q while the dashed lines
neglect q. Inspection of these curves shows that if
the circular member forms a small part of the total
line, the effect of omitting q in the calculations is
negligible. However, if the circular member represents the entire pipe line, errors of considerable
magnitude will arise. For most pipe lines, circular
members form but a small part of the whole; therefore, the omission of q is justified. By so doing, a
substantial amount of time is saved in manual calculations because the solution of equations and the
calculation of shape coefficients Uo, Va and (uoo + voo)
is simplified.
To show the effect of omitting q in case of a practical pipe line, the well-known Hovgaard configuration [4,5] has been calculated both with and without
the q-term. The summary sheet of this calculation is
shown as Sample Calculation 5.4. It is seen that
in this case the effect of the secondary term is entirely negligible.
It should be noted that the secondary term is
neglected in all examples given in subsequent sections

kQR<I>
S'a+(aXs)

X b)
X c)

a)

(q X

+ (S'b X

a)

(s X ab)

+ (2a X s'a) + (s X a + (cv X c)

8' bb + 2b X 8' b + (8 X b2) + (cu Xc)
[u'o. + v'a.l + (2a X U'a) + (2b X V'a)
+ (u X a + (v X b

S'aa

-2abXq

2.6Qr",lR<I>
Qrrn2R(2.6cbb
Qrrn2R(2.6caa
-.2.lQrm.2Rcab

V
lV
where

+ O.5caa)
+ O.5 bb)
C

s' a = kQR2C"
S'b = kQR~Cb
8' ab = kQRJcab
S'aa = kQR3co"
S'6b = kQR3Cbb
u' 0 = 1.3QRZca

v'

U' 00

+ v' =
00

SYSTEMS

1.3QR2Cb
1.3QRJq,

MEMBERS

7.Z88

Mz

Fx!7\

.Z41
';U.14

"I'.oz

z
R
h

a.OZ
.705

_.0

2.2'1
1.00
24.~
1'1.0
.5,

5
II)

111

a:

Mv
t..1.

F" "
F Y.

Flt

i(

'I----l

51'3.333

1.0

OLD ~PIIIIIG
:a.::TORC.
U') POINT
IM"

.3

L/
~(./

MOMENTS (F"T - LB)

AND FORCES (Le)
ACTING ON RESTRAINTS
"I Ner;a:cr~D ('I(or C'OND.)
<? IHCL(liJ"lJ
,HDr
CoNU.)
O'
A
- 4(;,10

... 7 970

'/' 1150

- t. ("so
- 5450

...1/ 080
- I 750
- I 72.0
- 4>40

5,,"
Sf~A~~rD
!lTRlfS$

"

~ I 750
... I 7Z0

AT

POINT

S,a.. ~~~~,,;,~eRf.."'~G

,,~O

iH MW KELLOGG COl

p"i
psi

51\"

Ir~HM

ORIGINAL

DATA AND RESULTS

"'11:

.-

p.&;

. A_

CAL NO.

5:4

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL

l\lETlIOD
42

of this chapter. In most configurations this modification reduces calculating time without introducing
any appreciable error.
.....
5.10

4()

58

Effects of Direct and Shear Forces

,..

Direct tension or compression as well as shear

coefficients, denoted S, U, V, lV, will, like the secondary term, also be neglected in the subsequent
portions of this chapter. These effects ordinarily
have little significance in practical piping systems
and it would appear that their neglect would always
yield results on the safe side. Nevertheless, they
may be included readily when they are considered
of interest in the calculation of abnormal layouts.
The expressions necessary to determine the shape
coefficients were given in Tables 5.3 and 5.4 in
Section 5.8. These shape coefficients are added to
the shape coefficients previously described as follows:
Uoo

+ Voo +

Sj

Sbb

+cu +
2

V;

Saa

+ c2v +
Sab

s.n

127

32

so
28
26

U;

+c q + W
2

Working Planes and Cyclic Permutation

When the piping lies in more than one plane, the

solution of the flexibility problem increases in complexity. To introduce the third dimension, each
member is assigned to a "working plane" for the
calculation of the shape eoefficients.P
A working plane is designated by the coordinate
axis to which it is perpendicular. That is, the z-plane
is any vertical plane at right angles to the z-axis;
the y-plane is any horizontal plane at right angles
to the y-axis, and the z-plane is any vertical plane
at right angles to the a-axis, The planes which pass
through the coordinate origin are called coordinate
planes. All other planes are identified by their
perpendicular distances, designated c, from their
respective coordinate planes. For calculation of
the shape coefficients, the working planes are pro-

I
FIG.

5.4

-'t:s ~

Effect of the secondary term on a symmetrical

bend with various lengths of tangents.

90

jected on the coordinate planes which are oriented

as shown in Fig. 5.5.
The counterclockwise sequence of the axes should
be noted. The transfer from one projected plane
to the next in succession is achieved by changing the
designations x, Yo and z, in the order shown in the
following triangle:
x

3This is in contrast to the Simplified General Method of

Section 4.6 where each member was considered in three
planes.

/\

'y

x
x-Plano

Z3~5678111O
RADIUS R (FT.)

v
y-Plane

FIG. 5.b

z-Plane

Projections of the working planes .

.......

_-

._ _ .._--------

128

DESIGN

OF PIPING

This is the principle of cyclic permutation which

permits the formulas developed for one plane to be
converted into formulas for the two remaining
planes by a simple change of subscripts. Thus, formulas for the z-plane are developed from the a-plane
by substituting y for z as the horizontal axis and
z for y as the vertical axis. Correspondingly, F",
FII, and 111" become FIl, r; and M" respectively.
Figure 5.6 shows a pipe line sketched in the standard

SYSTEMS

coordinate system with the working planes indicated.

Figures 5.oa to 5.6e show the projections of the
members on the coordinate planes. The e-values
give the distances from the coordinate planes, with
the subscript denoting the respective plane.
In the breakdown of a piping system, each member, whether straight or curved, is assigned to a
plane compatible with its location in the line. No
member may be assigned to more than one plane,
nor changed from one plane to another while the
solution is in progress. This is important in connection with straight members running parallel to a
coordinate axis since there is always a choice of two
possible working planes to which anyone of these
members can be assigned at the option of the calculator. This does not hold for sloping or curved
members which define their own planes and leave
the calculator no choice.
5.12 Multiplane
Ends

:b-

..;
'

.-Plane

C.= - C1

(a)

,L.
/

(c).'

(b)

C.=O

7
Y
/

"

'2
9

,,-Plano

C,=O

FlO. 5.6

(d)

.-Plano

"r
A

y'

/
y-Plane

Cy=+C2

(e)

Sketch of line showing working planes.

Pipe Lines with

Two Fixed

In order that the reader may readily follow the

somewhat more complex operations of the multiplane calculations, a step by step procedure is again
given.
Steps 1 to 5. Steps 1 to 5 duplicate those given in
Chapter 4. Multiplane systems are sketched on
Form A unless more space is required for the drawing
in which case it is made on Form A- L Form A is
then used only for data and results. The vertical
legs of space systems are customarily represented
as parallel to the y coordinate axis.
Step 6. The calculation of the shape coefficients
requires the assignment of members into working
planes. For the beginner, it is recommended that
sketches be made of the projections of the members
in their respective planes; with practice they may
be mentally visualized. It is a practical rule to
arrange the subdivisions so that a minimum number
of working planes is created, and to favor the plane
including the coordinate axes so as to reduce the
number of operations required in setting up the
simultaneous equations.
Step 7. On Form D-2 enter the quantities k, Q,
R, a, b, c, L, L2/12 for each member. Since it is
necessary to sum the coefficients for each plane
separately, the data should be arranged so that this
can be done smoothly.
Step 8. Have Steps 1 to 7 checked.
Step 9. Compute the shape coefficients for each
member in accordance with the formulas given ill
Section 5.8. When curved members are involved,
auxiliary Form D-l is used to compute s, Sa, Sb, Sab,

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

Sbb, U, Il, q, Uo, Ilo and (uoo

voo). These values
are then entered on Form D-2 where the coefficients
cq, ctz, CU, CUo, CVo, and (sab"'"+ c2q), (saa + C2V),
(Sob + C2u) are calculated.
Step 10. Sum all the coefficients for the z, y,
and z planes separately.
Step 11. Have Steps 9 and 10 checked.
Step 12. Transfer the summations from Step 10
to Form D-3, entering them as indicated according
to their planes. Sum the contributions from each
plane to obtain the final coefficients An, A"'II' etc.
for the equations. Enter these on the equation form,
Form E-I, together with the constants from Form A.
Step 13. Have Step 12 checked.
Step 14. Solve and check the simultaneous equations.
Step 15. Transfer the values obtained in Step 14
to Form F-l and calculate the moments at the significant points using the point-to-point transfer
described in Step 8 for the Simplified General
Method in Chapter 4.
Step 16. Determine the maximum stress. Tills is
done in a manner similar to that for the Simplified
General Method, but since it is now possible to
handle inclined members, a provision is made to find
the bending moment transverse to the plane, and
the torque.
The plane in which the point lies defines jjh, but
111' band MI are found by an application of the
formulas in Table 5.5.
The operations are performed on Form F-l by
following the guide shown for the respective planes.
Points on members which are parallel to the coordinate axes (i.e, where a = 0 or 90 may be said to
lie in two of the three possible planes. When no {3
factor is involved, both alternatives will give the
same stress. When {3 is involved, however, the point
in question must be placed in the plane which will
give the higher stress because {3 is applied to bending
stresses only.
Step 17. Enter results on Form A.
Step 18. Have Steps 15, 16, and 17 checked.
Sample Calculation 5.5 illustrates the computation
of a rnultiplane system with two points of fixation.
Sela,

+Bu

L..

MI/

M,

+A
+ AI/II

+A",.
+AI/'
+A ..
+BJr
+B'II
+B ..

"'II

+AI/'
+B~z
+Bww
+B~,

General Equations

F"
+Bu
+BII",
+B ..
+Cxz
+Cz~
+Cn

FII
+B%II
+BI/I/
+B'I/
+C"II
+C~II
+CII,

Mo
M'o

Me

= M'I/cosa

M'"
M", cos a - .M'I/sina
+ M'.sina

Members in the y-plane:

Mo =M'1I
M'b = M'zcosa - ]I,f'.sina
11ft = M'. cos a + M' '" sin a
Members in the z-plane:

Mb

M',

]If'o = M'lIcosa
lift = M'"cosa

- .M'", sin a

+ MII/sina

The reader will note that this line was computed

with square corners in Chapter 4 as Sample Calculation 4.13.
5.13 Hinged Joints .and Partially
Ends

Constrained

In the systems considered thus far in this chapter,

the fully anchored connection was the only type of
terminal constraint discussed since it closely represents the fixity of most piping. In some cases, e.g.
jointed systems as described in Chapter 7, open
ended lines, etc., different end conditions may exist.
The end may be fixed against translation but be
free to rotate; it may be free to move in one direction
but not in another; in fact, there may be freedom of
any combination of the six components of deformation (three rotary, three translatory).
These cases
can be handled with the aid of the equations in
Table 5.6, which lists the general equations of a
pipe line with two ends, A and 0', subject to any
deformation. The shape coefficients are summed
from A to a' to obtain the summation coefficients.
One of the simplest cases is that of the end which
is free to pivot, a practical example of which is the
system with the hinged expansion joint shown in
Fig. 5.7. When there is only one hinged end, the
simplest solution is to locate the origin of the coordinate system at the center of the hinge.
Since the example is shown in the z-plane, the first,
second, and sixth columns and rows in Table 5.6

of a Pipe Line Subject

to Deformation

F,
+B""
+BII,
+B ..
+Cu
+CII,
+C ..

129

Members in the z-plane:

Table 5.6

METHOD

Table 5.5

M s:
+Au
+A"'II
+A""
+Bn
+B"II

ANALYTICAL

at Either

End

Constant
+EI* (O.A. +EI*(O~A. +EI*(O.A. +EI,tS"A. +EI[tS~A. +EI[tS.A
-

0",0')
01/0')
0.0')
15",0' 15110' 0,0' -

Ad
A~A.
A,A.

+ (YA. O'A. - ZA.Ol/A.) + (ZA.OzA. - XA.O.A.) + (XAOIIA. -YAO",A.) -

(YO' 0.0' - ZO' 0110')

(eo- 0,,0' - XO' 0.0,)J
(XO' 0110' -YO,O",o')

130

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

OCA
MEMBERS
10.75
0
t.
.365
I
/&0.7
29.<;\1
Z
R
1.2~

4:

.20

8.00
2.1i0
21.50
Z9.00
23993400
1.00

I-

4:

/3
Eh.IO-"
ECo'IO-w
Ehtlj44

(/')Q

~ MATERIAL
~
TEMP.
III
e
D BRANCH

Ay

a:

..

b'
[bL
,

900 F

-eacoo
- IS,OO (.O 0(;50).

-.09750

,..t; Z~S Z80

Ehlb./iH
-Ii Z38Z80
- 2 339.31;0
E~ll>'''44
MOMENTS (I'T 'Le)
COLO ~PRING
F.A(TOR C.o
COLD CONDITIO'"
o
A
(/') POINT
IM.
- 75'00
500
..J
Mv
-29ZS
T
7S0
:l

a:

-4,75

1".

-I'

230

s:v

550
.30

F:r.

)(

II")

:t'

7/

"

~y

8
g

.,.

THE MW KELLOGG

')C-

"

AND FORCES (La)

ACTING ON RE.5TRAINTS
HOT CONDITION
o
A
+ 12 87S
850

SOOO
7/75

-r

400
9&'0
&,0

r-

PIPING FU:;~I.~IUTY AND

ORIGINAL
DATA

25.00'

c~.-15.00'

PLANE

8800
2.30
SSO
,JO

col

s .+

'lOr

.,.

1.11

JO

Ehll>x;jH

(/')
W

M.

~~A

.00G,0

Az

Fx_L ~

15.00'

+40.00 (.00(,50)v-. ZIOOOO

-40.00 (./)oG50)~

A.

UJ
Q

t:.$.,f'O;

.~

5", 6.5"00
5c'/~ 000
Sf ~A~~~TO

:a-TRf$$

- /..300

'/5'4S0
A.T POINT

""s'OO

+ 400

SAl

9GO

CALC.
He

OAT /

ff

s.

psi

~i~;'t~LAE:
....
Cli

2I6ZS

(;0

STRESS ANALYSIS
AND RESULTS

p!S;
psi

IF HlM

psi

CALC NO. 5.S

/80
MEMBER N~r,t
COORDINATES
p< ,.
11.'
90
a
- 15751 b
I ZS 4b
+ 171'1
I 156
SHAPE:L]
Vm$
':A 1- 27 SO
Zb
2 SOl ~at>
I 00 TRIC;ONOI.IETRIC.
;.v/.-l/:
CONSTANTS
OF SHAPE
COEFFICIENTS
CALCULATION
1 25
{>
5
10 00
I .5708
115171 +.s-a - 12J(,j(ll "S'b)-I/'i'IU +6 ...&b t 'lJ .os +s..a' 2. 97G 13 +S-I:II -t Z4.51
c..
.5:'.b

12 0
543 7.5
+5'&I-JJ~O
15
0
... b +- 12150 +~ba
Cb
12
~I oooc
a!lW~
i0 ."'"b"lb - 31
+~'llb
C.b
8~'l"//// 'l"~'./~ 'lI['l"/ffi V/, v/, Z
/5 )
5000
...s..."
c...
IS
78S4
12- 28W/,.,0 V// f'l.; V/",'t.b
Cbb
18U
1228
:5
",
IS 71 S"
1 "b
+ IIOj qe 5
I- 3 \SU(/6 SbD f+ 15
- J_ 14- SAb
'l"/u.
q I~ .. v.-a - IZl Sf
+u-oi1.'
I 2$ ~(I>b~
72 IZ GENERAL
FORMUL ...::'
7 30m
q 13
t ...
b - /I 41 .. Vb<
v'.
ij;
I 25 ~ ...UCbb 7~w.
IH! c .. ' [<os Q( -GOS (e><+t>]
(':I.~)G ...b
q.D
~q"4
-q
..
z:ab
Cb'
(SIN'"
51....
I)
0
0
I 2.5
0
0
q'
+uo
...Llo,"'za
ZaJ
55 I!J C"bC .zsEo""' z:(""t.)co~ ZO()
I S6 I.)C .. -I .JOOl
1,~Cb
+v~
c .. L' .S.-.~5~1" l(",.t)-SIOJ z~
:!O()()
+
Z
#1
+VOZb J56
+U"oo.. ..,:x,
':01>'.5f . ts@,,,<-Co<.IJ-SIN
z"'J
I 'IS I.~ i
2 D4U
u.
I q 38 \l..oo+v_ ./179.l iOSl
- Ut1157 v.
D<
COORDINATES
ME.M6ERN~J'4.L 90
a.
b
ab
II 25
t
156 ;].'
f
90
I 25
I 156 b'
IS6
5HAPED
8 ""
<: ISO ~b
l50 2ab
/ 00 TRIC;ONOMETRI
l4
OF' SHAPE
COEFFICIENTS
CALCULATION
zS COt-J:5T,A..NT5
/(1()(I
5'"
- 19U .Sb - 19 (.of +S .. a.D + 124- ?I "'5~A .. Z4- 51 tSliba + 2451
S7tJ8
5 71
-tS;".b
- 15i6,J
+50' ...
/254
Co.
0(100
+ 12
31 Z5

I
~~'b
(//, r/, V./,
Cb
tb
+ 12 SO +!lotJ~ -12 16.1 ////'
IZ 50
0000
31 lSI
-j
~5
...b
8' /.'. / //, t:0 .0 ////./, i/':: f'l.;
O(JO
:s 63 <:: .. b
+
...s&....
c....
7454
12 IZB './///, ;0: 0I:
lIS
Cbb
"bb +
12.'(l8
7854
IS'
:!.
07 s,)ta
'.//,0
1 14 "b
14 Sob
15 7 ~4
+
5154 Sbb
5 1,.4
0
00
Z1"
q 13 "\,.I-a - 1/ 4/
+u.ltat .. 14- 24'''0
25 kcbb+L)( ....
JlHz..
",.510& +1.!.1
".~10e
+
.57'00
v ...
q 13
251'C, .. H~cbb . 7 JIH12
."'.b - II 41 +v_bl + 14-24- c
.,,0000 .1,0000
'"'.0000 '.0000
4"1.0000
-q_Z..1b
C
'.0000 +1.00.;10
-'.(lOOCt
-q.b
-q ...a
25 (KUlC.b
q.
0
0
0
0
0
c
-.5000
+.6000 -.5000
+.,,000
U'oZd _
+u'o
L"C
000
t ZaJ
s
IS'
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AND STRESS A~lLYSI&
....
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. SHAPE COEFFI
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FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

270

Q(

MEMBER N~5~

TRIC,ONOMETRI<:
CONSTANTS
I ~5
6 .+
1000
t
I S7IJ8
c..
a
/2
(1000
q,
(100
12 .5"0
C:ab
15 ("
(1(10
15 c;.3
Cu
I- 7654
ebb
15 t,3
785<1-

00

R
kQR
kQR
kQR
kOR'
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BY THE GENERAL

J VO'

SHAPE

00

COORDINATES

71

+s..a
+"~4

191 {.4
12

... 4E, ..

b ~

so

~'b

QR
QR
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25 kCbb"'~

041

125 kCu+l.."bb
25 ('I.~)c
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3041'1

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1,3C.

11;"6

1.~C'b

9$

I."i

17
(100
JOOO

0420

ec

TRIQO

NOMeTR

CO~~TANTS
t

R
kQR

kQR'

kQR~
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Cb

kQR".

<'44
Cbb

kQR

x.l

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12150

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+ 1

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(I 41

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5- ...

""bb+'~
KC",.H~~

y.+

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q.

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100
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0
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1000
750
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$
1500
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R

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15 '3

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MEMBER

+u'o

KELLOGG
THE MW
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PLANE

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J ....

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COEFFICIENTS
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80 s
IS 154 Sbb
FORMULAS
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I~ Z4 GENERAL
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y
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+v"Ol:
21
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MEMBER
N2
COORDINATES
b<
....
b
ab
a'
SHAPE
zab
Zd
"b
OF" SHAPE
COEFFICIENTS
CALCUt.ATION

11._.

Cab

METHOD

3.1

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s.. 15 71

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I a. J + I 112~ b - 48115 "b

I:; .... I ~ I Z 150 zb_l-J97Isol e ae
OF SHAPE
CA.LCULATION

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ANALYTICAL

1500
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63
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0
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1571
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800
100
125
7500
0
1.302
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"M~WtLltbtl~crl~~~S
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ro-"-'-

- ....

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0
0

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0
0

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13C, '104 53 Is.,j,-cq +1.5

rlZ
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.r'"

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0

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THE MW KELLOGG CO

f'LE.JEIBf\.lfv

STRtSS

6 - EQUATIONS

132

ANAUSlS

c..."'.

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18 - I 862ts5.
152 146 ~4 LU81m

1.000 00

59 !II
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fd.:.~i,'t.~'H-W~5.5

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TO POINT

CCNVERSION
COC!! RUL.ES

~=

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se

E.
:;- 1545(1
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R.: E"

R'" "e"

.s'c

W~ICIiEVEl!

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M.
Mv

IS GREATf

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M

w- (1-!.~C)
Rio _

~=

........

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-I'v~

M.

Fl' - CALCULA"ED
REACTIONS 8~~!;D ~
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M',
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M~

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2 IZ~

IZ"7$
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TO POINT

RlILES

Ec _

4"'-

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F.
Fy
Fr
M.

S'
PSI

Re_k

R' - Eh

oft

+F

liZ

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M%

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R' - c,o,u: ULA" I!:0

REACTIONS 8A$!;D ~
tlOT MOOUt.1)5, Eto
M'

M...
+M.

M'z
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M'.
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C:OSIX

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PIPING F.LEXI.B)LlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS

MOMENTS AND STRESSES

WHI C HEVEJ;:IS GRf"ATE!! M

+-F.xx
~"
-Fxz
1.1
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l<

..

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9:1' _

f 11450000

THE MWKElLOGG COl

S.=

2049

1152

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";5 '+5L' SL' .. S~

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1.25

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cece

74
113 -

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133

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1.25 -

2/23
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/)

CONVERSION

"'~' ' 'O(.

)(cos,or.

...1'.
2.
f-IZ/Z

--

"C.O!Jo<

~M'

1.25

PlA~E
Mb

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IZ..SO
0

J:.o~:J

0
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0
0
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74 ...

1 070 71&(;

I.Z5
I.Z5
0

METHOD

- -- _ -- - - - ... ..
. -
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M'b

..M'~

PIPE

15.00

0
/5.00

0
S.75 ...

C.OSt4

1:

2...

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~M.
l.

10.00

..

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0

ANALYTICAL

$1 .....tJI.

z:

M'
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M'.

403.'7
9'0.50

BY THE GENERAL

IS.OO

..

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0'

F.

PSI

OR

F.
Fy

S !:L, S't:

&
R'"

ANALYSIS

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1:

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+M',
1Z

M"y

:'::~I""(II..

M.

KJ;OSo('

M'b

Mt

f-IZ

/)
5b-f,BMb
S'b-fJjM

25t"'fMl

5,,<.. 5',,'+ 45.'

";5

+S'b' +45,"

5'~

THE MWKELlOGG COl

PIPING. !,.LC;~I.~.JLlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS

MO MENTS AND S TRE S 5ES

CALC.

><E

.I'K,C.
...6-

-s

FORM F- J
:Al

NO !}S

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

134
't

Ir---------------~o'
o,:}--_...J

A
FlO.

-------.

5.7

FIG. 5.8

Pipe lim! with one end hinged.

are omitted, and since !II., O",A, 0",0', Oy.1, OliO', 0:0',
XA, Y,l all are equal to zero the equations may be
written thus:
F",
Sb
Sbb
-Sab

F II

Constant

-El*(JzA
+E1*t,:r;A
+E1*llvA

-Sab
+Saa

F", and Fv are obtained by solving the deflection

equations; the rotation at A may now be obtained
from the first equation.
A more general case is shown in Fig. 5.S. The
pipe line has two hinge points which are not located
at the terminals.
For convenience, the origin is
placed at a hinge point. Noting that the moments
are zero at both hinge points, the following equations
are written:
Equation

F",

Fy

+Sb

+Sb
+Sbb

-Sa

-Sab

-Sa
-Sab
+Saa

Mz(=O)

+s

2
3

- ynsab)

Constants

FY(YBSaa - XnSab)

= E1*(xBll:r; + YB!J,.y)
As F",YB

= FyXn since M, = 0,
F =
'"
F

=
1/

EI* (Xn2 t,,,,

XBY/J!J,.!I)
2S
xn bb - 2XnYnSab + YB2Saa
E1* (yn211lJ
XB2sbb

+ xIIYnll:r;)

- 2XBYnSab

of the moment equation for line AB by the known

forces r, and FII
Sample Calculation 5.6 covers a typical hinged
expansion joint system. In this simple case XB = 0,
F:r; = 0, and FlJ = E1*lllJ/saa.
The case of three
rotation joints where the flexibility of the piping is
not involved is covered in Chapter 7.
It is also possible to handle problems where the
elasticity of the terminal connection has a significant
effect. Of such cases, the most important is that
of the rotation of a nozzle on a cylindrical shell."
In Section 3.14 it was shown that the rotation of
the nozzle due to shell deflection could be expressed
in terms of a virtual length L, representing the
length of a fictitious extension with the same rigidity
as that of the pipe line. This value of L is used in
the formulas of Table 5.7 to calculate a set of shape
coefficients expressing the effect of nozzle rotation.
The shape coefficients obtained are simply added

EI*{(Ozn - O',n) + (Ozo - O'zu)l

El*[ - llr + Yn(O,n - O'zn)]
EI*[-lllJ
- Xn(OzB - O',B)]

where the shape coefficients are summed from 0' to A.

Eliminating the rotations in the deflection equations:
Fz(XBSbb

System with two hinge joints.

YIlsaa

The rotation at B, (O:B - O',n), ca.i be obtained

from either of the eqs, (2) or (3), after which the
rotation at 0, (0,0 - 0',0), can be obtained from
eq. (1). The rotation o':n is obtained by multiplying the respective shape coefficients, (Sb and -sa),

to those ordinarily calculated; hence a detailed example is not included. However, the results of a
calculation made both with and without the effect
of nozzle rotation are shown in Section 3.14.
5.14

Skewed Members

When a member does not lie in a coordinate plane

nor in a plane which is parallel to a coordinate plane
it is said to be skewed. To calculate such a member
or group of members, it is necessary to introduce an
auxiliary coordinate system, one coordinate plane of
which is parallel to a plane which includes the skewed
member, and the origin and one axis of which coin4If the piping is relatively stiff and the shell is relatively
flexible, the conventional assumption of rigid fixation is
likely to lead to high indicated reactions and consequent
heavy nozzle reinforcement whereas recognition of the elasticity of the shell would show that reactions arc low and reinforcement is not required.

FLEXIBILITY
100.50

1-.iJ

/4'3ZI'..SO
7~0

.75

.6'0

Z-3

$-IS$2$.0

27$14.8
/1)51.8

3-5
1-3

0;041
440D

h
k

.14
11.8

/3

.3.3

~
!Ii

"-~

_OO74~

-c

"'I

~Ir-

a~
~

(,0074(;)
7018.$3'(.001 S7)e -.OJ
~4.9'
-2B.25

'(00 1.94)-1.00

MK ~y
z:.
IF)

!ill
,<I

!51~

6y

ii

~~
....I<;l

'li

l!.x

UJ
o,

TIkl
~I'"
~I~ !\l
i:jtn; ~

..

D BRANCH
Z

f!!_( r\ "

0'

'" ~
-8

.0074G

135

Mz

EnIO-e.
22.70
22.70
Z Ec"'IO-~
Z!J.i)O
29.00
2 fh t/144 ~4'9<}f~
UJ
Q
.1.00
12.<.2
~ MATERIAL ISCI? t'ZNO. I%C~.'ZI1tJ.
~
TEMP.
1000 F
roao F

METHOD
Y

1'>33410

ANALYTICAL

5"..

5'2.5'0

t,

Z
R

BY THE GENERAL

MEMBER

;;1-4-

1-3

MEMBERS
0

~
-c

ANALYSIS

<1$

.iI
13.17-1'1

t..~

-44.00'

57.n'

E.tt.>IIrH
~.tov'H

-18.i1trl213&O

Ej,t.r.'Ir44
MOMENTS (FT -t.s)
COLD CONDITION

COLO 5PRIIi~
F,ACTORC.O
U)

I-

AND FORCES (L8)

POINT
Mx

ACTINiS ON RESTRAINTS
HOT CONDITION
A

0'

M:
F"
Fv
F,..

a:

7$00
5c187S0

Sf "~A~~~g~rlD
~'I'Ae:Ss

My

\I)

p"j
psi

Sh"

THE MW. KELLOGG col

Table

5.7

1200

-1200

PIPING.~LE)(l.~ILlTY AND SIRESS ANALYSIS

ORIGINAL
DATA AND RESULTS

Shape

Coefficients

-1};8 $5'0

Expressing

SZ5

Jr..T POINT

SA

..~

psi
I

"~f~~~t~l~,
2530<:1 psi

I<~

-,

OA.TE

!FDRM

CAL

NO.5 .:,

the Effect of Nozzle Rotation

Position of
Nozzle
a

aXL
bXL

Sa
Sb

q
u

- L sin 0: cos a
c X q
LX cos20:

Uo

(a X u) -

eu

cXu

Lx sin?

u,

(b X v) -

CV

r.q

Sab

+ c2q

Saa
Sbb

uo.,

(a X Sb)
e X ~to
c X Va
(a X Sa)
(b X Sb)
(a X ua)

eUa

evo

+ c~v
+eu
+
2

Voo

(b X q)

0:

(a X q)

+ (c

L
aXL
bXL

L
aXL
bX L

0
0
0
0
0

0
0

Sb

L
Sa

cXL

eX L
a X

X cq)

0
a X

Sb

0
C

+ (c Xcv)
+ (c X cu)
+

(b X

+ (c Xcv)

Sa

0
a X

Sa

0.017 ~
T",

(bX

Sb)

+ (C

Saa

Sbb

where the virtual length L is given by

L

Sb

Sb

(a X sa)
b X Sb

Va)

(!i)~i
t

moment of inertia, in.", of the pipe in the system corresponding to Q == 1.

Tm = mean radius of nozzle, in.
R = mean radius of vessel, in.
t = thickness of shell with pad included, in.
I

X cu)

136

DESIGN OF PIPING
Table 5.8

+ .-1 XJI cos a

-A'%< sin a

+A'". cosa
+A' zu sin a

+/1' VJI cos? a

+A'II< cos 2a

+A'rr

+A'

ee

-A'II'

+ ( /1

sin2 a

Formulas

sin 2a

A .. ) -2-

VII -

SYSTEMS

for Plane Rotating

about

+B'%II cosa
-B' .. sin a

+B'~t cosa
+B'%vsina

+B',,% cos a

+B'JIJI cos2a

+B'1I1 cos? a

-B'",sina

+B'usin2a

-B'.usinza

_ (B'

sin 2a

+A' .. cos"

+B'u

+A'lIv sin2a
+A'lIlsin

x-Axis

II'

+ B')

sin 2a

'JI

-B'lIosin2a

+ (B' vu

2a

_ BI

sin 2a
2

If

+C'zu cos

c;
= F"

F'v

+C' .. sin a

+ F. sin

+:1')/.

sin a

Formulas

for Plane

+.1'rlcos2a
+(11' .. -

11.'n) Sin 2a
2

Rotating

+B'"

+B'ol/

cos a

+B'II% cos
+B')/: sin a

+A':z cos2 a
+A'zrsin2 a

+B' cos? a
-B'r. sin? a

-A' .. sin 2a

+ (B l.

'

_ B'

cos a

+B' ". cos?

sin a

-B'",sin2

+ (B'

sin 2a
2

-A'%vsina

%JI

_ H'
It

cos a - F sin a
l

F' < = F. cos a + F" sin a

J{'" = A{ cos a - M. sin a
J{III = Mil
..1'. = A.cosa + M"sina
%

.)'"

::;ill

2a

+B'v. cos a
-B'ursin

+B',,, cos a
-B'''II

sin a

+B' .. cos!

+B'

%Z

_ (B'

) sin 2a

""

+C' .. cos" a

+C'

+C'u sin2a

+C'II< sin a

"II

cos a

a
a

sin2 a

:r

+ B')

r:

~~n 2a
2

+C' .. cos 2a
(C' _ C' ) ~ill 2a
+."
x s:
2

+C'~. sin 2a
------------------------= F"
= FII

y-Axis

+B'

sin2

r:

vo

about

+B'ucos2a

+ (B' + B')
+,1'

F' ~
F'JI

V'

+A' sin 2a

+A'vv

~in 2a

B')

'V

+C' .. cos" a
+C'VII sin2 a
+C'u sin 2a

Table 5.9

+A' .. sin? a

+ (B' +

+)/Y

F'. = F. cos a - F u sin a

M'" = },{"
M'II = M u cos a + .M. sin a
JI{' % = lIf. cos a - .MII sin a

+/1'"vcosa

-c; sin 2a

+..4'""cos2a

) sin 2a

+C')/: cos 2a
(C' _ C' ) sin 2a

F II cos a

..

+C'r: cos
+C'rv Sill a

+C', sin a

+C'1I1icos2a

F';:;

B'

+B' .. cos" a
+B'vv sin" a

+B':v cos" a

cosa

+B'lIzsina

+ (B' VII _

+C'vz cosa
-C'rvsin a
+C' .. cos" a
+C'usin2a
-C'"sin2a

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

137

ing that c is the perpendicular distance of the

projected plane from the parallel plane at the coordinate origin, c is equal to K2 sin a2 shown on
Fig. 5.9g. The signs of K, and K2 sin a2 indicate
the direction of these distances from the coordinate
origin in their auxiliary planes. It will be noted
that member 2-3 could have been placed in the
a-plane with members 0'-2 as an inclined member.
The choice is arbitrary.
Likewise member 8-9
could have been placed with members 6-8. Also
member 12-A could have been placed in a z- or
z-plane, but here, in the interest of keeping down
the number of working planes, it is most advisedly
calculated as part of the z' -plane.
Sample Calculation 5.7 shows the main steam system for a power station, calculated from the boiler
header to the throttle valve (at 0). The expansions
of the turbine leads and connections and the superheater header (usually given by the manufacturers)
are included. The turbine leads as indicated by
dotted lines are assumed to be infinitely stiff. The
members 0' to 2 are calculated in the z' -plane for
a = -45.
Once the coefficients are converted on
Form D-5 according to the formulas given in
Table 5.9, the procedure is the same as for the
previous multi plane systems, except that the co-

cide with those of the principal coordinate system.

The shape coefficients are computed the regular way
in this auxiliary system and tMb transformed to the
principal coordinate system by means of the formulas
of Tables 5.8,5.9, and 5.10.
Figure 5.9 shows a pipe line in which members 2-5
are shown in a plane rotated al o off the standard
y-axis, and members 8-A are shown in a plane rotated a2 off the standard z-axis, The entire system
is shown broken up into working planes. Since two
different skews are involved, they must be handled
separately. It is possible to set up skewed members
in each of two skewed planes. To illustrate this,
members 2 to 5 are shown in both x'- and y'-planes,
depending upon the selection of the prime axes and
of the corresponding direction of the angle al.6
Members 8-A are shown only in a z'-plane, but
the reader will see they could have been set up in
an z' -plane also. However, the shape coefficients
are computed only once in one or other of the two
possible planes.
The c-value for members 0'-2 is readily apparent
by inspection as K1. For members 8-A, remember5The rotation of the planes follows the general rule: counterclockwise positive; clockwise negative; 80 that a in Fig. 5.ge
is a. positive, and in Fig. 5.9/, a negative, angle.

Table 5.10 Formulas for Plane Rotating about z-Axis

M.

Mil

}.I"

+.4.':rrcos1a

+A':II cos 2a

+A'I/II sin2

-A'''II sin

2a

+ A u - A.

1111

sin 2a
-2-

+A':. cos a

+B'ucos2a

+B'''II cos!

-A'II' sin a

+B'lIl1sin2a

-B'lIz

_ (B'
"1/

+.'1'1111cos? a
+A'n sin"
+A'''II sin

+/1'11' cos
+A',,:sina

+A' ..

M'z: = Mz: cos + Mv sina

M'II = Mil cos a - Mr sin a::

B')

+B'II% cos2a
-B'zlI sin2a
(B' _ B'

+:u

2a

M", = :lI.
F' = F cos a + F IIsin a
F'II = F v cos a - F ~ sin a
F'. = F.

F.

FII

F"

II"

sin 2a
2

) sin 2a

1/11 2

+ (B'

+B'", cos ce

-B'II: sin

sin? a
Z%

B'I/II) sin

2a

+B'1I11cos" a
+B'%% sin2 a
sin 2a
+ (B' "11+ B' 1/%)-2-

+B'lIl cos
+B':r: sina

+B'u cos a
-B"II sin a

+B"II cos a
+B'." sin a

+B' ..

+C'u

+C'

+C'

cos~a

+C'IIII sin"

-C''''II sin

2a

"II

+ (C':<;<

cos 2a
-

C'VI/) Sin

+C'1I11cos? a
+C' sin2 a
+C'"v sin 2a
%%

O!

2a

%l

cos a::

-C'I/.sina

+C'II' cos a
sin a

+C'

%f

+C',.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

138
0'

I 2

12/A
K2

(II)

"

y
y-Plon"
Cy=O

c,=O

(b)

6
5

0'

.-Plano

z- Plone

(c)

C,=-K,

x'

.. sJ_z

x'-Plono

C;=O

..

(e)
3

1;.=-.,
y'-Plono

FIG. 5.9

12

.'-Plane

C.'= - "2

sin

(f)

c.;=o

'------------.,

Multiplano configuration with skewed members.

ILiTY AND STRE 5 ANALYSIS

SKETCH

AL

~r:

.u:o

.S".

(9)

al

FLEXIBILITY

MEMBERS

2-0
13.'25

/1<19. ~
16(J.d

TEMP.

zss

'"

(000

.00726

AND FORCI:S(L8)

~TRf55

_ G325

M:

- IJ.600

-r

~r-

+-

~ 2.020

ce
Z2S'
MEMBER
1 07
45
SHAPE
1 DC rRtC:;ONOfAETRIC
CONSTANTS
6 00
s
6 4(
7851
385
707
38 52 Cb
Z93
Cbb
311l
250
C4 ..
3 12
6'3
cDb
23112
I4'J

~OR

"4

~OR'
kQRl

~ ... 1+

5-+

(; 00

k:CbbH-~G.a.i

" 00 k<:u" !:"btI

[, 1)0

36 00
3(, (JO

(Kt.>JC. ...b
I.)c:: ...

I .) CD
t.3

"00

1'1889/

;-iBmi

\L.t

V"

q-

91910
3809

2850
CALCULATION
S qf 1'.$".1 ,. 7182 .. S-b
.. _!.'4.
17 U
0

""b

.. at>
,. ifJI)f2
OF SHAPE

LJ".l1l'9

+5,.~b

"

-q.o
+u,'o

j$l

28 Sob
'// ... u"a._t

,..vb ... J5. 44

"11 ~.a

3310

+V-t:;Il
'Q _ tab
4UO"'l..l

+v~

+ 13 71

..vo"Zb
.ut)O+lr'~

" I

u.

+ 51 4/

FO~M A
CALC NO. 5.7

a-

Vo

+ J.W! /5

"'oOV.Q1l

120.3;'

CO E F F"IC lEN T S
+SlIIIial:
I U42

+!!,:'.b

.; 04 ~a ,. 1441.59 5b ,
.s '13 u-a ,. 'IlSO V//, //
Zq

..'c

O....
,.E

'41~6
-llaJr,f9
1+ 111129 +~blla. ,. '11.86
f

+~'ab

p5i

COORDINATES

--Ua2

o-

"20700

to J. 1'71z6L ...b J. !9S84IJ

2b

POINT"

--t--------1SAI~i~~~taR~:N~'

- 20Z0
03>0

370

N~3'21
~
L a J-- 114!25

AT

PIPING_t:_LEXI.~ILlTYAND STRESS ANALYSIS

ORIGiNAL
DATA AND RESULTS

"OR'
kQR"

'c4S0

-r'-=9~6~O~
__+-=-~9~~O~
__-r

psi

~:,,~~6~rD

"''','00

QR:I

Sf

~/74S0

OR

IS: 000

-1272S

QR

5<:

""0.800

iH MW. KELLOGG COl.

7.8c" p~i

Sh'

Mx
Mil

,y

OR

ACTING ON RE.STRAINTS
HOT CONDITION

F%.

QR

" .2:
Y PLANE

9~0

MOMENTS (FT - (8)

COLD CONDITION

~~_F~~~.X.~~

'/'/.,

Cyo

Vl POINT

kO~J

IF)

l:

0"0

F,l.CTORC.o

Vl

~y

t,f"

;1
..,
,

:q
" . ''It
c~

-<J2.75(.0072~)-.Ofl'7 - .04/~7'

COLD SPRIIJG

:5

7\

6'01!~

'I. CR.

It

.00726

-c

I-

Mz
1

1.00

Yo ce.

1000

139

2'1.00
18/

1.00

W
e
D BRANCH
Z

METHOD
v

22.70

/8/2G8'1(;
l;t

t,22.75'

,,[/0

100/'

r=

r. ~!$
""I

1.07

.85

" 1
22.70
2.9.00

MATERIAL

1.50

.3.41

ANALYTICAL

1.~"75

6.00

QEh"O-"
2 E.. IO-~
2 E"I/lof'"

Vl

0'-/

lUI. 8

R
h

BY THE GENERAL

1.3.626.

/.'''7$
114'1. 'I

z
~

ANALYSIS

"6',, l.l_

71

lo

C,

b<

+SiMbl

t:3

/d22

1 11)1, J

+ZZ BOdSI

~./>:)//, -::0
.:So~tb ~ I

0;; 0 0
j0 , (// lfi (////
57178 ~.
...5:...."
1861 ;/////-

.
.

.4 If]J '11
YY/,10

"S'bb

lit 7.1
./ Y/

,yJ ~ 0
ss

IIfJ1 '11 50b

+H fJSZl.Z9
C,ENERAL
FORMULAS

5 .111

23170 2 ca' (CO$ CI( - C05 (o<+I';)J

co(s,,,," -5,N (""~)J
to= C"b' .25 [co.. ~(""~)-C05

--~

~l~~.
22054

"-0<]

" ....... Sil\-.Z5[S1~

~(""~)-Sl'"
CDO,.st . Z$@>I
.. q""~)-SIN

l~oJI

V/,

,,"J
z"'J

18

MEMBER N2 -0
COoRDINATES
'10
SHAPE.D
"PS b .. 1<'0 7S ab 1<'51iS7i 7' a& ...4 f#C2I3ll b" ...6 \S1~.s,
Q
I 00 TRIC:;ONOM~TRIC
1 Zd f,. IlJz 70 ~b I'" "6/~01 zab I 1 1
J::~/
,// .
R
CALCULATION
OF" SHAPE COEFFICIENTS
I so . CO~:ST"'NT5
kQR ... 2 9
5"+
4 &<1 + ..... J,. ~t/
'S'~ld31M5 +Sa..b 1.24"'f.: '10 +:5-"& +20 5 67s-b'
"29 91'j 58
il~
... s'.jL .,.. ., 4~ //ff //!~,
kOR' f. 14 140 CA
.1 0000
,{, +s';'_lI"t:>
135 JO ~:. .. l.c!
IQi'J 8l>
.OR;
T~'bll'a.
S'blltbfCb
+~'b
1+
/ 000'
.".~
1:/'/, , /-::
710'0
.. 119 9f ////'/
If' 14"
1"6.a.[)
kOR' I'
CAb
000
.3 (J'i'////.
.' ;t, 0/~[;0
0
...,s.aA,_
kQR'.
.0,04
... 5 18V////- 0. 0 ;Z;
7054
.,6'bb
kqR
4> 11:;0
"bb
7854
5 8
VP/ /. /.
Y/////< j'
'.'
7 .8.5 S4b
~S !z<!j 4 s.a~
30 7/0 ~,
,J<>'r61 5b
4 1,0
'2018.1' 7J ~bb
0
.0
It(tob+~ sc...
..u..,a,t
OR
+(6iA1..
I
"'0 ~70
.3 B~ e u -11 ,. 5 IZ
~!_lw~ u..+
'" +~.!J:roe.
... L!)or
., ~'O8 "'L570~
+VAb:l:
~4+I.!I.cb
v..
or
GR
+ 91.
lifO
83 ;./// :Y/ %1/:/
#
.~.COI'O
.J.ooo.o ,,0000
C
~'.00.00
Z .W2.
-q.;a
+10000
q.
<)
"'qll',j!ab
c
-'.0000 '.001:'0
-q-o
"1.0o"o
OR
0
1[50 (I(-, ~JC4b
0
0
0
-.50000
c
"".5000 +.LOOO
. sooo
+u'o

U'o"Zol
OR' ...21l~ ,.~c
.1 3000
2 '13
381.81
..74\5" e . 1""~ +.'1dj.. +.715"'"
C.
1.~Cb
+v'o
OR' 2
Z qj"V~~Zb
Itl 3coo
~o c ..7e1~" .7B!Jo'" ... 7.a~ .. +.7B50"
, ~OOQ
-t.JlOOO -1 . 000
I.~t
QRa~
, 90 e.e c e-r
"~.Yo.:a
3118
t 0410
""J. OO(l +L~O()O .. I, -0
-I,.!oClOO
'.~.c.
.... I~ IZSJlos Vo ~ I!tlilO ~vo.l~ 74 $- ,.J~ .'.""1'0 .Z.o.zo + E'.0-4 ZO .. 1:." .. :1:0
c.,Al.C.
c.
0-1
PORM

:5

'"t

r-

90

'" ~

.,
....

~l

~.

...

..

..

..,.b

~, .,

..

KELLOGG CO. SHAPE

PIPING FLEXIBI~TY AND STRESS ANALYSI&
THE MW
. .
COEFFI I[NTS FOR CIRCULAR MEM

.1,

RS

.,.,,,00

.....'c~u.O hY
OATIL

CALC N(t

S.1

140

DESIGN OF PIPING

SYSTEMS

L 90'
MEMBER N~7(.
COORDINATE5
b<
eo: 5HAPE
of
<J..' J.SIRI41<%
1,17\'
"b
a. J' 76,j b , nl75
'/
7~~
1 00 rRIc,ONOMETRI<:
1/';;1
1'.-0'%:
ZoO. I' 1/.54,0 Zb I. 1451501 a ao J
.1
CONSTANTS
(. 00
OF SHAPE COEF"FICIENTS
R
CALCULATION
i
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DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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CAL

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FORM FI
CAL NO 5.7

I
I

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

ANALYTICAL

..

5.15 Branched Systems

The procedure for calculating a plpll1g system
with branches follows that for a line with only two
end points except for certain steps in obtaining the
equations, in particular, the calculation of the
movements, and the summation of the shape coefficients. Only those operations which are unlike
those for two point systems, previously described
in Section 5.12, are discussed in this section.
In calculating the movements, expansion is considered to be directed from the fixed end, designated
0', to the end points of each of the branches, called
free ends, which for the four-branch system shown
in Fig. 5.10 are designated P, Q, and S. Therefore,
the movement in the z- and y-directions from 0' to
each free end and the products EI*A:r and EI*A"
must be determined separately.
In calculating the shape coefficients, it is good
practice to set them up and sum them separately
for each branch involved. The branch from the
first intersection between two free end branches to
the fixed end 0' is called the common branch with
respect to the said free end branches. Hence, the
common branch is O'R for branches P and Q, O'T
for Sand P, and O'R for Sand Q. In setting up
the equations for the free end branches, the shape
coefficients are summed from the free end under
consideration to the fixed end 0'. The coefficients
thus obtained are multiplied by the respective reactions at the free ends, designated as J.1:p, P:rP, P liP;
M:Q, FIQ, PyQ; u.: r.: Fys. The effect of one
free-end branch on another is obtained by multiplying the reactions of the former by the coefficients of
their common branch. Designating the shape coefficients as A, B, C, D, G, H and indicating their
r-------------~$

T~------------~p

Rr-------------_,Q

0,11-------'
I
FlO. 5.10 Four-branch system.

i......
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145

Table 5.1I

efficients from the skewed planes are added on

Form D-3 above the spaces for the x-, y-, and
z-planes.

l\IETHOD

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F xl' FliP Mto FrO FvO

u,, FrS

FjJS
Dr
Gr
HT

Constunt

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Bp Cp
Dp Gp

Dr
Gp
HI'

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Bll Cn
DR Gn

Dn
Gn
Hn

Ar
Br
Dr

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lin Cn
DR Gn

Dn
Gn
Hn

AQ BQ
Bo CQ
DQ GQ

DQ
GQ
HQ

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BII Cn Gn
Dn Gil IlR

AT
Br
DT

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137'

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AQ An Bn BQ
As Br En
CI) CII
CQ

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BT
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Cs

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HI'"~yS

sum from a point under consideration to the fixed

end 0' with the corresponding subscript letter, the
system of equations given in Table 5.11 can be set up.
It is usually advantageous to arrange the equations so that the rotation equations first appear, and
then the deflection equations, since the constants
for the former are O. This is shown in Table 5.12.
In this rearrangement the symmetry of the coefficients is preserved. As in previous problems,
only the quantities on and to the right of the principal diagonal, need be set up on the equation form
sheet. Once obtained, the equations are solved ill
the usual manner.
The moments are calculated on Sheet F-l. Here
again, each branch is grouped separately.
The
forces and moments obtained from the equations
are the reactions at the coordinate origin of the
branches P, Q, and S. Accordingly, these values
are entered on the form sheet for the appropriate
branch; thus the moments and forces with the subscript S are for the branch S-T, the moments and
forces with the subscript P arc for the branch P-T,
and those with subscript Q are for branch Q-R.
For the branch T-R, the sum of P and S is used;
for the branch O'-R, the sum of S, P, and Q.
In setting up the coordinates for the calculation
of the moments at various points, a point-by-point

DESIGN OF PIPING

146

r---------t

....
R~-------IQ

01-------'
FIG. 5.11a

Three-brunch

system.

method is used, proceeding from S to T, from P

t.o T, T to R, from Q to R, and from 0' to R. For
the junction point R the sum of the moments must
equal zero. This condition serves as a check for
the calculations.
When the results are entered on Sheet A, it must
be remembered that 0' is the end assumed "fixed,"
and P, Q, and S are the ends assumed "free." The
guide for the signs given in Chapter 4 also applies
here.
As a suitable example, the three-branch system
given as Sample Calculation 5.7 has been enlarged
to include the flexibility of the leads from the
throttle valve to the turbine. This calculation is
labeled 5.8.
The working planes for these leads are shown on
Form A-I. The computation and the summation
of the new coefficients are shown on Forms D-2 and
the summations with previous coefficients from
Sample Calculation 5.8 are shown on Forms D-3.
Since this is a multi plane system with 3 points of
fixation, 12 simultaneous equations are required for
the solution. These are set up and solved with the
standard procedure on Forms E-2 and E-3 and the
moments and stresses are determined on Forms F-l.
The check of these equations is not shown but is
carried out in a manner similar to that shown for
six equations in Sample Calculation 5.5, Form E-l.
5.16 Intermediate

Restraints

Discussion of the details of the various stops and

guides used as intermediate restraints will be reserved for Chapter 8. The present section will give
the procedure for including their effects in the flexibility analysis. Although applicable to any type of
restraint the treatment will be confined for simplicity of presentation to restraints which prevent
translatory but not rotary movement.
The problem of the intermediate restraint may
be approached from the branched system discussed
in Section 5.15. Referring to Fig. 5.11a, the branches
O'-R-P may be considered a pipe line which is acted

SYSTEMS

upon by the restraint of branch R-Q. If the members of the branch R-Q are now reduced to zero
length so that point Q coincides with point R, all
the coefficients with the subscript Q will become
zero. The moment, forces, and expansions with
that SUbscript may be given the subscript R. The
six equations which could be written for this singleplane system would still be valid although, since
the point R is now an anchor, it would be simpler to
solve the system as two separate lines, O'-R and
R-P. Consider, however, that the line is allowed
to pivot at point R, so that the moment at point R
caused by the restraint is zero. Asshown in Fig. 5.11b,
the system now becomes a single line with fixed
terminals of points 0' and P and with no translatory
displacement permitted at point R.
The first six equations of Table 5.13 are written
in accordance with Table 5.11, based on summed
shape coefficients A, B, ..R for which the subscripts
P and R indicate summations from those points respectively to the fixed end 0'. The seventh equation expresses the fact that there is no moment
restraint at point R. The unknown rotation at
point R, SoR, is eliminated by multiplying eq. 4
by -YR and +XR and by adding these equations
to eqs. 5 and 6 respectively as shown in Table 5.14.
Finally, to satisfy the relation expressed by eq. 7,
the coefficients in the MzR column are multiplied
by (-YR) and (+XR), and the products are added
to the coefficients in the F:z;n- and F lin-columns
respectively. The equations obtained are given in
Table 5.15.
It should be noted that if M.n = -ynFr.R
+
XnFIJR is written out as illustrated in Table 5.14,
the correct signs are obtained for the constants by
which the rotation equation is multiplied for addition to the two deflection equations.
For a multi plane line the following moment expressions must be written:
lI1xR

-zRFIIR

+ yRF.R

for F II and F. stops

...---------1
F,,1.
-R

Fy.

01-----FlO. 5.11b

....
Intermediate

restrainta.

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY

THE

GENEHAL

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

147

.....

"

ILiTY AND STRE 5 ANALYSIS

SKETCH

MW. KELLO<.13C

MEMBERS
0
t.
I
Z
R
h

8
Eh.IO"

Z Ee -10-"

S!

AO B'O
10.50
1.432
42'1.8

1.~75

rca.e

1.04

3.41

.er

1.<'5

1.07

1.'15

1:.00

<I
22.70
29.00

17.25 (.oo72G

htOI/'44

- 22 702/20

\Il
W

CC

29.00

Tft

15~

Mv

Mz

MW KELLOGG

13

'4

'~r.

'-Ix

C1

tX

col

~y

z:

IF}

t-

1.25

J7

18

14.00

14.00

1.00
1:oY.

cr:

10001"
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0'/3

ca .

X!

5.50'

=:f2S'

~'

13

17

yPt.ANE.
C~O

AND FORCS (L6 )

ACTING ON RESTRAINTS
HOT CONDITION
0'
A
8
- q875
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22 225
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+ 1110
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- IdO

PIPINGXL~~I.~ILlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS

ORIGINAL DATA AND RESULTS

Y PLANE.
Cy' 0

MOMENTS (FT -Le)

COl..D CONDITION

F"
Fv
F"

III POINT
I-'
Mx

:5

USl

22.70

030
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-/371<;8

I'ACTORCO

.12524

ht6""44
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C,,' -S.50

181xaq(,O

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CO~D SPRING

Cr ":1.50
r--A

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2.'-<1
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n; TEMP.
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x
e
.00726
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w
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Z
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o,
l!J.y
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FORM

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DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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A-IS

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L

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8169

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24 26

o
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HS ANALYSIS
Pt ~btFNfJcfl~

;R~II

2 loB

60 187

.307
19- 66

C
698

rt-t

LE/r2

75

1809

- ZSJ

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125
550

117 71

50
700

0
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87 71
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err 81
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1/ 3'1
24 26

7 76
38 43

II 39

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!~
I"

t-.1,.

M"
1.,.230 1<14

."

ANALYTICAL
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M"

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BY THE GENERAL

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1'%
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__ .._---------------_-----

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

150

~QIl~<;)

Q<:><:><:>~<:>

">()O()Il~<:>

()()<:><:><:)<:>~O

<)I<::()()<:>()<)~()

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FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

FxA

-l
I

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rn

:s:
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A

rn

5
GJ
G)

Fx8

+t.51 BlI
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Z
737
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0
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..30-;-

.30.31

/. 00

4(;7
(,;>,
9.40 ..

.57
/o.

-149U

+3290

Mt
l

+ '!.i/O
f21911$

2a/{,(,,1

::>'Q(1

5b-fpMb
S'bf8M b
25t.=fM~
5b4+S'b'+45t'
,",s '.5'

PLAIJE
Mb

- 9874

-.31,111
- 1.37"
- 2509
+ !H('I
- 47.4+12.337
+.6034

C05~

M'y

- 1439-

800

Q(

x
M',

PIPE

- 4.54
- 12'13

M
Mz
..Fxy
-Fy"x

+80,76
~ 17. 25
+ !U.'i.tJ?
-II1/4.A~
f 279.t..5
~C.Sf;,4
+1'1231
-22.5"41

+179,20

- 207,
1+ 2.30';'
- /399
- 1297
390
1.,.801-;'
1'1887
T /;:.';18
+ 22219

My

0'

r 78.75

~235.00

,+.,.839

.F,E.-x

B
-14.00
+ 8.00
- .s,50
'/{,t!'l,20

'19 95

l'

M.

IS GREA1<R

wHICHEveR

F.

-1"1.""
+ 8:00
of- .5.S0
+ 2.3.5 ,8t.

S' E

S~ K~' E
Sr

/. 277

~"

POINT

TO

CONVI;RSIO"l
COOl! RIJL.ES

OF PIPING SYSTEMS

2X/o

(J~

.,3"6(;.
327.5
PIPING FlEXIBJUTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
.
MOMENTS AND STRESSES

.4Sl~ ~ 5E

Co.l

THE MWKELLOGG
. .

CAL.

HE
0"

..

FORM F-I
CAl

NO 6.8

Table 5.13
Equation

F~p

],,1.1'

+...1[,

2
3
4
5
6

+Bl'
+D1'
+An
+BR
+Dn
]'/',ll

Fup

+B[,
+C1'
+G1'
+Bn
+Cn
+Gn
M:n

F%R

M.ll

+D1'
+An
+G1'
+Bn
+H1'
+Dn
+An
+Dn
+Gn
+Bn
+HR
+Dn
ynF:::R - XUFI/R = 0

+Bll
+Cl~
+Gn
+Bn
+Cn
+Gn

Constant
0

FuR
+DR
+Gn
+}[ll
+Dn
+Gn
+Hn

+El*A::;1'
+El*f:!.vl'

-et-e.;
+El*(+A~n
+El*(+Alln

- YnO:ll)

+ xnO,n)

Table 5.14

= (-

M.1I
YIlF:::R

+ xnF lin)

r,

Equution

M,l'

Fr1'

FliP

+BII
-ynAII

+CII
-YIIBlI

+GII
-YlIDlI

+BII
-ynAn

+CII
-ynBII

+Gn
-ynDIl

El*(+f:!.,,11 - YIIO,1/)
E1* (+YnO.n)

5'

+BR
-YRAl(

+Cn
-YIIBR

+ Gil
-yRDIl

+Bn
-yuAIl

+CII
-YIIBII

+Gn
-ynDa

El*(+A"n)

X Eq, 4

+Dn
+xnAH

+ Gil
+xnBn

+H11
+xnDlI

+/)11
+xnAn

+Gn
+xnBn

+Hn
+xuDn

E1*{ +Aun
E1*(-xnO.R)

+Dn
+xlu1n

+Gn
+XlIBlI

+lhl
+xnDn

+Dn
+xnAn

+GlI
+x/lBIl

+}{n
+xnDn

E1* (+f:!.vH)

-ljll

X Eq, 4

L=
(j

+xu

L =

6'

FuR

Constant

+ xnO,n)

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

153

elimination of the rotation equation at C is shown

on Form J. The equation solution is omitted,

at a point R with coordinates :tR, YR, ZR in reference

to the origin.
If the. stops are located at the' coordinate origin,
the eliminations are obviously unnecessary and the
equations may be written directly.
Sample Calculation 5.9 uses the piping of Sample
Calculation 5.8 with a z-stop at the origin and y-stop
at point C. The summation of the shape coefficients
for O'-C is shown on Form D-3; the other summations are shown in previous examples. The

5.17 Calculation of Deformations at any Point

After the simultaneous equations have been solved.

and consequently the moments and forces are known,
it is a simple matter to calculate the deflections and
rotations at any given point in the piping. By
summing the shape coefficients from the terminal
to the point in question and arranging them in

Table 5.15
Equation

M.p

F~p

Fup

F~u

+Ap

+Bp

+Dp

[ +BR
-yRAu

+Bp

+Cp

+Gp

[ +CR
-yuBR

+Dp

+Gp

+Hp

[+GR
-yuDn

5'

6'

[+c.
[+BR
]
-ynAR

[rDIl ]
+XUAR

[+Cn
]
-yuBR

[+GR
]
-yRDu

[+GU
]
+XUBR

HU
r+
_+X/lDR.J

-2ynBn

+Yu2An

Constant

Fllu

]
]
]

[+Du
+xuAn

[ +Gu
+xRBu

+EI*Llxp

[ +liu
+xRDR

+ EI*Llyp

+ EI*Llxu

+ EI*t:.Yn

] [+G.

-yRDR
+XUBR
-XIlYIlAn

+xnBR
+2XRDR
] [+Hn
l [+OR
-YRDn
-XnYRAn

+xR AR

Nt Kro
ATE:

.. ~

Mk
C LC NO

s.s

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

154

/?-o

MEMBERS

/.43z
42Q.R

81.1'1

R
h

/.25-

/.('5

IJ
Eh' 10-0.

;. 04

I~

~tJ

/0 . .50

/3. 2.(
/.~875
1149.9

IO.St)

;. 6875

/. 4.324Zq.8
BI.8
I. 2~
1.04
I. G.5

"I
22.70

"'I
22.70

29.00

29.00

114Q.Q

/~8.8

/68.8
/.50

1,.00

~.41
1.07
~I
22.70

85
/. 9.5
22.10

111
Q
2.&8
2.GB
;'''0
1.00
~ MATERIAL /!/? %CR. /y? % CR. IY?%c,"
/x:':',(,CR.
~
TEMP.
/"00 F
1(!00F'
lo"",F
/OdO F
w
e
.O()72('
C07Ze,
()tJ7Zt;,
.otJ72(;
a BRANCH
,,- /l
0'- .[J
- 92. 7S(.dl77lC.)-.I1?167
~
!J.x
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-.7.5671
III
- 72. 75 (.00 72(;)- .Olo83 '
n.
6y
-;S<f900

-/7.2S

.oov zs:

-/7.25(."072';')
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~-12S24

-137/~4J'rJ
995/6 G,;q
I.
E.,I6I/'H
- ZZ 7021'2./1
COLD 5PRIIJG
MOMENTS eFT -La)
,ACTORC,O
COLO CONDITION
I/) POINT
IM.
My
E.lbxtr44
EhI 6Y/rH

S
U)

Mz

Ul

Fx
I=y

0::

Fr.

THE MW KELLOGG COl

I ."
x
y

.":

.v

+ 14

.,. 98 91 :%'~
I'" 72 98 ~

Mt

L IA., I.,. 18G 16

iA

)<

1+V

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+u

.:
~

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0
1+ 12 .$7
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93 .. B~x

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0

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...
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f'::
71Z 16Z

50!>

494 1(,7

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I :/70 M
4 417 59
2 i/O2 JI

342

~<\l .+f3x't,

.:-:.7

0
0

..cv

.,

"SD

01-

MW KELLOGG

COl~~~

1~'i'O 5<4.
19S1 ,Of

~ I~ 82
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+uo

-cu

II-

'Vo

1-

I,.. If 046 !3q

17f' 192
0
0

I .. By
0
106(3 67
S 674- 3" +cq
3 817 1/9 -eq

-s...

.. "b

to f$'~o I~ I+Bu 111' 7 1772 78 I.. B.y

75 192
1- 19 IME ,72
I,}
I... '18 IG70
e7
x 1+"",,+Vo 1".M9 ISS9 !~
-ClL.
-258 1254 I~ -evo
1- IIJ5 31'1 145
y I~ .... 'v 1,,/60 196Z !34 -evo
-r/ 1354 15 .5~b-c'q 1- 'J" '<>1'. ;"'"
z Isbt>c'u
-CUo
'S&b-c'q
l I..C x, 1"('49 1/92 110 .. C"y
"'62 1300 :40 I+C .. 1-23/ 1'1'14 55
I-II
... 83 147 15'1
1093 Ccli
x
'3R5 9% !'7 I-~&bc'q 1-118 1033 C,3
Y +11"'Yoa +2/G .5S4 i4a cuo 1- 19 1211 195

178 I.. a

tx

:,,72

M~HLJfi~.s -

os c

-Ku

-Clio

.ely

'CYV

+"85 '96 66

..e vt

s\J~~{~fI16~T6FA~A~i~~~hft1~k1~~

-148 133'1,27
a~f:l loti2 IR

"y

...... ~ctv

"(;~,,1/9/

'tSbb+d-u

f360 1572 173

'U.. ~V.a

r c.u

ITHE

psi

F )RM A
CALC NO.5. '1

.~Vo

I" ~

02~ (/1I.. By,.

I 170 64-

:+

~i~rtBRL
...
e~G;

135 IZ9

+CV

1.

STOf'~ SUMMArJON

AI'.

.8y

24700

.. cq

I ... 14
tr
+u I ... /03 (,4 ~ "'0
+v I .. 70
87 +cv

IAu

"Sb

-CLL

SA
-'WI!

C;'ED
OAn: rr-

psi

AT POltil'.8

~~

.,.

se

.,.

:'J,TR~~S

(,3,f'o

Fy

Fx

If.,!'_

.'t..

Sf .~A.~~~~"[D

(1

90

ORIGINAL

0
0

5 .... 73""
p~i
5c' IS, ,,00 psi

ACTING ON RESTRAINTS
HOT CONDITION
ii'
fl
t5
C
-I.to5.1tJ
+S925
+ 6300
'L :>o('}
- 8.5'0
"25
_.~-~(}'>-5
+ .3500
of' 2(,25
+'7(;.0
+800
- 1760
+3170
t'fI(}
+ /730
-4090

+ eo
PIPING_r:L;~I.~IUIY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
DATA AND RESULTS

27

930

AND FORCES (La)

+S(;t:>

tv1y

. f\,!~.

/OG 2(.8

12f

'/1(04 846 190

I~ )I'iM 1-.

.Ne 5.9

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL

equation form, the multiplication with the respective

moments and forces and the proper summation of
these products will yield
EI*811, EI*O"
EI* (0*" - Ll",), EI* (0*II - LlII), EI* (0*. - Ll.) for
the point in question where 0*x, 0*11' 0*. are the
deflections with reference to the origin. Any
extraneous movement at the terminal point must,
of course, be included in the summation. In other
words, the pipe line from the terminal to the point
in question is treated as an independent line whose
free-end deformations can be determined since the
moments and forces are known.
For the next point for which the deflections are
required the same procedure is repeated with the
shape coefficients summed from the first to the

er-r;

METHOD

second point. This part of the pipe line is now considered as an independent line for which the terminal deformations are those calculated for the
previous point.
Since

Ii*x = 0", -

zOlI

Ii*1/ =

xU.

Ii*, = O. -

yOx

01/

+ yO.
+ zOz.
+ xO

Il

the actual deflections, Ox, 011' li" can be computed.

A deflection calculation is conveniently made on
Form G. The summations of shape coefficients
froro the terminal to the point in question are entered
under the columns for the respective moments and
forces, skipping a line between each row. The equa.,.~3.7S I'YC

1M.,.

1M.,

IMvA

.lA,

"1-.93
.3342.58
.. 31 .39
~ ~37~.97

IM,.AIM7"

IF",

IFY41PYA IFrA IF7R

IFx"

...188.78

...7772.78

0
0

-10560./6
(,37/.33

~2.3()O.40
~2331.33

-4IBS.83

'''99(;9.07

-10~60./6

3292'''.U.

F..

~=

TO

POINT

& ..~.c

M.

OR

tFy"Z

Ee
"fh ~S',

WHICHEVER

~.

M.

R'. C"'LCULAT~D
REACTIONS eA~eD
HoT NOOULUS.

ott

M',

M',
-M ..

.M.
M' ..

I
PIPE

13. &2

-/6544 -20752
- 2"'t:.t:.~
-f 54 tr.9<J
- .33C.1 -/9695
0
-45,572
8'1-'
- 1(..-;44- - '207S2 -4a347
+16617
+/1:194
- II ~.3"
-.34RB
4441-3 - .">98
...

<:'10 1+ /"ZI
I .../C~ '7
+1.369IZ -350Z4
+ 777.5.3
+1'lcM_

.-f'9..51

-/6

+16 19"

-249t:B'l
-.350 Z<f.

I- 3.'1'::
- JQZfq

-10540./(.
.,."71.33

."S6~""

+/<;'080

-J021_1
0
-I>lrS'lS

- tic, Z..;

0
-_j._'/_(.

-4188.83
52't2'l5.2'
(-4188.8~
,
-H/~73.()/
..'Z"l Z9.5.Z~
.,8'1 '/ZO.Z5
t. K,
loll "80
AT
0li/l-/

-.40347

-3580

-_g.S'JZ
+.1'1080
- Z3f'?
+ IC, 9.5'

4-

- '.5/
0

- (,.00

_1)

---

4512/

- 459Z'
+11/376
- .-'167'10

ao

_(J_

-..5777
_L.5.5.3_'f_

-/OGZ4 ~Z8SL
(7
a

1:/:7,34'12

., 1.34 7.5
+ 24.5/

.,.20<:'41
I., 2349Z

-/5090l57

flfh.~

'EI Ii.,.

IFOHM J
CALC NO 5.9

7
0

-~.oo

+-"1..5tJ

...6:.00

- '2(; r03

of413
+1902<1L~~BG

+~9f/

- Z:G> 9'a.J
+40'1
1-1-14702 1-1-~5'!J9
0
-.3.38{;

f-/-170Z

~/R37t.

EI8z,

I{"

"'19tJ..2?-

(7

irCWSTANC5

-75. 'It
('fiJ;J39.27
- Z5('2.30

-,,~O

.".7S

Fzt'J

0
+1'10Z~

~ '1-2..5D;'

- !II is
2C~_
I.-t:4_ZS/(;;

+-".2.45'8
2.G4Ci
0

-$777

-~

-,sJJL

0
...42.;516

0
f'.3" 7.3."

C.O&oc.

y
M'
+M ...
-M'z
L

M'.
.M.
-1.1'.
L

i'M'1Il

.M'y

X~I"'CI'

.M':
L

M'

I(CO~

---

.:1
-4.2.';

_F--"t'C.

- IO$60./~

S'N()I.

e"

.JI(

-FICz
Mv
Mz
..FIIy
-F~-x
M'z

~::: (1-! c)
R'
.3

~=

-('vi.

.F;E.

0
- <",18

-F7""

IS GREA1ER

:z..
-G./B

/.0"

Iso
- 1,0"

I + .i'~4..3t:

1=7

PSI

Mzc.
... 18B.78

AND STRESS ANALYSIS

1
-

+317().65

Sf:

R'

+ 8tJ. ?r'
+ 17.:>.5
1+~62.89

S::.

Sf: k.S'
Eo.

&.

.,. 7R. 75

1.27753

R'

1-1S0901.57

COeFF'IClENT

ITI-lE MW KElLc:x:G col PIPING FLEXIBILITY

CONVERSIO,..
COD!! RUI..ES

-75.92

.'85696.66 14lS'3'Ln
-35".05:40 -ZS42.!O

..

PLAI.IE

M"

)rc.o~oc.
x!>INCII.

M'b

I.
f.I2
l
Z
IJ
".8.8

Mt

5b"f.8M"

SbfilM b

25t"fM.
S +~"b+45
.A; , "5'~'

+45.' ~ 5'"

THE MWKELLOGG
. .

155

col'MOMENTS
PIPING. FLE;~I.I;l.lLlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS
AND STRESSES

CAL.

..

~,

t'ORM F-I
,NO ,,$:2:,

DESIGN

156

ecce
Ec

/277S3

SE= k.

R":II:
Rc

~,Fy':z. xsses:
ti

CR

"

-F.v

E:e

Ri' , E~

S'E:

WHICtieveg

.. Fz"x

0
1'1

~~"

-F.z

~=

(l. C)

M
Mz
.F.",y

~:: I

+.3G7.P;
(;i64~
0
-..309"4-

M.
$ .....Ol

1.1',

M'

M',

M,

+M'~

,M'

-M'.
l:

-MO.
L

xSIN

+M'

..M'x

.M'

I(~t~'"

f+M'y

i'M'%:

PIPE

:i:
Z

.M
L

xc,OSor.

};

13'25

/(;8.8

Mb
xGO~ot

62/04.30904

Mt

R'
Rc

PSI

~'Eh

OR.

WHICHEvE~

~=

c)

F.
Fv

1'812.91

F~
M.

-IOC.O.5

M'y
.M.
...M'z

M'z
,M y
..M'"

i'M'"

.M.
L

PIPE
10.0$0

Z
<9(8

-..3(;. G/Il

-2:

+-/'25
I. ?.c:

"
-

S'i37

....44 ~71

- G / 0.3
0

-/~r;.

- ~/o_3
....fj54

+FZIIX

of .3<1-9-

-F.~
My

-I-

4-4o.J

t- 8s4
-8472
-&:404.;.".381
-340.5

lof

15
0
-6.75

I 7
--59.: '7
--~.q 1.-'1

...-;;777

"IS87<J

-2"G~
+151173
-

Xat:.<;

>'1'1" Z<1
-17657

- /(G.3 '/'
+Z9 '10.3

..

797

-/7:>RR9

94.+<;
- IS/1(./
I:;" os: q
of-

-7X6

-.'5937

- t.30A

-'l5?Q.3
+ Sij"(i
+44tJO,
-s- .1'1.'<;4

- '74.L

- 1.32-;;'

+-~i?
.. L.30

-A47":>

'"

-f-4-;S60 -.30'71'1- a '10.3 . /0 (

+,954

.'34.95
1.,.5411<10
-I-

IQ(!Q

- ar

1..3

+ II So

74-LO

-C.<1.04

+/I.3BI

_ ?Q.70<1.

-.3495

- ZC:37

14-107

0
82_~

0
r~6.f)

+1'109 1+111<14
+ leI>/
0
/(J16

- 9.'148
_ 74.54-

FORMF'I
CAL NO.6.9

II

"

_4.21:

~
-7150

- /C

/a

- 345!i

(J

71"'00

- /0';;"..<;"

+540

4.'12

- 31
-/001

4-ClZ.
7.dS.d

0
-.30:;0.;1
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0
0

- '016

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-.ri470
I

a
x

Mb

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()

1C61Ne<

+jJ~
~'Q~

'I(~I""I)I,.

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III'c;,O'&C(

(1

Mt

r-szrz

.$"

.3{

+ 1.'194-

-c rs

"

_ .7"

- CoI.34-

/2
25

/I

-C./i/4-t-8Z3
- 2. 8.3-

C.A.LC.
HE K
OAT

-f;:

II

M'b
.M'v
M',
L

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Q"

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cAr7

- :;>a._=

-.;l.5 (, "G
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0

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4.1

..:/0(,0.5

)(C.O~e<

L
+M'~
f+M'y

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1..../3~BZ.
-.3C,G81
0

-.3 GC,81

- Z4-.511

R' C"L~ULATt.D
REACTIONS
BA~~D oH SIt-J c:A
HOT MODULUS. 1:..
<:050'\
x
y
.z:
PLAIJE

M',
...M.'._
-M'y

-!.?_.u.

-AOO.52

Mz
.F.-y
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FORM FI
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FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

tions are completely written out. The moments and

forces are entered at the heads of the columns, and
the products of these and the shape coefficients are
placed in the blank lines. Extraneous movements
or carry-overs from previous points are listed at the
extreme left and the products at the right of the
sheet performed. The thermal expansion constants
are computed in accordance with formulas given on
the form. A summation horizontally produces the
indicated sum (EI*8x, EI*ox for example) from
which rotations in radians and deflections in feet are
found.
Consideration must be given to intervening actions
(branches or stops) between the end point and the
point in question. In Sample Calculation 5.10 the
deflections have been calculated for the piping shown
in Sample Calculation 5.9. The rotations and deflections at point 0 are calculated twice; by summation
from end A, and again from point 0'. This provides
a useful check when points from different branches
are computed. From point A to 0 there are no
intervening stops so that the calculation proceeds
as described in the preceding paragraph. Between
0' and 0 there is a stop at point C; the moment
and forces due to this must be dropped out at C.
It is a useful check to note that the 0v at point C and
the 0: at point 0 are zero because of the stops.

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

157

y
AI-- __

~t
ro~---I-lC

al-----..J
FIG. 5.12

FIG.

system:

o'

Single-plane symmetrical
three points of fixation,

5.13

Multiplane symmetrical
three points of fixation,

system:

o'

5.18 Symrnerrical Pipe Lines

A

One way of reducing the labor involved in flexibility calculations is to take advantage of symmetry.
The procedure varies somewhat with the system;
nevertheless, the following examples will illustrate
the general approach. It should be noted that symmetry must be complete, that is, the pipe size, temperature, and material must be the same for corresponding branches. Also, the coordinate origin must
be located on the center line of symmetry.
Consider first a single plane system such as that
shown in Fig. 5.12. Because of symmetry, no bending or rotation occurs in the common branch 0'-0.
Thus the moments and forces for the A branch can
be obtained by considering line OA only, assuming
member 0'-0 infinitely stiff.
Next consider a multiplane system as shown in
Fig. 5.13. Due to symmetry, the only deformations
of the common branch 0'-0 occur in the z-plane.
Thus, Mil, M., and r; are zero for line 0'-0. If
the shape coefficients for this branch are computed
in the z-plane, only s, Sa, Sb, Sab, Sao, and Sbb apply
and their values are doubled in order to account for
the loading from the two branches. In other words,
the common branch may be considered split in two,

FIG. 5.14

Multiplane symmetrical
four points of fixation.

system:

each having half the moment of inertia of the pipe,

and consequently a Q-value of 2. Accordingly, the
problem can be solved with six equations for line
0' -O-A, using the aforementioned six coefficients
for branch 0'-0 and all the coefficients for branch
O-A.
In Fig. 5.14, the rotations 8v and 8z and the translation Ox are zero at point O. The system can be
solved by setting up the following nine equations:

5.19 Inversion Procedures

As previously stated, the General Analytical
Method can be applied to the flexibility analysis
of"any type of piping configuration. However, the
number of simultaneous equations necessary to
solve the problem increases as the degree of complexity of the system increases, i.e. as the number
of points of fixation of the system increases. Furthermore, the time required to solve a set of simul-

158

DESIGN

OF PIPING SYSTEMS

c:JO

:z.

~<.i
a::-l
0<

u..u

W
I

I-

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

159

Table 5.16
MrA
Au

M.A

MvA
A.v
Allu

An
Ails

An

F"A
Bn
B,,:::
Bn;

Cn

.... FvA
e.,
e.;
B."
CZII

FoA

EI"O",

e;

-1

Bvs
B ..

0
0
0

c.;

c.;

COl

EI*Ou
0
-1
0
0

0
0

EI*O.
0
0
-1

0
0
0

sr,

EI"o.
0
0
0

-1

EIo,
0
0
0
0
0

-1

0
0
0
0

-1

0
0

Constant
0
0
0
EI*!:.z
EI*!:>.II
EI*!:>.,

Table 5.17

.Md
-1

EI*O,

an

a.u

au

b.r

i.;

b.,

KI

aru
az

a"lI

all'

buv

bu.

K2

all'
bu:::
buu

au

bur
bu

v:

Cn

Cru

b..
e,..

Ka

b..
btu
b..

Cru

Cvv

ev

Kh

en

ev

Cn

Kf.

Fd

FVA

b""

-1

-1

-1

-1

FoA.

-1

taneous equations increases greatly as the number of

equations increases. Roughly, if the solution of six
equations takes a given amount of time, it would
take four times longer to solve twelve equations,
nine times longer to solve eighteen equations, and so
on. Therefore, eighteen equations representing
four points of fixation for a multiplane system are
considered as an economic limit in manual calculations.
If equations numbering more than eighteen are encountered in setting up the calculations of a complex
piping system, it is generally advantageous to
use the inversion and re-inversion procedures discussed below. In these solutions a complex piping
system is divided into several simpler parts and
several sets of six or twelve equations are solved
instead of one set of a great many equations. The
time saved by this method increases as the number
of equations increases. In addition, the calculations
can be performed by several people at the same time
and checking is also simplified.
The inversion methods are very well suited for
automatic electronic computing machines which
have a limited number of storage units. The time
element, which makes manual computations of exceedingly complicated systems prohibitive, is no
longer an important factor, because of the speed of
the machines. By programming the calculations in
accordance with the inversion procedures, there is
no limit to the complexity of the piping systems
which may be handled.
To illustrate the inversion procedure, the branched
system of Sample Calculation 5.8 is used. The equation for branch OA can be written as in Table 5.16,

i..

bu.

EIo.

Constant

EI*O"

Md

EI*S.

si-s,

EIO"

MilA

K4

where Ox, Oil' 8., 0:::, 0," 0=are the unknown rotations
and deflections at the origin. Similar sets of equations can be written for branches OB and 00'.
Inverting the above equations the set given in
Table 5.17 is obtained.
The equations for the branches OB and 00' are
similarly inverted. For equilibrium, the sum of the
individual moments and forces at the origin must
be zero, and the equation of Table 5.18 is obtained
accordingly.
Table 5.18
EI*Or
:Ear"

EI*O~
La,,~
La~~

EI*Ot
La,,:
La~:
:Ea ..

si-s, s-u,
Lbu
Lb~r
Lbu
LC:r::

Lbr.v
Lb~v
Lbzu
LCrv
Levu

EIo. Constant
LK1,-:
Lb ..
LK2 =
Lbv:
LK3,-:
Lb ..
LK4 =
LCu
LKs =
LC~.
'L,K6 ="
LCu

0
0
0
0
0
0

After the above equations are solved, the rotations

and deflections obtained are substituted in the inverted equations for each of the three branches, and
the moments and forces are obtained.
Sample Calculation 5.11 gives a detailed calculation of the system in Sample Calculation 5.8, in
accordance with the above procedure. Junction
point 0, the rotations and deflections of which are
to be determined, is selected as the free end of the
three branches OA, OB, 00'.
(This selection is
important when intermediate restraints in any of
the branches are involved; the equations for the
restraints are placed before the rotation and deflection equations and eliminated first in order to simplify the inversion.) Each branch is solved first

160

DESIGN
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ANALYSIS BY THE GENEHAL

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ANALYTICAL

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,IN

Cal,INVERSION
PIPING FLEX~ILITY
AND
Of SIX

-4'

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STRESS ANALYSIS
EQUATIONS

'"

l,~

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c.t,.C:.
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QA.'TC!.
1-2

,ft?
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-1-;-;-

IFORM E
CALC. NO_S.II

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r- IB...?
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163

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e STRESS
6-EQUATIONS

"

I~ .,. qZ

~~('OSILI[V

,.,.

,.

-/7 696 181

If) ."

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ONSTANTS

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+f274~.J"
ur.~'147.r.c
-4200570
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J
CALC NO S.II

CAL.

AND STRESS ANALYSIS

.. 70528""77/
-427SS.~.:S

.,. 1999 if."I'3

+....
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+ e o z o.e e

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.(,7
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""08/.02
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MW KELLO<.?C col PIPING FLEXIBILITY

I.

H ....31

.. Z5S("
I-l55.,,"-
7.08
t
+518.40

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1'110.0"

c.ea

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+ 43S-(.9

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- 53'.9-9'
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1000

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CALC. r~-s.1I

164

DESIGN OF PIPING

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4-35.69
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. 9S":Z.,#"O

1/82.48
77/7.08

SYSTEMS

27.45"
2614.46

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of

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13.27
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+ 2.0357.14-

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11.44

of

!THE MW KELLOC(j col PIPING FLEXIBILITY

/000 (1
-+.85254-

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--

1000 0" ~
.15286

515.97
439.8Q

515.97
439.89

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4.71

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1000 8~_
~-6.526/8

255. (i6
66""ii:4S

+
-

255.66
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7.08
4(Q.Z/

AND STRESS ANALYSIS

tooo s,
10006. ~ -1-/33.28663 =-9S.Z44S0
+

548.53

+7-:>'

AL
~lCK{O
AT': ,.

11.7.;>

548.53
73111.72

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1000 ......
--1.')7737

116./0
+11057.89

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6'.}.81

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IFORM J-I
CALC NO.5-II

x:

CONSTANT

&.? ~~498. fA -82934-19

-7~5.8Z7

237.32

""L-62.9.20"

62.2.4
98.18

w.

-8293"'/~

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FY... -

+
FYB

p::.

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37/.44
4:!>5."'9
371442.7.45
(! 3. 40

+
1+

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116./0
4106.44
- 536.99
7/. '30 .., 3504.49
':'/<;474-58
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6.2.0
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110.06
718.:>'7

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of

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+
01-

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+-

219.53

t-

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2.35.01

13.Z7
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+
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1"'6

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of-

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90.0B
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+
-

90.0B
8579.62-

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eL-,...ZE L,
-

;;54.30

14.1?,_

62.24
82.95.7'"
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1P..66

14.12.
22.27
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fl-

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105.10

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66.6~
105.10
-

:-~9

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1.0/

1[445.37
3(;6.'32

FLEXIBILITY

AND STRESS

ANALYSIS

99.95:
100.31
179.2.0
/7QS5

+ 2.7915
+ 2.79.49

AL
HI!CW-IO
A1'C. / ..

235.00
234.17

11+ 1114-. 8(,

+ 11/4- ./'7

Il-

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- "D3.!3._6
878.99

---

14.12
62.24- +
- 82.95. 7fi. - 1344.85

+-

1./6

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22.27

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1.66
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879.60 + 864.96

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C+ 1376.3/J
+136R.68

27.01

42.60 -

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67

ClRM J-2
CALC NO 5"

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

and checked as if it were fixed at both ends using

the known thermal constants EI*!!.z, EI*!!.IJI EI*!!.z.
For the unknown rotations anti deflections (multiplied by 1000) the downward operations are carried
out as shown on Form E-2. For the upward solutions the prime equations on Form E-2 are transferred to Form E-4. As F z is expressed in terms of
the unknown rotations and deflections only, eq. 6'
is multiplied by the coefficient for Fz in the 5' equation and added to the same, whereby F lJ is obtained.
F:z; is obtained by using the values for Fz and FIJI
and so on. It should be noted that symmetry about
the diagonal is obtained. Lack of it indicates an
error. Since the results from every column except
the uppermost left-hand one are used to produce
symmetry, only the latter column need be checked.
Since the OA and OB branches are symmetrical,
only the solution of the equations for OA branch
are shown; the difference in signs is easily visualized.
The results of the moments and forces by the inversion of the three branches are now listed on
Form J and added together, satisfying equilibrium
conditions. Thus a set of six equations for the unknown rotations and deflections are obtained. These
are now solved on Form E-1, and the moments of
each branch are obtained by substituting the values
in the individual inverted equations as shown on
Form J-l and Form J-2. The figures shown in
brackets are the results from Sample Calculation 5.8
given for comparison.
The above example is naturally solved in much
less time when done as in Sample Calculation 5.8.
However, if two more branches were connected at
point 0 the standard procedure would require the
solution of 24 equations; the inversion solution
would be less time consuming.
The inversion procedure is especially suitable
where many branches are joined at one point. A
system shown in Fig. 5.15 which represents 42 equations when solved by the regular method is solved
by the inversion procedures in the following manner:
The rotations and deflections at 0 are assumed to
be 0", 0111 e; li:z;, lirll oe and at point I are 0' z, O'y, 0':,
5' x, {/

II'

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

where

r, -

+ w:

li*:z;

li*1I

= O'IJ - xO'. + zO'"

0*.

ZO'II

lit: - yO'"

165

+ xO'1J

and z, y, z are the coordinates at point I.

The above problem can also be solved by the reinversion procedure which makes it possible to
handle almost any piping system, no matter how
complex it may be, without solving sets of equations
of more than six unknowns.
To illustrate this procedure, the system calculated
in Sample Calculations 5.8 and 5.11 is used in Calculation 5.12. From Calculation 5.11 (Form J) the
inverted equations for branches OA and OB are
added together as shown on Form J, and these
equations are now inverted again as indicated on
Forms E-2 and E-4. The result from this reinversion shown on Form E-4 represents a set of equations
for a fictitious line which replaces the two branches.
The coefficients in these equations, multiplied by
EI* X 10-6, are the shape coefficients for the fictitious line and can accordingly be added to the shape
coefficients for branch 00' which are given in Calculation 5.7, as shown on Form D--4,and the problem
can be solved with six equations, shown on Form E-l,
since it is now reduced to an equivalent two-anchor
problem. The figures shown in brackets are the
results from Calculation 5.8, given for comparison.
By using these moments and forces, the rotations
and deflections can be computed at point 0, and the
G

0'z-

The system OAB is set up as twelve equations

with A as the fixed end. The six equations for the
B~branch are eliminated first and the remaining six
equations are inverted. The systems OGD, lEG,
and IFIl are treated the same way. A set of twelve
equations can now be set up with the following
unknowns:

FlO. 5.15

Pipe line with eight POiOUl of fixation.

166

DESIGN OF PIPING

moments and forces for branches OA and OB are

obtained in the same way as in Calculation 5.11.
Applying this procedure to the'"system shown in
Fig. 5.15, the inverted equations for OAB and oeD
are added and reinverted. The same is done for
I EF and I GH. The reinverted coefficients are added
to the shape coefficients for OJ and the six equations
are solved.
5.20

and for a rnultiplane line it is unlikely that a point

will exist where all three moments are zero.
It is generally preferable to make the final joint
as close as possible to one end of the line so that all
but a small part of its flexibility is available in the
longer part of the line. As no pulling is done of the
shorter line, its free end should be located and preferably clamped in its design position. By so doing
it is established that the longer line has to be pulled
in such a way that its end rotations are zero, and
accordingly, a convenient cold spring procedure can
be prescribed since the necessary pulling of the
longer line can be computed.
Sample Calculation 5.13 illustrates a procedure
for cold springing which has been successfully carried out by The M. W. Kellogg Company on several
occasions. In this calculation, the main steam line
of Sample Calculation 5.8 is assumed to be cold
sprung 100%. In order to protect the turbine, the
final joint is located at the throttle valve, point 0,
permitting the valve to be clamped down in its design position. Hence, all the cold pull is taken up
by the portion of the line 00'.
The branch 00' has been computed for the full
expansion in Sample Calculation 5.7. Accordingly
the moments and forces required for 100% cold pull
at point 0 are obtained by multiplying the results

Cold Springing

The Piping Code's requirement that cold springing shall be governed by sound judgment leaves the
method of cold springing to the erection superintendent unless a definite procedure is set up by the
designer which will assure that the correct rotations
and deflections are obtained at the closing joint.
The deflections are conveniently taken care of by
pulling the pipes together the amount specified. The
rotations at the closing joint, however, are more
difficult to match because they are a function of
couples to be applied rather than single forces. For
a single plane line the closing joint can be selected
at a point where the moment is zero; even so, it
should be remembered that each free end of the line
must be sprung exactly the correct amount in order
to make the free end rotations the same. Such a
point may also be inconveniently located, however,
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MW KELLOG:J col PIPING FLEXIBILITY

AND STRESS ANALYSIS

"'f'I(IO
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CALC NO s: IZ

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DESIGN

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PIPING FLEX~!LI.T.Y AND _?_TRESSANALYSIS

INVERSION OF SIX EQUATIONS

Ifl(

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THE MW
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FLEXBILITY AND STRESS
5VHHATION Of' ~HAPe COEFFICIENTS

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CALC NO 5./Z

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

at point C, these two rotations can be controlled.

An FL-force at point C will control the rotation
around the y-axis.
The calculation is carried out as follows: The
shape coefficients from 0 to 7 are summed on
Form D-3, and the equations for the y-deflections
at point C and 7 and for the a-deflection at point C
are computed on Form J. The simultaneous equations shown on Forms E-2 and E-3 are arranged as
follows: the three equations for the known cold pull,
the latter given on Form A, Calculation 5.8, are
first entered; the constants are obtained by multiplying D.;r; = -0.75671
ft, D.y = -0.54900
ft,
fl. = -0.12524 ft by EJ/144 = 231,577,080. The
three equations for the zero rotations are then
entered, and finally the three equations for the unknown deflections, 0117, OIlG, o:c, are entered. The

of this calculation, shown on Form A, Calculation

No. 5.7, by the ratio of the cold to hot modulus of
elasticity. In practice, howeverj=it is not feasible
to apply a moment at a point. Therefore, three
unknown forces are introduced into the system to
replace the moments. The points of application of
these forces are rather arbitrary; since the purpose
is to prevent rotations at the pulled end (point 0)
their magnitude will decrease as their distance from
that end increases. However, note that this last
rule applies also as far as the other fixed end of the
line (point 0') is concerned, so that the forces are
best located near the center of the line.
In Sample Calculation 5.13 an F II-forceis applied
in the riser at a convenient hanger location, denoted
as F 117. This force will create rotations around the
;1;- and z-axes, and by introducing
another F II-force

2
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169

6 STH(SS

6- EQUATIONS

"NALTSIS

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DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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A\.C.
f,{!CNCO

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.........
_-----------------=--------------

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

171

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<::><:)<:)<:lClCl<::><:>Cl<::>~~~

oil

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t~!<
uuo
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DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

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My.
MI.
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-

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FORM E-4
CALC. NO. ">'13

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PIPING FLEXLBIUTY ANO STRESS ANALYSIS

INVERSION OF SIX EQUATIONS

6v'1

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1:1'1 DOD 00

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BY THE GENERAL

" . ".

tC.UQ
AT"

IFDRM

CALC NO 5./3

__ ._---------------------

174

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

downward solution of these nine equations is now

carried out, and the upward solution is done for the
known constant column only to obtain the moments
and a check. The 4', 5', 6', 7', 8', 9' equations are
now entered on Form E-4, and the solution gives
the moments and forces expressed in the unknown
deflections at points C and 7. If the three moments
are equated to zero, the deflections at points C and 7
are obtained as shown on another Form J. These
deflections are now entered on Form E-3, and the
forces at C, 7, and 0 are obtained, using the second
line for the upward solution on Forms E-2 and E-3.
The line can now be cold sprung either by measuring the forces or preferably by measuring the required movements at the points of application of
the forces. Thus the hanger in the riser is lowered
7-}i- in.; the force required is supplied by the weight
of the riser. The solid hanger at C is lowered 7 in.
and as the force is positive this point is held in
place. Finally a e-stop is provided at point C preventing the line moving more than 2i in. in the
minus a-direction. The forces to be applied at 0
are all less than 2000 lb.
In order to execute the above procedure properly
it is desirable to have the line supported on adjustable constant support hangers to minimize the weight
effects. Although minor adjustments due to errors
in fabrication may be necessary, the method has
proved to be helpful to the erecting crew, as all trial
and error efforts are eliminated, thereby resulting in
great time saving.
The calculated stress for this condition due to the
six forces, can be shown to be 16,750 psi. This
stress will remain until the final joint is finished and
the six restraints imposed on the line are removed.
After the hangers at points C and N and the restraint
at point 0 have been adjusted, the stress will be in
accordance with Sample Calculation 5.9.
5.21 Weight Loading
The problem of determining the effects on piping
systems due to weight loading is similar to that of
thermal expansion; the inherent flexibility of the
piping is expressed by the same shape coefficients,
and accordingly the coefficients of the unknown reactions in the equations of a given line are identical
in either case. However, the constant terms of the
equations for thermal expansion are a function of
the fictitious end displacements only, while those
for weight loading are also functions of the weights
involved. These load constants are denoted by the
Jetter R for the rotation equations and T for trans-

lation equations with subscripts indicating the component. Written in the conventional manner, the
equations for a space pipe line with two ends are
shown in Table 5.1R
Table 5.19
M",
An

Mil
A "'II
AIIV

M,

F",

Au
All'
A ..

B;zr B"'II B",.

B,,% Bvv BI/'
B"" e; Bn

F"

c..

G"'II

F,

G",.

CI/V CI/'

Gu

Load
Constants
R",
RII
R.
T",
Tv
T.

Deformation
Constants
EI*O",
EI*OI/
EI*O,
EI*o
EI*o*1I
EI*o*.
%

In determining the weight reactions, the line usually is assumed fixed at the ends and, accordingly,
the deformation constants are zero. However, any
known end deformation can always be superimposed on the weight effects. On the other hand, if
the weight reactions have been determined, the
deformations at any point of the pipe line can be
calculated by using the above system of equations
with the shape coefficients and load constants
summed from the fixed end.
Weight loading is either concentrated or uniform.
The load constants for weights such as valves,
counterweights, constant support hangers, or true
vertical pipe line members, assumed to be concentrated at a point N, are calculated according to
Table 5.20.
For uniform loads such as the weights of pipe, its
insulation and contents, the load constants are someTable 5.20
M%N
Au
A "'II
A""
Bu

B"'I/

Bn

where AUl A",

M.N
An
A",

FI/N
B'I/

BIIII

s.;

Au
Bu

c.;
GI/II
c;

B'II
B ..
B%Vl

etc.

Load
Constants
R",
RII
R.
T",
TI/

T.

summations of the shape

coefficients taken from the
fixed end 0' to the point of
load application, N.
FIJN = concentrated
weight load
(minus for pipe weights, plus
for counterweights).
=

= -FIJNZN
M.N = +FuNXN.
XN, ZN = horizontal coordinates of the
J.f",N

point of load application.

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

what more involved although they are computed

along similar Jines. For each member of the pipe
line, they are calculated in accordance with Table
5.21. The summation for all members of the pipe
line gives the load constants of the equations in
TablE' 5.19.

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

Table 5.23 Shape Coefficients for Weight;

Formulas for Straight Members
%

Wb<>

M""

F"I<'

A%~
A%.

Au
B.:
B."

Bn
B,,"
where

D,,"

Dr"

e;
e;
s.;

lIV
II,

b
y

R:z;
Rv
R,

D.."

C
C

B..

B",

WlI

u.;
e.;
s.;
c.;

A ...
All'

A.",

Load
Constants

T..
T"
T.

""

-k

WIlIo

= +k

We..

w"

>=

'{

J.

tID

24
QL4

W'ba

24

Sin

(lWb

La

+a

kQ6
L3

= +kQ-

COB a

sin a

,,\eX

Table 5.22

x Plane
+Wb

y Plane
+wu

0
0
0

+wv
+c~wv

+Wbb
+Wba

where CII = distance

-smaCOBa

_ +F i}-

The expressions for the shape coefficients for uniform loading depend on the plane in which the member is calculated (Table 5.22).

D~II
D,"
E"'II
Ev"
E.~

QL4

X, i, = coordinates of center of gravity of

the member, ft.
An, Az" B..", etc. = summations
of shape coefficients
for concentrated
loads for all members from the fixed end up to but
not including the member under
consideration.
Thus these summations for the first member
will
always be zero.
D..lI, D"II' D." = shape coefficients for uniform loading, ft3.
Ezu, Evll, Er" = shape coefficients for uniform loading, ft4.

o.;

sin a

x-plane

unit load, lbjft (always negative),

of a member whose length is L, ft.
F" .. = wIlL, lb (always negative).
AI.... = -Fv .. M omen t s a t Origin,
..
It-lb
v.
W"

General

LI
= -kQ-

Table 5.21

u.;

175

+w

uv

-CIIW"

z Plane
0
0

+w"
+Wab
+w"a
0

of working plane to coordinate

plane.

These shape coefficients are given in Table 5.23

for straight members and in Tables 5.24, 5.25, 5.26,
5.27, 5.28, and 5.29 for circular members.
It is of utmost importance in the calculation of
the w-constants that the proper direction be used.
The direction always points from the free end to the
fixed end, and should be indicated by an arrow. The
direction determines the angle exbetween a straight

+ (lWu

bw.

Wu

'" W'u.

w"

= +kQ6'

W'ab

'"

-kQ - sin a COB a

Wi ...

+kQ-

Wab

+w' ab + bw"

Wa"

+w'"" -

y-plane
y

LS
a

COSa

L(

-a
b
x
:z-plane

24

L'
24

Cos2 a

(lW"

member and the positrve horizontal axis. If the

member is assumed rotating around the end to which
the direction arrow is pointing, this angle is positive
if the member rotates in the counterclockwise direction, negative if it rotates in the clockwise direction.
For a circular member, the direction is either counterclockwise or clockwise. The angle <l> is always positive. The angle ex is always positive measured
counterclockwise from the negative vertical axis to
the radius where angle <l> begins. The angles <l> and ex
are illustrated in Figs. 5.16 and 5.17 for counterclockwise and clockwise directions respectively.
Form WI/shows a convenient way to calculate the
load constants and also a key to the relationship
between the shape coefficients and the load constants
in accordance with Table 5.19.
In Sample Calculation 5.14 a single plane system
is computed for wI/ of - 280 lb/ft. The necessary

176

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table 5.U

Shape Coefficients

for Uniform

Loading:

''"For Weight of Members

Counterclockwise
Wb =

+ COS2(~

W'bb =

+QkR'

+ i[cos

Wb

W'ba

= +QkR3 {el'[sin(a - <1. +

W'bb =

+ cos

+QkR4 {~[ 1
+QkR4

Table 5.25

{~[<1> -

2(;

sin a] - <1]

sin 2(a - 4')]

Shape Coefficients

+ <1

+ ilcos

for Uniform

sin Za]

cos Za]

+ [cos(a

+<1

+ [sin(a + el -

cosa]sina}

sina]sina}

Direction

2[cos(a

+ ~[sin

Members

cos all

+ <1 -

2(a

Clockwise

for Circular

Direction

<1] _ ~[sin2(a

{~[4> + sin 2(a + <I]

Formulas

in the x-Plane

+ 1 + sin a] + 2[cos(a + <1 -

-QkR3 {1>[sin(a

= -QkR.{~[l

W'ba

General

- 1 -

cos aJI

2(a - <1 -

2(a - <1 -

Loading:

sin Za] -

cos 2aJ

General

[cos(a - <1 -

+ [sin (a -

Formulas

cos a] sin a}

<1.,)- sin a] sin a}

for Circular

Memhers

For x-Wind Acting on Members in the x-Plane

or z-Wind Acting on Members in the z-Plane
or Weight of Members in the y-Plane
Counterclockwise
W~ =

W. =

w'".

_QR3 {1.3

[q,

+k [~cos

a - sin(a

+QR3 {1.3

[<I' sin (a + 1 + ~ sin a + cos(a + <I,)

+k [~sin

+1.3QR4

cos (a

+ 4') + 0.75

+ cos(a + 1

4)2
(

+ 1 + ~ cos a

'2 -

= +1.3QR4

<1>2

'2 -

1.25 sin a - 0.25 sin (a

+ 2<1]

+ 24]}

sin(a

1.25 cos a

+ 0.25

cos(a

+ 2<1]

+ 2<1]}

Direction

+ ~ cos a + sin (a

- 1

- <1

1.25 sin

Ct

0.25 sin (a - 24')]

(a - <},) - 0.75 sin a - 0.25 sin (a - 2<1]}

+ ~ sin

- cos(a - <I')

+ 0.25

- 0.75 cos a - 0.~5 cos(a

_QR3 {1.3 [4' sin (a - <1

+k [~sina

W' ...

+ sin

+ <1.+

+ cos 1>

Wu = +QR3 {1.3 [ <I> cos(a

+k [~cos

- sin(a

sin a

Clockwise

w.

Direction

+ 0.75

0' -

cos(a - <1

cos e

+ 0.25

+ 1.25

cos(a

cos a - 0.25 cos (a - 2<.1]

- 21]}

+ cos 4>)

............................
----'--- __ 1

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

ANALYTICAL

METHOD

Table 5.26 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading: General Formulas for Circular Members
For Weight of Members in the z-Plane
10

Counterclockwise
Wo

+QkR3!<I>[cos(a + <1

+ cos ]

W'''b

+QkR4 {~[ 1 - cos 2(;

+ <IJ + i[sin

w'"o

+QkR' {~(<I> - sin 2(a

+ <1]

- 2[sin(a

+ <1

sinal}

+ <1 -

2(a

~[cos 2(a

Direction

+ <I')

sin 2al - [sin (a

- cos

+ <1 -

2o:J + [cos (a + <I

sin aJ cos a}
cos al cosa}

Clockwise Direction
- <1 + cos a]

w"

-QkR3!<I>[cos(a

w' ab

-QkR4 {~[ 1 - cos 2{; -

w'"o

+QkR'

{~[<I' + sin2(a

+ 2[sin(a

<IJ -

4 - sin

oj]

+ [sin(a

~lsjn 2(a - 1') - sin 2al

- <11- -Hcos2(a

<1

cos Zo]

+ [cosCa

- <1 - sin a] cos a}

-

<1

cosa1cosa}

Table 5.27 Shape Coefiicients for Uniform Loading: Formulas for 90 and UlOCircular Members
For '''eight
Shape

of Members in the x-Plane

Wb

W'b4

W'hb

a=

+O.42920kQR3

-O.39270kQR'

-O.13315kQR'

a=

90"

-0.42920kQR3

+O.17810kQR'

+ O.36685kQR4

a=

90

+0.42920kQR3

-0.1781OkQR'

+0.36685kQR'

a = 180"

- 0.42920kQ R3

+O.39270kQR'

-O.13315kQR'

tJ
tJ

-0.42920kQR3

-O.39270kQR'

-O.13315kQR'

+O.42920kQR3

+O.17810kQR'

+O.36685kQR'

a = 270

-O.42920kQR3

-0.17810kQR'

+O.36685kQR(

a=

+O.42920kQR3

+O.39270kQR4

-O.13315kQR'

a=

+4.00kQR3

-2.35619kQR'

+2,46740kQR'

-4.00kQR3

+2.35619kQR'

+2.46740kQR'

180

2700

180

D)
D)

a = 180

((J

-4.00kQR3

-2.35619kQR'

+2.46740kQR'

a=

((J

+4.00kQR3

+2.35619kQR'

+2.46740kQR'

a=

90

- O.78540kQR'

+O.46740kQR'

a = 2700

+0.78540kQR4

+0.46740kQR'

a = 270

V
V

- O.78540kQR(

+0.46740kQR(

+O.78540kQR'

+O.46740kQR'

a=

90

177

DESIGN OF PIPING

178

SYSTEMS

"",

Table 5.28

Shape

Coefficients

for Uniform

Loading:

for 900 and 1800 Circular

Formulas

Members

For x-Wind Acting on Members in the x-Plane

or z-Wind Acting on Members in the z-Plane
or Weight of Members in the y-Plane

Shape

W'Ul'

Wo

w"

a=

00

+O:21460QR3(1.3

a=

900

+QR3(0.09204

- O.50k)

+0,21460QR3(1.3 + k)

a=

900

[3

+QR3(0.09204

0.50k)

-0.21460QR3(1.3

+ k)

+QR3{0.09204

- O.50k)

+ k)

+0.30381QR4
+0.30381QR4

+0.30381QR4

1800

+0.21460QR3(1.3

+ k)

_QR3(O.09204

- 0.50k)

+0.30381QR4

1800

-0.21460QR3(1.3

+ k)

_QR3(O.09204

- ,a.50k)

+O.30381QR4

270

tJ
tJ

_QR3(0.09204

- 0.50k)

-0.21460QR3(1.3

+ k)

+O.30381QR4

2700

_QR3{0.09204

- 0.50k)

+0.21460QR3(1.3

+ k)

+0.30381QR4

a=

-0.21460QR3(1.3

+ k)

+QR3(0.09204

a=

+1.57080QR3(1.3

-2.00QR3(1.3

+1.57080QR3(1.3

- k)

-1.57080QR3(1.3
-1.57080QR3(1.3

180

a =

180

a=

a=

90

a = 270

a=

2700
0

90

D)
D)

(J
(J

k)

- 0.50k)

+O.30381QR4

k)

+3.81524QR4

+2.00QR3{1.3

+ k)

+3.81524QR4

- k)

+2.00QR3(1.3

+ k)

+3.81524QR4

- k)

-2.00QR3(1.3

+ k)

+3.S1524QR4

L:J

-2.00QR3(1.3

+ k)

-1.57080QR3

(1.3 - k)

+3.81524QR4

+2.00QR3(1.3

+ k)

-1.5708DQR3(1.3 - k)

+3.81524QR4

+2.00QR3(1.3

+ k)

+1.57080QR3(1.3

- k)

+3.81524QR4

-2.00QR3(1.3

+ k)

+1.57080QR3(1.3

- k)

+3.81524QR4

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL

ANALYTICAL

I\IETHOD

.....

Tahle 5.29 Shape Coefficients for Uniform Loading; Formulas for 900 and 1800 Circular Members
For Weight of Members in the z-Plane
Shape
a'"

We

W'eb

10' aa

-0.42920kQR3

+0. I78IOkQR4

+O.36685kQR4

a=

90

+0.42920kQR3

-0.39270kQR4

-0.13315kQR4

a=

90

c:s

+0.42920kQR3

+0.39270kQR4

-0.13315kQR4

180

-0.42920kQR3

-0.17810kQR4

+0.36685kQRt

a = 180

tJ
tJ

+0,42920kQR3

+0.17810kQR4

+O.36685kQR4

-0,42920kQR3

-0.39270kQR4

-0.13315kQR4

-O.42920kQR3

+0.39270kQR4

-0.13315kQR4

CJ

+O.42920kQRJ

-0.17810kQR4

+0.36685kQR4

+O.78540kQR4

+O.46740kQR4

-0.78540kQR4

+0,46740kQRt

a = 270

;=

2700

a=

a=

a = 180

D)
D)

180

{(]

+0.78540kQR4

+0,46740kQR4

0:=

((]

-O.78540kQR4

+O.46740kQR4

a=

90

+4.00kQR3

+2.35619kQR4

+2.46740kQR4

c:

-4.00kQR3

-2.35619kQR4

+2.46740kQRt

-4.00kQR3

+2.35619kQR4

+2.46740kQR{

+4.00kQR3

-2.35619kQR4

+2,46740kQR'

a: =

a = 270

a =

a=

270

90

179

DESIGN OF PIPING

180

SYSTEMS
z, x, or y

z, x, or y

....'

Angles If> and a in the counterclockwise

FIG. 5.16

Flo. 5.17

direction.

reaction at the fixed end is the difference between

the total load of 29,150 lb and the FI/-force of 19,864
lb or 9286 lb.
The moment at any point N of the line is calculated in accordance with the following general
formula:

data is given on Form A-2, which also gives the data

for Sample Calculations 5.15 and 5.16. The shape
coefficients for concentrated loads are as usual calculated on Form D-2. The shape coefficients for
uniform loading, in this case Wa, w' ab, Wi aa, are calculated according to formulas given in Table 5.29
for the circular member 2-4 and in Table 5.26 for
circular members 4-5 and 6-7, and entered on Form
WI/' The constants for the straight members 5-6
and 7-8 are computed from the formulas on Form
WI/ and are entered also on that form. For member
1-2 the constants are zero. The sums of all load constants are entered as constants on the equation
sheet, Form E-1, on which the summation coefficients
from Form D-2 also are entered. Solution of the
equations gives the reactions at the free end, the
moment M. referred to the origin. The vertical

0
t
I

526.4-

/8.50
.73
2.28

h
k

'-e-

INSUL.

. '2
1150 fC
eo RS/.
242.3
.37.7

CO~HEN
TOTA

eeo.

TEMP.

....

PRESSURE
PIPE

MATERIAL

UNIT WIND LOAD ON

PROJECTION

60

.()U'

.3

'"

I
I

...

11-

35

ID
'D

~VIIY
Fr

~
2

~( ~

~.

57.c,q- Yzk-lt

'"

DIlICAL

ID

I/ID

Y-Z-STOP

2:CFI/+FI/ )XN

where 2:F", and 2:F If are the sum of the reacting

forces at the free end obtained from the equation
sheet, and any restraint in the line between the free
end and point N. 2:M. is the sum of the moment at
the free end referred to the origin, obtained from the
equation sheet, and the moment at the origin caused
by any restraint. Since no restraint is included in
the example 2:.111.,'L.F." 2:FIf are the reactions
from the equation sheet. XN, YN are the coordinates
of point N. 'L.F is the sum of the uniform load

.:

.75
8158.5

....

ID)

.9

31.00

+ 2:FzYN-

M'.N= 2: (M.+111.

1-8

MEMBERS

Angles If> and a in the clockwise direction.

42"

OF CYLlfi-

SURFACES
LBS/1'T2

.._

ir-

,,

8,

POINT

1390

5r=
Sp.

200

Sr+Sp;
Sh:
~ POINT
:>
111 Sl;
til

'"
a:

5 z'
5y+ Sp+
S, OR s"

MOMENTS

PSI.

WEIGHT (CALC. NO.5.14)

2200

PSI.

POINT

M,

700 PSI.
740
PSI.
GREATER OF
2,05
PSt
PSI.

MW. KfLL0G3

My_
Mz
F.
F~
F,

IFT-LB)

AND FORCES (La

PSI.

1590

~4/3 Sh 29~0

PSI,

27.38

nlr

ACTING

ON RESTRAINTS

"Z WIND (CALC.NQ

/
4

X WIND (CALC. NO. 5.15)

I

oS

e ee.ooo.
-/9.300.

+59875- 1.800
-8440,

- 7.950.
+ 1,1300.
19 abQ

5.16)

8
"/82.5.
"2750.

-30.625. -za95o.
t 2.700. t Z (10.
/80.
180 f-

cal PIPING ORIGINAL

FLE~)!:I.ILIlY AND STRE_5.S ANALYSIS
DATA AND RESULTS

.,./7

~.
He

1((0

An

C.

'b<;lO.

"'~/O.

IF:JIiM

A- 2

ALC.N(

5/4

FLEXIBILITY

PL.A'-lE

ANALYSIS

BY THE GENERAL ANALYTICAL

METHOD

181

Z
24

1-2

MEMBER

_, 45

7-8

1,7

51,

SHAPE

100
100

Q
R
L

228
100

228

f 00

/00

I(}()

so

1850

18

a 00

/850
150

b
c

L_LI2

.300
5550
450

13 73
0
481

5...

o
o

cq
u

25 n

I.!JZ 51

44'l1Ul
141 08

104 os
0
104 OJ
88Y (J5
0

()
24 49
80144
0

8'34

Z7 45
()

3494

2599b
71.3 52

000
15 97

25 %

.3092

t,(j

98 (0
104135

3 90

I()()

I{) 53

71MJ
/3 98 -

75

100

228
100
I" 50

'1M
1053
8b 77

9 1<1

189Z

/3 {,b

Uo

CU

J 00
.4 50

Vo

cv

210 3~
8.37148
229 Z~

IbS 1,1
59584

180 Ol.
',41494

000
-

I)

.9135
114 M 0

Z9 bfl
73~ 2J

10~
3~ 'f7
0

a
III Sb!> 16

()

CUo

0
0

000
()

u.,.,~v...

THE MW. KELLOGG CO

Z-4

MEMBER

NO

IN

PLANE

PLANE
y

'X
Z

0
0

F'ORMVL.,A.S
STR
....~QMlT

F'O~
MII!MnR~

w~

- -i;-kQL

-t

w"u.y'"

VI

CO~"

.!.kQL'",,,, ""
+ ~kQL .-

III

~kaL.)co~

W'b-~kQL4

w'.a.a."

+-

Wb

1:1:

~k;OL
i'kOL

W'ba.=-:?1:kQL"
""'bb:l!; + nkQL

MEMBER

"'-

DATA

l~kQL3
InkQL"

oc

cos

/.00

18.50

ex.

~lf",I 2.

c:o~''''

t='OkMUl..

... S

F'OR

FOR CURVE-D

5'''''''(050<

.w.

,ABLE':>
5.2<0 .t- .5.29

~EE.

GO:'zO(
C(

~1""DCeO~p:

SEE TABLES
5.24- ~ .5:27

+Wb

....tllH::i'cL
Fyw
ElXY

-I"

eo

+c.wv

Bu

.Bz:v
exy

MzwB:~

Fy"",-Cxy

El.~
MzwSz.v

C.,.y
FywCy

eYE

MlW"Bu

273.

Fyw 'ByV

Yw

+w".b

-"29

2G3.3J

+w'a&

W.b

-GZq

Z(.3,3.~

"''''''.a...

-cl.Wb

+bwb

.........'bOt

+wb't.

"'u

~ ~"""b

1 ()

- 5$.50
.. '(0,3 185.

~ 8.3.25
-1351717.
0026.75

-/6708

o
o
"Wb!b

9/9.

yWtlb

+wo.a.

Vly'Wu

+C'H",

rr

R.

"li:,

w,w. --It, 16I14U

"WAb

~z

I -f-n,071

es.

629.t61.33

GW,. W,,W.a!b m{t.19J,7J2

T.
.wlIV "''''''.l .. "6'f<fP6J.9B
~'f.wu. .. "'rW ...
-184,50,9.Woi Ty
~cwu.

CON5TANT5

"'W. :l1.7#.ofB

+-174838950.

1-201218830.

h'w

IS

" II1II0

LOAD

-t80

"v'w,

"'y

ow,

0
+-G5e.'f63.98
~M8 963.98

'f"W\:)b

It

J-'1i:'1t:!~~t-L ~~!!?!t..I,1 AND ST.RE 5 ANALY

LOAD CONSTANTS
FOR WE GHT

F.wCy<

-aw.,,_

+'bw..,.

.Wb

By.

M""w6 . z.

.. CW1 ...

-bwv

v"-

FYWIlB"y

rrHE MWKELLOGGCO

1-280

MEMBERS

+3Wu,

.<t-

Av~
Mzw'Av%
Au
MzwAz.l

ex.

STRAIC.HT

+Wb,,"

MzwA.z

1'-1.... 6

5,/4

-t-wLolov

-5Z 744.48

M...,-An
A.y

Sxy

QRoJ

M;tw

CONSTANTS
+W~
+w,

A"

Bxx
~"",,"B.,III

Wy

$1,",e-.co~a

cvnve o Mt:t.ABER
seE -r"el..es
5.25 t 5.Z8

.NC

F W vWyL
F yw 1-IM7!ji;
M.w =-%:F.,.w
M ... I 0
Mz:w l:+xFyw

270
114159
S8./2

QRl

An

MltwaAXz

R f'L

kQR~
14,43'-.12
kQR" lr.ZO'-O.l

M<w

DATA

Z.211

M"",

~..hwA.v

M5MBER
ex

CURVED

0(

S,'N

;A

1-W'LI.'Y

0(

3 5HJ

% 73080
5501535
70/00 86

I 45"1U 16 900 79 /2 957 145

.3 148 98 zo 810 53 13 91(" ""

STRAIGHT
Q

0
0

()

Plf NG r{~~~I::IJLltbEAtlftcr~~fsANAU~IS

COORDINATE
DATA

SHAPE AND
OIRE.CTION

I 017 75
S OZ8 14

9 (JI) 2Z (.79 13
1343 78 ZS 6':50'~

Tz
CAe.C .

f
F _'h'M Wy

C""CK;{.-2-If'::_~ AL
IP_"'~E

, NO. 5.14-

182

No4-S

MEMBER

If,!

COORDINATE
DATA

PLANE
SHAPE AND
DIREC.TION

~W

CURVED

l.

-1731

1.00

COS

!tIN 1?II,

co~ '"

,",OR

FOk""UI- ....!ao
CU~"EO

S~E

w'UY

5eE.

"OR

5.25

I="OR CURVE.D

+w"
...w.

S.Z8

'"
f

1-280
"wyL

Wy

305

F_yw
F_yw
M.w

.('1(}87_
11.,30

j-J/64
=-'iFyw

M ......

Mz.w z::+xFy .....

M~W ]r~'58.~

P,CO~CII

CONSTANTS

Mt:'MseA

T"'~t..e.s

DATA

18.50 R f' t,
kQI'l>
4436.12 o Ii! I
kQR* ~G7,~"
GR.~

0(

~kQL3

- i"kQL'cas '"
.... ..!.kOL'",N '"
= ... i.kOL"

5' ....Qf

SIN

"""'l!:Me"R~

MEMBER

2.28

hkQL"

F'ORMUI,.AS

DATA

<X

MEMBER

STRAIQHT

w~

STRAIGHT

...
z

PLANE

SYSTEMS

..

DESIGN OF PIPING

STRAIGHr

MEMBERS

-c.w,,,,

+-lWu.

-bw ...

+c:.w"

.w...
v

+ ..........
v

w'b.

w,u ....

+t:4kQL"

W'b'b

~kQL"

z: -

~INO( COG Ol

f5,,9S8.68

\Vb

+w.ac

- S~O.l6
-55'0./6

Byy

MtwAtz

B ..

Su
MJC"",,S.x

Mz.wIl'8z,;

8."

'Szy

MxwBxy

MzwSI.V

8..
MJrw"B,u

Bn

ey"
eLV

"'1011"4'&

+W.a.1.

.. bwt>

+w~"

+w'bb
-"wbb

""y.wu

-?'-.J&03.

Cyy
"'2.VOS.88
FvW'''Cyy - 7.5.
4040

cos

en

Ivfzw"Su

ywt)

+ 83.25

Fy .....Cxy

1"85.524. "/99.
- 55. SO
-.1050207.

"''''

rv

+c..vy

w,.

Fyw'Cy<

" '""'tal.

~,

'!Z

17.577 783.

.1(,

I ofOSJ 41S /41.

"",W ...b +15404-5. T,

2943.09
....
-ou: 0(,5. T y

,........

"'C.Wu.

:-,,"'"

1-

~~~~KE.~N,~
e .. Y': /2.

78,879 67~.

T ~

PI~Ir:!_~_Fl 0;.;>:: IIlll,l,TY AND STRE S ANALYSIS

LOAD CONSTANTS FOR WE GHT

THE MW KEL.LOGGCO

riM. &8
-"'S:270.

R.

.w......

uv

_"W

-_

CON5iANTS

LOAD

-280

-S50

.......
Jb

WYWbb fHyWu.'I'

-+Wo,

""yw~

y"c.w"

9WbO

"'v

Z '"

+w.",

!is. So
rl7S ,t;;02..

Fy .....,.B1\r
c,;

"'15S6.16

"-

"'0

0
~Z.943. 09
+2943.09

-4W ..

-~wb

a
a

Fyw

+ 1.35 .$1
+7.447. 451.

or.

F-,,_w
-31(;4,00
6
FvwB .. y

Au

A.~
M~...Axt

+bw4,

+wb.l.

A" z
MzwA

M1W"A"v

:'>eE. TABLE5
S. 2~ 405.27

SINlot

M~w
Ax<
MtwA.t

M~w
A ..
MK"w~Au

+IBI.68

+wa

+W ..

SIN ex

Wb ... c ....nkQL

T ...e<-ES
5.2<0 .t- .5.29

co~z:O(

tkOL'

c-

Wb

~kOL'co"",
r.kOL 4 SINO(
COS

F::WM

23

W"

-'5~ CALC. NO 5./~

1
NO ..f('
IN Z
PLANE
SHAPE. AND
OIREC.TION
S

MEMBER

c
i<

z:

MEMBER

1.00
I. CO

51""f

7 (;(J

cos

~kQL.\

-12.98

r.kQL"

7~.1t;
1,J9(J/

FQkMUL.

- i'kQL'cos '"

w.

- + .l.kaLl~IN "'-

5r!E

r.. .OF<
t..At:!>..(t\l:;::11

...

CVR.vO

......-t:'''.'HU!I:l:!l

w~

0<

oc
(1\

~~Nl",

co~

P'

~INP,co~a

'0"

F'OHMU\..AS
ST~""IQMT

w'l.lv::'

-1.3. 7a

~.

PLANE

STRAIGHT

COORDINATE
DATA
a
-12.98

-55'
-.8192
+.S7.3'

~ "711

CURVED

+.)290

t S.Z8

DATA

MEMBER

Wy

<X

{>

F_y_w

R{>'L.

kQR~
kQR*

QR!

E.

280
wyL

M zw !'"2761/.4f
MEMBERS

STRAIGHT

-tw ...

+.l.wl.l

-c:.w."

+;

-bwy

.. C.Wv

1-

M.w
I 0
Mrw:+xFyw

QR-

I='OR CURVE.D

w::

1-2128.
M.w =-iF"yw

'.4'-99

CON5TANT5

TA~LES

5.25

DATA

.w",,..

"'hkQL

+W\.J.V

'"

w.Ib

..

- -

,aL

.r..kOL

W"'ilCIJ+14kQL"

co,!, ~
40

SINOCCOSC(

Mxw
t..,.

"'a

seE. TABLE5
S. 2/. ~ 5.27

.YoI.

M,YoI

f----+ 27.G21.44

A'L

Fyw

e.V

M:wAI(~

1=.,.... O.l;y

Ay<

6yy
~yW
'Byy
BLy

h'lJI ... A .. z.

Mzw"'A,,:
Au
rIGI.;>/I
Mz .....Au 1#54, ?8G.

Bu

B""

~.wBJr.

MtW"B:ol

6.y
M,wB .,
8..
M...wS.,

Bz~
M:w8ty

B
....
<z"'8:.z:

THE M W KELLOGG CO

- 2128

'

Cy<
Fy ....."CY.c.

+OWb
+w'bt

+Wb.1

'T,o,.; ~b

Z It

...

---~-

'i,'Wt_\

... Y >"I'.~

o
1--

Iw,r .~

...c..vv

"'yCW"
"""(.IV

w",""bb

~1'wU~

+.vCl

N'I

.........

1/

74'1.

JiO

-2.10.79

"'"'..."""40

+/43021.

-":

'f'3JDOB.648.

'T:I'~
,{iiIOS.[i5~

.!590. )7
..., ....."' -IGS']04. Tv

-r.wu,.

l_

.t,' ....~

..

T:SE-:'~
6,.382,152.

T:

1'1':'1r:!C! _t-L X!l?!L.1.TYAND ST.R[1S ANALYSIS

LOAD CONSTANTS FOR WE GHT

LeAO CONSTANTS

~)

" 41.96

.W

....,,w h'~
lb ..

-l80

--

---_. ~-~-'r--"~-

+w ..

i'WbD

Wy

w,

-e- w.J,,,

-+w to ..

.. "'J.~

of

+w"'.l.

-~"":tl

"Wt

-- -~

...392.:/0
F.,w'l8:. v - 834 389.
C.~_ -2,291. "''I
"1,415,04_
Clly ...iff_7'- 2 'II.
+-39,08{,547.Fy.....
Cyy
+-392.10
"3;'507.15
"'1(}8fJO,)G7 Fyw"(~~
-(,7047.215.

"'

-$4-1.64
..,.45.73
7"590.37

--lW.,.

-5l0.79

.W4\)

A.y

A ..

_-:-5Zf?_,.!(
.,. ~5 . .)z

.. bw,)

+-w''''b

M~wAu

M,rwA."

+ 41.96

Co,:>zCI(

=- t.kOL1 5D. 0:
Wb.a.= - ~kQL
4 ~1~""C:Oc;.O(
':,l-:.QL'"' SINt
w'bb '0::'"

"'b

S.EE. TAeLE-'5
5.2 .. .t.- 5.29

~:'t.~Kt.~
C ....T~

fl. 5.
12:1) ~3

FCf?M

Wi

C AL_. '1O 5./.,.

FLEXIBILITY

MEMBER
IN
Z

6-7

NO

ANALYSIS

COORDINATE
DATA
.~

PLANE

5HAPE A~D
DIRECTION

<G,

- 25. 'fG
- 27.45

z:

PLANE
y

<I.

STRAIGHT

MEMBER

at ....0<
e e s II)(

/.00

R
kQR~
kQR"

18.50

R ~:L

1H4.1l..ll

GRJ

~INI.

c:o~

- - tkQL'co& '"

w.

.!.kQL)~IN

p(

METHOD

DATA

MeMBER
ee

FOH .... UL..Jt..& ~OH

c.vp.vEO

"'-CMfIottt=r

CON5TANT5'

13.$6

M.w I 0
M~w ~+xFyw

~6l068.A; OJ!

s~e T"~LES
5.25

'"

5.1!8

FOR

CURVED

Mz.w
j..tI.9Jf.09
MEMBERS

5TRAIGHT

~w...

+i1Wu

-Gwu,

TWV

-bw,,'

+c.w",

wu = + f.-kQL

183

Wy
1- 280
F w"wyL
F yw
1-.J7~6.a;,
M.w ;::-iF'yw

83
1.73304

2. 28

5.,..":,, cos.e

"'u

CURVED

0(

IhkQL"

- 8.41

DATA

ANALYTICAL

L
~kQLJo

s':~:~~'TA~:~'i.ER~
T

BY THE GENERAL

.w ......
y
+WI,.I.V

w.

~eE TA6{..ES
+ ~kQLco .. '"
a
w.b - -l4kQL
SINOCCOS", 5.2<0 ~ .5.29
W:' ... + tAKQL 4 c.o".':O(
wb
= - t.I<OL 51 .... <X
SEe TABL.E!>
5.24- 4- 5.27
W"tlA
~kQL ... ~$""II( cc e D(
Wa

"'223. <00'2.

Ir:I

0:::

.wb

'hkQL'" s,"'",
M~w

M~w

An

~31.93/.09

Ax.
M~wAxy
A

Ay~
Mzw'Ayt
Au

M,I .....I"AJ(l.

MzwA1Z

B ..

-,379t;. . 80

Fyw

6xy

Mzw"AIllz::

FYWIll'Bx

M,Iwa.B)l:Y

en

8~v

NO 7-8

IN Z

PLo.NE

AND

SHAPE

F""xa,y

)1
y

-8.24

1.00

10.53

r:C)f.t.AUI.-A.!j

FOR

J.A~_e~~

Wu

- ikQL'co"",

~ + tkQL'~I'"

/94.59
5/2.27

lilkQL'"

- 8.24
0

z
~YRA.IQHT

~kQLJo

C::URVf.O

j:."OR

"'-At::Mi'tCIl"

5.25

'"

'R" I

"'Wa "U3.cP2

WyWy

r-yw.

-"2 bl"'l

-3H8.76

+CWy

+Wdb

-4210.14-

w,'cw

+WDD

"WUy

h'''',.

"'Y''''v

..

I""')' '"' ' ""a.

0(

SLN

0(

cos

(X

-.9925

-.12/9

"'//78839
+2108.96
-5'10509

~."",.
"'WA ...

'Rz

1+346'::' b'l~

T,..

I>"S{',80'lS5,3

-109,4542JO

Tv

"C.Wu.

Tz:

Wy''''

.ee-

~c

,I~

CURVED

- '97

"'.'f851
C.051:~
1':014'9
sl ... <-"eo~cc: 1.1210
CON5TANT5

W"yW .... b

ANALY

F::ii'M W
AL .NO.5.!'}._

~;:;fii-:?~Y

DATA

MEMBER
ce

Wy

kQR4

J"'OR CuRVE.D

F'

yw

Myw

1-2948.f
:-:tFy

...

M ...... I 0
M~w =+"Fyw
M ~w [24294,62
MEMBERS

STRAIGHT

+wu

... .3WU

-ew

+w.

-bw..,.

...c.Wv

wu..,.a,..AkQL"

1- 280

Fyw=w~L

9
Rio'!..
QI?3
0;11+

kQR~

~IN'C(.

5.~8

R.

"'"Wv

"~~~f
GHT

S~E' 'l"Ae:.LE~

LOAD CONSrANTS

-l80

Wy

-/863.280

ME:MBER DATA

- 34.94

-tWt)b

.""

+w''bl

+Wu

W.l.

+580S.11J
-3t;.t;(>.22
.,.210B. 9C.

+bwb

'Ny"Wu

"'/.3.n-"c,76
~32.7?9. 70
-/24.533901

1.00

FORMULAS

PLANE

STRAIGHT

...
c

.W"

~1t:'11'!~_t-l ~~.I!?.!.L"I,TY ANO S

LOAD
CONSTANTS
FOR
WE

COORDINATE
DATA

DIRECTION

- 4210./1-

w,'w"

01-490.75

FywCy

THE MW KELLOGG CO

'~EMBER

+W.b
.....a.wb

tR:

Fyw'Byy
"'/<:'B .88
'1'5392522

Mt ....Szt

Mxw",B)!l:.

+W'6.1

ylt.

It.

C.y
"13/0. 73
Mz.w"'Bv:: +41.115.].I)J8 Fyw"")lY
CYV
Bh
~ 490.75
MZ:W1lll81.v
~/S(#10182 Fyw'Cyy
CYl
B.t

S.Y

8yy

B..

M,v.:llfltBJI,IC

-o).w ....

.;./928.13

+ .....b...

Ax<

M~t:Au

-(./.18 ..17

+w'ab

+w'b.ll

....

w'bb~-

+bw,.

...

-+W"I"

.. w ....v
W
Z

w..b

.... ~-kQL.:Ic:o~ ~
- -

wa .... a
Wb
X

A.>
MIf .....Aw,l.

A.v
M),W'Axy
Axz
M.w'A ...1.

SINOoi.COr,C'II:

+ ~~~QL'"

Wb.a.= -

:;t.kQL'"

+ ~k.OL"

5.2 .. ~ .5.29

:t."';otCOtic)(

SEE TABLES
5.24- 4- 5.27

+bw~

- 23 . 72

+Wb

MLW

+ 24;t'l1-.8'2.

An
Mzw'AJlz:
Av~
M;t:w"Ay:.
A"
MZw"Azz

MzwBz,;

",/""So9.lo'i

Bt~

.,. 750. 7/

MJlw,.e,)fJ,

~zw"B.tz:

THE MWKELLOGG CO

01-591.21

+ 18.z38.364

eLY

It.

+w'",.1

+w...b

'1'7(;,(; .80

"'W~ol

...
bwb

+w'b.a

+W"bt.

It.

.Wb

+Wu

0
0

'Wy

-22/~

~W~

393

w'(~w ..

+cw'"

FywCII'Y

Cyy

~J5.014.84

V(~I)

C,v

FywllCyV

C,l
Fyw'Cyt

-IOJ.~n.7$4

Wy"

y"W"

+wb'

hw
"'WJt.J
WyWo1tl

+wl,I.y

-tw.a, ...

w,.WU

~,.W,u,

"

-cWu,

w.,.~w~a '"y""

PIPIIljG _Fl~J!:I!?,!,L"l. Y AND S 1.~E~~r AALY

LOAD CONSTANTS
FOR
WE GH

"'y -

280

LOAD CON'5TANT5

0
0

-9521.14
.,.l8.07J898

F.,w".8:ty

Il!

18782

""Wnb
I

~)'wu

...750. 71

- 1<f5.4~
7.(;3
+
-

-.l.Wb

:',"'0

Fy.,.Bvv

+ /99.80
.,.4854105

S.y

B ..

-2948.4

6..

.AJI(w"B,,1I.

Mzw"S;.y

Fvw
Bxy
~yw'lllBJlY

Bu

en

f-B2..7"
IDI. 'IS

-.).W._

+w'''b

?wboA.

51~2a.

Bu

M~WIl6~y

.w"

co~ Zoe

==-t.kQL3'!)INO::

wObbe

MxW

iikOL'"

::"Ee. TABLES

R.

'1':,

- 23.72

6{' 42
+766.80
-2/4704-I-

'R. 1+2647,.354
T,..

f.o4Z.%8303

Tv

1-84 9'l-G 8()1o

T~

-187.82

...52590

0
0

IS

..

C1-Ie..CKE..

o ....
,.~-rz ..

o.

F::ii'M W"
.AL . NO.5.1oO'

EC
- 3d 'J1204J
-40).534 lJ4

,4/1,655
fol6. 63&",
-Sa5'?G,74!
'19.712351 -.141. 604 131
-fS,157.7J1.
~ -.?tJ/~(i), ZI7 1+22558 '18C +-7tJ7.78148!
I

i!

..

+5JtJ,86'0~

5
CD

Hz
+

1210 Jl
1.1000 00

ON5TANTS

Fy

~Fx

t.34 1372 05

'fJ31 f8
~ .l 1981 171

ZZ, 2:9 ~

- I 0'90 If.

-ZfO 55'8 8~ +/ 9$1 19 ~19~9' l!9

2 fSS Of!; 15 -12 tfC;S' I~
9/2 97
24'1 9(, p: +$f. 71.5 39 -/3 "18 I.J
1.000 00.,.
24' /I
IF.. - , 7'i~ J' "'4 Iss.! 7l
3 .JS 7.3() 80
-.3 IH4 IG3
-.3 1117 10
I~ '29 1079 01

W.".; V'h 10:

I. DOC

IF>' +19 [&;1

F YiJ t/98'

15'47 ~

IJ~~

1470
~3U ()('7

~,

-G'''84118

-S'O~90

-/.J,iS'o~
to'ltJ 0921860
"5'7 '1649 f~

00

..

78

64,8

+ '1Z8~, 0
+1'lI~o.8

Fy,,,.

-191S0,8

FYI'

"3 419 G4

~
-sr

I::;.
I

I. DOCDO

1::1.

I.

000 00

..
1::<.

1.000 00

V'~ ~,0

I
PIP~

f$,.(XIB~l.'l'"

THE MW KELLOGG CO

COO!!!

RIJI..ES

Eh

Eh

=
&_k.c

P.5'1

S~

ec,

FORM

E-I

10.80 1';.84 -

5./&

10.<'/

do

/8.50
0

18.50

1795,3(;

1795,3(;

782.7.60

18.50
0

18.50
3,00

+F

&_Ee

-Eh

.5'E
WHICIiE.Vf.R IS GREATER

(!-! C)
.5

31.00

Y
M'

SIN

928,;..00

-101 7.5.51-117253
I.,.. 5
0
-f/5& 251 1"'17/75/
_,..1i9884
f- 54498

sse

PLAIJE

M",

Mb
xc:.O~D(

-M"z

..M'I!:

ItSINOt

:l:
.. M\,C'

52(,4

5901
- 240 SS!J -21G ZG4 - 1114.5133 IS(I; 712 - 10/7.53
~ 72 102 .. 53340 f 30234
0
- 33214
" 19 049
.. 144811
0
.. 141 G9Z -r/6(1;633
rt7G399
of IZ8 SGS
- 3435.9
- 12407
+ 43 OS(J - 391/.5
7542
of 2" 970

.M'

L
Z

S ~4~.1XI

COSO'.

+M'~

+M'%

1 795.3C;

1795.3~ -

309.20 -

-F,'x
M.

REACT IONS BA~ED oH

HoT MDOULUS, 10"
X

.,.

II;!.

-Fzy
My

~.F ..y

~='
R' - CALCULAT~D

1.'1'.
MO.
-M v
z,
.Mo,
MO.
l.
i PIPE

/795.J,.
.,. 10 991,&'0

+F.z.x
.. f,IC"z.
M

.RsR' &=
pt'

I 795.3'; / 7q5.J~
+ 198G4.78 .,. 16 !JI,;,40 .,. 13119,60
- . I 7~S.J(:. -

Fv
Fz
M.

OR.

R' - E:"
R'

<1.0.16

Ib:~~~;CW<T
CAlC~5.1'f

t'.

7.&0
Z'3.71

(;AL.

F.

k. S'f

SE=

7
8.88 -

k".

ANALy&tS

6- EQUATIONS

TO POINT

CONVERSION

6 STR(.SS

M'b

.M'

I(~'''''~

.M',

J(c,Os,()(

:>.

r-rz/z

M<

.cz lao

.OZZ80

,8
~b-f .8Mb
S"bmf8M b

t.iz

1,00

39Z

1 ~~5

ZSt-fMt
5h< +5'1>'+
,.,5bl..5'bl."45

I:

5r;;:

THE MWKELLOGG

45,'

col
.

PIPING

FLEXIBILITY
AND STRESS
MOMENTS
AND 5 TRESSES

1&1

ANALYSIS

CAt...C.

H'VV.
DC.

~~T'l! , -

FORMF-I

:Al

NO 5.14-

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY THE

from the free end to point N. I:Mzw is the sum of

the moments at the origin caused by I:F I/W' F I/W
and M are obtained from Form''W 1/' The calculation of the moments at the various points, and the
maximum stresses, are shown on Form F-l.
ZID

GENERAL

ANALYTICAL

l\IETHOD

Table 5.31 Shape Cocflicients for z-Wind: General

Formulas for Straight Members

La
z

L4
w' 00 = kQ 24 cos! a
"-----',....y
Wab =

x-plone

tvaa

+w' ab + bwo
+w' aa - aWa

Note: upper signs apply

when cos a is plus, lower
signs apply when cos 0<
is minus.

Table 5.30 Shape Coefficients for x-Wind: General

Formulas for Straight Members
La

= - kQ - cos 0<

Wu

L3

Wb

=FkQ-

W'ba

=FkQ-sin2acoea

L3

I--

~-

x-plane

sin

W.

= +kQ-

w' uv

L~
= +kQ 2.1

wu =

to'u.

U-a

I
II)

+ awu

Wa

L3
kQ-

cos2

L4
lob = kQ-

Wbo

Wbb

= +W'bb

+w'ba

sin3

24
-

0<

aw~

+ bWb

Note: upper signs apply

when sin 0< is plus.
lower signs apply when
sin 0< is minus.

L4

W'ab = =FkQ-sinacos2a

24

~-a

sin2

24

- bw.

L4

y-plane
X

cos2",

= kQ -

5.22 Wind Loading

The analysis of the reactions in piping systems due
to wind loading is similar to that for weight. The
wind is assumed to produce a load which is uniformly
distributed over members perpendicular to the wind
direction, and for other members, uniformly distributed over the projection of the member in a

185

L4
W'aa = kQ-

COSSo<

= +W'ab

Waq

bwo

= +11/'04 -

aWa

Note: upper signs apply

when cos a is plus, lower
signs apply when cos 0<
is minus.

[)
= =FkQ - sinl a

Wb
r

Ib

()

ba = =FkQ-

a
,

y
WU

Wab

y-plane

24

D4

24

sin

2
aCOSO'

[,4.

sin3 0<

W bb

kQ-

Wbo

+w' bq - alL'b

Wbb

+W'bb

24

bWb

z-plane

Note: upper signs apply

when sin a is plus,
lower signs apply when
sin cc is minus.

~a

L3
-kQ-coso<

L~
w.

= +kQ-

Wu

= w'u.

sin a

'-----~x
z-plcne

+ awu

bw .

plane perpendicular to the wind direction. The

equations given in Table 5.19 are applicable.
The formulas for the shape coefficients for wind
loading for straight members are given in Table 5.30
for the z-wind and in Table 5.31 for the z-wind, For
curved members, the formulas are listed in Tables
5.25, 5.28, 5.32, 5.33, 5.34 and 5.35 for both the
z-wind and the z-wind. The projected length is
denoted by L'. Thus F::;w = w:r.L' and Fzw = w.L
for wind loading along the z- and z-axes respectively.
Forms lV::;and lV. are used for the computation of the
load constants.
1

186

DESIGN

Table 5.32

Shape Coefficients

OF PIPING SYSTEMS

for Uniform

Loading:

General

For z-Wind Acting on Members

or x-Wind Acting on Members

Formulas

for Circular

Members

in the y-Plane
in the z-Planc

Note; Signs prefixed to formulas below to be selected as follows:

Use upper signs when nrc ql lies in the I and/or II quadrant.
Use lower signs when nrc 'I' lies in the III and/or IV quadrant.
Split the arc into two members when <I' lies in I and IV or II and III quadrants.

]I[

n:

Counterclockwise Direction
lOb

= QkR3

<I'

sin 2(a+1,)
8
[ '4 (1 + 2 cos- a) +

.
.
]
- cos a sm{a+<I + ~ sm 2a

W'b.

= QkR4Wcos(a+<I')

lO'hb

= QkR~ {arsinJ(a+<I - sin3aJ - ~[sin(a+<I - sinal + co; a ['I' + sin(a+<Ieos(a+<I

- cosaFI
- Sin(a+<Icosa1}

Clockwise Direction
1V~ =

ef'

=rQkR3 [

"4

(1 + 2 cos" a) -

W'bo

= QkR~{Mcos(a-<I

W'M

= QkR4 {i[Sin3(a-<I

Table 5.33

cos

sin 2(a-q,)
8

+ cos a sin(a-1

]"]

- sinJal - ![sin(a-<I

Shape Coefficients

for Uniform

- sin a] _ co; a [<I> - sin{a-<Icos(a-<I

Loading:

General

For z-Wind Acting on Members

or x-Wind Acting on Members

Note;

t sin2a

Formulas

+ sin(a-q,)cosal}

for Circular

Members

in the x-Planc
in the y-Plane

Signs prefixed to formulas below to be selected as follows:

Use upper signs when arc <) lies in the I and/or IV quadrant.
Use lower signs when arc 'P lies in the II and/or III quadrant.
Split the are into two members when l' lies in the I and II or III and IV quadrants.
Counterclockwise Direction

to.

=rQkR3 [~ (1 + 2 sin2 a) - sin 2~+1')

W'.b

QkR41! [sin (a+<I') - sin aj3 J

+ sin a cos(a+<I - ~.sin 2a ]

QkR4 {-A[cos3(a+<I') - cos3aJ - ![cos(a+<ll) - cos ] - Si;a [<I'- sin (o-+<I')cos(a+<I + sioa cos(a+ql}

w'oo

Clockwise Direction
Wn

= QkRl [~

(I + 2 sin? a) + sin 2~-<l')

W'ab

= QkR4 Wsin(a-<I

so' ee

- sin a cos(a-q,)

+ .~sin 2aJ

- sin aP}

QkR~ {~dcosl(a-<I - cos3aJ - !Icos(a-<I

_ casal + si; a [<I>

+ sin(a-q')cos(a-cf

- sinacos{a-cJ')I}

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY TIlE

GENERAL ANALYTICAL

The pipe configuration previously given in Sample

Calculation 5.14 is calculated for a wind load of
60 lb/ft in both the x- and e-direetions, and shown
as Sample Calculations 5.15 and 5.16 respectively.
A stop in the z- direction at point -4 is included. The
load constant for this stop equation is calculated on
Form S%. Sufficient explanation for the computation is given on the form.
The moments at any point N are computed in
accordance with the following general formulas:
For z-wind:
jl-f',N= EM:+

EMzw+ (EFx+

EFxw)YN-

'LF.,;eN

where EF"""LF u are the sums of the reacting forces

at the free end (obtained from the equation sheet),
Table 5.3<l Shape Coefficients

for Uniform

Loading:

METHOD

plus any restraint in the line between the free end

and point N. The sum of the moment at the free
end referred to the origin (obtained from the equation sheet), and the moment at the origin caused by
any restraint is "LM.. "LFxw is the sum of the wind
load from the free end to point N. 'LM.tu is the sum
of the moments at the origin due to "LF:r;w. F:r;wand
M.w are obtained from Form W:z:. The calculation
is shown on Form F-l. Since no restraint is included
in the example, "LM., "LF:z:, and "LFu are the reactions from the equation sheet.
For a-wind:
M':z:N

= EM",

M'uN

Formulas

"LAlli

+ EM",w - eLF. + "LFzw)YN

+ EMuw + (EF. + "LFzw)XN

for 90 and 1(10Circular

For z- Wind Acting on Members in the y-Planc

or x-Wind Acting on Members in the z-Planc

Shape

W'Otl

W'bb

a=

+O.17810kQR3

-O.16667kQR4

-0.04793kQR4

a=

90

-O.39270kQR3

+O.16667kQR4

+0.33333kQR4

a=

90

+0.39270kQR3

-O.16667kQR'

+O.33333kQR4

a = 180

-O.17810kQR3

+0.16667kQR4

-0.04793kQR'

a = 1800

-O.17810kQR3

-0.16667kQR4

-0.04793kQR4

a = 2700

tJ
tJ

+0.39270kQR3

+0.16667kQR4

+O.33333kQR(

a ""2700

-0.39270kQR3

-0.16667kQR4

+0.33333kQR(

a=

00

+0.17810kQR3

+0.16667kQR4

-0.04793kQR4

a=

0 ,

+2.35619kQR3

-1.33333kQR4

+ 1.57080kQR'

-2.35619kQR3

+ 1.33333kQR4

+ 1.57080kQR4

- 2.35619kQRJ

-1.33333kQ R'

+ 1.57080kQR4

+2.35619kQR3

;- 1.33333kQR4

+ 1.57080kQR'

E:J

+0.42920kQRJ

-O.33333kQR4

;-0.57080kQR(

a = 270

+0.42920kQR2

+O.33333kQR'

+0.57080kQR'

a = 270

-0.42920kQRJ

-O.33333kQR'

+0.57080kQR'

-0.42920kQR3

+O.33333kQR'

+0.57080kQR'

a = 180

a = 180

a=
a=

0
90

a=

.l__

w~

900

D)
D)
(]
(0

187

Members

188

DESIGN OF PIPING

SYSTEMS

....

Table 5.35 Shape Coefficients

for Uniform

Loading:

Formulas

For z- Wind Acting on Mcmbers

or x-Wind Aetirig on Members

Shape

Wa

for 90 and 180 Circular

in the z-Plane
in the y-Plane
Wab

Woo

a=

a=

gOo

+0.17810kQR3

-O.16667kQR4

-O.0479:~kQR4

a=

900

+0.17810kQRJ

+O.16667kQR4

-0.04793kQR4

-O.39270kQR3

+0.16667kQR4

+0.33333kQR

180

rs

-O.39270kQR3

-O.16667kQR4

+O.33333kQR4

1800

tJ

+O.39270kQR3

+0.16667kQR4

+0.33333kQR4

:l:

2700

t:J

-0.1781OkQRJ

-O.16667kQR~

-O.04793kQR4

= 2700

-O.17810kQRJ

+0.16667kQR4

-0.04793kQR4

+O.39270kQRJ

-O.16667kQR4

+O.33333kQR4

-O.42920kQR3

+0.33333kQR4

+0.57080kQR4

-0.42920kQR3

- 0.33333kQR4

+O.57080kQR4

a=

a=

a = 1800

q
q

D)
D)

1800

((J

+0,42920kQRJ

+0.33333kQR4

+0.570S0kQR4

a=

00

+O.42920kQR3

- O.33333kQ R4

+O.57080kQR4

a=

900

+2.35619kQR3

+ 1.33333kQR4

+ 1.570S0kQR4

2700

-2.35619kQR3

-1.33333kQR4

+ 1.57080kQR4

-2.35619kQRJ

+ 1.33333kQR4

+ 1.57080kQR4

+2.35fl19kQR3

- ) .33333kQR4

+ 1.57080kQ R

= 270

a=

90

Members

..........
- -~..
-------=----------

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

.-

MEMBER NO,/-2
IN Z
PLANE

COORDINATE
DATA

SHAPE AND
DIRECTION

4-

+18.50

11 tI

PLANE

STRAIC:;HT
k

c -

1.50
0

kQL.)':;06.pc,

~ "fi<QQ51""
w'uv = .. :'_kQL 4

"

0<

~IN

Wy

~ :!:7; kQL~cos ' ..

w:""m. ;~.kQL"$INC::<CO,"

s.,,,

W ..

~hkQL4

W~da-

M'I'WAll

B~.

F.w"By

SHAPE AND
DIRECTION

4-

4ffiz
PLANE

y
Z

c::

-t kQL.)co.c;.

STRAIC;HT
Q
L
li-kQL)

R.

R.

R..

- :?10
+ G;oe

- 4.50
2.70
.. 10.12..

I~

w w~

+ (,08

T. ,

''''0.

+8~.2S
-+- 4.qQS.

A U
W -

4-9QS.

T. 1

CAt,.C.
CHE

.,,'K.

MEMBER

FRM

"A

DATA

2.28

0<.

+2.70

Q
R

1.00

4-

3.141SQ

FOR

'.75

.. 10. 13
CONSTANTS

CURVED

W.
cNO 5.15

w.

T+

F.w

_W.L

F._

60

I+Z220.00

IF

Myw
My_

M~w

lI-yFxW'

or

xw

Mow
IZIl5!S.oo
MEM6ERS

60(

c:u~~~~';,:'f.~hII~~:5 CONSTANT.5
+w~
se~ TACoL..1!5
S.?5 t5.2'8
.w.

STRAIGHT

+lJ;.Wu..

-G.w'4

-bwv

+cw..,

....w""
W .... N

Sf!"

~I~.c

5.?>3 t

~w ....
"

011

TAeL.,,,,

.w.

s.ss

..bw~

-a..w"

.. w&1Q

.. w~ ..

.,w .....

4W ... b

~ee

TAe.Lel!>

5.~2

4-

+ G 195 ."18

+wb

5.:l4-

-.lWb

+wbjl.

F.w S ...

Ayz

By",'

Avt
Myw.A"

An
M~wAH

M::t:w ..Avt.

3.00

-61

60S.

4.50
~q2 40B.
-55.50
... 1f3q Gq~.

F.w6YII
8 ..

F,. .....Bz.

c
F."""'''JI(
C.
F.w"C"
C

2.220.00

~Bq02/.83
+8"1021.81

x~

YI!'

'''4

.. w,

w... Wy "'.a'"'w,,_

- 4.50
- 9990.
of'

q.OO

... 1'1 980.

...83.25
+184815.

"Wu

w.. -w ....
+w .....
W".w .."
.c.w",

It.

w. t GO

.. w'bb
"'Wbb

LOAD

.. 152 44-2..51
~152 0442.51
CONSTANTS

Fl. -,

.w. +{'1"I5.Qa

R,

... 37115~ RL 1+ 300 164.

"w ..~ +/52 .."2.51
w"'."".... w.... .." +'lJ4GSSO. T. 1 t'nsB Q38.
0

w... Wb

....w.a
0

w.<w..

"''N",

+W.a.b

,w

+bwb

"'Wb.s.

-2Q53S.oo

M1W"A..l

THE M.W KELLOGGCO

+ !U18

Rp.L
IA.sn
kQR'
14436.lt lopS
I(QR+
QR
2G~
L'" ~Hg;!')( ~~~...~~.....
Gt.
Ot' (G x
18.50)

0(

'NCI(O~""

Myw".
Ayy
Myw.A vv

Mt.wBu

W ...

"wbb

LOAD

...... -

w.. ~Wb

CURVED

0<

co~&:oc

nkQL-

Au

eu

DATA

:S.NCoc.

A.

By&
M,....8,..

:'IN
C:050

F.""
Bn

MzwS.v

w"".

0<

M,w

Mvwe

MEMBER

~nk

Bzy

+w .....

-GW",

l. kQL~c05'",
:;~kQL" ~I"'D(~O~'O(

Mzw8a:.

,..w..
w

Myw

8....

W",."'",

IS

wb.. - :<:t.-icQL4 &'"''''C05'''

w'bb QL ~ 5'" '"

M_.6

+We

w.....c.w ...... w..

F .."".C",c
PIPING FL :XI8JLI1 Y AND STRESS
ANALY
LOAD CONSTANTS
FOR
X-WIND

B ..

..oWb

+Wbb

'0

W.

....
xw...

.., .... - :!~kQL4 co~>",

- +~kQL.).Su,,~o:.
Wb

ey

.tGoN~

..

""'d

'+W.l.b

- ...t-kQL: SIN a.
w~v ~ +i;;I<QL4

W*.s.b=

+Wy

~CWy

:~~ ~Q;~:wJ~e:?~:;~'t'~w~i~
u;.':.~~
y

~"<w,,

W"

W .. _

F.......
C.
COl

0
+ q.ZS
0

Zll.

+w"

C
F.tNCxlII
C

~T':~~~UTl.."'~C~:I!:R~

w~

"

yR.

W'JI"W'"

F.......
Bt

THE MW KELLOG:; CO

COORDINATE
DATA

83.2S
0
+ 83.15

ot"wb.

xll.

...w ....

...

-awb

-4.50

+Wb

F.wB ...
By.

6
Mt.w ..Bn

MEMBER No.Z4
IN Z
Pl.ANE

-a.w
-rw....

+wba.

MzwSz
6 ..v
Mzw ..BI.

!?~

-bw ....

...W .. b

8,.

-.::.w ...
....
ew.,

..aVIv.

..bw",

F....
Bn

An

Avt
M~.Avl

M....

D.

M~_

iF'll"'"
0
M,&w tI-yF.w
Mzw It-Z70
MEM6ERS

STRAIGHT

CURVED

FOR

Myw

-+wI,Io.V

4- 5.~4-

5.!>2

Ay.
MzwA' x

Bn

Ri>L

+w .. b

Au

Mywe~

GlRs
kQR
~QR+
QR4
L'. L$I~~')( W;._o",~~""'" Ii 0

w.

~IH! TA&~e!!.

M:.w~AJll

e.;

4-

0"

TAe~~'"

M%W

M)'W.By

Q
R

c:o~oc;

- +~kQL'>S'N'C\
wb.. - :<:fikQL' &'''''''<05
w'bb - ~h~QL" SIN'",

Myw
Axy
M.... A.
Ayy
Myw.Avv

"'-

189

w.
1 + ,"0
W.L
F.w
F.w 1+180

DATA

5.?>3 t S.3S

Oil

Wb
I:

MEMBER

METHOD

-+w'.u.v

~~~ :"O~i'iw~~~:?~'O~'i~.w~~~ ~;~t~.I~";DW~CN~....

y

C)(

ANALYTICAL

CURVED

DATA
+ qo

I
e e s 011:
.3.00
0
5.-,,10<
i-kQL)
+ 1
4.50
i4kQL"
3 ..38 C.O!l&o(
0
'}.{CII<O~OI
0
c~~~~~';.:"!:~M~~:~CONSTANTS
+w..
SEe TAOL.e$.
5.?5 t .5.<'8
.w.,

$T.{~:h,!';."'''''~r:_J:~e~li''J8i
w~

MEMBER
I
I

Q
L

1.:;0
0

BY THE GENERAL

w...
wA-w..
F.""'C ...c.
PIPING _FL~)(I~lLl
Y AND.?TRES.~
ANALY
LOAD CONSTANTS
FOR
X- WIND

.....

- .....

11-&

+8'i02f.83

+5.341310. Tv

1+6('658IB.

0
0

IS

...

T.

CALC.

.S.

1
F RM W.
of,.
:NOS.I5

DESIGN OF PIPING

190
NO 4-5
PLANE

MEMBER
IN Z

~HAPE
AND
DIRECTION

co~

cos

CO~

w,

= .. t~QL'>, .. ~
:.T.;~QL
~OIOl. ... v ..... '5>

......

Io.OJYlA.

.'11

......."'Q
.. '"'~'

u~

See

.....'Vl:)

!II""

A,y

~el!! TA&~e:!>
5.~2 4- 5.~4-

twizwrAv:

Ayt

A::t

..

Bt.
Mzw"Brlt

13.
Mzw6t.

Mtw

=:

-~S'

(,

1'"0'"
(;Q'"

"'. ~-t

'"c\.L.O
po.
Aftl.

~ !.

''''d

M,w
A,

::a J'()f~
..... c .... ut:l!?!S-

WIIW ...

1.00

~I"I
C:O$

':-O~MVL~:)

c;.URVCD

'"

S(:e

.....t,

01

"'Ok
.....e,CR:6

My_.e"
B"

M........

~'G.

us.

kQL.)c.O:!l"

:!f"IcQL'

co~>O<

'"

:;.!~kQL.!oS.Uil:Ol

y.I

5.~3

~E~

-.81'12-

.a.

'WD

"Wn
W',,'1'I'~tl

"WolD

w...-w...~

R.

R,.

R~

277/8.

1"/ 47f;,OOe

T.

1+19 623

-1249.88

74-.993

MEMBER

T~

......

DATA

III

:=

M ~w

STRAIGHT

'i.F)(1t'o'
0

-9 FJ(w
1'51.32.27

M.~
~.23.

M.w

QR"

CURVED

My ..

QR~
~

1.60

F.w ~ W.1..
F.~ 1373.80

<P
1."

NO 5.IS

;Al

"'-

w,.

FRM

- -

f072

... 3<c."l 522-

Tv

c: ....c.
eKe ~<

If.

FOR

CONSTANTS

+461.96

"'' 'Co +8399.29

w"' ...c. +505951.

R
.513"
'."110 kQR'
o
.3Z90 kOR
L'
~Rg~[;
'p"~....~~N'"
-.4699

CONSTANTS

MEMBERS

ow"

... ~Wu.

-"-w ....

.w,

"'bwy

+CWy

Q'.

..

( ....

""~

M w.Att

.w.

opt

-0:

IAeLe~

t 5.35

TAe.~E!:!>

+ 49.

+Wb

,.

5132.27

+ 31~. 80

F".w

B"

..

.~
0

.w.

By.
lI"Y

-il.w".

1'w..

"w-o.b

1"W .....

-aWe

/0

F.wB",111
F

..bw ...

"w'''''b

otw"b.s.

.....~'w'rl

81"''''

El,

(".
ZB
+827 733.
"1~15.08

F .. w .. Bt

C
F.wC

"23

+ 3q 2. (0
+2012. J'3.

C ....
F!I!"""C.,

- 22'?I.49

.. 1415,08

JlIC

Bn

C ..

Mtw6u

F'"wC.t

THE M W KELLOQ; CO

+W"'V

!>.~2 4- 5,:";'

~IHtQ'.CO'50~
!II,.,..

.... "

Se"

Mrw6zy

~'o"''''

LOAD

CURVED

- 55"

-.l.24Q,88

"'Wbb

60

w. +

0
- 1'24Q.B8

.. w'uv

e,y

cc

c.o.:.tC'

,5.2a

B
MzwB, .. 7Z~2,57.3.

M,_e,.

ItX

$INEO(

T'A~L.eS

5.25

Au

w~A ,

.w.
w ..

"N .. 'W~

W.,.(.W ...

DA.TA

'"

13'1.01

MI .... Av1

t.y

+W

-cw,,-

w... {w.

7.GO

Ay,

M,.wA"

....WUy

.. ,w'"

MEMBER

13.IG

M.z:wA~r

Ayy

W.W~

, ::;:. K QL"
QL"
..

_w"

.. qqO 651.
+2~ ('68.13

I...

M,w
Au

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- 8.4/
-2,3.08

FO!iLU ........
F'O K
~"ftA.JC.hI'"
MIEMe~R:5>

PLANE
Z

'i

BY THE

ilS

CHe.CI< 0

. .
s.

~~31..s8f. ~70.
FORM W7
:A N( 5.1"

NOTES
C.ON;'>TAN'TS

A ..

_t.c yo P.lc. :,. .... ""'""'1(.0 rfl('1M

t~~i.;~'~~~~TIO~
T,., T,

,:'I"~O
I T I.

~~:OC~~'::tSI'

~""'-~t ...

END TO STOP
M.w
_:t_5_2,_Qf,..:....9J

SUM

FROM

- 1.2075.09

~JJ~.Q

__

..,

Fzw

Ri_

.~--... -~-t~~:O()-..

M ... h

I.A._.

IN

DIRECTION

l(

CONSTANT

B
~~.

M _.A.~_y

77"A_y..._

Bn

Mv_~r.l

F'.J..!!.Jhz

BoY

__h.

!vi._B.

Mv",!':~y~

STOP
A

~~!!~

!vi.w"

.;..
8.

M._e.

IN Y DIRECTION

.. '07.03
-5;fJ.,/,107.

A
My .. -A.

A ..

'.-1y~,

-88S.3~7-:"" ~~
+ .. 4 ~7r 143. My_S"

FOR
.._

0
.'07.

93

+J.2/9'Z_Ji!L
.. 72.15
2..~.082.

AT

pB

W~

'//ff//E~
'///L/~/ffh
STOP E UATION

THE MW KELLOGG COl

ElI~.z 6,. y 9 1
.z EI a
-vEla.
EU

//~

R,
.%..&/.:;

EI B.

y/#~~'

EI

'l////~

///,

CONSTANT FOR Y STOP EQUAt,ON

B
-885. iJS
L/.
'-ni:olq
I? .~
-6""'1422
F._~.~.~ -Y.:!l3 7J4
,
//~
By<
7'1..15_
R
+S6qI73'1.
..
'1088
1'17.
iEL:;B.... '8 .. IQq.
'/.7/
Cn
+J1..~02.60
+_3168S 3<13 .. '48 'I'll; 'f09.
T.
". wC.. +70 IGS.291.

~=-

-K

FORM

W.

:A

O ....
TE

I ~S.5~ 4<'2
17
- .J:lb,7-"4 I-.J. 2C,?, Of!!
2
0
-/. (,;47. Olli I... 4l13 ..?Z.l -7, (;22. ?I
3 f/?,7CJ /)I~ ....
f.US .!1M -5'-,11/.711 -/tJ.5.I#1td
4 -?1. [32 ZC9
tJ'l -?J 1M /JdO ..z~/aJ$j_
5

il-8.4CJ 717

-8.7";.IS(;
-#J,M&j/i~
:J17JP~ 51P

-ea stc

<0

My

M"
+

180 06

- 1.1000 00
+.1017.58 1t.

i-

ONSTANT5

FZ4

88.5 J5
4'<1- fJ4 - Z J04 ',4$ +4- 'II" 97
+ I 870 06 -18 116

0
1165 61 0
165 161 -

z +
ll:

Fz
0

- BI4'J .7/
W/Yh: f0:

za

5'15 "{JI +2

O~

+47 OO~ '1a

"'8 17,qe;Its~

.lJc,

1695 84 .,.2 (J,d8"

~9'I,tJs -/2 (,92 .3(,
945 15.9 ~2 9/9 66 +-1-(. OZ.? IJj
:;I r to 10~ 1e6 +28 SJ7 1M
956 21 + 2 04() Zs
- 2 14J 71- + 7 #.3 lIS
p: "'7
91 +38 IJZ/ (18
- I, coc 00 ~
567 142
Z (J9 62
I - 8/1 SO .,.
4 /Of,,, 811 29
-4 ~j 124
-25 '(J# 9~
-?I 613 til!
I~ +15 ()39,19

1"8 178'/53

W~ ~ ~
~3 1053 28

1.000 00 i-~

- q

+NJ

Z WINO

F z. >II (rcT) ..
rz(/

~-

+,~~,
;(;~I

.,..31 1611 2{,

f-/~ ~2 42
W/,: Vh:f0:
-2 !fot 12
f-Jl7 IlB ~S,1
41 1615 ~~
{(J9 1759 174
-110 [HI

55 411 OCl
m;Vh:f0:

1.000100

- .! {;81~

IS

611.$0

rZ4

_ -

rzr

~ _ 1750.7

~ 19~

1-19 I!~ %I.!

00'

.:JG4~44

-Gc4~.~4

I~
-

I.

m;V~ 1%%

000 00

I
(i

Ilo
-

PIP..-.v fL(X1Blutr

THE Mit/KELLOGG CO

SHl(SS

6-EQUATIONS

196

I,

000 00

I
ANAl'rSIS

CAL.

(o::.~~i\? _..

mVh:~

FORM

E1 9

/~

..~)

' EI.

"~G
toItCI'lCO

///"

EI ~,,-::"I'_~"
.~IB

..3 17 12&.S

L!::~\t:?ILI.I,Y AND STRES!? ANALYSIS

' STOP EQUATIONS FOR Z-WIND

-)I(

EI S

':'}~8:?3;;-

PJPJNG

61'1

EI9.

'l'////////////~a

-dol B.
_KEI e
E.I~

~,

EI(~

7;)////~

pOINT

EIO

- ;~.~O
ij////////ff~
CONSTANT F"OR Z STOP EQUATION

IN Z. OIRE;('TION

.." sss JU

1719

'R

SoOP

+56

~d/f

C
z

hi

A.y

),A._~AIo'

72_'1:.1119

of-

f!..~..:.!h'!!,
~------E..~u.
_____
c
F zc ~
._

M _B.

5TOP

....

~.

.. ZS' fCf.4

M~
B.

..

I.

GOB

.. .,1 ",84. 7BS

.00

B ..

M._A&I
B

0"

.-

.. 2'l 744.73

824.13

A.

...

R.

Ry

~:,ll'~~{...-s,~,73q
:-~ft~~-

M .._A ...

W.

SUM FROM FI XE D END TO STOP

.....
- So

1='''0''''' J!:oAf"'I.

FREcE

~.B_~_~.,-'t~
.. ~ ~~~.~B8 __

_=_H-,"O.B8
08.66--

TO STOP_
TO OC OCT ..... ..lltP

II!:NO

['1

CALC. N~5.1(o

5"
. NC 5.'"

FLEXIBILITY

TO IPOINT

CONVERSION

COOl! RUL!;S

k.
Eh

BY THE GENERAL
7

,;.
10.80 It; .84 -

ANALYTICAL

.4

4(),J~ -

7 .a
29.71 -

..-

411.50 .107$9.

179.70 ~
B(;M-

1;'4,0<.

IOOf)' -

/(; 3S

JZ 59' 18" +
!' ~.u;

5339 ..
3345 +

to (,77

1/ Sli5
<) 792-

8.~8 -

/5.1 ..

18 ..50

/0.(;'

0
18.50

METHOD
~

197
I

/8.50 ~
0

'8.50

1570.80 ..
2.1004 ..

1150,80
ZO 7J4

..

0
l1004 ..

l.'9~

483<1)
ZSO(;O

51 (;93
32390

J.OO

F.
Fv

S" E",S'.,
.

ANALYSIS

.Eh

S~"

PSI

it'C

&.
R' ~ h

Rc Ec
'R':Eh

.F 1III%.
-FX'Y

M.

S'I!

WHICHEvH

F~

M.

DR.

IS GRf..,l

Mv

RK
R'

..Fz:x
-F.,%

~4"(i-i C)

..

My

720(.
Z 74

d 74(1 ..
J

1090.00 ..

581 Z 10J +
(;84

3';"'-

J 374 -

4744

171..80 ~

de.

/9 7S9 708

.3 197
3 ,,~
27828 0
+

IZ 90S-

Z7828 -

200(;5
0

zoor;s

02Z ..

1(; 524

17(;8(!0

8 SOl -

3Z

..

.5 2SZ.

19303

1930J -

.. F:IIY
8b c
S.
-1-,' ~
R' - CALCUL.ATt:D
Mz
R~ACTIONS 6A!O~D oK St~ Q(
~T
MOOUL.U5, 1:"
C.05oc.
x
y
To
PLAloJE
M'
Mb
:':<'O~I:IC
M'.
+M.
.M v
-M .. -M',
x~'N.
M v
l.
1:
M'b
+M'r
.My
N~U"'CII.
...M'Jt
x,o,soc.
M'y
..M,
M',

M.

M"

1-

I PIPE
3/.0

Mt

l.

1-

f-rZlz
IJ

.02280

5b-1'.8Mb
S'b-fJjM b
25t,=fMt

.StU

5Z".4

-140

S,,<..S'.,'.45,'
V5b.5c ... S~ .. 5'~

THE MWKELLOGG
- .

Co.l.

544 aG4
?~7

PIPING F.Le;~I_BJLlTY AND STRESS ANALYSIS

MOMENTS ANO STRESSES

where 'L,Fz is the sum of the reacting force at the

free end, obtained from the equation sheet, and any
restraint in the line between the free end and point N.
'L,M", and 'L,MlI are the sums of the moments at the
free end referred to the origin, obtained from the
equation sheet, and the moments at the origin caused
by any restraint. 'L,Fzw is the sum of the wind load
from the free end to point N, M",wand MlIw are the
sum of the moments at the origin due to F
M
MulO, and Fzw are obtained from Form Wz. Since
a Fz-stop is included at point 4. in the example the
Fz4-force from the equation sheet and its moment at
the origin must be included from point 5 to the fixed
end. The calculation is shown on Form F-l.
ZID'

::10,

CAt..C.

..
H

H. vV

,-

FORM F-l
;Al
NC

S.lb

References
1. The M. W. Kellogg Co. (by D. B. Rosshcim, A. R. C. Markl,
H. V. Wallstrom, and E. Slezak), Design of Piping Systems,
1st edition, 1941 (out of print-superseded
by 2nd
edition, 1956).
2. H. V. Wallstrom, "General Analytical Method," Heating,
Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 19, No.5, pp. 69-74 (1947).
3. L. H. Johnson, "Solution of Pipe Expansion Problems by
Punched Card Machines," digest in Mew. Enqr., No.
53-F-23, p. 1020 (Dec. 1953).
4. W. Hovgaard, "Stresses in Three-Dimensional
Pipe
Bends," Trans. ASME, Vol. 57, FSP-57-12, pp. 401-476
(1935),
5. W. Hovgaard, "Further
Studies of Three-Dimensional
Pipe Bends," Trans. AS.ME, FSP-50-13, Vol. 59, No.8,
pp. 647-650 (1937).
For a further discussion of piping analysis, see Appendix D,
Page 359, "A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis nod The
Use of Digital Computers."

CHAPTER

',,,"

Flexihifity Analysis by Model Test

ROGRESS in the physical sciences has been

marked by the constant use of experiments
as a means of pioneering observation and a
confirmation of reasoning and mathematical prediction. Following the establishment of basic "laws,"
the experimental approach has proved invaluable
for quantitative measurement of the physical constants which implement applied science and make
possible the practice of engineering.
General design principles and specific assumptions
can often be verified or their qualitative significance
determined by simple experiments. Although a
more refined approach is usually necessary for
quantitative measurement, significant data are often
achieved with minimum complexity by taking
advantage of basic phenomena such as yielding 01'
failure. Where the relative influence of the variables
involved is not established, or when prototypes are
used for providing designs for mass production,
full-size specimens, where economically feasible, are
favored for positive avoidance of errors. However
in many fields, such as structures, increasing knowledge of fundamentals and significant improvements
in instruments for accurate measurement make it
possible to employ scale models with increasing
confidence for the direct solution of problems, particularly where overall rather than highly localized
influences arc under study.
6.1

The Experimental

stress intensification factors for corrugated and

creased bends and corrugated tangents; also, to
load-deflection tests of both piping assemblies and
large scale models of piping systems made of small
pipe. These combined experiences with the experimental approach led to the routinized solution of
piping flexibility by Model Test which is presented
in this chapter.
6.2

The Routinized Model Test

Much of the early urge for the evaluation of piping

expansion effects by model test was inspired by the
difficulty in handling other than simple problems
by the analytical methods then available. Experience in structural and other fields had demonstrated
that reliable results could be achieved from scale
models; however, expense limited their USeto occasional important problems. Economic widespread
application required, first, a comprehensive analytical
development of the general irregular frame in space
for organization and evaluation of the accuracy of
the model test results, and second, rugged precision
equipment and organized test methods for obtaining
reproducible results with reasonable expenditure of
time. That these requirements have been met by
the Kellogg Model Test Laboratory is attested by
the demands for its services on critical piping,
particularly for public utility installations.
Although the horizon of economic analytical solutions
has been broadened by programmed machined calculations, the Model Tester continues in its usefulness for complex problems. Most important, it
provides an independent check method which can
parallel manual or programmed machine calculations when double assurance as to the accuracy of
design is desired.
Evolution of the Kellogg General Analytical

Approach

As a pioneer contributor to high-temperature

piping design, The M. W. Kellogg Company, by the
employment of strain gages, made early use of
experimental verification of the load-deflection relations of so-called expansion bends and of the primary
and secondary stresses in curved pipe. Later effort
was devoted toward establishing flexibility and
198

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST

Method, in addition to benefits previously described,

provided the long-needed measuring stick which,
along with visualization and detail=treatment, must
underlie dependable experimental solutions; in addition it accelerated the development of suitable test
equipment. It was appreciated that extreme accuracy in model dimensions or reproduction of cross
section was unnecessary in view of the 12!% thickness tolerance of seamless pipe, and of the largely
indeterminate degree of fixation at terminal ends or
intermediate restraints, and therefore, that solid
rod models would give adequately accurate answers
where curved piping did not predominate.
A stiff adjustable mounting frame soon demonstrated superiority over individualized support
because of the absence of harmful deflection and the
rapidity which could be achieved in accurately
positioning models, applying movements, and reading measuring equipment. The desirability of a
rigid arrangement with fixed model ends was appreciated; however, its accomplishment was not immediately achieved, so that initial approaches resorted
to the application of loads and measurement of movements at the free ends of a model, fixed at one end.
Fred G. Hill brought this concept to its highest
development in an apparatus described in 1941 (lI.
The free end of the model was fitted with a fixture
consisting of three moment levers and four needle
pointer position indicators aligned with a fixed
reference ring. In operation, the entire model was
displaced in the three coordinate directions by a
micrometer movement device attached to the fixed
end. The free end was then returned to its original
position with respect to the reference ring by means
of shot-filled buckets attached to the arms of the
moment levers. This device was purchased by the
General Electric Company, but was never extensively
used. N one of such designs appeared satisfactory
for sufficiently accurate measurement of rotations,
or for reproducible or rapid results.
Much of the practicable advance toward the model
testing of involved structures was pioneered by
Beggs [2J. In papers dating back to 1922, he describes methods and equipment for applying accurate deflections and for measuring reactions. His
"Deforrneter" provided a precise mechanical means
for accomplishing the former; and his micrometer
movement movable crosswires microscope provided
a. useful measuring instrument in locations where it
could be applied. His use of lapped hydraulic jacks
for applying simultaneous multilocation loading of
varying magnitude is well known and such devices
are frequently employed in testing apparatus. It is

199

also believed that Professor Beggs first made use of

the principle of successively releasing and weighing
individual reactions by providing an amount of
freedom, small in comparison with the restraining
effect being measured, and then taking the reaction
off the supporting structures and onto the weighing
fixtures within the movement limit established. He
successfully employed this approach on individual
tension and compression effects and in various
combinations to suit more complex restraints.
Over a period of years, many models of involved
structures, such as bridges, buildings, support
frames, floating dry docks, machine frames, etc.,
were successfully tested. Such tests were relatively expensive due to the cost of the model, the
specialized equipment, and the number of manhours required.
The M. W. Kellogg Company closely followed
much of Professor Beggs' work, and were endeavoring
to adapt his general principles of limited freedom
weighing of reactions to the routine model testing
of piping, when this end was accomplished by
Harold W. Semar [3]. It involved the use of small
plungers and struts to confine a fixture attached to
the model to 0.001 in. to 0.002 in. free movement at
individual measurement locations. Each load was
weighed by a movable calibrated spring gage which
opposed the fixture reaction passed to it through the
strut and plunger. Each reaction was balanced by
adjustment of the spring until the plungers were
moved to the center of their free travel as indicated
by a dial gage, thus assuring that all load was off the
frame and on the spring, and that the reading would
be taken at the same relative location each time.
Movement was accomplished by a micrometer feed
mechanism which was carefully set up along the
direction of the resultant expansion.
This method of load measurement was incorporated into The M. W. Kellogg Company's first
production model test equipment, which included
an arrangement of vertical posts and horizontal
arms, the latter adjustable in elevation and in plan.
Models could be mounted by simple fixtures to
measuring heads supported by displacement heads
which applied three-dimensional translation by
means of two slides, one of which could be rotated
about the axis of the other. In spite of certain
limitations, this arrangement was in successful
continuous productive operation for several years.
It established general appreciation of the advantages
offered by the model test approach in the visualization of complex configurations and in the economic
study and resolution of over-stiff runs in a system;

200

DESIGN

OF PIPING

and it marked the successful establishment of the

present Model Test Laboratory.
6.3 The KelloggModel Test
The Kellogg Model Test Method parallels The
M. W. Kellogg Company General Analytical Solution, substituting routinized tests on scale models for
organized mathematical operations in evaluation of
the shape coefficients and their summation into
deflection and rotation equations for simultaneous
solution of the terminal and other restraining forces
and moments.
In establishing corresponding
stresses, including the critical locations, both approaches involve the same conventional structural
calculations; although, in some cases, strains and
hence stresses are obtained directly from electrical
gages either cemented directly on the model or on
reusable fixtures which are temporarily attached to
the model. Horizontal and vertical deflections used
in designing supports or in checking critical clearances, and which can be obtained in the analytical
method by supplementary calculation, are readily
measured on the model. The approach basically is
unlimited with relation to problem complexity; only
available equipment restricts the Kellogg Model
Test Method. Test equipment is presently available
for as many as 15 points of complete fixation.
In the model test, the terminal ends are usually
fixed, although completely hinged, guided, or other
partial end restraints can be provided; and similarly,
any degree or manner of intermediate restraint can
be constructed to represent solid hangers or other
types of supports, stops, guides, etc. In testing,
displacements are applied to the ends or at intermediate restraints, which are representative of the
expansion of the piping or external movements, and
which are related to an initially assumed fixed
origin. The forces and couples resulting from these
displacements, as affected by the terminal and intermediate restrictions, are read directly on the load
measuring devices.
As the end and intermediate restraints for the
model and the piping system which it represents are
assumed to be the same, and since both are structures obeying the conventional load-deflection
relationship, their mutual force and moment relationships can be expressed as a simple ratio of
their respective dimensional and elastic properties and corresponding load-deflection relationship,
as follows:

SYSTEMS

u,

-=----

ill",

Eplp

e.r;

s; L",2
fl.",

L/

where P = force; M = moment; E = modulus of

elasticity; I = moment of inertia; fl. = amount of
expansion (or displacement) of each "free" end with
reference to some fixed point; and L = length. The
subscripts m and p refer to the model and the pipe,
respecti vely.
Measured deflections are similarly converted in
scale and corrected for free thermal expansion.
Thus, the end reactions and deflections of the actual
piping are directly proportional to the ratio of its
cross-sectional stiffness to that of the model; directly
proportional to the ratio of the expansions (or displacements) applied; and inversely proportional to
the exponential ratio of their lengths.
The load-deflection relationship or a straight
circular tube, according to the elastic theory and
neglecting secondary effects, is identical with that
of a solid circular rod, either curved or straight, of
equal moment of inertia. In curved pipe, ovalization of the cross section occurs, which results in its
increased flexibility _in bending at the expense of
augmented local stresses, i.e. stress intensification
as discussed in Chapter 3. Torsional characteristics
are essentially unaffected.
In designing scale models of piping systems, it has
been impracticable, as a routine procedure, to duplicate the flexibility of the curved members by the use
of tubing as a result of the exponential relationship
between the wall thickness and pipe diameter in the
determination ofthe flexibility factor. Achievement
of the desired relative flexibility characteristics oftell
results in a tubing model of impracticable proportions which, combined with the dimensional limitations and tolerances of commercial tubing, make the
correlation of several branches of different sizes and
thicknesses quite infeasible by this means. For
this reason and for economic considerations, rod,
rather than tubing, is used for models. Rod size:';
are available so that variations in runs and branch
diameter and thickness, or in material or temperature, are readily reproduced to reflect thc
products of the moment of inertia and the modulus of
elasticity of the corresponding parts of the piping
system. The length scale is selected large enough to
promote accuracy within the dimensional limits of
the test frame. The basic rod size and movement
range a~e established to secure reactions within the
range of accuracy of the instruments.
For curved members of easy radius of five diameters or more, flexibility factors are usually dose to

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

unity, and tests made with solid rod models result in

end reactions which are correct or which contain a
small safety margin. If stress intensification factors
are omitted in such cases, resulting combined stresses
will, in general, reasonably approximate analytical
results in which both the flexibility and stress intensification factors have been applied to the curved
members. Weld-ells and similar short radius fittings,
where they comprise only a limited part of the total
developed length, may also be simulated by rod
models with satisfactory prediction of stress.
For more precise representation of curved pipe,
where bends and weld-ells have significant effect,
their flexibility may be simulated in alternate ways
of varying accuracy and suited to different configurations. For single-plane bends with in-plane
loading, or in general where torsional effects of the
curved members are minor, reduced rod size at the
bends can accurately represent relative flexibility of
curved and straight pipe. Where both bending and
torsional effects have significant influence, special
devices are required to provide the reduced stiffness
for bending on two axes, while maintaining undiminished resistance to torsional deflection on the
third axis. This is accomplished by insertion of
units which have been carefully calibrated against
analytical considerations. As the use of such special
devices increases the test time required, their employment is usually restricted to cases in which the
influence of the flexibility factors is more or less
critical.
The model weight appears in all the readings and,
so long as there is no shift in weight reaction between
the restraints, is cancelled out by the use of differences to determine the loading corresponding to the
movement range. Where an appreciable weight
shift occurs, counterweights must be used.
6.4

The Kellogg Model Test Laboratory

and

Equipment
The model test apparatus proper consists of a
complex but readily adjustable rigid supporting
framework, to which removable units for accurately
applying end or intermediate displacements are
attached; the load measuring instruments are
mounted on these units and the model, in turn, is
attached to the load measuring heads by means of
special holding fixtures.
The movement heads are specially designed and of
precision manufacture, to secure individual movement along three perpendicular axes by means of
hand scraped ways and micrometer screws which
minimize rotational and axial backlash. The load

BY MODEL TEST

FIG. 6.1

201

The model test laboratory.

measurement heads represent the first complex

application of electrical strain gages, and also their
ini-tial use on a permanent installation demanding
consistent accuracy of long duration. They consist
of a floating fixture, carefully designed and precisely
manufactured to develop the required six restraining
reactions in three mutually perpendicular planes.
To minimize interaction, this element is mounted
through flexible struts to stiff constant-stress cantilevers. Loads are measured by paired electrical
strain gages; each load measurement circuit is
provided with an individual bridge to minimize resistance variations due to switching, a novel arrangement specifically developed for this equipment.
The measuring heads are wired to a console on
which specialized measuring instruments of both
self-balancing and manual balancing types are
mounted for reading loads directly. Local stresses
may be evaluated by means of model-mounted
strain gages or through the use of instruments
incorporating these gages. A variety of mechanical
and electrical instruments for measurement of
specialized loading, deflections, and for calibration
purposes is also provided.
All models are fabricated in the laboratory which
is equipped with special rod and tubing benders and
equipment for welding, brazing, burning, and local
stress relieving, as well as with machine tools, and
special cutoff and grinding equipment.

202

DESIGN OF PIPING

SYSTEMS

and bored riser simulated by a -llr" rod. At the

lower end, the riser branches into two 10.50" OD X
1.70" lines which continue to the two stop valves
from which extend the four 6.625" OD X 0.932"
wall turbine leads to the steam chest. The model
counterparts are of .~-t"and ~t"diameter rocl
respectively, and rigid blocks represent the valves.
The weight of the header and riser is carried by II
solid hanger tentatively located at the point of zero
vertical deflection. Variations from this position
serve to redistribute the end reactions between the
superheater elements and the turbine inlet nozzles.
II~ order to prevent rotation of the header about
other than its longitudinal axis, four guides are
incorporated in the design as indicated at J, K, L
and M, Two stops are also required as shown at
and I to protect the turbine nozzles. All of these
intermediate restraints are simulated on the model
by tie rods.
The model for this system can be seen mounted in
the testing apparatus in Fig. 6.'1. The solid hanger
on the riser is suspended from a small unidirectional
load measuring unit attached to the arm above the
superheater tubes. In this test, moments which arc
ordinarily transferred mathematically from the
measured end reactions to the junction with the
single riser were checked experimentally by means
of strain gages cemented to the model and read with
a standard indicator. This procedure is occasionally
desirable to avoid accumulative errors.
As the end reactions occurring in a single superheater terminal element are disproportionately
small as compared to the other values being measured, it is necessary to group a number of these
together in banks. Readings are taken at each end

FIG. 6.2

Load reading instrument

console.

A general view of the laboratory is shown in

Fig. 6.1. A model of a central station main steam
system is shown mounted in the testing frame; on
the right side of the photograph may be seen the
load-reading console which is shown in greater detail
in Fig. 6.2. The cables from the load measuring
instruments pass into the overhead enclosure and
through the rectangular duct to the console. Above
the console may be seen a photograph of the measuring instrument with the cover removed.
6.5

Table

Piping

System

of .l<'ig.6.3

Moments and Forces for Operating Condition;

No Cold Spring

Typical Model Tests

Figure 6.3 is a sketch of the model of the main

steam system for a utility power plant designed for
1990 psi steam pressure at 1050 F. As in the model
shown in Fig. 6.1, the last banks of tubes of the
superheater have been extended through the boiler
arch, becoming a part of the piping system. Five
sizes of 2t% chrome 1% moly piping are proportionally simulated in the model, viz: 2.125/1 OD X
0.375/1 wall superheater terminal element tubes
represented by 0.067" diameter rod, a 14.00/1 OD X
2.65" wall distributing header represented by */1
diameter rod, and a 14.00/1 OD X 2.25/1 wall, forged

6.1

Location
A ..............
B ..............
C ..............
D ..............
E (one tube) ....

P (one tube) ....

G (one tube) ....

Mr
It-lb

JI"

lb

lb

lb

+ 275

-135
+545
+290
-665

-360

15

- 45

+ 30
+ 60
- 135
- 365
+ 30
-I- 30
+ 25

+ 165
- 755

20

- 50
-900
-250
-565
+ 35

-1700
-3050
-2650
-4725
- 360

0
3

+3475

- 395

II ..............
/_

....... _ ......

J ....... _.......
K ..............
L..............

275

15
15
+ 15
-1275
+

+ 45
-1650
-1805
-ISO
+22!j

M ..............

0 ..............

r,

Fr

(t-lb

Mv

+ 625
-1800
-I- 75
+
+

M.

It-lb

30

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

BY MODEL TEST

203

j_"

--- ~.
~ 4

10

TUBE

HANGER MOVEMENT

BOILER ROOf MOVEMENT

FREE THERMAL
EXPANSION
l' POINT 7

FREE THERMAL
EXPANSION
e POINT 17

44.83'

48.50'
2.50'

FIG. 6.3

Central statio!"! main steam system operating at 1050 F and 1990 psi pressure.

bank and at the .middle bank; and the maximum

average stress in ten or twelve tubes is thus found.
As the individual tubes are small and highly flexible,
such determinations have been quite safe. Where,

FIG. 6.4

The model test set-up for the system of Fig. 6.3.

however, the tubes are not all of the same configuration, strain gages are cemented, by means of special
attachments, to representative tubes to check the
results obtained. The end reactions, stresses, and
deflections obtained for this piping system, for the
operating and cold spring conditions, are tabulated in
Tables 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3, respectively.
Typical of the piping systems for which the model
tester offers a clearcut solution at an important
saving in engineering cost is the 1250 psi main steam
line shown in the drawing of Fig. 6.5. The 12"
Schedule 160 piping connects two boilers with two
75,000 KVA turbines; and a 12" crossover connection permits the operation of either turbine from
either boiler. The two leads to each turbine are 8"
Schedule 160, and horizontal restraints prevent transverse movement at the stop valves. The operating
temperature of the piping is 900 F, and the material
carbon-moly steel.' A free-floating system of six
lUnder present practice, carbon-moly
mended for service 'lt this temperature,

would not be recom-

DESIGN OF PIPING

8" turbine leads by 'H-" diameter rod, and the

model length scale is ~-" = 1'0", with the stiffness
or EI ratio = 1 : 1,580,000. The flexibility factors
of the long radius bends were nearly unity and hence
were neglected. The factor for converting the
model forces to those of the actual installation is
4578, and that for the moments 9157. The full-scale
maximum end forces and moments, as determined

points of fixation is involved, carried entirely on

spring supports. Compensating spring hangers are
assumed to match the weight of the piping without
restraining its flexural movements; accordingly, they
involve negligible stress and are ignored in the test.
The model of this piping system is shown in the
testing frame in Fig. 6.6. The main run of 12"
piping is represented by Mil diameter rod and the

.,.
__]I

EXTRANEOUS
MOVEMENTS
POINTS

SYSTEMS

~SUPERHEATER

FOR

OUTLET

2E

HA~~E~R~~~

~4 ..s01-

e,F

.2~570

50.58'
12" SCH.160

!e

;t,

:i

N
'Of

:!

.
0
I/)

tc)

q.

."

J:

0-

t:

34.00'

25.16'

19.33'

34.00'

54.50'

19.33'

2.96' 3.44'

9.00'

FlO. U.S Main steam system operating at 1250 psi, supplying two 75,000 KVA power generation units,

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

from the model test, acting on the superheater

header connections and the turbine nozzles are
shown in Table 6.4. Tests for alternate operating
conditions show that this system is most highly
stressed when both turbines are operating on steam

Table 6.2 Piping System of Fig. 6.3

BY MODEL TEST

205

from their respective boilers and the crossover

valves are open. This is the condition recorded in
Table 6.4; the maximum stress of 10,250 psi appears
in the 8/1 turbine nozzle B.
For the determination of uniformly distributed
weight load effects, tubular models which can
alternately be filled with mercury and emptied have
been used. Distributed loading can also be achieved

Moments and Forces before Operation:

100% Cold Spring
M%
Location

Mil
ft-lb

ft-Ib

A .............

- 825
B .............
+2400
C .............
- 75
D .............
-4625
E (one tube) ... - 25
F (one tube) ... - 5
G (one tube) ... + 20

+ 75
+1200
+ 3SO
+ 7SO
45
0
+ 55

F:
lb

M.
It-lb
+2275
+40SO
+3525
+6275
+ 480
+ 480
+ 525

H ............

1. ............
J .............
K............
L.............

lb

40
80
+ 180
+ 485
40
- 40
35

- 220
+1005
+ 365
- 365
- 20

+180
-725
-385
+885

20
20

0
4

+1695

stress in 10" line

stress in tubes
=
stress in 6" turbo leads stress range
~

Location
A- ..........
B .........

C ..........
D ..........
F ..........

+200
-300

0 .............

Moments and Forces for Operating Condition:

No Cold Spring

E ..........

60
+2200
+2400

M ............

Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Allowable

Table 6.4 Piping System of Fig. 6.5

F.
lb

FlI

40

M:r;
ft-Ib
-34,sro
-. -21,050
-11,050
-33,600
- 4400
-14,2SO

Mil
It-lb

M.

F:

FlJ

It-lb

lb

Ib

F.
lb

+4600
+3250
+3050
-6650
-2400
+2300

- 9550
-13,750
- 9000
+10,350
+ 6450
+ 6150

+1750
-1940
+ 70
+1760
- 320
-1320

-ll60
+ 360
+ 800
-1010
+ 440
+ 570

G ..........
H ..........

+ 390
- 880
- 410
- 480
+ 580
+ 170
+2020
'-1390

Maximum stress
- 10,250psi at Point B.
Allowable stress range = 20,300 psi.

68SOpsi at Point 59.

81SOpsi at Point G.
4500 psi at Point D.
20,200psi.

Table 6.3 Piping System of Fig. 6.3

Deflections (inches)
From Cold to Hot Position
Location
s,
011
Ii:
8
-0.23 -1.09 +2.11
I
0
-1.09 +2.11
40
+ 4.33 -3.54 + 1.98
41
+4.60 -3.58 +1.31
46
+4.95 -3.58 +0.88
47
+8.33 -4.71 +0.85
48
+8.62 -4.08 +0.79
61
+ 7.59 -2.30
0
18
+0.27 -1.31 +1.81
o
0
-1.31 +1.81
SO
+3.58 -3.60 + 1.61
51
+3.90 -3.83 +0.91
57
+4.10 -3.83 +0.46
58
+8.06 -4.66 +0.38
59
+8.35 -4.16 +0.38
70
o +2.84 o
80
o
+2.84 +1.52
90
o +2.84 -1.52
H
+4.69
0
o
L
+1.05 +2.27
o
M
+3.95 +0.53
o

From Design to
100% Cold Spring Position
Location
8
I
40
41
46
47
48
61
18

o
SO
51
57
58
59
70
80
90

n
L
M

Or

oit

0
0
-4.72
-4.61
-4.57
-8.61
-8.51
-7.24
+0.53
+0.53
-4.19
-4.13
-3.94
-8.34
-8.24
0
0
0
-4.70
-1.00
-3.96

+0.15
+0.15
+2.60
+2.64
+2.64
+3.78
+3.53
+3.55
+0.38
+0.38
+2.66
+2.89
+ 2.89
+3.73
+3.61
-4.15
-4.15
-4.15
0
-4.15
0

0:
+O.(JI
+0.01
+0.15
+0.43
-0.70
-0.67
-0.61
0
+0.04
+0.04
+0.21
+0.55
-0.65
-0.57
-0.57
0
0
0
0
0
0

FIG. fl.6 The model test set-up for the system of Fig. 6.5.

206

DESIGN OF PIPING

FIG. 6.7

SYSTEMS

Models of marine piping.

FLEXIBILITY

FIG. 6.8

. ~),.

ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST

Models of power plant piping .

207

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

203

FIG. 6.9

Models of petroleum and petrochemical

process piping.

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS BY MODEL TEST

by attaching small weights along the horizontal runs

of the model, with a larger weight for each riser in
proportion to its length.
...
The model test solution offers particular advantages for the irregular contours with numerous
skewed members resulting from the extreme space
limitations of ship installations. Figure 6.7 shows
models of various main steam and auxiliary piping
systems among the many marine piping assemblies
which have been analyzed.
Power plant piping occupies the major capacity
of the Kellogg Model Test Equipment. This is due
to the complexity of the main steam, reheat, and
other piping systems of large utility installations,
the need for economy in materials and fabrication
for the expensive large-size alloy lines involved, and
the extreme care which is considered advisable in
avoiding damaging reactions on large turbines and
boilers. Figure 6.8 shows various models of utility
power plant piping.
Petroleum, petrochemical and chemical process
plants frequently involve piping of large diameter
and many points of end fixation or intermediate
restraint, often for extremes of pressure and temperature. The model test is well adapted to these more
involved problems and offers considerable advantage
in the rapid study of tentative designs where plot
plans must be established to meet the usual tight
schedules. Figure 6.9 is comprised of photographs
of models of process plant piping under test.

209

References
1. Fred M. Hill, "Solving Pipe Problems-s-A Mechanical
Method for Cases Involving Temperature
Expansion,"
Mech. Eng., Vol. 63, No.1, pp. 19-22 (1941).
2. G. E. Beggs, "An Accurate Mechanical Solution of Statically Indeterminate Structures by the Use of Paper Models
and Special Gages," Proc. Amer. Concrete Inst., Vol. 18,
pp.58-82 (1922); "The Use of Models in the Solution of
Indeterminate
Structures,"
J. Franklin. Insi., Vol. 203,
pp.375-386 (March 1927).
3. Harold W. Semar, "The Determination of the Expansion
Forces in Piping by Model Test," J. Appl. Mechu Ilics ,
Trans. ASME, Vol. 61, p. A-21 (1939).
4. L. C. Andrews, "Analyzing Piping Stresses by Tests of
Models," Hooting, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 17, No.8,
pp. 425-429 (1945); "Methods of Making Piping Flexibility Analyses-The
Model Test Method,"
Heating,
Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 19, No.8, pp. 73-77 (1947);
"Model Test Analysis of Steam Piping," Combustion,
Vol. 20, No. 10, pp. 53-56 (1949); "Piping Flexibility
Analysis by Model Test," Trans. ASME, Vol. 74, No.1,
pp. 123-133 (1952).
5. S. W. Spielvogel, "Model Test Checks Pipe Stress Calculation," Power, Vol. 10, pp. 68-69 (1941).
6. S. Berg, H. Bernhard, and K. Th. Sippell, "Ermittlung de r
AuHagerreaktionen warrnbetriebenor Rohrleitungen durch
Modellversuche," Z., VDI, Vol. 83, No.9, pp. 281-285
(1939).
7. Joseph D. Conrad, "Model Tests Solve High-Pressure
Pipe Problems," Power, Vol. 84, No. 10, pp. 58-61 (1940).
8. Joseph D. Conrad,
"Models Help Determine
Pipe
Stresses," lVcstinghouseEnginccr, Vol. 1, No.1, p. 22 (1941).
9. John F. O'Rourke, "How Model Tests Cut Piping Design
and Fabrication Costs," Power, Vol. 97, No.9, pp. 90-92
(1953).

CHAPTER

Approaches for Reducing Expansion Effects:

Expansion Joints

HE other chapters of this volume are con-

when properly incorporated into the piping system,

for satisfactory service life and safe operation. The
too-frequent easy approach of complete dependence
on catalog or sales information without adequate
understanding and sound application engineering
can lead to disastrous results.

cerned essentially with various design aspects

of specific piping configurations or details;
this chapter is devoted to the problem of fitting
piping into an allotted space or maintaining a configuration within acceptable process or other criteria, where conventional design is inadequate.

7.2
7.1

Introduction

Sources of Excessive Expansion Effects

A design involving expansion joints as a substitute for a conventional piping arrangement is sometimes advantageous or necessary for one or more of
the following reasons:
A. Where space is inadequate for a conventional
piping arrangement of sufficient flexibility without
overstress.
B. Where minimum pressure drop and absence
of turbulence is essential for process, economic, 01'
operating reasons.
C. Where the reactions are excessive and involve
possible damage to the terminal equipment, or for
economic structure or foundation design.
D. Where it is desirable to isolate mechanical
vibrations.
E. Where economics favor other than a conventional piping arrangement; particularly low-pressure
large-diameter piping.
F. Where equipment spacing indicates excessive
area or building volume.
G. Where layout was inadequately planned and
lacks sufficient dimensional provision for expansion, so
that conventional st.iffdesign cannot be accomplished.

Making adequate provision for expansion of piping in a confined space can introduce various complexities in order to augment the flexibility of a
"stiff" piping system, such as semi-rigid, non-rigid,
or free movement arrangements. In Chapter 5 the
calculation of semi-rigid piping systems involving
hinge points is illustrated by examples in which the
stresses are obtained for the rigid members, as well
as the rotations at the hinges for joint design.
Non-stiff piping systems involve expansion joints
or joining fittings, such as articulation devices or
hose, in varying degree, in order to provide for
expansion movement with less or no stress. Hose,
special fittings, etc., are usually restricted in size
and confined to individual short piping runs; expansion joints, on the other hand, are used with sufficient frequency and sometimes unavoidably in
involved installations, so that their consideration is
necessarily a part of piping system design.
Accordingly, this chapter provides a detailed description of the types of commercial expansion joints,
and completes the presentation of expansion joint
movement calculations with illustrative examples.
Included is a discussion of design, fabrication, inspection, handling, and installation aspects to assist
ill obtaining suitable joints having adequate capacity

7.3

Approaches for Hcducing Expansion Effects

For purposes of this discussion, piping systems or

runs can be classified with respect to the mechanics
210

APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS

by which they provide for thermal expansion movements, as follows:
Stiff: If without hinge points and capable of deflection and rotation only through strain resulting
from bending, direct, or shear stress as applied to
the cross section.
Semi-rigid: If otherwise stiff, but provided with
one or more hinge points. A system might be stiff
in certain planes and semi-rigid in others within
strength limits of the hinge details.
Non-rigid: If continuously capable of transmitting
direct load and shear, but not bending, so that no
moment due to expansion effects exists anywhere in
the system (requires 3 hinge points in each plane).
Free movement: If continuously incapable of transmitting any load (except by friction or bellows
resistance) whether direct, shear, or bending.
A simple illustration of these classifications is
given in Fig. 7.1
Within the same space and configuration, expansion effects can obviously be lessened by resort to
lesser rigidity and may be eliminated by free movement design. In the following, starting with conventional stiff piping layout, the factors influencing
required expansion capacity and the variables attendant to each classification of rigidity will be
examined and compared.
The importance of adequate layout to assure plan
and elevation arrangements favorable for piping
flexibility cannot be overemphasized [1]. In general,
piping flexibility is a function of the ratio of the
developed length to the straight-line distance between the points connected, but it is also obviously
sensitive to the relative location of those points. All
advantage should be taken when establishing the
layout, to locate nozzles and elevations to balance
the vertical expansion of equipment against that of
the piping as far as possible, in order to minimize
horizontal equipment expansion which the piping
must absorb. Dead-ended lines, which create restraints when cold, should be avoided with two-way
flow or circulating lines. Where possible, small
vessels, such as headers, separators, etc., should be
allowed to float with the piping, utilizing flexible
supports if necessary; or, if they are on resting supports, they should be allowed to slide on the supports
or deflect. Excessive reactions or overstress at particular locations can often be countered by properly
selected partial restraints.
Stiff Piping Systems.
Aside from judicious layout and lowering of end or intermediate restraints,
the stress and reactions in stiff piping systems can
be lowered by a reduction in piping diameter; lesser

----_._------_._._-----

Stiff

Semi ....igld

Non-rigid
FIG.

211

7.1

Free Movomont

Classification of piping systems.

thickness reduces reactions and stresses in terminal

equipment only, not stresses in the piping. More
than one diameter of pipe can sometimes be used to
advantage to secure greater flexibility but the effects
of follow-up elasticity must not be overlooked.
Several smaller-size pipe runs can also be used in
multiple and arranged to decrease or increase the
stiffness in selected planes. Sample Calculation 5.2
of Chapter 5 illustrates the manner in which size
variations are handled in the flexibility calculations.
Another means for reducing stiffness and reactions, but usually not stress, is to substitute corrugated pipe for straight pipe in locations subject to
relatively high bending or direct effects. As pointed
out in the discussion of its properties given in Chapter 3, corrugated pipe possesses improved bending
and axial flexibility although the torsional flexibility
is unchanged.
Semi-rigid Piping Systems.
This category includes systems which have a limited number of
articulated joints so that thermal expansion effects
are taken partly by flexure of the pipe and partly by
movement of the joints. With this approach, only
rot-ation occurs at the hinge points, which must be
sealed by packing or bellows. Longitudinal pressure stress is transmitted through hinge lugs and
pins, ties, or a similar structure, which bridges the
sealing element. Moment due to expansion will
vary through most of the piping but may be zero in
certain portions of the system if more than a single
hinge is used. A typical single-plane problem of
stress evaluation of the stiff members employing
conventional analysis is given in Sample Calculation 5.6 of Chapter 5. The use of semi-rigid design
in single-plane systems is limited only by availability
of a suitable sealing element at the hinge point and

212

DESIGN

OF

PIPING

by practical hinge design problems.

Semi-rigid design is applicable to space configurations, but usually
involves limitations because ofside moment effects
on hinge lugs, and is therefore limited to very low
pressure design of limited diameter.
However, when
ground or packed universal movement joints art
used (limited to small size), space configurations are
entirely practical.
Such construction is useful in lowering the moment effects transmitted to terminal equipment and
in reducing the overall stress level, while at the same
time retaining the desirable features of self-support
and self-sufficiency for carrying longitudinal pressure
load.
Size, pressure, and weight loads limit the
maximum size as dictated by hinge capacity.
For
the usual pipe runs, there is generally no problem in
obtaining
hinged joints with adequate
rotation
capacity.
Non-rigid
Piping Systems.
A non-rigid piping
system is capable of transmitting longitudinal pressure load without separate structures and is entirely
free of thermal expansion forces and moments other
than the minor friction or bellows resistance of the
expansion joints. A one-plane non-rigid piping system must have a minimum of three hinge points
which may be at terminal or intermediate locations.
Multiple non-rigid systems would require three additional hinge points for each added plane when the
joints are capable of movement in one plane only,
and are limited in application due to the care which
must be exercised to avoid overload of the hinge lugs
by lateral effects.
With universal joints, a nonrigid space system requires only three points of
articulation
but special problems in supporting and
bracing are likely to be encountered.
The thermal
expansion
design of non-rigid systems involves
merely the dimensional evaluation of joint rotation
as covered later in this chapter.
Non-rigid design is exceptionally useful for largediameter 10w- or moderate-pressure
service, where
the layout provides suitable locations for the hinge
points to keep rotations within economic expansion
joint capacity.
This type of piping system is attractive because it avoids the usc of expansion joints
with a considerable range of transverse movement
and the need for rugged external anchors to take
care of the end pressure load.
Free Movement
Piping Systems
and Runs.
Free movement piping systems and runs describe
piping in which all thermal expansion movement is
unrestrained,
while longitudinal load except for friction or bellows effects is not carried through the
expansion joints.
The longitudinal pressure load is

SYSTEMS

transmitted from the piping, usually as a direct load

near its origin to external anchors or structures, or
may be carried by terminal equipment.
If there is
an intervening
elbow, the pipe must sometimes
transmit not only the unbalanced pressure load, but
also the moment which it introduces.
Obviously,
such a system is incapable of transmitting
forces 01'
moments through the joints other than those required to move the expansion joints.
Unbalanced
pressure load cannot be effectively transmitted across
an expansion joint without possible interference with
free axial movement.
It can be balanced with additional compensating
expansion joints, as will be
described later, but such an arrangement
is expensive, so that usually unbalanced pressure loads and
friction or bellows loads are transmitted
to external
ties or anchors. This practice restricts the location
of expansion joints to positions where loads can be
carried without excessive cost. Where unbalanced
pressure loads are carried into equipment,
care
should be exercised to assess the design provisions,
not only of the equipment, but also the anchor bolts,
foundation, etc. Where more than one expansion.
joint is used to provide for a greater degree of expansion or to take care of movement in more than one
direction, the intervening portions of piping must be
supported and carefully guided to avoid damage to
the joints.
Free movement may be accomplished with flexible
hose instead of expansion joints.
Both nonmetallic
and all-metal hoses are available with limitations
on pressure, size, and service flow. They can be provided with a flexible sheath capable of taking longitudinal pressure load, thus avoiding longitudinal
pressure unbalance.
Corrosion and fatigue problems, however, rule against the use of hose in most,
permanent installations.
Free movement systems are useful on low-pressure
piping to closely connect rigid equipment, or to protect equipment from piping expansion reactions.
When substantial pressures are involved, their use
is limited because of the cost of the anchors or the
undesirable pressure reactions on connected equipment.
7.4

Packed

Type Expansion

Joints

There are basically three types of commercial

packed expansion joints: slip (axial), swivel (angular), and ball (universal) joints.
Of these, only the
slip type has been extensively used for thermal expansion; hence only this type merits full description.
Connection and articulation
devices will be mentioned only in general terms, as details are readily

APPROACHES

FOR REDUCING

EXPANSION

found in manufacturer's literature, in handbooks [2],

and in the third article of reference [3]. Many
special packed joints have been designed for specific
usage.
The slip type expansion joint is essentially a pair
of telescoping cylinders, and is basically similar to a
number of common connecting devices, such as the
mechanical (gland type) joints used for connecting
cast-iron pipe, and compression sleeve couplings
used on plain-end cast-iron or steel pipe. These
latter joints are usually sealed by a single packing
ring and, in addition to limited axial movement,
will accommodate a small amount of angular movement. They are not suited to absorb thermal expansion in other than mild services.where movements
are small and infrequent. The slip type expansion
joint requires an ample stuffing box and smoothly
finished sliding surfaces with controlled dimensions
and tolerances to be capable of satisfactory performance in severe services, lind must be limited to purely
axial movement or rotation about the pipe axis for
satisfactory freedom from binding. A typical joint
is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 7.2 which illustrates a "single-ended" unit. When greater axial
movement capacity or "traverse" is required than
is desirably incorporated in one cylinder, a "doubleended" joint may be obtained having two stuffing
boxes in a common body usually supplied with
brackets for anchoring.
The outstanding feature of slip type expansion
joints is that large movements can be accommodated
readily, and usually with economy, since a substantial proportion of the cost lies in the packing gland
and related parts which are independent of the
movement capacity. Also, the pocketing created
when used in the horizontal position is of a minimum
amount and may even be entirely eliminated by
providing a single drain on the barrel.
The significant limitation of packed joints is the
difficulty of establishing and maintaining a seal.
\Vhile ground surfaces and piston rings are occasionally used, more generally the seal is dependent
upon packing with limitations on the contacting
fluid and its temperature. Packings are not covered
herein, and are governed by the same general considerations affecting pumps, valves, etc.
The considerable amount of force required to
overcome packing friction and its effect on anchor
requirements must not be overlooked. To minimize
this some of the better designed joints are provided
with means for lubricating the packing just prior to
start-up or shutdown movement, or periodically for
joints subject to continual movement in service.

EFFECTS:

EXPANSION

Drain may be provi4.d to .Iiminat.

FIG. 7.2

JOINTS

pocketing in hori.ontol

213

Ii"",

A conventional slip type expansion joint.

Maintenance must be anticipated such as tightening

and occasional repacking, the extent of which varies
widely with the service. Excess friction and binding
can be minimized by even and minimum compression
of packing; most slip joints must be depressured for
repacking although plastic packing material is commercially available which may be used alone or in
combination with other packing and can be forced
into the gland during operation; piston rings or
other details are sometimes provided to obtain sufficient tightness to allow repacking under pressure.
The force required to overcome packing friction and
operate the joint is a function of the packing characteristics and the stuffing box pressure; for design
purposes, a value as high as 2000 pounds per inch
of diameter should be used, according to some manufacturers. This figure undoubtedly is conservative
for usual materials and moderate pressure, and is
largely intended to provide some allowance for
installation and operation effects-a rather futile
objective, however, as any margin it provides is inadequate to compensate for badly designed or poorly
constructed guides, or for sticking due to corrosion
or deposits. With proper installation and favorable
operation, it can be said that one-half of the above
figure has been ample for many designs within the
usual service range up to 300 psi and 750 F maximum.
Slip joints are preferably provided with an adequate amount of internal guiding. With such provision, external guiding of the pipe adjacent to the
joint is usually not essential nor desirable, since the
temperature differences of supports may cause misalignment. Intermediate guides are not provided if
the connecting pipes are short, with no possibility of
buckling, and not subjected to lateral expansion
movement. If, on the other hand, significant lateral
movement is present, a double guide, consisting of
two sets of double-acting stops, is usually necessary;
it must be designed and installed to assure straightline movement if jamming is to be avoided.

DESIGN OF PIPING

214

Although the foregoing specifically applies to

joints of the axial movement type, it is also applicable for the most part to rotary motion types.
Actually, any sliding joint can usually take rotation
either alone or in combination with movement along
the pipe axis. A sliding joint designed for rotary
motion alone may be provided with two internal
shoulders limiting axial motion to the clearance between, and enabling the joint to transmit the longitudinal pressure reaction. Rotary slip joints may
be self-sealing, at satisfactory pressure levels, if the
longitudinal pressure reaction is carried through the
packing. Certain commonly used fittings may serve
as rotary joints. The most elementary of these are
ordinary screwed fittings, commonly used in groups
of three or more for taking expansion in connection
to building-heating risers, etc. Substantial movements can be accommodated in this manner provided the offsets are adequate to minimize rotation
so that the threads can be kept tight, and provided
the service fluid and temperature are favorable.
Under the terms revolving, swing, or swivel joints,
are included fittings which permit angular (rotary
or hinge) motion about one axis only. Ball joints
permit universal motion and consist of spherical contact surfaces in a ball-and-socket arrangement; such
joints are available with either packed or ground
joints. Both the swivel and ball type joints may
have a wide range of angular movement and can be
used in groups of two or three or more to take care
of extreme amounts of space movement. For example, a U-shaped arrangement of five or six feet in
length with three joints provides ample range to
take care of the relative motions of two ships moored
together when the auxiliary steam lines are connected. Such joints are usually limited to 6 in. size
and to low- or moderate-pressure service.
7.5

Bellows Type Expansion

Joints

7.Sa Discussion.
In the bellows joint the seal
between adjoining pipe ends is effected by means of
a highly flexible membrane. With the need for packing eliminated it is frequently termed a "packless"
joint. The principal problem of packed joints, that
of maintaining tightness is avoided since the bellows
provides a positive leakproof seal. The bellows is
generally of all-metal construction with fabrication
possible from any commercially available and weldable material. Bellows made of rubber are also
available and find important, although restricted,
application in low-temperature water piping, principally circulating water, where their corrosion and
abrasion resistance are noteworthy features [3J.

SYSTEMS

Other nonmetallic materials also are in use and must

not be overlooked for special applications.
The
(metal) bellows joint is not without drawbacks associated with its inherent thin wall. The major hazard
of a bellows is blowout with sudden large-scale release of the pipe contents. This possibility can be
satisfactorily minimized only through adequate design as to stress level and seam details, etc.; proper
selection of material; quality control of materials and
fabrication; and careful planning, supervision, and
inspection of the installation. In this respect, requirements are somewhat more exacting than for
sliding joints. The situation is reversed with regard
to servicing, since bellows joints require no attention
other than hinge lubrication on hinged joints. An
occasional inspection for possible corrosion or other
damage, and periodic measurements of the joint
position are desirable to assure that movements of
the pipe have remained within a suitable range.
The force to compress or extend a light-gage commercial bellows joint may be on the order of 50 to
300 pounds per inch of diameter, much less than for
the slip joint. In the absence of experimentally derived data this force may be estimated as suggested
in Subsection 7.5g of this section. The longitudinal
pressure reaction of an expansion bellows varies with
the design, but for most practical purposes can be
based on the area at the mean diameter of the bellows, and will normally be higher than for a slip
joint.
Except for its inability to accommodate axial rotation or twisting, the bellows type expansion joint
is more versatile than the packed joint, since individual assemblies may combine axial movement, a
substantial amount of angular' rotation or "cocking,"
and also lateral movement or "offset." This versatility leads to a wide variety of bellows shapes and
construction features, as well as auxiliary devices
for equalizing and supporting the bellows, which
will be discussed in Subsection 7.5c. There is also
a wide variety of external constraints which adapt
the joints to a particular movement or combination
of movements, which merit detailed treatment in
Section 7.6.
7.Sb Bellows Details.
The expansion bellows
has appeared in a variety of shapes, a representative
selection of which is shown in Fig. 7.3. Bellows contour usually represents an attempt for an optimum
compromise between the opposing requirements of
flexibility and capacity to withstand internal pressure. In the commercial expansion joint the bellows
corrugations usually are formed of thin sheet metal,
and ate therefore necessarily made from corrosion-

APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS:

resistant material. Deterioration of any kind is an
all-important factor in view of the high strain level
generally utilized to meet economic and dimensional
restrictions.
Bellows corrugations fall into the following general classifications as to .configuration and unit
extent: (1) flat disc; (2) formed disc; (3) formed
individual element; and (4) formed assembly. The
flat and formed discs require exterior welds for joining into elements and interior welds for further combination into a bellows assembly. Flat discs are not
illustrated, the upper six details of Fig. 7.3 being all
variations of formed discs. The first two of plate,
usually -h- in. to t in. thick, have found occasional
use mainly on low-expansion vacuum and exhaust
steam lines when conventional joints were unavailable, or expensive. They are usually designed at a
moderate stress-range level to secure fatigue life
comparable to that of the piping, and to avoid stress
corrosion. The fined-head design has given good
service in a number of applications, but occupies
considerable space and is expensive for the movement which it provides. The next four details are
formed discs of light-gage sheet steel. The "corrugated," "U-shaped" and "rounded" contours are
successive stages for somewhat improved capacity
for internal pressure.
In order, their shape reduces the number of bellows per linear foot and total extension obtainable
with a given bellows length. The stress for a given
deflection per element is at the same time somewhat
reduced by the curved contour.
The next two details are individual elements
formed from a hoop of light-gage material and thus
eliminate exterior circumferential welds. They are
sometimes made with longitudinal welds also, but
this is not desirable. The U-shape is otherwise similar to the preceding contours. The toroidal elements can be made to larger dimensions and of
heavier material with full emphasis on capacity to
withstand pressure without external support. Lightgage multi-element toroidal bellows formed as a unit
assembly from a single cylinder are also available.
The last two details are again a compromise between flexibility and internal pressure capacity, but
are formed as a unit assembly from a single lightgage sheet metal cylinder. Sharp corners can be
avoided and favorable contour obtained.
Early preference for close pitch elements, due to
the greater number possible in a given space and
consequent greater movement capacity for equal
dimensions, has largely disappeared in favor of better
pressure capacity and a lesser amount of critically

EXPANSION JOINTS

215

JL

FI"t (ConicoQ
Buill up of Piol.

U-Sh,,~
Buill up of flued Hettd.

FI", (Conicol)

Cotrugated
light Gogo Sheol

U-Shaped

Rounded
light Gogo Shoe!

U-Shoped

Toroidal (Circular) or
Somi Toroid,,1 (EJlipticaQ
Light Gog.

Strip

NV\
U.shaped

Rounded

Or

&.shaped

Formed fmm Light Gogo Cylinder

FIG.

7.3

Various shapes of bellows.

located welding for shaped contours. Close pitch

elements afford less self-cleaning and thus are more
prone to collect sediment which may interfere with
compressive movement and inflict damage. The
open contours also provide better accessibility for
inspection and possible repairs, which are usually
limited to those of a minor nature, since when extensive, the usual result is early failure.
None of the bellows contours is self-draining for
joints in a horizontal position; the rounded and
toroidal shapes also will not completely drain in a
vertical position. Drain connections in the bellows
involve serious stress intensification and possible
weld flaws, and should be avoided.
Bellows are available in layer construction to the
l.l-shaped and rounded contours of Fig. 7.3, thus
providing increased total thickness for internal pressure. The exact behavior of this layer construction
is not yet established. With a close fit and absence
of relative movement at the contact surfaces, the
action would approach that of a structure of the
combined thickness. However, if the contact is such
that movement along the contact surfaces occurs
freely, then a movement capacity equal to that of
an individual layer is obtained for a given stress
range. The load to compress the bellows is a multiple of that for an individual layer. The behavior
is probably nearer that of free movement along the

DESIGN

216

FlO. 7.4

OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Plain bellows expansion joints.

contact surfaces, in which case it is propel' to speculate on the distribution -of the pressure effect between layers. With hydraulic forming, the layer
contact is likely to be occasional or absent when
pressure is removed. It is likely that movement
occurs between the layers as temperature changes,
with the pressure reaction between layers offering
only limited resistance in proportion to degree of
contact and unit load.
The outer layers are usually vented by small diameter holes at the ends, out of the area of high
bending stress, to promote detection of initial rupture or leakage of the inside layer and to minimize
trapping moisture in initial assembly or due to minor
service weepage with possible collapse. Since the
life of the joint is still limited to that of the thin
inner layer, the additional layers do not extend the
service period over that =xpected from a single layer
joint insofar as cyclic movement is concerned; they
do add strength against pressure effects however,
and tend to minimize the effect of a failure.
7.Se Support

and

Protection

of Bellows.

Simple unsupported bellows (see Fig. 7.4), sometimes referred to as of non-equalizing type, are least
expensive and are used where the service is not too
severe and in locations where ample fixation and
guiding is provided in the piping system. They may
consist of single or multiple assemblies as needed for
capacity, the number of elements in a single bellows
being limited by considerations of lateral buckling
or "squirming" as it is sometimes called. On unsupported open-type (l.l-shaped) corrugations the
pressure limitation generally recommended by most
manufacturers is 30 psi, with higher pressures used
on more favorable contours, although without external support only the toroidal contour is used for
significant pressure. Closely spaced discs, usually
corrugated, with heavy end pieces, also withstand a
reasonable degree of pressure when closely spaced,
probably by intersupport of the discs.
Angular and offset movements, as well as axial,
may be accommodated, although two or more bellows assemblies are usually used for offset since, if a
spool piece of sufficient length separates the assemblies, the offset attained by this means greatly reduces the required bellows length. Such double
bellows joints should be provided with external con-

straint to assure distribution of the axial movement

between the assemblies, and to remove the weight
of the spool pieces from the bellows.
Means to equalize extreme expansion movement
in a bellows assembly, and in addition to provide
some measure of support to the elements against
internal pressure loading, is generally considered
desirable since it guards against lateral distortion
(squirming). For corrugated-type bellows, this usually consists of rings suitably contoured to fit in the
spaces between the convolutions, as shown on the
joint of Fig. 7.5. By such arrangement, compressive deflections are definitely limited for each individual element. The support rings may be connected
externally to further insure some equalization of
element movement in all positions; this provision
may be combined with other motion-constraining
or overall limiting devices described in Section 7.6.
As a support for the bellows against internal pressure
effects, the equalizing rings occupy a role similar to
that of the casing of a pneumatic tire in containing
its inner tube. Obviously, they are most effective
for this purpose in the fully compressed position.
Rings are sometimes cast and sometimes fabricated
by welding. They are usually split into 180 sections and assembled with bolted joints; where used
for substantial pressure one-piece construction is
necessary.
The expansion bellows is fragile in comparison
with the pipe and is often covered for protection
against damage during installation or subsequent
service. External sleeves at the same time provide
some measure of operator protection in the event of
a blowout, but must be arranged so as not to interfere with the joint movement a.nd should be removable for inspection of the bellows.
A sleeve on the inside offers protection against
flow erosion, and also against corrosion where maintenance of the corrosion-products film affords protection. The use of an internal sleeve, even though
it may slightly reduce the inside diameter, usually
reduces the pressure drop through an expansion
joint by reducing turbulence. At the expense of
requiring a larger bellows, full-flow area may be had
0

Exte"d.d
FIG.

7.5

Fully Compressed

Self-equalizing expansion joint

APPROACHES

FOR REDUCING

EXPANSION

EFFECTS:

EXPANSION

JOINTS

217

by recessing the sleeve; in some cases this construction may be desirable in order to minimize erosion
of the sleeve itself. An internal sleeve further assists
in keeping the flow in the line away from the bellows
when the joint is installed in a vertical position and
the sleeve is sealed at the top, and may be further
improved in effectiveness by the use of a purge
medium continuously supplied at slightly higher
than line pressure to the space between the bellows
and the sleeve. This has been found to be the most
favorable arrangement with respect to minimizing
contact with the flow or entrance of solids or fluid
whether the line is subject to up-flow or downflow.
Other sleeve arrangements may be necessary or
preferred where other factors are involved. A number of arrangements and details of attachment are
shown in Fig. 7.6. Sufficient clearance must be provided to permit the design movements of the joint;
however, the annular clearance should be kept to
the minimum possible to restrict entry of foreign
material and to minimize purge flow requirements,
if used. Although not often practicable, it is nevertheless desirable that the sleeve be easily removable
for possible replacement or access to the bellows for
cleaning or inspection.
7.5d Fabrication of Bellows Joints. Due to
the fact that expansion joints are used primarily in
free movement piping systems, there is a tendency
to accept lesser design and fabrication quality for
the flanges, necks, etc. This is, of course, in error
for types of joints which must transmit end load,
and it is questionable generally to allow lower
quality than required for the connecting pipe stub.
Minor flaws can jeopardize the life of the relatively
expensive expansion-joint assembly.
For the bellows assembly, where cyclic strains of
extreme magnitude are commonly accepted in order
to attain large movement capacity with minimum
space requirements and cost, the aim should be to
achieve a construction quality (particularly of weldments) equal in fatigue performance to that of the
base material. This poses a challenging problem for
the welding which must be used in all bellows, except
for those which can be made from seamless tubing
or shells. For weld quality which will least affect
the cyclic life obtainable from the base material, the
following measures are of benefit:

of undetermined root quality. Use only butt welds

where possible.
4. Minimize heat-affected zones.
5. Use full heat treatment on ferritic materials,
and on austenitic welds an homogenizing anneal.
6. Avoid root oxidation on welds, and emphasize
elimination of inclusions. Inert gas shielded welds
are preferred for this and to minimize undercuts.
7. Weld procedure should emphasize soundness
and physical properties as nearly identical to the
parent metal as possible. Skilled operators must
secure welds to this procedure.
8. Weld surfaces must be as smooth as that of
the sheet steel, which should be pickled and No. 1
finished, and preferably ground.
9. Use all applicable nondestructive examination
toward assuring the quality of welds, including
pressure and movement tests.
10. Careful fit-up is essential. No interruption
in the assembled surface is tolerable.

Minimize the extent of welding.

2. Locate welds away from areas of maximum
bending stress.
3. Avoid corner, fillet, blind root, or similar welds

To comment specifically on the details of Fig. 7.3,

the conical or fiat-plate weld detail as shown is considerably superior to edge fillet welds which have
sometimes been used with poor results; the outer

1.

Bleed
Connection

Simple Weldedin
Sloovo

Recessed SIee v. With

Bleed Conned ion (permi"
<oc~in9 or off"" movement)

Two-pieco Ovenapping
51"","
(penni!> .... 011 gap fOf coc:king
movement)

FIG. 7.6

Removobl. Sioev"
for flanged Joint

Internal sleeve arrangements.

218

DESIGN OF PIPING
Bellows mal~rial
Van Slaned ovor
flange

._,

Bellows molorial
1<101w.ld~d 10 pipe
stvb ond supported
by retaining bond

Hcovy end corrugation.

High bending Ilr esse s
in .... Id or. nol evolded
with this dc,igOn
FIG.

7.7

Bellows attachment details.

weld may also be made against a chill ring and increased in depth or back welded if access is possible.
However, the welds are so located that they are
subject to maximum cyclic bending; consequently
very minor flaws will rapidly propagate, unless
stresses of a low order are maintained. The fluedhead detail permits butt welds; those at the inner
diameter can usually be back welded; at the outer
diameter back welding is possible if the bellows
width is not too great, otherwise these welds must
be deposited against less desirable chill rings. In
the past, fabricated plate-type bellows were preferred, since better manual welding quality could be
obtained than on thin sheet material, and they are
less readily critically damaged by stress corrosion.
Such joints have been used at stress ranges comparable to expansion stresses in piping and much
lower than now common for commercial light-gage
bellows.
The next four illustrations in Fig. 7.3 show lightgage formed sheet discs assembled with the boundaries in flat contact, which permits seam (resistance)
welding or are, gas, atomic hydrogen, or inert gas
arc welding. Excellent welds have been obtained
particularly where extra precautions have been exercised to minimize root oxidation; however, there is
generally a significant stress raising effect at their
location. Resistance welds cause a surface depression, sometimes sharp, and may not be uniform,
particularly at the inner edge; fusion welds are subject to material variations even when deposited by
automatic highly controlled inert arc means and, in
any case, involve a blind root; in addition, there is
generally a stress raiser at the toe of the weld. The
discs of rounded edge contour can be butt welded;
however, the high degree of control and fit-up nee-

SYSTEMS

essary for satisfactory quality deposited metal with

smooth contour and absence of undercuts is difficult
to achieve on the shapes involved. Separate reinforcement is sometimes applied over edge welds, ,but
usually necessitates fillet or resistance welds for
attachment and hence only serves to shift the critical location. With edge-welded discs, connection
to the necessarily heavier end pieces results in critical welding as illustrated in the lower detail of
Fig. 7.7.
With the U-shaped and toroidal bellows elements,
the outer circumferential welds can be avoided.
The inner welds remain, so that they serve only to
halve the number of critical welds. Elements are
sometimes made up of several sectors joined by
longitudinal welds. If such welds are carefully
ground flush, inspected, and heat treated, they are
tolerable; unfortunately, however, they are often
left as welded with heavy reinforcement and introduce a significant stress raiser. For joints of toroidal
contour the inside circumferential welds can be located away from the zone of maximum bending by
forming the edge over intervening contoured pipe
spacers, or completely eliminated by hydraulic forming of several toroidal elements from a single cylinder.
The last two details can be formed from a lightgage cylinder by rolling or by stretch forming under
internal hydraulic pressure or pressure as transmitted through compressed rubber; hydraulic pressure expansion into external dies is most commonly
used. Drawn or spun seamless shells of other than
small size are expensive, so that such cylinders are
usually rolled from sheet metal and have a longitudinally welded seam. To avoid wrinkles and kinks
and failure during forming, the thickness and contour at the weld must match that of the sheet metal.
The forming operation assists in the location of
flaws and assessment of ductility, provided it is followed by a re-examination employing applicable
nondestructive means. As in the case of the toroidal
element the end which attaches to the heavier pipe
stub can be formed and extended to permit the
attachment weld to be located favorably as to stress
level; the weld can be further protected against
bending by the use of external reinforcement, not
welded, but shrunk or clamped as shown in the
center detail of Fig. 7.7, or the bellows assembly can
be further lengthened and rolled over end flanges
in the manner of Van Stone construction as shown
in the upper detail of Fig. 7.7, thus completely
avoiding circumferential welds.
From the above discussion of details, it should be
clear that the commercial constructions which are

APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS: EXPANSION JOINTS

most likely to develop fatigue life comparable to
the sheet material and to have generally reproducible performance are those whichravoid welds completely in zones of high bending stress or which
involve a single longitudinal flush weld made prior
to drastic forming operations, which is then carefully inspected and heat treated.
7.5e Establishing Purchasing Requirements
for Bellows Joints. Expansion joints are usually
supplied by a specialty manufacturer. Stock items
are available, particularly with respect to axial
movement joints of IPS standard sizes, but not in
production quantities comparable to that of fittings
and valves. More complex movement types and
large sizes are custom made assemblies utilizing
standardized details for bellows contour, and general details to minimize tool and fixture costs.
Economy is achieved by use of the supplier's
standards, insofar as they are consistent with the
quality needed. In the purchasing of expansion
joints for other than simple installations, it is essential that the supplier be informed of all requirements
and conditions under which the joint must function.
This may be accomplished through data sheets and
specifications, although involved cases may require
drawings. The data sheet can convey design requirements as to movements, service conditions, etc.
The specification is necessary where a level of acceptable fabrication, inspection, and tests must be
established. Drawings are required when jntricate
movements or special design features are present.
The following check list will be found a convenient
reference when preparing information for the manufacturer, and also in assuring that all variables are
receiving consideration.
1. Flowing medium.
2. Design pressure and temperature. Metal temperatures are sometimes much lower than maximum
flow temperatures.
3. Movement demands, normal operation, and
extreme, as required for starting-up, shutting down
or by upset or emergency conditions.
4. Cyclic effects, frequency of movement, pressures and temperature variations and desired life.
Include not only those attendant to complete periods
of operation, but also those that occur during
operation.
5. Type of bellows and method of joining to body
(for bellows joints) which is acceptable for service.
6. Dimensions and details of end connections
(flanged or welding).
7. Other connections (drains or bleeds) in body.
8. Sleeves internal or external, or both.

219

9. Installed length and any other space limitations.

10. Limit stops or other constraints required.
11. All loads on constraints (extraneous to those
produced by the joint itself).
12. Materials selection, applicable specifications,
and thermal treatment requirements.
13. Fabrication requirements, particularly as to
welding.
14. Testing and inspection, including nondestructive examination.
15. Marking and shipping requirements.
16. Temporary positioning devices to secure joint
in desired position during installation and which
also protect it during shipment; lifting lugs as required to facilitate erection handling.
17. Applying codes, specifications, and drawings.
18. Information to be furnished by vendor.
Special services will involve additional variables.
This list is not intended to encourage complex and
unnecessary, or unduly restrictive, requirements, or
insistence on minor details which will only increase
cost without proportional benefit; instead it is intended for use as a checkoff design and purchasing
aid in order to avoid overlooking the essentials.
The final requirements will represent a careful balancing of the cost of various desirable features
against an evaluation of their necessity as dictated
by the hazards of joint leakage or failure and attendant financial loss due to maintenance and loss
of productive capacity.
Consideration must be
given to the size and importance of the plant, as
well as its dependence on the particular piping for
continued operation. Experience will dictate the
degree to which manufacturer's ratings are reliable;
where in doubt, the check method for associating
life with stress range which is included in this section
should be used.
Expansion joints are obtainable both with and
without flanges, so that flanges can be omitted at
the expansion joint when considered undesirable.
Similar to valves or other components, which may
require servicing, some users prefer flanges rather
than cutting out and rewelding. Flanges are desirable on alloy lines where stress relief is necessary
and in general provide for more accurate installation.
It is important to be specific as to cocking (angular) and offset (linear) dimensions. Unless the joint
is to be preset to obtain the total motion required
by movement of the joint on both sides, with installation in a neutral position, the entire cocking
or offset will occur on one side of the center line.
In the interest of economics, it is advisable to preset

220

DESIGN OF PIPING

the joint for installation so that when assembled

into the piping system, full capacity will be utilized.
This step is, of course, unnecessary for occasions
where the required range is about equally divided
on both sides of the center line.
7.5f Materials and Deterioration.
A knowledge of the flowing medium is important from the
standpoint of potential corrosion or erosion. On
light-gage bellows elements, even mildly corrosive
conditions may seriously affect service life in view
of the high stress levels present with conventional
movement ratings. Condensate corrosion during
standby periods, or when metal temperatures are
below the dew point in service is a. notorious contributor to bellows joint failures. Careful flushing
at shutdown will avoid much corrosion trouble, particularly where complete drainage is not possible;
reliance on drainage alone is apt to be ineffective.
Knowledge of flow temperatures does not give complete assurance as to metal temperatures, which may
be much lower, depending on exposure or degree of
insulation, with increased condensation corrosion
hazard.
The non-expansion parts. of a joint should be of
materials comparable to that required for the connecting pipe. As mentioned earlier, opinion exists
that for free movement piping systems, minimum
requirements for design, materials, fabrication, and
inspection can be used. However, when the relative
investment in an expansion joint is given consideration, it seems unwise to risk its utility by any compromise in quality of its components. Packings
for sliding joints, as already mentioned, are '0. special subject.
Deterioration of bellows material is influenced by
its thin sheet material form and severe demands involving cyclic strain. Cold work, variations in
analysis or structure, thermal history, inclusions,
and segregation, all contribute to increased sensitivity. Corrosion, particularly as associated with
stress and fatigue, may result from contact with
ordinarily noncorrosive media, so that weight-loss
data or conventional corrosion tests are not reliable
guides. Where a material of assured resistance to
such attack is not economically available, it is necessary to reduce the stress range to purely elastic
action (within twice the yield strength), and in extreme cases to no more than twice the basic allowable stress. Superficial overall corrosion and initial
traces of concentrated attack or pitting are sufficient
to cause accelerated fatigue failure. The possibility
of intergranular corrosion on austenitic steels, as
associated with chromium depletion at the grain

SYSTEMS

boundaries, should be avoided by the use of stabilized

materials, with maximum resistance to other accelerated attack generally obtained if the composition
is completely austenitic.
Strength, ease of forming, and weldability are also
important considerations. Early expansion joints
were made mostly of copper, but this material is
now largely supplanted by the stainless steels.
These, because of their inherently greater strength
can be used in lighter thicknesses in contact with a
much wider range of fluids and at higher temperatures and pressures.
7.5g Fatigue Basis for Predicting Bellows
Life. As a rule, the manufacturer's ratings for bellows joints are not clear cut and do not indicate the
number of cycles to failure. Ordinarily, with the
high stress range attendant to the manufacturer's
rated maximum movements, the number of useful
cycles is apt to be only a small fraction of the
7000 cycles established for pipe in the 1955 Piping
Code rules. Manufacturers are inclined to cite similar service applications in justification of their
ratings; such statements must be discounted in the
absence .of direct data of actual service, or test data,
including the number of cycles.
It is believed, however, that a rational approach
to the bellows design problem is attainable and that
the operation of a bellows, although usually in the
plastic range, does not differ greatly from that of
any localized areas of stress intensification of ordinary piping systems for which design criteria are
now available in the Piping Code, as outlined and
discussed in Chapter 2. Application of this stress
range approach to the fatigue performance of bellows material must be accompanied by an attempt
to recognize and evaluate the effect of local stress
raisers whieh cannot be eliminated.
Fatigue testing of actual joints is the soundest
approach for establishing the characteristics of a
basic approach or of a specific design. Since no
simple relation has evolved for interconversion of
movement and pressure capacity, incorporation of
detailed rules in the Code would be premature in
the present state of knowledge. A' basic design
should be verified by tests to establish sufficient data
for extrapolation to other sizes. Since tests of each
specific size of each' design are impractical, there remains the necessity for translating test results to
other sizes of joints.
Until available tests are sufficiently numerous to
establish close parameters for a particular configuration or a more accurate general formula, the following approximate approach has been found to give

APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION EFFECTS:

reasonably useful results, Expansion joint tests [4, 5}
presently available, while not numerous, nevertheless are in sufficient number to slllrw that in general
the results parallel those obtained from tests on
other piping components in the relation of strain
range to number of cycles to failure.
Such tests
show that

N-

l'

where N = number of cycles to failure.

E = total
range of unit strain due to movement and pressure.
n = a constant for the material used.

EXPANSION JOINTS

Ns
where N s

800,000)3.5

= (

221
(7.2)

Sn

number of cycles which the joint should

be expected to endure safely in service.

This relation affords a means of combining the

effect of extreme emergency movements or other
movements which can be combined with normal
operation to a single equivalent condition.
For example, if the extreme movement produces a stress
range S 1 and is expected to occur at most N 1 times,
the fractional part of the fatigue life used for this
condition would be
(7.3)

The exponent n usually ranges from 3.3 to 4 on

stainless steel bellows, usually nearer the lower figure. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume a value
of 3.5 for stainless steel bellows elements.
In tests
of carbon-steel
piping components the range was
found to vary from 4 to 6, with an n value generally
in the vicinity of 5.
In keeping with the inclusion of a safety factor
on stress for other parts of a piping system, it would
seem desirable to provide a safety factor of at least
2 on stress (or strain) in the bellows at rated conditions. This safety factor on stress in turn means a
margin of (2)3.5 = 11 on the number of cycles to
failure, since the change is rapid with stress variation. In addition, a minimum performance should be
established for cases where the number of cycles in
operation is expected to be rather low, and it is suggested that the same minimum number of 7000 cycles
used for piping also be applied to the joints.
This
will keep the expected performance reasonably well
in line with the remainder of the piping system designed in accordance with the stress range as discussed in Chapter 2. Where cyclic performance
tests are possible, they should be made at the rated
movements and pressure, with both varied over the
range for each cycle.
The following approximate relation can be used
in assessing or extrapolating test data for probable
performance of stainless steel bellows:

(80~~OOy.5
and the design number of cycles for the normal
movement must be increased by this fraction to
secure the equivalent number of cycles at normal
movement.
This also makes it apparent that the provision of
design movement in the joint for installation tolerances or similar reasons need not be considered as
having any significant bearing on the fatigue performance of the joint, since they provide for an
initial, not a repetitive condition.
The range of stress in a single-layer bellows may
be approximated
by eqs. 7.4 to 7.7. These expressions are based on simple beam analogues similar to
that presented in Chapter 3, Fig. 3.15, with the
constants somewhat increased.
The second term
represents the effect of pressure and should be kept
within the Code allowable stress Ss; although joints
of the type covered by eq. 7.4 have successfully operated at higher stress levels. The pressure term in
eqs. 7.6 and 7.7 ignores pressure bending stresses,
which although not entirely proper provides fair
correlation
with available fatigue tests.
Despite
the drastic simplification involved in these approximations they generally yield a reasonable estimate
of the strain range for purposes of estimating performance using a criterion such as eq. 7.1.
For fiat disc bellows:

(7.1 )
where

N
Sn

=
=

number of cycles to failure.

calculated range of stress, psi, as given
byeqs. 7.4 to 7.7.

AB noted above, the design service rating should not

be assumed higher than about 10% of this or

Sn

3Elll
w Nd

= --2

+ -pw
2t2

(7.4)

For U-shaped bellows without equalizing

SR

1.5Etil

= hO.Sw1.5N

rings:'

+ -pw
2t2

(71':'

IA more exact evaluation

of the stresses in aU-shaped
bellows may be found in reference (6).

222

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

For U-shaped
bellows having equalizing rings
which provide support against internal pressure only
along inner edge r'
,'_
1.5Ett..
pw
(7.6)
Sa = ho.5w1.5N + -t-

The force, F, in lbs, necessary to deflect the bellows an amount !!,., can be stated as follows:
For flat disc bellows:
F =

For modified toroidal bellows having

of ellipse about 0.8 to O.9w.:

Sa

1.5Ett..
w2Nd

minor axis

Sa
t

t..

E
w

k
Nd

= range of stress due to expansion

and pressure,

psi.
bellows thickness, or thickness of longitudinal
weld seam with reinforcement,
whichever is
larger, in.
= total movement range, extension and compression, plus equivalent axial movement, in.,
as given by eqs, 7.8 to 7.11.
= modulus of elasticity at 70 1", psi.
= bellows width, in.
= pitch of half-corrugation,
in.
= number
of active bellows discs or halfcorrugations.
= internal pressure, psi.
=

The equivalent axial movement corresponding to

the angular rotation on universal, or hinged type,
joints may be determined by
t..

= DOl2

(7.8)

where D = mean bellows diameter, in.

o = total angular rotation, radians.
The equivalent axial movement for a single-bellows offset joint, based on the most severely affected
corrugations (those at the ends), is found from:
t..

= 3DhriL

(7.9)

where D is as above and

hr = offset range or total lateral displacement
of one end of the joint with respect to
the other, in.
L == overall length of bellows, in.
For a joint having a double bellows separated by a
spool piece the equivalent axial movement becomes:
ll.

3_D_h_:_r
__
L

4EDt3ll.
F _ --:::-::--;:-:;-

_ 3ho.5W2.5 N d

For true toroidal bellows, Sa may be found from

[7, 8) and the torus membrane formula.

+ l[(iIL) +

1]

(7.10)

where L = overall length, end to end, of bellows,

including spool piece, in.
I = length of spool piece, in.
2Lirnit use of Eq. (7.6) and E'!. (7.12) t l w/3 :$ h :$ w.

(7.11 )

For Ll-shaped corrugations.f

(7.7)

pw

7rEDt3ll.
3N
w d

(7.12)

For toroidal expansion joints, consult [7, 8).

7.5h Testing and Quality Control of Bellows

Joints.
Expansion joints must properly be classed
with special rather than mass-produced equipment,
with regard to the extent of inspection and testing
during manufacture
and installation and of other
quality controls applicable to the fabrication details
and materials involved.
In common with specialized equipment, the advisable degree of control is
also related to the reliability of the producer.
Structural
tests on bellows expansion joints include independent
pressure and movement
tests,
and also combined pressure and movement tests.
Tests at
times the design pressure have been
opposed as unnecessary by manufacturers
employing hydraulic forming who reason that the bellows
has already been adequately tested by the forming
pressure.
This position ignores the support provided by the external dies during forming which
may be absent or considerably different on the actual
joint, particularly
in the extended position which
should be the joint position for the test. Adequate
pressure tests are good insurance against possible
damage during and subsequent to hydraulic forming,
such as in flanging the ends, full heat treatment, etc.
All possible assessment of weakness is highly desirable, since once assembled, access is restricted.
Proof tests often cannot be applied after installation
due to weak elements elsewhere, the variable of
liquid load, etc. For pressure tests, whether shop
or after installation, unless the joints are of hinged,
tied, or pressure balanced type, the end load must
be taken by a test frame or other structure,
Tightness tests at operating pressure are routine
with each cycle of operation or period of maintenance; low and intermediate
pressure air tests are
often used at various stages of fabrication for the
same purpose.
Such tests essentially only check
for leaks.
Movement or flexure tests are desirable, particularly in combination with pressure in assessing the
structural capacity of expansion joints, and assuring
that gross fabrication flaws are not present; if re-

I!

APPROACHES

FOR REDUCING

EXPANSION

peated a few times, the latter aim is more definitely

assured. When extended to an appreciable number
of cycles, the fatigue strength of...that specific joint
and also to a lesser extent of the general design is
verified, but the joint tested is sacrificed.
Flexure elements, in view of their critical nature,
are properly subjected to all nondestructive examination applicable to the material analysis. Usually,
radiographic examination is of limited value due to
the thin material, and ultrasonic examination is not
sufficiently developed for general use on the configuration involved. Magnetic powder examination
is applicable to ferritic materials, and the various
crack detection aids, such as fluorescent penetrant
oil viewed under ultraviolet illumination, penetrant
dye suspensions, and volatile liquids as absorbed by
chalk powder may be used on all materials. It is
preferable that the examination follow a few flexings and where practical be performed at both extreme and neutral positions, since tensile stress
would render flaws more readily detectable. The
examination should cover the sheet material, the
welds, and parts to which the bellows is directly
attached.
7.6 Expansion Joints
straints

with

Btrilt.-In Con-

The movement of non-stiff piping systems must

be controlled within limits which do not exceed the
working capacity of the flexible elements which it
contains. This may be accomplished to suit particular situations by:
1. Restraints at desirable locations in the piping
system but not on the flexible members.
2. Details of the flexible-member assembly which
limit the motions of individual elements, or assemblies.
3. Details of the flexible-member assembly which
are of sufficient strength to restrain movement of
both the piping system and its flexible units.
In addition flexible members may be preset to
establish the initial desired bellows position as a
dimensional guide in erection, or else can act as
rigid units exerting positive control of the initial
desired position. The details which limit or control
the extreme range and installed position, or which
serve as a guide for installation dimensions when
either permanently or temporarily a part of the
flexible member assembly, fall within the designation "built-in constraints" as employed herein.
This section is devoted to their examination. Bellows joints, due to their more widespread usage, are
used as a principal vehicle for discussion .

j;s-....
,,-,-----.-.----,~-~,,-

...~.----.-----------

EFFECTS:

EXPANSION

JOINTS

223

Flexible elements are subject to damage with any

unanticipated movement which exceeds the margin
provided over their operating capacity. Such movements may originate with foundation settlement,
failure or distortion of structures, yielding of piping
due to temporary overloads, and unexpected piping
deflection such as that due to circumferential thermal
gradients. Distortions which involve lengthy periods of time, such as creep, have the same effect
except that they can be anticipated and the ranges
of movement adjusted occasionally.
Excessive movement may disengage packed joints
or render them inoperative by distortion or rupture.
Bellows assemblies may be damaged by kinks, etc.
with subsequent rapid fatigue failure, or may suffer
direct rupture, particularly at welds; also the overall
joint may be damaged by distortion or fracture of
stops, hinges, etc.
Expansion joint failure may cause direct or contingent damage resulting from the whipping effects
of the suddenly released piping, or by injury to
personnel, economic loss by fire, and loss of contents.
Packed axial-type joints usually involve some inherent restraint, which can also easily be provided
on the swivel type when desired. Except for highly
specialized types, bellows joints are capable of only
limited torsional resistance, which is undependable
since buckling cannot be closely predicted. In general, bellows joints are dependent for protection
against undesired change in position on the piping
system stiffness, the external restraints provided to
limit movement of the piping system, or on their
built-in constraints. In the following paragraphs,
general types of joints will be examined for suitable
constraint arrangements to accomplish one or more
of the alternate objectives which have been mentioned.
In assessing the desirability for and favorable
choice of built-in constraints, the piping system
should first be examined as a complete frame.
Weight of the metal components, contents, insulation, and attachments must be taken care of externally where the joint design provides limited or
no capacity for such loading; wind, earthquake, or
possible shock effects are similarly treated. Chapter 8, while intended primarily for stiff piping, also
provides useful assistance for non-rigid piping support and restraint selection and design. Next, the
piping system should be explored as to possible
locations for the installation of suitable guides,
stops, etc., to define and limit movement at the
expansion joints, and simultaneously, on the basis
of preliminary analysis, as to the selection of the

DESIGN

224

OF PIPING

flexible joint types and their number. Usually both

the number of joints and their individual number
of elements will be minimized in- the interests of
safety, minimum maintenance, and cost. The final
step is the settlement of general constraint requirements as associated with the movement tolerances
to be applied to t he operating movement range of
each joint.
Built-in constraints for packed joints can usually
be provided simply and without appreciable cost,
if the basic design is rugged and capable of carrying
the additional loading without distortion and attendant binding or leakage. Some of the commonly
used arrangements which are capable of wide variation are as follows:
Axial motion may be limited by an external structure, such as tie rods, or by providing a single
exterior shoulder or set of lugs on the male member
and two confining internal shoulders on the casing.
The rotary angular movement of swivel joints may
be confined by lugs on the body or on the closure
cover. Internal provision can consist of slotting
the male member to a width defining the range of
motion and providing interior lugs on the casing
located properly within, and with respect to, the lugs.
Ball-and-socket joints are usually capable of transmitting end-pressure load without auxiliary construction, and swivel (rotary) joints, with arrangements which have been described, can function in
the same manner. An objection to the use of swivel
joints is the 90 change of direction with attendant
pressure drop. A special design of swivel joint has
been in service for a number of years in the main
steam line of a moderate-size high-pressure steam
generating unit, and employs metallic packing which
is self-sealed by the end reaction of the internal
pressure.
For bellows joints, external constraints for limiting movement during service usually fall within one
of the following basic types.
1. Limit rods which confine single bellows assemblies to a desired range of rotation or lateral movement. (See Fig. 7.8, where the lateral movement
type only is illustrated.)
2. Limit rods in one or more sets, which establish
the range of axial, angular, and lateral movements
for universal type expansion joints. (See Fig. 7.9.)
The rods also serve to minimize the influence of
weight effects of intermediate pipe runs. Similar
details arc required when multiple bellows assemblies
are used on axial joints.
3. Hinges which limit bellows to bending effects
to secure purely angular movement; the range of

SYSTEMS

movement may be established by integral stops,

details of the hinges, or by external limit rods.
(See Fig. 7.10.)
4. Piston arrangement for confining bellows movement within close limits to a purely axial direction.
(See Fig. 7.11.)
Tie rods may be of any structural shape of sufficient cross section to carry the tensile and compressive loading without yielding or buckling. Where
bending or offset motion is involved, the end connections of the rods are preferably provided with
spherically turned surfaces, hinges, or other details
which will minimize friction. Care should be exercised to assure that the lug plates and their attachment to the adjacent piping are adequate to avoid
local overstressing of the pipe wall with consequent
excessive deflection and unpredictable performance
of the tie rods. Stops are provided on both sides of
the lug plates and are carefully positioned to estabSwivel Or Hinged Connection

li. Rod.

FIG.

7.8

Tied expansion joint.

Limit Rod.

FIG. 7.9

Universal type expansion joint.

Hing. pin provided
wilh fi~ing for Nic.
rubrica1ion

lim;! Rod.

Wolding end con.lruction

u,own. II lIangod. hing
are ",ually bolted 10 !ho
flangei.

Hingei
FIG.

7.10

Hinged expansion joint.

APPROACHES

FOR REDUCING

EXPANSION

lish movement range as related to the bellows

assembly.
When joints are installed in a'liorizontal position,
full-length rods of sufficient strength to provide support for the floating pipe sections are essential, unless other support (external to the joint) is provided.
Such support is to be approached with caution,
however, so as to avoid imposing unanticipated
lateral deflection on the bellows.
The use of hinged expansion joints to accommodate substantial amounts of expansion was initiated
and developed by The M. W. Kellogg Company for
large-diameter piping in fluid catalyst cracking
units and similar applications. Figure 7.10 illustrates a typical design, although many variations
of hinge and other details have been employed. In
an extreme detail, hinges are integrated in complete
cylinders surrounding the joint with sufficient clearance only for the necessary motion; this arrangement
is for maximum distribution of the hinge reactions
around the circumference. The hinges may be attached to the backs of conventional bolting flanges
or, for welding end construction, to special rings as
shown on the illustration. With hinges provided
on opposite sides of the bellows and installed so that
their hinge pin axes will coincide with each other,
and essentially with the midpoint of the bellows
element, the maximum movement capacity will be
realized. Machined construction and assembly with
reasonably close tolerances is required. The limitation of this design is that the entire end load due
to pressure, weight, and other effects, unless relieved
by counter weights or springs, must pass through

FIG. 7.11

L_ .

EFFECTS:

EXPANSION

JOINTS

225

the hinge pin; the hinges and pins must also resist
transverse loading due to wind and other effects,
unless adequate external provisions oppose their
effect.
Axial-movement-type expansion joints are quite
similar in detail to their counterpart in packed
joints, with the substitution of a bellows seal for
the packing. When constructed with machined
parts, this type of design is obviously expensive and
can be justified only for special cases where installed
location and general system arrangement make it
difficult to achieve effective guiding by other means,
or where a large amount of axial movement must
be provided and guiding of the bellows assembly
against lateral buckling is necessary. With an internal arrangement it is also possible to secure maximum confinement of the bellows against abrupt release of contents, and sometimes an auxiliary packed
joint is provided to further minimize this hazard
particularly for toxic content services. Sometimes
joints of this type are fabricated to reasonably close
forming tolerances, without machining; however,
without lubrication, binding is much more likely to
occur.
In combination, constraints and auxiliary expansion joints can be used to balance end loading due
to internal pressure at an expansion joint location.
This is most readily achieved where a joint is installed adjacent to an elbow, as shown in Fig. 7.12.
In effect, the elbow now becomes a tee with an
identical auxiliary expansion joint as an extension
of the run and with the primary and auxiliary joints
connected by tie rods or similar arrangement.
It

Axial movement type expansion joints.

226

DESIGN OF PIPING

FIG. 7.12

Pressure balanced expansion joint.

can readily be seen that the end pressure load is

now carried across both joints through the tie rods
and that there is no unbalanced pressure load acting
on the elbow. There will, however, be an unbalanced force acting on the elbow equal to the sum of
the elastic forces required to compress one bellows
and simultaneously extend the other, which should
not be overlooked for the moment loading it may
introduce in the piping. Similar arrangements can
be worked out for packed joints. For joints in
straight runs of piping, designs utilizing larger concentric joints have been devised to effect pressure
balancing but are usually so expensive as to be impractical. Aside from their cost, pressure balancing
by auxiliary expansion joints usually involves the
drawback of dead ends with no flow, unless circulating lines are provided; Subsection 7.51 has pointed
out the hazards of condensation corrosion for metal
temperatures below the flow dewpoint.
Apart from the above types of built-in constraints,
the movement range of joints is sometimes controlled by arrangements and connections to independent structures; for example, limit stops may be
provided which can be temperature adjusted to
establish the maximum compression or extension of
a joint, or, similarly, to limit lateral movement.
Attention is again called to Chapter 8 for the many
types of external restraints which can be used to
control the position of piping at expansion joints.
As previously indicated, the structural capacity
necessary for built-in constraints is dependent on
whether auxiliary external limit stops or other external aids are provided.
To assure proper installation, it is more effective
and often economic to provide preset means for
establishing the installation position of the joints,
which may be consolidated with the built-in constraints for limiting service movements 'where such
are of sufficient strength, otherwise by a separate
temporary structure.
Where the size of the line and other details permit, it is preferable that these preset restraints be
adequate to provide strength comparable to the
attached piping. In such cases, the installation can

SYSTEMS

be accomplished without special precautions for protection of the expansion joint and the restraints
released only after piping erection is entirely completed, and just before starting up the job. In the
usual assembly of a rigid piping system, weld shrinkage, the necessity for pulling ends into alignment, as
well as pull-up effects of flange joints, all combine to
establish an erection internal stress. When suddenly
imposed on a preset expansion joint by removal of
the preset ties, whipping of the line may occur unless
restraining means are employed; more important
deflections and rotations comparable to the internal
loading will appear at the joint, which will in some
degree obviate the preset objectives. This can be
minimized by thermally unloading the piping before
the preset ties are released in the manner described
in Chapter 3.
Built-in constraints and preset ties should be installed under adequate engineering supervision fully
familiar with the dual objective of accurate positioning and protection of the relatively fragile
elements involved. Usually this is more adequately
accomplished by the specialist manufacturer of the
expansion joints, when the necessary facilities arc
at hand.
7.7

Establishing
Demands

Expansion

Joint

Movement

The amount and direction of expansion affects the

selection of the type of expansion joint and its constraints which, in turn, control the movement capacity needed in the joint. Similar to stiff piping systems, design capacities must be established so as to
cover normal operation and all routine conditions.
such as starting-up and shutting down, as well as
all possible occasional and emergency conditions.
Movements of connected vessels or other equipment
and the effect of connected structures must be included in addition to the expansion of the pipe; ill
general, any situation must be examined which may
affect movement at the joints. Prediction of service
life must distinguish between the normal and the
occasional movement demands as covered in Subsection 7.5g. To provide for fabrication and erection deviations, as well as for service distortion of
the piping assembly during its life, the maximum
range of movement of the joint should provide some
excess capacity over that required for thermal expansion effects alone; the amount is dependent in
some degree on the joint design and its built in constraint details. Therefore, setting the final purchase
conditions for an expansion joint requires a broad
knowledge of the process operations which dictate

APPROACHES FOR REDUCING EXPANSION

the expansion movements, a thorough familiarity
with installation procedures, and a fair comprehension of the structural details of the system as they
may affect deformation of the pipe immediately or
over its life period.
The approach for determining thermal expansion
movements is dependent upon the type of piping
system involved. An important consideration, as
already pointed out earlier in this chapter when the
systems of varying degrees of stiffness were described, is whether or not the flexure of the pipe is
used to provide in any measure for the thermal
expansion of the system. If bending is present, it
is necessary to obtain the deflection and rotational
displacements by methods given in Chapters 5 or 6.
Where piping flexibility is not a contributing factor,
the task then is to obtain from the original dimensions, and the expanded position, the axial and lateral movements, as well as the angular displacements, at each joint location. This section is
devoted to outlining a convenient approach for obtaining this change in line position with temperature.
No recognized nomenclature applying to expressing the movements of expansion joints presently
exists. Whereas misunderstanding is unlikely for
sliding joints, there has been confusion at times in
properly understanding the movement ranges of
bellows expansion joints. For this reason the COIlventions shown in Fig. 7.13 are followed.
Tolerances for probable deviations in conventional
erection may represent a substantial part of the cost
of the joint. When such incremental cost is sufficiently large, consideration should be given to more
precise and more expensive installation, as offering
possible greater economy. Tolerances may be minimized by:
1. Favorable location and structural details, and
a planned and adequately presented erection procedure.
2. The use of expansion joint prepositioning
structural arrangements, adequate for rigid assembly of the entire piping system without deflection
of the joint, as described in Section 7.6.
Many joints present individual problems; in general, it is more economical to depend entirely on
tolerances for installations which are not too complex or when an available margin of excess movement capacity exists or can be had for little extra
cost, and to resort to both tolerances and prepositioning devices, etc., only where critical service or
economics justifies both. Plain bellows joints (nonequalizing) without limit stops and with open-type
corrugations will stand some deformation without

EFFECTS: EXPANSION

JOINTS

227

affecting their performance. However, offset should

be avoided on single corrugation assemblies, and in
any case should be limited, to avoid local areas of
appreciably reduced radius, or kinks. It is necessary to provide for some deviation from the desired
installation dimensions even when the joint is rigidly
restrained during erection of the piping system,
since the effects of cold pull and weld shrinkage will be
taken up by the joint when the temporary structure
is removed, although these effects may be minimized
by thermal unloading as previously mentioned.
Pressure or temperature deflection, weight and
transient effects, and minor irregularities are difficult to predict. Movement capacity is usually not
provided for creep deformation of hot lines due to
thermal or weight loadings and similar long-time
changes in dimension, on the assumptions that expansion joints may involve periodic replacement
due to corrosion or fatigue failure and that dimensions will be periodically checked and adjusted if
necessary.
In the case of packed joints the extreme movement limits are needed for establishing the clearances
within the joint and, in the case of bellows joints, are
Und.fleded

t---

~-8"'Ang"la,

FIG. 7.13

PO<ition

II = Axial Comp,M>ion

Rotation (,adian,)

Action of expansion bellows under

various movements.

DESIGN OF PIPING

228

~.-

SYSTEMS

rTheoroticot tn,tolled
I

Sample Calculation

7.1

Position

Given Data

PLAN

Extrema limits

of Movemen,
FIG.

7.14

Diagram illustrating range of axial movements of

an expansion joint.
Sign convention for

rotationll + rotation
Indica'", joint will
open on IIde mOrked
with an osteri,k

32.2'

FIG. 7.15

Diagram of general three-jointed

hinged-joint system.

needed for establishing

the maximum movement
and constraint settings.
Figure 7.14 diagrammatically illustrates the range of movements including
tolerances for a. simple joint.
Sample Calculations
7.1 and 7.2 illustrate the calculation of joint movements including added allowances and tolerances.
Where movements of appreciable range, not evenly
distributed
with respect to the center line, are involved, presetting the joints to utilize both sides of
the center line is recommended.
In Sample Calculation 7.1 the calculation of a
universal-type
expansion joint is illustrated.
While
essentially self-explanatory,
it may be of benefit to
point out that the expansions have been calculated
on a coordinate system such that the basic coordinate lies along the axis of the joint, disregarding the
orientation
of connected piping or vessels, a procedure which is usually advantageous
in simplifying
the computations.
The movement determinations
for a three-hingedjoint system are readily handled by the method outlined below and illustrated in Sample Calculation 7.2.
Such a system may be treated as a linkage assembly
of rigid members; thus the rotations are limited to
the joints and for any given layout are simply a
function of the terminal displacements of the system
and the incremental expansion change in length of

ELEVATION

Unit Expansions
@400 F, e = 0.00229 in. lin.
@700 F, e = 0.00482 in./in.
Expansion

Calculations

Axial:
12(1l.12XO.00229+39.1

xO.OO482) =2.57"

Offset:

= 1.86"

12 X32.2 XO.OO482
Axial

Cocking Offset
(Each Side of~)

Compression

Extcnsion

Calc. expansion range

Allowance (10%)
Installation tolerance

2.57"
0.26"
0.5 "

0"
0"
0.5"

0
0
0

1.86"
0.19"
0.5 "

Total

3.33"

0.5"

2.55"

Precook or pre-offset

..

...

Design movement

3i"

I"

If'!

"2'

"t

'Uequired on one side of . if no pre-offset.

[Pre-offset may be } of the total movement range (not
including tolerances) = ~(1.86+0.19)
"" 1".
fMaximum movement from . with 1" pre-offset =
2.55 - 1 = 1.55 "" Ii".

APPROACHES

FOR REDUCING

EXPANSION

the members, or of position, if vessel movement

must be included. While a trigonometric solution
is indicated, it cannot be accomplished with sufficient
accuracy on the slide rule, and the use of logarithms
is time consuming. Hence, the following formulas
were developed which are amply accurate, giving
slide rule solutions to within a few minutes for small
rotation angles (say about 5 or less). The notation
is in accordance with Fig. 7.15, which shows a general three-hinge system.
If ll.r is the effective displacement of joint b relative to a, it may be defined as:

EFFECTS:

EXPANSION

JOINTS

229

Expansions (ft)
(treated as given data in this sample calculation)
Case II

Case I

T (Line Temp. F)
e (Unit Exp. ft/ft)

xe
ll=

.
.

'"

llzh

yeo

ll~a
ll~b

.
.

1060
0.00818

70
0

0.184
0.0
-0.034

0
0
0

0.145
0.111
-0.006

0
0
0.27.'5

Calculations
Case I

ll~ = -0.034 + 0 - 0.184 = -0.218'

Sample Calculation 7.2

ll~

Given Data

XaYb =

XbYa -

CPa

-0.006 - 0.111 - 0.145

-0.262'

9.85 X 16.05 - 12.65 X 1.75 = 136

(-0.218 X 9.85) + (-0.262 X 1.75)

180
136
X --;_1.10
0

CPb
CPab

(-0.218 X 12.(5) + (-0.262 X 16.05)

136
= -2.94
=

= 1.10

+ 2.94

180

X--;-

= 4.04

Case II

ll:

=0

~v =

cpa

Dimensions (ft)
,J,.

12.65
Xb = 9.85
z = 22.5

Xa

Ya

=
Yb =
Y =

16.05
1.75
17.80

Case

Jt.

Calculated

-_-- ----- ----a

{ri
----- -----

hi

ab

---- ----r I

b
Noles:

\II

-1.10
+0.20
----+4.04
-2.06
-----2.94
+1.86

Allowance

= 0

+ (0.275 X

CPab

Rotation
Tolerance
(Nominal)

Required

136

0.5}
0.5
----0.5}
0.5

0.29
0.19

0.5\
0.5j

----- -----

2.43

----7.71
----6.28

0.275'

1.75)

180 = 020
To

180
X

7r

1860

-0.20 - 1.86 = -2.06

Range
Provided*

----- ----- --_ ................... ----0.11

0.02
----0.40
0.21

136

= 0 + (0.275 X 16.05)

'l'b

Rotations
Exp.

0.275 + 0 + 0

8.0
-----8.0
---~8.0

Precock

Design
Positions

Provided
Each Side

------ ----- -----+0.5

{-0.60
+0.70

4.0
4.0

J+3.04[-3.06

4.0
4.0

{-2.44
+2.30

4.0
4.0

----- ----- -~-----

...

-1.0

----- ----- ---+0.5

..~-

All rotations given in degrees.

sign indicates rotation such us to open joint on side indicated on the sketch by all asterisk.
"The same movement capacity WlL'I selected for ull three joints on the assumption that the advantages of uniformity offset. the
extra materinl requirement.

.~

DESIGN

230
.6.11

OF PIPING SYSTEMS
References

is similarly defined:
1. F. E. Wolosewick,

where c is the unit expansion which applies to the

piping between a and b. The rotation of joint a in
degrees is:

2.
3.

4.

The rotation of joint b in degrees is:

cf>b=

A"xa

Al/Ya

XbYa

XaYb

5.

180

X-

7r

6.

The rotation of joint ab is found from:

7.

Dimensions and expansion must be

units.

111

consistent

8.

"Expansion Joints and their Applicntion," Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 29, No.5,
pp. 146-150
(1!l50).
S. Crocker, Piping Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1945.
J. E. York, "Joints to Permit Movement," Heaiinq and
VentUati7lg, Vol. 46, No.1, pp. 85-88 (Jan. 1949); Vol. 46,
No.2, pp. 93-07 (Feb. 1949); Vol. 46, No.3, pp. 87-91
(~ur. Hl49).
F. J. Feely, Jr. and 'V. M. Goryl, "Stress Studies on Piping
Expansion Bellows," J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 17, No.1,
p. 135 (1950).
W. Sarnans and L. Blumberg, "Endurance
Testing of
Expansion Joints," ASME Paper No. 54-A-I03 (1954).
F. Salzmann, "Ueber die Nnchgiebigkeit von Wellrohrexpansionen," Schuieiz, Bauztg., Band 127, Nr. 11, pp. 127130.
It A. Clark, "On the Theory of Thin Elastic Toroidal
Sheils," J. Math. and Phys., M.LT., Vol. 29, pp. 146-178
(1950).
N. C. Dahl, "Toroidal Shell Expansion Joints," J. Appl.
Mechanics, Vol. 20, No.4, pp. 497-503 (1953).

CHAPTER

Supporting, Restraining, and Bracing

the Piping System

THOUGH a piping system may properly be

described as an irregular space frame, it
differs from conventional structures in that
frequently, due to its slender proportions, it may not
be self-supporting or it may need to be restrained or
braced against certain effects.
Service temperatures can introduce sufficient
thermal stress or lower the material strength so as
to require supplementary structural assistance.
Limiting the line movement at specific locations may
be desirable to protect sensitive equipment, to control vibration, or to resist external influences such as
wind, earthquake, or shock loading. In the absence
of significant thermal expansion, such as in water
service, conventional structural practices and the
use of available standard hardware are entirely
adequate and economic.
For other piping where service temperatures
introduce sufficient dimension change and reduction
in material strength, adequate design of supports,
restraints, and braces requires a satisfactory grasp
of localized loading and thermal gradient effects on
high-temperature pressure shells, and reasonable
understanding of the thermal changes attendant to
service requirements, including emergency and
auxiliary conditions. This latter background is
more readily available during the initial stages of a
project. The planning of pipe supports, restraints,
and braces simultaneously with the establishment of
layout configurations, also offers the added advantage of a more economic installation. When relegated to the status of a job-end finish-up item or left
solely to the erector, only conventional structural
treatment can be expected, with later changes

needed to correct failures, sagging, leakage, equipment damage, difficult maintenance, etc.
The analysis of thermal and structural effects in
piping is of limited value unless paralleled by support
design sufficiently complete to assure realization
of the flexibility analysis assumptions. Injudicious
or over-use of supports or lack of advantageous
restraints and braces can create an overload hazard
instead of giving protection to sensitive equipment or, for satisfactory performance, can require
needlessly long runs of pipe. While accurate calculations are usually not economically feasible for
average piping, much can be accomplished toward
economic and satisfactory design by approximations
and reasoning when applied by personnel of adequate
engineering background and experience.
Except for idealized counterbalancing as approached by counterweights, all supports involve
some degree of restraint; conversely, many restraints
and braces unavoidably resist gravitational effects,
so that it is logical and convenient to combine their
treatment in this chapter. While they involve a
considerable expenditure, pipe supports, restraints,
and braces have received insufficient attention in the
literature from either design or economic aspects.
This chapter will attempt to present general knowledge and opinions which have guided the support of
average piping, and also certain information for use
in combination with Chapters 4 and 5 when more
careful analysis is necessary.
8.1 Terminology and Basic Functions

A discussion of the problems involved in the provision and design of supports and restraints can be
231

232

DESIGN

OF PIPING

presented effectively only after the terms used to

describe them are clearly defined and their functions
are clearly understood.
....
In the absence of an authoritative
text, the
terminology
adopted in general for some time by
The M. W. Kellogg Company has been used throughout this volume.
It is summarized for the reader's
convenience in the following glossary with the hope
that it will receive general acceptance and contribute
to clarity of thinking on the subject at large as well
as in this Chapter.
Restraint.
Any device 'which prevents, resists, or
limits the free thermal movement of the piping.
Support.
A device used specifically to sustain a
portion of weight of the piping system plus any
superimposed vertical loadings.
Brace. A device primarily intended to resist displacement of the piping due to the action of any
forces other than those due to thermal expansion
or to gravity.
Note that with this definition, a
damping device is classified as a kind of brace.
Anchor.
A rigid restraint providing substantially
full fixation (i.e., encastre;
ideally permitting
neither translatory nor rotational displacement of
the pipe on any of the three reference axes). It is
employed for purposes of restraint but usually
serves equally well as restraint, support, or brace.
Stop. A device which permits rotation but prevents
translatory
movement in at least one direction
along any desired axis. If translation is prevented
in both directions along the same axis, the term
double-acting stop is preferably applied.
Two-axis Stop. A device which prevents translatory
movement in one direction along each of two axes.
A two-axis double-acting stop prevents translatory
movement in the plane of the axes while allowing
such movement normal to the plane.
Limit Stop.
A device which restricts translatory
movement to a limited amount in one direction
along any single axis.
Paralleling the various
stops there may also be: double-acting limit st01)S,
two-axis limit stops, etc.
Guide. A device preventing rotation about one or
more axes due to bending moment 01' torsion.'
. Hanger.
A support by which piping is suspended
from a structure, etc., and which functions by
carrying the piping load in tension.
Resting or Sliding Support. A device providing suplAlthough

some users employ the term "guide"

loosely

to cover both translatory nnd rotational restraint and bracing,

it is Ielt that the distinguishing
promotes clarity of presentation.

terminology

used

herein

SYSTEMS

port from beneath the piping but offering 110

resistance
other than frictional
to horizontal
motion.
Rigid (Solid) Support.
A support providing stiffness in at least one direction, comparable to that.
of the pipe.
Resilient Support.
A support which includes one or
more largely elastic members (e.g., spring).
Constant-effort Support. A support which is capable
of applying a relatively constant force at any displacement within its useful operating range (e.g.,
counterweight or compensating spring device).
Damping Device.
A dashpot
or other frictional
device which increases the damping of a system,
offering high resistance against rapid displacements caused by dynamic loads, while permitting
essentially free movement under very gradually
applied displacements.
Frequently,
the detail used at a specific location
performs several functions, e.g., stop and guide,
guide and brace, or support and anchor.
In such a
case the common practice is to designate the detail
for convenience by only one of the terms, whichever
best fits its primary function.
For example, a
resisting couple is provided by a pair of parallel
stops; thus the combination may properly be referred
to as a guide.
In Chapter 2, attention has been directed to the
fact that piping systems, for reasonably economic'
design, must operate over a. wide range of stress
between ambient
and service temperature
as a
result of combined thermal expansion and pressure
strains; the introduction to this chapter commented
on the frequent lack of structural capacity on the
part of unsupported
piping to carry weight effects
simultaneously
with pressure at the service temperature.
Supports, restraints, and braces are therefore desirable to reduce weight, wind, and, where
possible, expansion and transient effects, so that the
piping system stress range is not excessive for the
anticipated cycles of operation, thus avoiding fatigue
failure.
Ideally it would be desirable to provide
essentially continuous support, i.e., render the piping
weightless,
and to provide restraints
or braces
wherever stress reduction
can be accomplished.
From the practical considerations of cost and general
arrangement
requirements, however, supports, etc.,
are limited to locations favorable to their installation, or where their use is offset by proportionate
piping cost reductions.
As pointed out in Chapter 2, piping systems may
function under One or more operating conditions as

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING THE PIPING

dictated by changes in feed or end products, and as

influenced by service variables, in particular, cyclic
operation or the alternate use or-spare equipment;
they may further involve auxiliary operations such
as starting-up, shutting down, solvent cleaning,
pressure testing, etc., or unanticipated operating
upsets or emergencies due to equipment leaks,
power or equipment failures, etc. Each may involve
different temperatures for individual piping systems
or parts of systems as dictated by the location of
valves; in addition the necessity for sudden depressuring or removal of contents may require abrupt
establishment of flow with extreme velocities and
reactions, sometimes accompanied by pulsations.
To avoid actual rupture, the design must give due
consideration to such possibilities, and must provide
reasonably adequate support for each set of circumstances. Particular emphasis is directed at conditions involving lengthy duration, high temperature,
and frequent occurrence. This usually dictates that
supports be most completely effective in normal
operation, since for shutdown or other lower temperature
conditions the short-time
structural
strength is at a higher level and provides greater
latitude for lack of support without damage to the
piping.
8.2

Layout Considerations to Facilitate Sup-

port
Initial layout study of equipment, building, and
structure location and elevation is essential for effective design; over-all economics and appearance are
further improved where the primary piping and its
associated supporting structures and their intereffects are simultaneously subjected to study and
planning. In addition to establishing the general
arrangement and over-all design conditions, early
decisions must be reached on the types of support
structures for intercommunicating piping and their
elevation, access provisions for maintenance of equipment, cleaning and inspection requirements, and
selection of main support fixture types. Ample
space must be provided for large devices such as
counterweights.
The two cardinal principles in routing lines for
economic support, restraint, and bracing are:
1. Group pipe lines so as to minimize the number
of structures needed solely for pipe supports, restraints, or braces.
.
2. Keep lines located close to possible points of
support, etc., i.e. either to grade or to structures
which are to be provided for other purposes.
From the standpoint of economy, both of these

SYSTEM

233

are axiomatic, yet thcy are surprisingly often ignored

by designers, with awkward and expensive supports
the result. Wherever a number of lines are to pass
through a given space in approximately the same
direction, they should preferably be carried at the
same elevation (assuming horizontal pipe runs), and
parallel to each other, to building walls, to column
lines, or to equipment axes. The piping thus forms
"banks" or "racks" which are easily supported on a
common beam or stanchion if overhead, Of on sleepers
if the lines are placed just above the ground. Generally, any given line must be routed away from its
minimum-run course in order to include it in the
rack; however, the cost of the attendant extra pipe
and fittings is usually offset by reduced support
costs. Appearance, while secondary to utility, is
also enhanced by regular arrangement and avoidance
of unnecessary skewed or irregular runs of piping;
eye appeal and ease of supporting are usually complementary. Where there is much piping to be run
in an area, as is the case in the majority of process
plants, the most practicable scheme is to establish
specific elevations for groups of lines running in a
given compass direction (say north-south) while
setting other elevations for groups running in a
transverse direction (east-west). This arrangement
avoids interferences and also permits future piping
additions without undue difficulty or unsightliness.
The practice is exemplified in the oil refinery piping
shown in Fig. 8.1, also in the section through a
typical pipe rack in Fig. 8.2.
The decision whether to support a specific line or
group of lines from a building or structure and
thereby eliminate independent support structures is
based on the relative cost of the additional pipe as
compared with the additional supports. Detailed
comparisons are usually not readily accomplished
so that judgment on the part of the designer is necessary. Important lines are occasionally run skewed at
a sacrifice in appearance when significant savings in
piping or support costs can be made. For large lines
it is advantageous aside from process requirements
to make runs as short and direct as possible so that
the piping tends to be self-supporting. The necessary flexibility for thermal expansion must be
maintained regardless of the nature of the restraint
imposed by the pipe supports; (i.e., whether added
deliberately for the control of thermal expansion
stresses and reactions, or developed unavoidably in
the course of supporting and bracing against other
loads).
Control of thermal expansion by the use of restraints can serve to:

234

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

a. Sectionalize portions of a piping system for

isolation from the influences of the remainder of the
system.
....
b. Protect against overstress such weak spots as
locally reduced size runs of pipe, and sensitive local
or terminal components.
c. Control expansion direction so as to forestall
undesirable displacement at specific locations of the
piping.
Supporting and bracing the piping against loads
originating from sources other than thermal expan-

FIG. 8.1

sion will contribute additional resistance to thermal

expansion unless:
a. Supports or braces can be used which offer
negligible restraint. Constant-effort supports to take
weight, and damping devices to resist dynamic loads
assure such freedom along all axes. Hangers and
jointed struts offer resistance on one axis and free
movement on the other axes.
b. Supports or braces can be located at or neal'
neutral points, i.e., points where little or no thermal
movement occurs along the one or more desired axes,
thus minimizing additional restraint.

A pipe bank in a large unit of an oil refinery.

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING THE PIPING

The significant general considerations affecting

the routing of piping for favorable support may be
summarized as follows:
....
1. The piping system should be self-supporting
insofar as practicable and consistent with flexibility
requirements.
2. Excess flexibility may make additional supports or restraints necessary to avoid movement and
vibration in such amplitude as to arouse personnel
apprehension. This situation is apt to occur on
vertical lines where only one point of support is
needed to sustain the weight.
3. Free movement expansion joint systems involving appreciable unbalanced thrusts from pressure
should be avoided unless such forces can be taken on
substantial structures, or at grade.
4. Piping prone to vibrate, such as compressor
suction or discharge and driver exhaust lines, should

SYSTEM

235

be routed for support independent from other piping

and lightly braced structures and buildings. Routing
should permit the use of resting or similar supports
offering resistance to motion and providing some
damping capacity, rather than hanging supports.
5. The pipe line should be sufficiently close to the
point of support or restraint so that the structural
connection can have adequate rigidity and details
can be simple and economical.
6. Piping from upper connections on vertical
vessels is advantageously supported from the vessel
to minimize relative movement between supports and
piping; hence, such piping should be routed next to
the vessel and supported close to the connection.
7. Piping in structures should he routed beneath
platforms, near major structural members at points
favorable for added loading, to avoid the necessity
of making these members heavier.
Pori ion 01 in,ulation simply wi away
on mod.rate t.mp.rat"r.
lino.

Bare lines plac~

on ,tool momben \

Elovat.d temperature line, placod on """'"

permitting inlulation
to door

~Sl"'durel

,tool stonmien,

I,
FlO. 8.2

----_

Section through typical outdoor overhead pipe rack showing arrangement of north-south
east-west runs lit an intermediate elevation.

_._-----_

..,

_--,

runs at two elevations

_-----------------------------------------

and

236

DESIGN OF PIPING

8. Sufficient space should be allotted so that the

proper support assembly details may be accommodated.
...._
9. Access clearance must be provided in order that
support fixture parts requiring maintenance can be
serviced.
8.3

The Elements of the Supporting

Their Selection and Location

System:

In the design arrangement studies, the principal

piping is located for satisfactory flexibility and association with the equipment, buildings, and structures
to snit over-all functional requirements
and maximum utilization for reactions from the supports and
restraints.
In the final stages of this preliminary
engineering the stiffness of the individual piping
systems is examined with due consideration to the
selected restraints.
Later when the plans and
elevations of piping, details of vessels, structures,
buildings, foundations
and trenches, and setting
plans of pumps, compressors, etc. are available, the
final selection and location of the supports, restraints,
and braces can be accomplished.
This section will
be confined to discussing decisions as to the basic
types and locations of these supports, etc. Subsequent sections are devoted to details of these types.
Advantageous
location involves consideration of
the piping proper, the structure to which the load is
transmitted,
and the space limitations within which
the assemblies must operate.
Preferred points of
attachment
to the piping are:
1. On pipe rather than on piping components such
as valves, fittings, or expansion joints.
Under
highly localized loading, flanged or threaded joints
may leak and valve bodies may distort with resulting
seat leakage or binding.
Attachments
to heavy
components, however, may be acceptable and even
desirable where the effect can be properly provided
for.
2. On straight runs rather than on sharp-radius
bends or welding elbows, since these are already
subjected to highly localized stresses on which the
local effects of the attachment
would be superimposed.
Furthermore,
attachments
on curved
pipe which extend well along the length or circumference of the bend will seriously alter the flexibility
of such components.
3. On pipe runs which do not require frequent
removal for cleaning and maintenance.
4. As close as practical to heavy load concentrations such as vertical runs, branch lines, motor
operated
or otherwise heavy valves, and minor
vessels such as separators, strainers, etc.

SYSTEMS

Undesirable effects of piping reactions on foundations, other-purpose structures, buildings, or vessels

can be minimized by locating supports, etc. so as to:
1. Apply loads to column and beams near mainmember intersections to minimize bending effects.
2. Avoid the introduction of unnecessary torsion
or lateral bending effects.
3. Avoid the introduction of moments or transverse loading to slender members (such as wind
bracing) and particularly to compression members
where instability controls the design.
4. Confine connections to independent structures
or foundations when dealing with piping subject to
pulsating flow or transmitted
mechanical vibration
unless a careful and comprehensive analysis is made
to assure that the structures, buildings, etc., are of
adequate strength with nonresonant
natural
frequency and sufficient stiffness to control amplitude
within the bounds required by psychological effect
and general comfort of personnel.
5. Provide anchors and extremely flexible and
nonresonant intervening pipe runs (e.g., expansion
joints) to machinery introducing mechanical vibrations in order to isolate the effect by reducing
transmissibility.
In general the advantageous use of other-purpose
foundations,
structures,
etc. is dictated by their
ability to assume the additional loading with little
or no additional section. Recognition must be given
to the need in many cases for rigidity as well as
stress-carrying capacity of the structure used for the
attachment
of supports,
restraints,
and braces.
Connection to relatively flexible structures or tooslender members of those structures must be avoided
if their deflection prevents their assumption
of
loading in the desired degree because of the relative
stiffness of the pipe. The final choice of whether to
provide 11 separate structure depends on comparative
costs.
Ample clearance must be available for the piping,
including that required for expansion movements of
the pipe and for the supporting elements and their
proper functioning.
Fireproofing
and insulation
interferences, if overlooked, are a source of erection
difficulties, troublesome restraint, excessive maintenance, and poor appearance.
The introductory
paragraph of this section calls
attention to the necessity for early establishment
of
the significant restraints to the free movement of the
piping system under thermal expansion, so that the
general arrangement
of equipment structures
and
principal piping systems can be established
with
proper appreciation of the piping flexibility, and so

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING

that subsequent changes can be avoided. It is

further pointed out that the final selection and location of the supporting system elements must necessarily await completion of the plans and elevations
of the piping, details of vessels, structures, buildings,
foundations, and trenches, and setting plans of
pumps, compressors and other equipment.
With
their availability an over-all view of the supporting
system problems is obtained, and since usually the
basic functions of restraint, support, and bracing
are advantageously established in that order, the
following discussion will be so arranged, first covering
rigid piping and then followed by an examination of
the problems peculiar to semi-rigid, non-rigid, and
free movement piping systems.
Restraints.
Restraints to thermal expansion are
unavoidable in the terminal connections of the piping
system to equipment, vessels, etc., and the preceding
section has shown that additional restraints may be
desirable to control the position, stress, or reactions
at selected locations. The net effect of each added
restraint is a function of its location, and the direction and degree of limitation imposed. Unavoidable
restraints may occur at supports and braces and are
either minimized in relative magnitude by selection
or by location so that their effect can properly be
neglected, or else their influence must be provided
for by the flexibility of the piping system.

Reheal.r

16

o, D. Sch.

80 pip"

Turbine

MOlnonl> (It. kip,) and Forces (kip,) Ading at Point A

Stop at Point B
No' 'nelude<!
lnduded

FIG. 8.3

M.

My

Mz

+107.7 -27.5 +JS.9

-27.9

F.

Fy

-.120 -1.97

Fz
+1.77

+ 10.1 - 5.-4 -.730 + .71 +2.

Max. Sir." (PSi)

Magnitudo Point
11600

12400

Usc of !l. stop for the control of thermal

expansion reactions.

FIG. 8.4

THE PIPING SYSTEM

Typical stops employing

237

tie rods or jointed struts.

Total restraint in the form of terminal connections

to vessels or equipment for the most part establishes
the boundaries of individual legs of a piping system,
whereas that accomplished by direct anchorage to a
structure or foundation is limited in application to
locations where the structural subdivision of individual runs is considered desirable. In general each
added restraint reduces the inherent flexibility;
however, where sufficient margin in the stress range
is available, additional anchors may be desirable to
increase the line's self-supporting capacity, to define
the behavior of complex piping systems under
alternate and involved operating conditions, to
protect runs of lesser stiffness due to reduced section
or higher temperature, to isolate mechanical vibrations, and to change the natural frequency to minimize amplitude and avoid resonance.
The control of thermal expansion reactions or
movements can often be achieved advantageously
without intermediate anchorages by the judicious
use of stops and guides. Frequently it is desired to
limit only a certain component of a terminal reaction
or of the displacement at some point. In such a case
the use of full fixation would produce unnecessary
restraint, in many cases intolerable, unless the piping
can be made more flexible by the addition of loops,
etc. A typical application is shown in Fig. 8.3,

DESIGN OF PIPING

238
May

to.

fO(

Indud.d
cWs

two

Fin and 51ee.. for

Smoll AmountJ of
&paMlon Oiamwally

FlO. 8.5

Typical sliding type stops.

which shows a vertical double-acting restraint placed

in a high-temperature reheat steam lead in order to
lower the thermal expansion moment reaction on the
turbine. The accompanying table indicates for such
a line a typical set of results of calculations made
with and without the stop.
Two basic arrangements of restraints are used, viz.,
those such as the typical tie rods and jointed struts
shown in Fig. 8.4, wherein the structural connection
is relatively remote from the pipe attachment, and
those wherein little separation is needed between the
terminal parts, shown in Fig. 8.5. While the details
of these devices are treated in subsequent sections,
the selection of the basic arrangement to be used is
in large measure dependent on the layout, the location of the restraint, and the purpose or combined
purpose for which it is being introduced.
In general tie rods and jointed struts are preferred
for single-acting and double-acting restraints respectively whenever sufficient room is available to
provide adequate length so that the arc of motion
will not deviate sufficiently from a straight-line
path to cause unnecessary restraint. The amount of
deviation may be found as indicated in Fig. 8.6.
The principal merits of tie rods and jointed struts
are their low frictional resistance making them
positive acting and nonjamming. It should be kept
in mind that generally tie rods and single-acting
devices are only suitable for restraints when sufficient
constant load exists at the point to overcome any
thermal reaction either in the initial or the selfsprung state of the piping, or under any variation
from normal operating conditions. For example, a
hanger rod will function properly as long as the
weight load exceeds any uplift due to thermal
expansion.
Hinged-jointed or ball-jointed struts
are the ideal restraints; not only are they double

..............

SYSTEMS

acting but also they can be made to suitably close

clearances.
Sliding guides and stops frequently may fit more
compactly into a structure. Particularly for vertical
lines, they may be incorporated into the platform
steel at pipe openings where they offer no reduction
in headroom or other obstruction to passage. In
addition if their application is such as to add frictional resistance to vibrational effects, some advantage may be gained. For the most part, however,
sliding devices are apt to be unsatisfactory for
resisting vibratory loading because of the fabrication difficulties attendant to producing minimum
clearances.
Supports,
The piping system with its terminal
anchors and partial restraints must now be explored
for its adequacy in carrying without distress all
gravitational loading including the weight of the
pipe, insulation, contents, fittings, valves, strainers,
etc., or any additional weight which may be involved.
While most of these loads are maintained both in
service and offstream, others may be present only at
one condition. Maximum loads are usually apt to
occur at service temperatures and, because of reduction of the material strength, must be considered
directly in the high-temperature design. In the
case of large gas or vapor lines, provision for support
when filled with liquid may be necessary as, for
example, to provide for hydrostatic testing.2
The spacing of supports on a single horizontal pipe
line in open country is dependent only on the
strength of the pipe. Within the boundaries of a
process unit, on the other hand, support spacing is
largely determined by the spacing of conveniently
located columns. Commonly, the spacing of support racks must provide for the weakest pipe, although larger spans are sometimes accepted for small
2For infrequent tests, it is sometimes economic to erect
temporary supports rather than design permanent supports
for the purpose.

0=

Deviation

from Ilroight

lin.

h'

"1i
FIG. 8.6 Motion of tie rod or jointed strut .

_ .._._------------------------_

....

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING THE PIPING

Jines if sag and attendant pocketing of the particular

small lines are not objectionable. Small lines can be
assisted across long spans by providing them with
intermediate supports attached to adjacent larger
lines; a group of such lines may also be tied together
so as to become chords of a simple truss. Often,
however, the most practical solution is simply to
increase the pipe size to the point of being selfsupporting over the required span.
In checking the suitability of support spacing for
pipe lines on a horizontal run, the nomographs mentioned subsequently in this section are useful for
most purposes.
For critical-service piping, the
flexibility check for expansion stress can be extended to include weight effects where necessary by
using methods given in Chapter 5. As discussed
previously in this section, general considerations in
locating supports are that they be placed at points
suitable for the connections to the pipe (no interference with valves, risers, etc.) and to the structure
(in respect both to attachment details and to loading requirements).
Allowable spans for horizontal lines are principally influenced by the need to:
1. Keep stresses within suitable limits. (Instability may be a factor in the case of large thin-walled
pipe.)
2. Limit deflections (sagging), if necessary for:
a. appearance,
b. avoiding pockets,
c. avoiding interferences.
3. Control natural frequency (usually by limiting
the span) so as to avoid undesirable vibration.
In most cases, an adequate estimate of the stress is
readily obtained from the simple beam relationship:
S = L2(wlz/Z)
(8.1)
where S
Z
l

=
=

maximum bending stress, (psi.)

section modulus, in.3
pipe span, ft.
total unit weight, lb per ft.

For convenience this formula is given in nomographic

form in Chart 0-16 of Appendix C. It is based on
a maximum moment of ill = 11owf, and represents
a compromise between M = -t:rwlz for a beam with
fixed ends and 111 = iwl2 for a free-ended beam, as
representative of average runs. Values to suit other
end conditions can be obtained by the use of the
correction factors given in Chart C-18. Overhang
at changes of direction may be beneficial from
a structural standpoint; if provided in optimum
amount, the maximum moment in a line continuous over a series of equal spans can be held to that

SYSTEM

239

of fixed-end conditions. However, substantial overhang is best avoided on lines prone to vibration.
Major concentrated loads such as produced by
valves, pipe risers, branches, etc., should be at or
near a point of support. The effect of significant
concentrated loads, not located at supports, may be
approximated from eq. 8.1, by multiplying the stress
by the factor 2P /wl where P is the concentrated
load in pounds and other symbols are as previously
defined.
Deflection under weight effects is generally of secondary importance in piping just as it is in structures. In fact, some piping designers are inclined
to disregard deflection entirely and to consider the
limiting weight stress as the only criterion. In most
process units, however, the deflection of the line
should be kept within reasonable bounds in order
to minimize pocketing and to avoid possible interference in congested areas due to sagging. Appearance, too, will be a factor in many cases. A practical
limit for average piping in process units is a deflection on the order of ~ in. to 1 in. For piping in
yards or for overland transmission lines a value of
1t in. or greater is generally acceptable. For power
piping a deflection limit as small as t in. is specified
by some designers.
Perhaps the most important reason for limiting
deflection is to make the pipe stiff enough, that is,
of high enough natural frequency, to avoid large
amplitude response under any slight perturbing
force. Although Chapter 9 treats this subject more
fully, it can be stated here, as a rough rule, that for
average piping a natural frequency of 4 cycles per
second will be found reasonably satisfactory. For
pulsating lines from compressors, etc., values of
8 cycles per second or higher may be desirable depending on the characteristics of the compressor.
The deflection for a given span may be approximated by the beam relation:
(8.2)

where I
l

=
=

o =
E

moment of inertia, in."

pipe span, ft.
deflection, in.
modulus of elasticity, psi.
total unit weight, Ib per ft.

Chart 0-17 of Appendix C gives a graphical solution for this equation. Similar to the stress formula,
it is based on M = n,wl2; factors for other conditions of constraint are included in Chart C-18.
When lines are pitched to facilitate drainage, the
supports may be spaced so as to completely elirni-

"~"-"---"--'-'---""--'''.''''''----.--'----------------_

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

?40

K = GOO for free ends.

Other symbols are as previously defined
except that the weight does not include
the contents, since the pipe empties as
it drains.

FIG. 8.7

Typical rod hanger assemblies.

nate pocketing due to sag of the piping.

Pitching,
however, involves considerable
added expense of
supports and is of limited effectiveness with flowing
media which cling in substantial
amounts to the
pipe wall,
Hence, it is becoming a widespread
practice to avoid pitching by setting up a regular
plant procedure for washing or blowing down the
pipe as dictated by safety, corrosion prevention, or
contamination
requirements.
Pitched lines are thus
limited to occasional applications where they may
be used either generally or in connection with specific
pieces of equipment.
Where substantial
pitch is
desired, hanging type supports are generally needed
in order to maintain reasonable uniformity in supporting structures.
The minimum pitch of supports required to avoid
pocketing due to sag is given by the following
formula:
(8.3)
where

h = gradient

of supports in feet/IOO feet of

length, and
K = a constant, depending on constraint.
K = 11G for fixed ends, and

The gradient of supports determined by this formula provides that the slope of the deflected line
will not be upward in the direction of drainage but.
will be horizontal or downward.
To obtain positive
drainage with a given minimum pitch, the support
gradient must be further increased by the amount
of the minimum pitch. Pitching may also be needed
to vent a hot pump suction line back to the source
in order to avoid vapor binding.
The advantageous
arrangement of support is related to the degree of restraint which can be tolerated, or to the extent and direction of the movements
to be allowed at each location.
The fundamental
types are characterized
as rigid, resilient, and constant effort, each of which is capable of wide variation in details and of two basic arrangements,
suspended and resting.
Rigid supports of the suspended arrangement involve solid hangers, while the resting arrangement
may function as a sliding contact or be provided
with rollers or rockers; for special cases, the support
structure may be flexible or of simple- or multiplehinged design to secure movement in one or two
directions, while maintaining
constant
elevation.
Solid hangers eliminate friction and sticking between the pipe and support.f but are limited in
movement range in proportion to their length, require higher support frames, and involve greater
usage of space; however, they are a preferred choice
where the general plant arrangement
permits their
use, particularly
on extreme high-temperature
or
other critical service where unassessable restraint is
undesirable.
Some typical hanger assemblies are
shown in Fig. 8.7. Resting supports, although they
involve friction, either sliding or rolling, are widely
used and are generally satisfactory,
probably due
to the friction load resulting from the weight usually
being low as compared with the thermal expansion
effects; the reduction of friction by using rollers and
rockers is not as reliable as by using hangers, due to
possible wear and lack of lubrication.
Typical resting support assemblies are shown in Fig. 8.8.
Rigid supports are satisfactory for systems involving lengthy horizontal runs with little vertical ex-

3rt should be noted, however, that freedom of movement

renders hangers unsuitable for the support of piping subjected.
to shock loading, i.c., blow down lines.

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING

pansion differentiaL Much process piping fits this

description since it consists of supported horizontal
runs with vertical runs to vessels, with the expansion
of the vertical runs largely offset by the change in
length of the vessel shell. For the most part the
force to produce movement at a sliding contact is
readily available except for unusually heavy lines
or those operating at a temperature where only a
fraction of their room-temperature strength can be
allowed.
Rigid supports are improperly used under certain
conditions, viz:
1. Where the restraint of expansion movement at
the support location is significant and cannot be
absorbed by elastic action of the line within allowable stress limits, i.e, the line will yield under each
temperature cycle.
2. Where the line deflection involves reactions
against the support of such magnitude that reasonably free movement of the pipe at the support is not
assured, i.e. on stiff lines.
3. For multiple supports on vertical runs.
4. For horizontal run supports adjacent to vertical run connections unless little or no support is
required offstream, at which time the line moves up
from the support.
5. For vessel-attached supports where they cannot be located at a point of negligible differential
expansion or where an intervening loop (i.e. line
flexibility) cannot be provided to take care of the
expansion differential.

THE PIPING

2,n

Ample length to be
p,ovided ... that th.,o will
bo no dang"' of
disengogement

FIG. 8.8

For such conditions where a substantial increase

or decrease of support reaction under line position
change can be tolerated, resilient supports offer an
economic choice. They are advantageous on long
runs of pipe where even reaction distribution is not
easily attained, also for piping systems subject to
rapid changes in temperature or uneven temperatures with attendant bowing. Usually resilient
supports involve single helical springs incorporated
into simple suspended (hanger), or resting (usually
sliding type) supports, although in multiple arrangement springs are paralleled to increase load capacity
or arranged in series to increase the total travel for
a given load variation.
Structural members are
occasionally substituted for springs on large lines
with limited movement and usually consist of flat
plates, bars, or rods, as cantilevers.
Where uniform support reaction must be maintained over a movement range beyond the load increase limit which can be economically maintained
with resilient design, constant effort supports must

SYSTEM

Typical resting support assemblies.

be used. Two designs are used: so-called compensating spring devices, and counterweights,
The
former involves one or more springs whose motion
is magnified by leverage or similar mechanical advantage, and is available in standardized units in a
wide range of sizes, each of which can be adjusted
for an individual load range. The design and manufacture is usually sufficiently refined so that reliable
load measurement indication can be incorporated.
They should also be provided with means for adjustment of position to avoid use of their movement
capacity for this purpose. Such adjustment of position is not only necessary at initial installation, but
also with any subsequent permanent change in the
line contour.
Counterweights are capable of variation over a
wide range of mechanical advantage at the expense
of greater movement of the weight and are usually
custom designed for specific installations, since their
use is occasional and largely confined to loads or

242

DESIGN OF PIPING

movements beyond the range of compensating spring

devices. They are advantageous in that the load
is closely controlled and is quite independent of
movement, although they are subject to friction
(which, however, can he held low by suitable design
and adequate lubrication).
Compensating spring devices and counterweights
are usually of the suspended (hanger) arrangement,
but are occasionally furnished to a resting arrangement due to clearance requirements, and as such involve greater complexity and proportionate expense.
Braces. Having provided for desirable restraint
of thermal expansion and for adequate support of
gravitational effects, the next step is to assure suitable bracing for other loading which may be anticipated. Some sources of such other loading include:
wind on exposed lines; flow or mechanical vibrations
transmitted from pumps, compressors, turbines, or
other process equipment; earthquake; water hammer; impact due to sudden establishment of flow
(as on relief valves), gunfire, or vehicle movements;
vibration and impact due to high-velocity release
of compressible flow at reducing valves or to atmosphere; and surging of compressible gas or two-phase
(gas plus solid or liquid in suspension) flow.
Protection of a piping system against such influences can be accomplished by:
1. Minimizing the influence at its source, i.e. snubbers, pulsation bottles, elimination of unbalance, etc.
2. Controlling the resulting deflection of the line
by limit devices or variable restraint.
3. Controlling the resulting movement of the line
by damping, i.e. energy dissipation.
4. Opposing deflection 01' rotation by rigid attachments.
5. Modifying the natural frequency of the line or
supporting structures.
When a disturbing influence can be eliminated or
minimized at its source within economic means, such
an approach is desirable since it avoids less positive
correction measures with possible trial and error for
final solution, as discussed in detail in Chapter 9 in
connection with vibrations. The same is true of
other than vibration disturbances, for example, if a
line is subject to impact through its attachment to
a structure which supports equipment and whose
function involves suddenly applied loading, it may
be desirable to provide independent support.
Control of disturbing influences within a piping
system is often entirely or substantially accomplished
by the thermal expansion restraints and gravitational supports in combination with the inherent
stiffness of the line. Restraints control pipe move-

SYSTEMS

ment at their location; in combination with supports

they serve to modify the natural frequency of individual spans. Sliding supports, in addition, often
contribute damping through friction at contact surfaces. Where additional provision is necessary to
protect the line, braces are provided which further
alter the natural frequency by limiting or preventing
specific movement, or by providing damping.
Deflections and rotations can be prevented by
stops and guides respectively or they can be controlled to a desired range by limit stops. Stops or
guides can be used to change the natural frequency
of individual spans, and are preferred where they
do not create excessive restraint.
Moderate restraint (and a minor degree of damping) can be
obtained through the use of spring stops, usually in
opposed pairs, and is of some value in limiting deflection for loads of short duration such as wind
pulses or earthquake.
Appreciable damping is secured from hydraulic
shock absorbers, which are available at an attractive price in the standard sizes used for trucks,
automobiles, and railway cars. Larger sizes are
usually designed around standard sizes of hydraulic
cylinders. Braces employing dry friction damping
are usually limited in size and are apt to be unpredictable in operation.
Restraints, Supports and Braces for Non-Stiff
Piping Systems.
Additional supporting system
problems are introduced by non-stiff piping design
incorporating the various kinds of expansion joints;
in what follows, these are discussed for each of the
three systems of reduced rigidity described in
Chapter 7.
Semi-rigid systems with hinged expansion joints
are closely related to stiff design in supporting system requirements. It is sometimes necessary to
minimize weight effects on the hinges; this usually
requires counterweights or spring hangers. With
two joints and intervening pipe runs free of bending,
this problem is present in greater degree. Sometimes
restraints are required to minimize torsion on the
hinges.
In non-rigid piping systems all members are free
of thermal bending moment, and the strength of
the assembled system is largely dependent on the
strength of the hinges at the joints. Restraint is
necessary to control the position and limit the expansion movement at the individual hinged joints;
it is provided by tie rods built into the joints and,
further, by external stops. For large-diameter or
otherwise heavy runs, it may be advisable to relieve
the hinges of the principal weight effects; this can

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING

be accomplished by various support details, but

usually constant-effort hangers are-required because
of the large movements involved. Non-rigid piping
is highly dependent on bracing for protection against
effects such as those of wind vibration. Hinges are
usually not capable of assuming lateral loading and
if there is out-of-plane expansion, they also should
be protected against torsion. Bracing employing
pin- or ball-joint solid struts is favored where no
interference with the system movement is created;
otherwise, hydraulic snubbers are widely used for
control of vibration and also to minimize deflections
on transient loading.
Free movement piping systems, with their lack of
rigidity and their inability to transmit weight or
longitudinal pressure loading, are completely dependent on external means for adequate and safe
operation.
Restraints are necessary to maintain
position and alignment at slip joints, to assure free
movements (prevent jamming), and to maintain the
relative position of individual rUIlS, thus limiting
the required range of movement for slip and bellows
expansion joints. A primary function is to resist
unbalanced pressure loads without excessive deflection, which is accomplished with minimum complexity and cost where the location of the necessary
anchors is carefully associated with the necessary
contour of the line and proximity to grade or substantial structures capable of assuming the reaction.
Support selection and functioning is less critical
since lateral movement is absent or minimized; however, free movement piping systems require more
accurate support installation than other systems in
order to avoid jamming in slip types and fouling of
internal sleeves or limit rods on bellows types.
Rigid supports usually suffice for horizontal runs
while vertical runs are generally self supporting from
the terminal or other point of anchorage. It is generally not necessary to provide a support adjacent
to an anchored horizontal slip joint, and details of
the nearest supports on the slip pipe should provide
for accurate adjustment during installation so that
the support wiII not produce any moment on the
stuffing box. Support of the adjacent pipe is needed
for most types of bellouis joints.
Braces are a lesser factor since essentially each
run is an entity and the guides or stops necessary for
alignment usually suffice for other than unusual
transient effects.
8.4

Fixtures

Fixtures refer to that part of a pipe support assembly which can perform the dual functions of

THE PIPING

SYSTEM

243

transmitting the reactions from pipe to structure

and of controlling the movements of a piping system.
This is in contrast to the pipe attachment by which
the fixture is connected to the pressure wall, and
the structure which receives the loading from the
fixture; these latter parts are covered in Sections 8.5
and 8.6 respectively. Even though this division is
often artificial since two or all of these parts are
sometimes consolidated as a single unit, it is useful
in emphasizing the three basic functions to be performed. It also introduces a convenient separation
for preparation of engineering detail and for ordering. The integral attachment, in particular, is necessarily a part of the piping on alloy or critical
construction and is more advantageously engineered
by the pressure part designer. The structure similarly is usually considered a part of the structural
design and fabrication. The fixture is a specialty
which is selected and ordered when the details of
the pipe support assembly are established. This
functional division encourages the interchangeable
use of attachments with various fixtures and similarly with various structures so that standardization
is made practicable.
In the preceding section, selection of the support
assembly details has been presented as related to
individual effects on the piping system, namely, restraint, support, or brace. Fixtures, in themselves,
can be classed as rigid, resilient, constant effort, and
damping, each of which is applicable in some degree
to the three basic functional objectives (restraining,
supporting, or bracing). It should be emphasized
that while fixtures are in themselves secondary.elements (i.e., not part of the pressure container), their
maloperation or failure can in many cases endanger
or actually rupture the pressure piping by either
the direct loss of support or the accompanying
shock.
It is obvious that the general design and arrangement of fixtures in combination with attachments
and structures are subject to almost unlimited variation, so that no attempt will be made here to present
standardized designs with dimensional data or stress
and deflection calculations. The elements are for
the most part not complex, so that routine analysis
is entirely adequate; dimensions are susceptible to
service requirements and individual preferences, and
can easily be worked up for items which are frequently used; also, many fixtures are readily available as pre-engineered subassemblies. The presentation in this section is therefore directed at general
background and suggestions to assist with the design (and to improve application) of fixtures for use

244

DESIGN OF PIPING

FlO. 8.9 A device which serves as a guide against

axial rotation and as a two-axis double-acting stop
against lateral translation.

as restraints, supports, and braces, and will follow

the descriptive classifications of rigid, resilient, constant effort, and damping, in the order named.
Rigid Fixtures.
A rigid fixture is one which
allows insignificant deflection along its principal axis
and may otherwise limit deflection along other axes
or rotation along any axis. Rigid-fixture action may
be provided by any type of support assembly-viz.,
anchor, guide, or stop-e-and will be discussed in that
order.
Since an anchor must provide essentially complete
fixation (i.e., full constraint against three deflections
and three rotations), the fixture part of the assembly
must necessarily be integrated with the attachment
and sometimes also functions as the structure, the
attachment being usually the critical part. For
this reason, anchors have been treated largely in
~he succeeding section on pipe attachments with
various important types illustrated in Figs. 8.18k,
tn, and p. It is desirable to emphasize that since
anchors carry substantial loading, and must often
develop the full strength of the attached pipe, and
further, may involve temperature considerations in
considerable degree, their design must not only provide adequate static and fatigue strength, but also
sufficient rigidity together with a satisfactory load
distribution and avoidance of unnecessary stress
concentration attendant to contour and thermal
gradients.
Favorable geometry cannot be overemphasized, and is best provided by surfaces of
revolution, usually at reduced cost. Dependence
on friction straps or bolted joints in locations affected by temperature change is best avoided, with
preference to integral or welded construction. The
foregoing relates to conventional anchor assemblies;

SYSTEMS

complete restraint against reversible loading call

also be attained by a minimum of twelve tensile tie
rods in opposed pairs, or by six struts capable of
tensile and compressive loading so disposed along
and collaborating with both the intervening pipe
and a suitable external structure to reduce all movements to negligible values. Similar results can be
achieved by combined guides and stops which function along all three axes. In these designs of anchors the fixtures can be identified as separate
members.
A guide, from the definition of Section 8.1, restricts
rotation (i.e. introduces a moment reaction). Where
the degree of restraint is such that rotation is totally prevented, the guide may be properly described as a rigid fixture. It will be noted that the
guide fixture may be lugs or circular sleeves if no
pipe attachment is used and the fixture bears directly on the pipe wall or on ~ concentric cylinder
attached to the pipe in the manner of a skirt to remove the reaction of the guide from direct influence
on the pipe wall. If pipe attachments are provided
in the form of lugs, trunnions, rings, ears, etc., the
guide fixtures may again be lugs, rings, etc., or tie
rods, or struts. Usually there will be a translatory
movement of the pipe line through guides. Hence,
with the close clearances required for double-acting
constraint, frictional resistance and the need for
antifriction or lubrication contact surfaces is accentuated; otherwise minimum area of contact is
advisable, preferably line contact. Tie rods or
struts must be of sufficient length to minimize lateral motion (as covered in greater detail in Section 8.3). The most widely used guides are those
which resist axial rotation thus taking out torsional
moment. A practical and serviceable detail for this
purpose is shown in Fig. 8.9. It should be noted,
however, that in addition to its function as a guide,
this device restrains lateral translatory movements,
thus also performing as a two-axis double-acting stop,
A stop, as defined in Section 8.1, limits translatory
movement, total stops entirely preventing specific
deflections, thus fitting the description of a rigid
fixture. Various types of stop fixtures are tie rods
or cables, jointed struts or links, and sliding contact brackets in contact with shoes, plates, trunnions,
01' lugs on a pipe wall. Tie rods and struts, which
may be favored as stops due to their freedom from
frictional effects and greater reliability, deserve
special comment. Tie rods or cables offer many
additional advantages such' as low cost, case of
installation and adjustment, versatility and minimum space requirements insofar as the fixture

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING

proper is concerned. These advantages are lost

with struts, which must usually be jointed or
hinged to take care of lateral deflections. Joints of
struts are preferably spherical contact surfaces
which may be incorporated between bolted or
threaded unions as illustrated in Fig. 8.10, thus
permitting universal angular motion in degree
dictated by the contact radius, with essentially no
clearance except for the lubrication film. Pin joints
restrict motion to one plane, ana involve some
clearance for satisfactory operation and lubrication.
On the average they are somewhat less expensive
but the saving may be offset by the necessity for
more accurate installation and by their lesser
versatility.
For assurance of unrestrained motion in the
desired directions, the contact surface of sliding
devices must be initially parallel and, during
operation, free of local thermal effects or lack of
rigidity in the pipe wall or structure which will
permit distortion. In addition to structural reinforcement, concentrated wear of the pressure pipe
surface, such as at a location of line contact, should
be avoided on large or otherwise critical lines by
protective wear plates. Temperature effects require
stable attachments such as trunnions with adequate
length or other provision for heat dissipation.
Resilient
Fixtures.
Resilient fixtures find
widest use as supports and occasional use as braces,
but they are rarely useful as restraints. They can be
incorporated in any manner of arrangement, suspended or resting, of single or dual action along one
or more axes. Resilience is almost universally
obtained through the use of helical springs, although
plates or other sufficiently flexible structural members can be used for special designs where loads are
high and movement requirements low. Springs are

Detail. of Boll Joint

on Jointed SIrIIts

uwd

FIG. 8.10

Details of ball joint used on jointed struts,

THE PIPING

SYSTEM

245

Lood and cMfl..,ion

"""I.

FIG. 8.11

Typical variable-load spring fixture.

usually single coil units although heavy loads may

necessitate the use of multiple springs because of
availability and manufacturing limitations.
The type of variable-load spring-support mechanism, which has been widely accepted and is now
available as a standard design, is shown in Fig. 8.11.
It consists of a coil spring loaded in compression,
enclosed with a cylindrical cover, and provided with
a load and deflection indicator. Supporting devices
of this type are commercially available.
It is not considered necessary to cover herein the
subject of spring design. However, it is desirable to
discuss the application of a spring of given characteristics to the support of piping. The principal
consideration is the variation in supporting effort
for a given amount of displacement. This load
va.riability may be defined as the absolute value of:
Operating load - Shutdown load
Operating load
Values of variability customarily used range from
25% to 50%. The higher the variability, the more
nearly the spring approaches a solid support,
consequently the more restraint it applies to the
thermal expansion of the piping. On the other hand,
the smaller the variability, the bulkier the spring
becomes for given load and travel requirements. If a
variability of less than 25% is required, it is apt to be
more practicable to use constant support devices.
The load indicator when observed successively at
ambient and operating conditions serves to verify the
movement and load ranges. For most designs the
load can be adjusted in operation, which is a desirable feature; the overall support design should also
provide means for an adequate range of position
adjustment so that the proper pipe elevation can be
maintained independently of the load adjustment.

246

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Connoding

rod

limil rod. which pra,ompreu Iho

spring and tablish its maximum

extenslen

Another Methan;,m

Using Two Springs

Sway brcce employing

prc,ompreued end
limited action spring
Resistan,.
OHared

Plain 'pring
wilhout limiled ceticn

" "' .. 1---------=>i~---_:_;:_;:___.:'_:_Conneding rod i. usually ___

adiusted .0 that operating
position j, 01 Ihi. point

FIG. 8.12

Zero
O.lIedion

Typical sway brace details and load deflection characteristics.

Resilient fixtures are of limited use as restraints

for controlling thermal expansion stress or reactions
but find widespread application as supports. Occasionally they are used for bracing when solid ties
or struts cannot be used due to the restraint which
they impose. As braces, load variability characteristics may advantageously be higher than for
supports. The bracing effect is obtained by the
increase in spring load resulting from deflection,
which it is usually desirable to limit in extent thereby
producing the device generally known commercially
as a sway brace. Such devices may employ either a
single resilient fixture or two opposed to each other as
illustrated in Fig. 8.12 which also shows the advantageous effect of precompression (and limiting of the
spring travel) upon the load-deflection characteristic.
Constant
Effort Fixtures.
Constant effort
fixtures are of two general types, spring loaded and
weight loaded. While these types arc quite interchangeable, advantages of negligible weight, compactness, lower cost, and availability as a completely
engineered product lie generally on the side of the
spring-loaded types and since their range of capacities is presently so broad, the weight-loaded types
are rendered unnecessary in all but the most extreme
cases of load or movement.
The spring-loaded constant support fixtures
consist of a spring actuated through a level' such us a

bell crank which is so arranged that the rising

characteristic of the load vs. displacement of the
spring is compensated for by a reduced lever arm
due to the changing position of the bell crank. The
basic idea, illustrated in Fig. 8.13, has been widely
exploited; some of the modifications which have been
satisfactorily used are shown in Fig. 8.14. While, as
might be suspected, the load characteristic of this
type hanger is not perfectly fiat, a close enough
approximation is usually provided, the normal
Smoll change in

-~

FIG. 8.13

etlective lever arm

Lorge chango in effective love, orm

Basic idea or the spring loaded constant

support mechanism,

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING

variation being only on the order of one per cent.

In some designs, auxiliary (or booster) springs are
added to improve the characteristic. In general this
type of device is quite dependable, although all the
designs available are not as readily adjusted as
might be desired.
Constant load support may be obtained simply by
the use of a counterbalancing weight. Since it is
seldom practical to use a weight equal to that of the
pipe, it is customary to use a mechanism which will
multiply as well as invert the weight force. Two
different designs have been considered practical:
the lever type and the cable type. As noted before,
counterweights are used primarily for heavy load or
large travel applications. The support of the extra
weight of the counterweight itself may be a substantial item, although somewhat reduced on the
cable and sheave type by the elimination of the
beam. The cable type also permits greater freedom
in the location of the weights; however, slightly
greater maintenance is involved. Typical details of
both types of counterweights are shown in Fig. 8.15.
The design of either device involves standard
structural practice and needs no elaboration here
Mechanical

THE PIPING

FIG. 8.14

SYSTEM

247

Various types of constant support hangers.

save to reiterate the need for ample and easily made

adjustment, also for a generous provision for excess movement.
Dumping Fixtures.
Damping of vibrations
involves the dissipation of energy, which is accomplished in substantial degree only by friction or

odvanlage

a\btained by le~~~ ......,;..:: :.::-~;

~__

~.....,.,.,.

... ....r'"

.L

Coble

:/

it

<.

1 . __ '

~.
ht-

Travol of
weight

I
1--- .........

lover eeom Typo

"

-----------------~
,

Coble

" \
t /

Mechanical advantago
obtained by
block ond tackl.

c::::J

i/

Coble onrl Sheeve Typo

FIG. 8.15

=-

Typical counterweights.

~~

-.-.---- ..- - -.-.-

-.....-..

~.~~-----

DESIGN OF PIPING

2-18

FSG. 8.16

Commercial railroad car type shock absorber

utilized as a damping device.

hydraulic snubbing. Single or opposed springs do

not perform this function but simply store up anr'
return energy under varying load with only a
trifling amount dissipated in the process.
While dry friction absorbers have not proven
sufficiently reliable for untended simple installations,
hydraulic units such as those widely used on trucks,
railway cars, and automobiles give satisfactory
service with only occasional maintenance and are
available as standard mass produced items. A
typical installation is shown in Fig. 8.16. Larger
size units, if required, may be assembled from
standard all-purpose hydraulic cylinders and conventional hydraulic valves and fittings. Hydraulic
shock absorbers may operate with any fluid; however,
most of such equipment involves hydraulic oil with
a relatively constant viscosity over the working
range of temperatures.
8.5

Pipe Attachments

The attachment component of a support or restraint assembly usually introduces stress into the
pipe wall as a result of the structural loading which it
transmits, and also due to the localized heat loss and
the thermal gradient which it causes. Inadequate or
faulty design or fabrication can result in failure of
the pressure wall with consequent energy release and
tire hazards, particularly on heavy wall thickness,
air hardening analysis, or otherwise sensitive materials. In the design of pipe attachments it is
essential to appreciate the significance of temperature gradients and their potential for causing
distortion and cracking, particularly of blind root

SYSTEMS

welds and of heat-affected zones adjacent to welds

on the pipe or attachment.
Without restraint,
temperature stress is not present; for example, a flat
rectangular plate heated all along one edge to produce a linear gradient across its full width will
become curved in its plane so that the length of each
element parallel to the heated edge is proportional
to its temperature; similarly an open-end cylinder
subjected to uniform heat input around the circumference at one end to produce a linear gradient
along its full length will become a cone with the
diameter of successive circumferential elements again
proportional to their individual temperature. When
heat input ceases, the plate and cylinder return to
their original dimensions and shape. Any interruption in the uniformity of the gradient, however,
whether due to heat input, heat loss, thermal conductivity, or discontinuity (i.e. any influence which
opposes free expansion) results in stress whose
magnitude is a function of the character of the
gradient interruption and the individual stiffnesses
of the adjoining sections. With a uniform gradient
the resulting stress is distributed along its length to
the same pattern; with a sharp change in gradient,
highly localized stresses arise in sufficient magnitude
to maintain continuity of the structure. From the
foregoing it is evident that at elevated temperature,
possible distortion and fatigue failure at pipe attachments is related to the magnitude of thermal stress
and that this should be controlled insofar as practicable by favorable contour (surface of revolution
rather than flat surface), and minimum heat flow
and attendant gradient.
In providing pipe attachments which have no
significant adverse effect on the strength of the
pressure wall, it is essential to control carefully the
magnitude and distribution of the structural bending
stress introduced into the pipe wall by the attachment in addition to stresses due. to the previously
described thermal gradient influences. When such
local stresses are evaluated they should be treated in
the category of secondary or localized stresses. As
discussed in Chapter 2, the allowable limit for such
stresses when due to sustained loadings cannot
reasonably be set at the limit for sustained primary
stresses Sh; instead it is recommended that a limit
of 2Sh be used for design purposes. This limit has
long been used by The M. W. Kellogg Company,
and is based on the secondary stress levels inherently,
though not expressly, embodied in the Pressure
Vessel Code rules. Where the local stresses include
the effect of thermal reactions "he allowable stress
range used should be the same as for the design of

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING

the piping for such effects. Local stresses for

trunnion type attachments can be approximated by
the approach outlined in Chapter 3, Section 3.14
for nozzle loadings on cylindrical shells. Lug attachments can be similarly approximated by assuming
an appropriate equivalent circular loading.
Aside from favorable stress distribution, pipe
attachment design may involve emphasis on minimum heat loss, protection of insulation, heat dissipation to prevent excessive local temperature of
connecting steel or concrete members, adaptability
for connection to full fireproofed members, suitability for use on alloy or otherwise sensitive materials, and satisfactory service at high 01' subzero temperatures.
Piping systems are inherently susceptible to
position changes and distortion so that attachments should provide some margin of clearance and
strength for lateral loading components. in excess of
normal design range. Friction loading magnitude is
difficult to predict accurately; for single supports
(steel on steel, unlubricated) a friction factor of
from 0.20 to 0.50 is used, as influenced by the design
details and service, while for a line on a number of
successive identical supports this factor is usually
reduced 50% except for end supports. The frictional
effect of a bank of lines is usually less than that of a
single line due to the fact that it is unlikely that all
lines in the bank will move at one time. Hence, a
factor of 0.10 to 0.15 is often used for the lateral
shear on racks.
Pipe attachments fall into two basic classifications:
(1) non-integral and (2) integral with the pipe wall.
Non-integral attachments
include the type of
details by which the reaction between a pipe and
support structure is distributed by contact. Typical
details of such attachments, including clamps,
slings, cradles or saddles, and clevises, are shown in
Fig. 8.17. For heavy loads these are sometimes
used in multiple. Only the clamp is suitable for
vertical lines; even so, it is usually necessary to
have welds or projections 011 the pipe or to locate the
clamp below fittings or flanges to prevent slippage.
For usc as a stop, the clamp may assume the form
of a sectional ring of angle iron or other shape. The
conventional clamp made of fiat bar with appreciable gap is really a close-fitting two-piece sling and
is incapable of developing significant contact
pressure, since the ears are easily deformed under
light bolt takeup. The friction effect and attendant
load capacity can be enhanced by more rigid design,
by the use of heavier bar stock, or by reinforcing
gussets at the ears.

L__.

THE PIPING

SYSTEM

249

Shoo, IU9'
welded to pip.

Pip. Clamp.

C,odl.

FIG. 8.17

0'

Soddl.

Typical non-integral attachments.

Cradles or saddles are often used for supports, the

pipe simply resting in place. Such attachments can
be made double acting by the use of tie rods eucircling the pipe; if a ring or band attachment
extends around the entire circumference, wedges
are sometimes used.
Clamps, slings, and clevises are widely used and
for moderate service appear as standard hardware
in many shapes and of both cast and wrought
materials. With reasonable width and the 180 or
greater contact inherent in their design, bending
stress in the pipe is minimized. Clamps for substantial load and saddles or bases are standardized
only to the extent of their usage by individual
fabricators and are usually manufactured as required. Non-integral attachments offer advantages
in that their procurement and fabrication can be
entirely independent of the piping, and ill t.hat
freedom in their location simplifies piping details,
fabrication, and erection, thus reducing cost,
Further, on alloy piping the absence of welding
eliminates the need for alloy attachments and alloy
0

..-

._

_-_

_-_.

..

__ ._-------------

250

DESIGN OF PIPING

welds with attendant heat treatment requirements,

thereby accelerating erection. Their drawback is
that in applications involving the support of vertical
pipes, and for restraints or braces, they cannot
maintain effectiveness at elevated temperature since
the intial compression is rapidly relaxed.
Integral pipe attachments
must be used for
services involving high temperature or relatively
severe load, and further, on restraints or braces
where two-direction action is desirable in a single
member. The simplest means for integration is
the use of spot or fillet welds at the edge of clamps
or saddles. However, such welds are subject. to
failure unless the parts are of similar expansion
characteristics, tightly fitted and attached with
welds of adequate proportions.
More effective
design requires that the structural and pressure
parts be unified for favorable load distribution and
adequate heat flow so that welds will not be subject
to a concentration of structural or thermal stress.
Six basic types of integral attachments are in common use: ears, shoes, lugs, cylindrical attachments

SYSTE1\IS

(including stools and trunnions), rings, and skirts.

Illustrative examples of these appear in Fig. S.lS.
In addition the various non-integral attachments
previously described arc sometimes made integral
by welding.
The upper seven illustrations in Fig. 8.18 show
representative applications of ears to vertical and
horizontal runs. Ears which are normal to the pipe
surface are apt to introduce a fair amount of bending
in the pipe wall, although when they are located on
the vertical axis of an elbow a reasonable component
of the load is tangential to the elbow surface. On a
horizontal run the tangential ears, 8.1Sg, are favored
to minimize bending, although for heavy loads on
large lines a welded-on sling attachment may be
preferred in order to minimize the structural
importance of the attachment welds. Obviously,
ears can be used in many other variations. When
used tangentially on vertical pipe, ears resemble a
section of a cylindrical skirt with the intersection
angle and circumferential spread selected to control
bending effects as in S.lSe. In general, distortion

h
Sh~.s

~
~
Cylindri<QI

lug

Stool

Trunnion

q
Ring

S~irn

FlO. 8.18 Typical integral ntt .nchments.

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING

and weld failure is much less likely for ears in a

tangential location than for radial ears; and furthermore, assessment of their effect orrthe pressure shell
is also relatively simple. Ears are usually limited to
unidirectional loading, although they can be designed
for lateral loading in their plane. Perpendicular or
out-of-plane loading in any magnitude is best
avoided,
A shoe or lug transmits load through one or more
web plates which often are welded intermittently or
at only the ends, a practice not always to be desired
since it accentuates the temperature difference
between the lug and shell. Unless heavily insulated,
lugs composed of flat sections are subject to distortion under high-temperature service and should be
avoided. Adopting a surface of revolution contour
by making the attachment of a length of pipe serves
to ameleriorate somewhat the serious intersection
problem created by the temperature gradient.
Hence, cylindrical lugs and trunnions are frequently
used in high-temperature service.
Base, stool, and a number of other terms are
applied to pipe attachments which serve directly
as a resting support or rigid anchor of piping to a
structure; a familiar example, the standard base ell,
is illustrated in Fig. 8.8.
Rings, or combinations of rings integral with the
pipe and other type attachments, are used on long
pipe spans where the support reactions are high;
also for attachments on lines subject to collapsing
pressure, and in general on braces or restraints for
extreme loading or concentrated effects since they
afford a maximum opportunity for favorable load
distribution.
Skirts offer the best approach for the introduction
of severe axial loading into a pipe, since distribution
around the entire circumference is attained, provided the skirt is of sufficient length. Bending is
minimized where the skirt angle is kept to a minimum. For acute conditions, the skirt can be of two
courses, the first a cylinder attached to the pipe and
the second a cone for the necessary spread. The
attachment welds must receive special consideration
if thermal gradients of considerable magnitude are
unavoidable. Where fillet weld sizes become excessive the top edge of the skirt is often cut to a
serration pattern to increase the weld length; it is
advisable to avoid sharp corners since they promote
stress concentration and weld cracks; a wave contour
offers the ultimate advantage in this direction;
Fig. 8.180 shows this detail. Excessive fillet weld
sizes can also be avoided and stress flow lines improved.
For extreme thermal gradient effects,

THE PIPING

SYSTEM

251

vertical slots in the skirt at the top have been advantageous in the case of large pressure vessels and
can be applied to piping as well j the slots should not
interrupt the weld, to avoid stress intensification.
Favorable contour of pipe attachments to minimize the level of stress and to avoid unnecessary
stress concentration is essential in proportion to the
service and loads involved; however, in many cases
conventional structural details are more costly than
equivalent pressure equipment details which use
pipe or other surfaces of revolution. An anchor
lug of pipe or a skirt anchor may seem unorthodox
from the structural engineer's viewpoint; however,
when dealing with radically reduced strength and
severe temperature gradients, loads must be introduced into pressure shells in such a manner as to
avoid unnecessary intersection stresses if the attachment welds and shell are to remain intact.
It must be remembered that fatigue plays an
important role in piping system design and is of
equal importance on attachments.
In general,
integral pipe attachments should be subject to the
same requirements as to materials, design (in particular allowable stress), fabrication, and inspection as
the pressure pipe to which they are attached.
Every advantage should be taken in design detail
and the generous use of insulation to minimize heat
loss where excessive temperature gradients would be
harmful; in general this applies to all attachments on
lines in high-temperature service. Various expedients are resorted to in extreme designs for
minimizing heat out-flow. Internal insulation in
skirts, etc. is quite generally desirable; conductive
material such as steel chips is sometimes substituted
for the insulation near the pipe shell to bypass part
of the heat flow around the intersection. Increased
metal thickness locally at the intersection reduces
the unit heat flow in this area and increases the
attachment strength.
8.6

Structures

and Structural

Connections

The load from pipe supports, restraints, and

braces may be transmitted to other piping, to
pressure vessels, to buildings (roof, wall, or frame),
to a platform or other access framework, to principal
or secondary equipment support structures or
foundations, or to structures provided specifically
for this function. The structure generally serves to
transmit the piping load directly or through other
structures to a foundation and thence into the soil,
although occasionally a reaction system may be
balanced within either a single structure or a combination of structures .

.......

~.-~~.-~-'"---------~-~--------

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

252

Strudure

SC!<Ondorymember which
is drong enough bu.
not wffi~Gnlly ,~iH

folotivo to tho pjpG

to toke any opprociobl.
proportion of tho leed

FIG.

8.19

Showing jointed strut attached

inadequate structure.

to an

The ability of a structure to combine with a pipe

attachment and fixture to provide an adequate pipe
support assembly depends upon its capacity to
carry the imposed load without overstress and,.
most important, unihou; excessive deflection under that
load. If excessive deflection is required to develop a
reaction equal to the loading, the piping system must
either move this amount by sagging or other movement, or, if sufficiently stiff, transfer part or all of
the load to adjacent restraints, supports, and braces,
or to the terminals of the line. A typical example
is shown in Fig. 8.19, wherein a large pipe is to be
braced laterally against wind load by a jointed strut
which, in turn, is attached to a structural member.
The deflection of the structure (under the total wind
load transmitted by the jointed strut A) is large
enough to permit essentially the same deflection of
the pipe at point B as that which would occur without this restraint.
Hence, the support is quite
ineffective, even though alone it may be capable
after sufficient deflection of taking the required
load without overstress.
In the interest of engineering economics, the usual
flexibility analysis of piping systems neglects weight,
wind, and transient effects, on the assumption that

their influence will be minimized by supports and

favorably placed restraints and braces which do not
significantly affect the overall stiffness. Where
restraints are included in the analysis, the usual
assumption is infinite stiffness in the direction of
their intended reaction. The degree of deflection
that can be tolerated is reliably established only by
complete analysis; however, reasoning and rough
approximations afford sufficient guidance for average
design. Excessive deflection of a support may
substantially increase the strain range of the piping.
Of importance is the strain range to which the
piping is subjected over its complete cycle of operation and, in particular, the avoidance of repetitive
yielding of the pipe. Yielding attendant to initial
or occasional adjustment of supports is usually of
insufficient frequency to affect fatigue life.
It is common practice to assume that support
deflection is not significant so long as the initial and
service weight distribution attained does not result
in sagging, restrict expansion movement, or give
other evidence of distress. As to restraints and
bracing, the degree of deflection which can be tolerated can usually be approximated by simple beam
calculations for single-plane or other not too complex
piping systems; although whenever warranted, the
method of Chapter 5 can be used. For existing
systems the deflection under a known load can be
measured at critical locations and compared with
strain gage measurements.
If the load can be
roughly estimated, such as wind load at a known
velocity, the load in the restraining member can be
measured with a dynamometer, strain gage, or
hydraulic jack; or the relative deflection of the line
can be observed with and without me restraint in
place, the difference indicating the restraint effectiveness. Similarly the resistance offered by individual
supports or braces to free expansion can be studied
by freeing one location at a time and comparing
the relative deflection.
The degree of deflection which can be tolerated is
also related to the effectiveness of the supports,
restraints, and braces at the service temperature
where content weight, thermal expansion movement
of the line, and extension of the support members all
affect the distribution of load and magnitude of
reactions. At the same time the structural strength
of the piping material is radically reduced for
elevated temperature service. Transient loads such
as wind, earthquake, etc., are of secondary importance as compared with more frequent or sustained
loading conditions.
In the interest of economics, existing structures are

SlJPPORTING,

RESTHAINING,

AND BRACING

used wherever available and suitable. An intermediate structural connection may be involved or the
support fixture may be directly-attached.
In its
simplest form, the structural connection may be a
simple plate or angle clip. Where the pipe is located
at an appreciable distance from the support structure,
the connection may assume sizeable proportions. In
general, such auxiliary structures are of conventional
design.
The usc of pressure equipment as support structures for connected piping is often advantageous in
minimizing under thermal change the relative
movement of the support versus the piping, also in
avoiding differential movement of the support
structure and pipe under vibration, wind, and
similar effects. When structural connections are
located on vessels or other equipment where dimensional change due to expansion may occur, they
must be designed to permit that expansion, avoiding appreciable restraint and the stresses attendant
thereto.
To accomplish this, the three following
alternatives may be applied, singly or in combination:
I. Maintain essentially the same temperature in
the attachment as in the shell (a practicable solution
only when the bracket connects to a single vessel clip).
2. Allow flexing of bracket members, of the shell,
or of both within their stress capacity.
3. Provide articulation by the use of jointed or
sliding members.
It is important also that the local stresses in the
shell be investigated in order to design shell attachments properly.
To illustrate the application of these principles, a
number of typical bracket details are shown in Fig.
8.20. They represent designs which have been successfully employed by The M. W. Kellogg Company for
a number of years in the support of piping from
vessels. Figure 8.20a illustrates the first alternative,
wherein a member is cantilevered out from a single
vessel clip of sufficient length to distribute the loading on the shell. Satisfactory control of the temperature gradient is obtained, where necessary, by covering the point of attachment to the vessel with
insulation. Heavier loads require a knee brace which,
when fixed to the shell, becomes an example of the
second alternative, resulting in the bracket of Fig.
8.20b. It is only suitable for moderate temperatures
(say not exceeding 650 F) because of the rigid
attachment and limited flexibility of the members.
For higher temperatures a detail such as that of Fig.
8.20c is employed. This represents a typical application of the third alternative, with only one member
rigidly affixed to the shell while the other simply

THE PIPING

:.

_f:J.- '"

SYSTEM

253

(0)

May b. boiled to ellew

slighl amount of
crticclcticn
(b)

Not weld.d. b.c,;ng

<cntat! 01 ongl.
on pod only

FIG. 8.20

Typical brackets serving as connecting structures

for the support of piping from n vessel.

bears on a shell reinforcing pad, sliding as required

to accommodate the expansion.
The foregoing brackets are suited for supports
involving little transverse load (e.g. for attachment
of a rod hanger). For higher transverse loads similar
brackets are used but with greater breadth thus
making it necessary to provide for the circumferential
as well as for the longitudinal differential expansion
of the vessel.
Flat roof buildings permit ready support of piping
on sleepers; direct support at grade has the same
advantage but offers obstruction to free access.
Trenches avoid this disadvantage but involve substantial expense plus drainage and corrosion problems, and may contain hazardous gas pockets for
explosive vapors.
Where other-purpose structures are subjected to
significant piping weight or restraint loads, it is
essential that the situation be anticipated during the
progress of design engineering to avoid late changes
with consequent undesirable details. All possible
advantage should be taken of the inherent stiffness

254

DESIGN OF PIPING
Chonnel, bock to bad,

'

Pipo
ceoss

cern

Altetnato bose dttoil"

For RHting

FIG. 8.21

Piping

Typical single column or pole type

supporting structures.

of a structure to minimize stress and deflection, for

example, important reactions on beams or columns
should be near main member intersections or at
bracing tie-in points; torsional effects should also be
controlled by favorable location. Light roof trusses,
frames, or columns may deflect due to local distor.tion; their use as support structures should be
avoided particularly for lines subject to pressure
pulsations. Compressor suction and discharge lines
cause many problems in the vibration of buildings
and are best supported or restrained to massive
foundations or heavy concrete structures wherever
available; otherwise, isolated supports to grade are
to be preferred.
The interconnecting piping between interrelated
process units and similar piping within an individual
unit between vessels, exchangers, pumps, and other
equipment may be, for economics of supporting
structures as well as improved appearance and access,
often collected into a parallel arrangement or "pipe
alley" as shown in Fig. 8.1, with the support elevation usually sufficiently above grade to promote
freedom of movement for operation or access, although locations at grade or in trenches may be
preferred to suit special considerations. Utility, yard
transfer, or similar piping more often involve routing
a single line or a few lines which must cross roads at
a sufficient elevation to permit free vehicular passage
or must go through tunnels, culverts, sleeves, or else
be buried under the roadway. For such interconnecting piping where elevated location is desired, use
is made where feasible of existing structures by

SYSTEMS

attachment through roofs, and by utilizing building

columns as common members in support frames or
for the attachment of supplementary cantilever
support structures. Elsewhere individual support
structures are required.
Individual support structures at grade arc almost
invariably of concrete and of simple sleeper or saddle
contour. Elevated individual support structures
may be single columns made of pipe (illustrated in
Fig. 8.21) although such are usually limited to fairly
small lines. Support bents usually involve the use of
structural shapes, as shown in Fig. 8.2, or else reinforced or unreinforced concrete. When attached, the
material selection is influenced by that of the existing
structure. For independent supports the economic'
choice depends on the number of lines and weight to
be carried, height above grade, local material and
labor costs and availability, and requirements relative to fire resistance.
Steel construction is preferred where supports may
require relocation with future plant additions, or
removal for access to facilitate equipment repairs or
replacement; they also have an advantage where
space limitations are imposed or extreme loads
carried. The fireproofing of steel usually makes it
compare unfavorably in cost with concrete, and
further, if the beam is also encased, complicates
individual support bracket details. Unreinforced
concrete is usually limited to low or massive structures such as saddles, sleepers, etc. Reinforced concrete cost, when cast in place, is greatly dependent
on the cost of forms and their placement, and the
equipment available for elevated pouring in limited
quantity. Standardized design with reusable forms
makes the first point much less critical but pouring
costs are less easily pared. Precast reinforced concrete promises to offer an economic solution provided
satisfactory details for individual support attachments of variable size can be economically realized.
For concrete supports or fireproofing the attachment
and fixture must be of such dimension and detail as
to allow for heat dissipation where the line temperature is above 400 F, to avoid deterioration by
calcining.
The sloping of lines is more advantageously accomplished from a standpoint of both economics and
appearance by variation of the pipe support fixtures
rather than the support structures.
3.7

Erection and Maintenance of the Supporting, Restraining, and Bracing System

It is desirable that pipe support connecting structures be in position, and support fixtures be available

SUPPORTING,

RESTRAINING,

AND BRACING

before the assembly of the piping system is initiated,

in order to minimize the expense of temporary structures and ties and to simplify rigging. Usually the
need for temporary supports and rigging and staging
details is left entirely to the field engineers since in
the design phase the order of equipment arrival and
erection procedure is not adequately established.
With competent construction crews, this is the most
economic way of handling the problem in the majority
of cases, provided only that structural connections
and fixtures are made available to the field so they
can use them efficiently. There will be many instances, however, where at the cost of only a little
extra effort in planning, provisions can be made for
rigging, support of temporary staging for erection
equipment or personnel, or making up bolted joints,
etc.; or indications can be given as to how a support
can be modified or temporarily braced to carry increased loading.
No detrimental effect results from minor plastic
deformation of the pipe from overload or pulling into
alignment during erection, except for special materials which are of limited ductility or are sensitive to
work hardening, or where such deformation leaves
residual stresses which may accelerate localized or
overall corrosive attack. It is a good rule for the
erection forces to question on all alloy materials
whether such deformation is undesirable, and for the
designers to make a practice of warning wherever
such cannot be tolerated. In such special cases final
make-up pieces are required and must be arranged
for in the initial plans; templates must be obtained
when the piping erection is complete to the point of
the make-up piece; support during erection must be
such that yielding does not occur.
With the completion of erection of the piping and
supports, the support fixtures must be adjusted to
avoid sagging and to attain proper distribution of the
load between supports, also to effect the desired
functioning of the restraints and braces. In the
absence of controlled prespring, the degree of residual
fabrication strain is not known, so that successive or
cumulative yielding may occur as supports, restraints,
or braces are adjusted. It is desirable to align the
pipe first at the more critical locations and then adjust
intermediate stations to suit, repeating this sequence
until the line position remains stable relative to the
supports.
If the fabrication involves stress relief or other
post-heat-treatment of field welds, supports should
be adjusted and auxiliary supports provided if
necessary to minimize stresses at the successive
heated areas. For final closure welds, not only sup-

THE PIPING

SYSTEM

255

port stress effects but also those introduced ill

obtaining alignment by bolting up flanges, and by
weld shrinkage, are present and may induce plastic
deformation at the weld. Where heat treatment is
specified instead of, or in addition to, stress relief,
the higher temperatures involved further accentuate
these effects so that extreme care is desirable and
usually additional supports are necessary. For this
purpose counterweights or spring supports are preferable; rigid supports can be used but they must be
successively adjusted to an effective position during
heating and cooling and, particularly, while at
temperature.
Fabrication residual stresses can be effectively reduced by thermal unloading at locations away from
girth welds in particular, and in general by avoiding
all locations where plastic deformation is undesirable
due to the reduced ductility attendant to biaxial or
triaxial stress distribution and to abrupt metallurgical, structure or contour changes. Such unloading,
which is referred to in Chapters 2 and 3, is similar to
and follows the same procedure as local stress relief.
It can be employed at pumps, turbines, or other
sensitive equipment, in order to reduce fabrication
stress influence toward misalignment. It is often
applied by the use of gas or oxy-acetylene heating at
relatively rapid heating and cooling rates without
adverse aftereffects where sensitive materials, the
presence of flaws, or corrosive service are not involved. In general, the same precautions as are
exercised in hot forming in the same temperature
range, are sufficient. The use of such thermal unloading is to be encouraged, since only minor expense
is involved. It is possible to secure an essentially
presprung condition if the thermal unloading is
applied when the line is first heated as in warming up
before initial service, thus preventing yielding and
creep at undesirable locations.
Heating for thermal unloading involves the same
precautions and general approach as for local stress
relief. Complete circumferential areas should be
brought to temperature uniformly and without undue
heat concentration by moving torches continuously
and preferably by using two torches at opposite
locations in the circumference. When available, ring
gas burners, gas burner muffles, or other stress relief
equipment is advantageously employed. Temperatures can usually be sufficiently controlled by heatsensitive pellets, paint, or by the use of surface or
optical pyrometers.
The eventual distortion of the pipe line under
service and cycles of temperature is largely dependent on the dimensional stability achieved by pre-

256

DESIGN OF PIPING

spring or by thermal unloading, and by the effectiveness of the support and restraint adjustment. Cyclic
overstress, with necessary adjustment on each
thermal cycle, and occasional yielding resulting from
upset conditions, etc., will change the line contour
and modify the reactions at supports and restraints.
Temporary periods of uneven temperature, particularly during heating up, may cause bowing, etc.,
which disappears when equilibrium conditions are
again established.
It is always desirable that the performance of
supports, restraints, and braces be observed during
initial heating up to see if they perform as intended.
Adjustment is needed if unanticipated restraints
occur which will distort the line or damage the supports. When equilibrium temperature is reached the
supports should be readjusted to the most favorable
posrtion. The operators and maintenance forces
should appreciate the importance of observing the
action of these devices during each period of major
temperature change as well as during service.
Periodic adjustment of supports may well avoid
fatigue failure, unnecessary distortion, leakage, or
other distress. In Section 2.6 of Chapter 2, the significance of calculated deflections is shown to be
as a range of movement and not as an absolute
position. This carries with it the understanding
that supports must be adjusted to suit the immediate
working position of the line.
The foregoing is at least equally applicable to
average minimum engineered pipe systems as to
critical ones. With the former, the deflections, the
support and restraint reactions, and also the stresses
are established for the design of both the piping and
its supporting system by thumb rule or simplified
analyses subject to appreciable error. Observation
of the behavior of the line and supports is necessarily

SYSTEMS

an essential part of this approach since early correction of observable inadequacies can avoid later
extensive direct and contingent damages to the
piping and connected equipment.
For critical piping it is desirable to define clearly
the installation and subsequent adjustment requirements, and where at all possible to send a design
engineer thoroughly familiar with the basic and
installation requirements, to assist with and observe
the adequacy of the installation. This is particularly
important on stiff or large high-temperature piping
or where critical materials are involved. In particular, measures for. prestress should be properly
executed, and the adjustment of special support
and restraint fixtures properly accomplished.
Stops should be adjusted so they will react in the
required degree at service temperature and, if required, also under ambient conditions. It should
be assured that the stop restricts only movement
normal to the contact surfaces, which should be
smooth and reasonably parallel.
Many supports or restraints involving sliding or
moving parts are dependent on the maintenance care
given to them for dependable operation.
The
designer may easily make the mistake of placing
too much reliance on such maintenance; delicate
mechanisms are easily put out of order and should
be avoided. In all cases the designer should give
some thought to the consequences should a particular
device fail to function as planned. If consequences
are serious, a more foolproof detail should be sought.
Frictional resistance, when critical, can be combated by going to anti friction devices such as rollers
or self-lubricating details. Self-adjusting features
can often be worked in. An overall appraisal of
this nature can greatly increase a system's reliability
in service ..

CHAPTER

Vibration:

Prevention

structural piping oscillations. On the other hand,

there does not appear to be any generally recognized
up-to-date text on flow vibration, so that it was
considered desirable to summarize fundamental information relative to this important subject. When
detailed treatment of subjects considered is readily
available, only final pertinent results are given,
whereas an attempt is made to provide necessary
analysis and discussion of specific subjects whose
coverage in the literature appears to be limited.
Certain basic texts may now be briefly mentioned.
These should provide the interested reader with a
general acquaintance with the mechanics of vibration and further constitute very useful reference
material. The texts by Den Hartog [IJ and Timeshenko [2] are best known for their thorough engineering treatment of the fundamentals of mechanical
and structural vibration and contain numerous examples of oscillatory motion caused by reciprocating
and rotating machinery, self-excited vibrations, etc.,
as well as a comprehensive bibliography on these
problems. Rayleigh's Theory of Sound [3J is the
classical text on acoustic, as well as structural, vibration and is recommended, with Love's treatise [4],
to those interested in detailed derivations and proofs
of mathematical formulas. A further valuable theoretical work on acoustic vibrations is that of
Morse [5]. Analogies between mechanical, electrical,
and acoustic oscillatory systems are presented admirably by Olsen [6J, while Stoker [7] provides an
excellent introduction to the modern theory of nonlinear vibration, such as self-excited oscillations.
For routine design, Marks' [81 and Kent's [9] mechanical engineering handbooks include a brief summary of formulas used in engineering applications.
Vibration and shock isolation are treated by Crede
{lO] and by Ryder and Gatcombe [11].

HE aim of this chapter is to summarize the

essentials of structural and acoustic vibrations as applied to piping systems, aid the
piping engineer in establishing design practices which
will minimize the occurrence of objectionable or
damaging piping vibration such as may occur under
resonance, and indicate steps to control or eliminate
excessive vibration when it develops in service.
9.1

and Control

Introduction

The deleterious effects of vibration are often not

properly assessed. Failures actually caused by vibration are sometimes attributed to other causes
while, on other occasions, harmless oscillations of
perceptible amplitude have given rise to undue
alarm.
The possibility of fatigue fracture and the effect
of fatigue on the life of piping and the superposition
of vibration stresses have already been discussed in
Chapter 2. Among other undesirable effects to be
considered by the piping designer are: flow pulsations leading to noisy operation and increased flow
turbulence with attendant higher heat transfer rates,
pressure drops, corrosion or erosion, and impairment
of operation of flow machinery, valves, and other
components; damage or leakage at critical joints
and seals; psychological effects of a safe but vibrating piping system,' etc.
In this chapter no attempt will he made to provide
a complete treatise on vibration. While relatively
little has been published strictly on piping vibration,
there is ample coverage of the general subject of
mechanical vibration which is directly applicable to
lExpcrience would seem to indicate that an amplitude as
small as -Iff in. in large-size piping (say over 12 in. diameter) is
sufficient to cause alarm if the piping is in an enclosed building,
and ~ in. if in an open structure.
257

258

DESIGN OF PIPING

Basic concepts of vibration and a general discussion of vibration prevention and control are given
in the next section. The sections following include
a more extensive engineering treatment of the subject of structural and acoustic vibrations, with information for the convenience of the piping engineer
and stress analyst in setting up and solving problems which require detailed investigations. This is
followed by an illustration of the application of
basic vibration concepts and derived equations in
the design analysis of a sample piping system. The
last section of this chapter discusses piping vibration
from the point of view of diagnosis and correction of
existing conditions, i.e. "trouble shooting".
9.2

Fundamental
Vibration

Considerations

in Piping

9.2a Definitions.
It is appropriate to define a
few terms which are fundamental in any discussion
of vibration theory and practice.
1. The period of vibration, T, (seconds) designates
the time of one complete oscillation which is repeated in every respect.
2. The frequency of oscillation, f, (cycles per
second) is equal to the reciprocal of the period of
vibration. The angular frequency, w, (radians per
second) = 27rjT.
3. The number of degrees of freedom equals the
number of independent quantities defining the position of a system. Thus, a system consisting of a
mass attached to a massless spring and constrained
to unidirectional motion has one degree of freedom,
since the system configuration is completely defined
by the deflection of the spring. A simply supported
flexible beam or pipe, on the other hand, has an infinite number of degrees of freedom because of the
flexibility of each element relative to adjoining ones,
requiring an infinite number of element deflections
to describe the position completely.
4. A principal mode of vibration is a free vibration
(see 9.2b, "Types of Vibration") of
system vi~
brating at a definite frequency. The number of
principal modes is equal to the number of degrees
of freedom. Frequencies of the principal modes of
oscillation arc called natural frequencies. The lowest natural frequency is called the fundamental fre~
quency and corresponds to the fundamental mode
of vibration. A beam, or pipe, has an infinite number of principal modes. However, the importance
of the fundamental frequency is by far the greatest.
5. Damping can be defined as the reduction of
vibration amplitude through action of frictional
forces. It is a cure for resonant vibrations, whereas

SYSTEMS

nonresonant vibrations are not much reduced by

friction devices. An example of a typical friction
dampener is the shock absorber used in some piping
systems to limit the amplitude of possible resonant
vibrations.
6. From the practical point of view the most important problem in connection with vibration is the
phenomenon of resonance. Resonance occurs when
a system (mechanical or acoustic) is excited periodically with a frequency at or very near the natural
frequency of the system. If the damping (internal
or external) of the system is small, then the system
will respond to excitation, even by a small impulse
at the resonant frequency, with large amplitudes of
vibration, leading to large deflections in the case of
structural vibrations or large pressure surges in
acoustic systems. These, in turn, are accompanied
by high repeated stresses which arc likely to cause
damage by fatigue failure of the pipe or components.
7. In an clastic system, periodic application of a
force as distinct from a static force, may lead to
vibratory deflections (amplitude) equal to, larger
than, or smaller than static deflections. The ratio
between the maximum vibratory amplitude and the
static deflection is called the magnification factor
and is a function of the ratio of forcing frequency
to natural frequency and the amount of damping
present in the system.
9.2b Types of Vibration.
Three main types of
oscillation must be carefully distinguished: free.
forced, and self-excited.
In free vibration, the system is excited by an external transient impulse (persisting for only a short.
time) and the system vibrates under no external
force. In real systems, some damping is present
and the system oscillations will subside unless
another transient impulse is imparted.
In forced vibration, the system oscillates under
the external excitation of a periodic perturbing force.
A primary source of excitation might be the unbalance of rotating machinery (e.g. electric motors,
turbines, compressors, fans, or pumps). Other frequently encountered sources of forced piping vibration arc the periodic variation of fluid pressures and
acceleration of masses within the reciprocating
devices.
Self-excited oscillation is a complicated phenornenon. The system vibrates under no periodic external
forces and the vibration persists, due to internal
energy sources, even in the presence of damping.
Among well-known examples of self-excited vibration are the humming of telegraph wires, chattering
of lathe tools, fiow surging of fans or blowers, air-

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

plane wing flutter, combustion and flow instabilities

in furnaces and boilers, etc. In piping systems,
vibrations of self-excited character have been encountered usually in association with flow instabilities, surging of compressors due to unsuitable
operating characteristics, vortices due to steady
wind, pulsating gas-solid streams, etc. Analysis of
vibrations of this type is usually difficult and often
requires experimental investigation.
9.2c Sources of Periodic Excitation.
Rotating
machinery invariably constitutes a major source of
mechanical vibration, due to the inevitable mass
unbalance existing in the rotating parts of the machine (see Subsection 9.5b). Unless rotating machinery is very carefully balanced or supported on
an elastic foundation for the purpose of vibration
isolation, forced vibration with a frequency equal
to the rotating speed may be expected in nearby
structures. If the rotating speed is in the neighborhood of the natural frequency of an adjoining
structure, resonant vibration will be induced, leading
to possible failures of piping or components.
A compressor of the reciprocating type is a source
of periodic pressure excitation at a frequency (cps.)
equal to the rotational speed (rps.) multiplied by
the number of cylinders for single action and twice
the number of cylinders for double action for any
given stage. If this frequency approaches the
acoustic frequency of the connected piping system,
acoustic resonance in the form of large periodic
pressure surges will appear. Apart from possible
adverse effects on machinery and its operation, these
pressure pulsations can be transmitted directly to
the foundations and buildings, and via bends acted
on by periodically variable forces, or through the
connecting pipe itself to other vessels, structures,
or foundations.
A piping system vibration frequency equal to the speed of rotating machinery or
the pulses of reciprocating devices is a clear indication of the source of excitation, which can be corrected or minimized by balancing of rotors, inclusion
of vibration dampeners, pulsation snubbers, or other
techniques described in this chapter, as well as in
Chapter 8.
Another source of periodic excitation of exposed
piping systems involves the action of wind. If air
strikes at right-angles to the axis of a cylinder of
diameter Do (ft) at a steady wind velocity U (It/sec),
then there result periodic forces of frequency f
(cycles/sec).

SU/Do

O.18U/Do

(9.1)

where S = the Strouhal number (= 0.18 for a cyl-

AND CONTROL

259

inder). These aerodynamic forces are due to vortex

motions around the cylinder (Von Karman vortices,
cf. [12]), and act at right angles to the direction of
the wind. Their magnitude is usually relatively
small and essentially equal to the dynamic pressure
acting on the projected area of the cylinder, but if
the frequency is in the neighborhood of a natural
frequency of a piping system the piping will be set
in resonant vibration with perhaps fairly large amplitudes. An example of this phenomenon is the socalled "humming" of telephone wires. Actual cases
of pipe vibration of this character have been observed [13].
The sources of mechanical or acoustic excitation
described so far are more or less of a systematic
nature and can be expected and taken into account
in design. Unexpected sources of excitation may
exist in an installation or may develop in the course
of operation. Inasmuch as such excitation sources
cannot be provided for in advance, they must be
dealt with as they occur.
An example of an apparently self-excited vibration is that which appeared in oil refinery fluid
catalytic cracking plants in the form of structural
vibrations, as well as pressure surges, and which was
traced to the gas-solid stream in the catalyst carrier
line. Changes in the line configuration and, particularly, the catalyst injection detail greatly influenced these vibrations.
Other similar difficulties
are occasionally encountered in other process equipment and remedies usually involve trial-and-error
changes in details of the fluid injection mechanism.
9.2d Vibration
Prevention
and
Control.
Elimination or isolation of sources of vibration is
unquestionably the most desirable solution to a
vibration problem. However, it is often not possible to accomplish this objective completely. A
slight unbalance of rotating parts will probably persist. Some pressure pulsations due to flow machinery, wind or earthquake effects, etc. should be
expected by the piping engineer. Self-excited vibrations are difficult to predict analytically, and the
designer may have to rely largely on field experience
and data in estimating probable frequencies of
excitation.
Since the piping designer has numerous other considerations which determine a piping system layout,
it is not suggested here that an elaborate vibration
analysis of all standard piping systems be carried
out; nevertheless, the engineer will usually be justified in spending the time needed to insure that the
fundamental natural frequency of a piping system
bearing pulsating flow (e.g. piping directly COIl-

260

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

neeted to reciprocating compressors) will not be in

the neighborhood
of a forcing frequency.
Proper
choice and spacing of supports and braces (guides
and damping devices, Chapter 8), as well as gaspulsation smoothing devices (Section 9.8), may be
added ill the original design at little initial cost, and
is much less expensive than correcting trouble when
encountered in the field.
Following establishment
of design criteria relative to allowable piping stresses and deflections, the
designer should review available information
on
probable forcing frequencies and estimate natural
frequencies
(structural
and acoustic)
of critical
piping.
Formulas for the determination
of natural
frequencies of simple systems are given in Sections
9.3 through 9.8 and their use is illustrated in Section 9.9.
Knowing the possible forcing frequencies
(e.g,
from data on rotating and reciprocating machinery),
an attempt should be made by the designer to prevent resonance of the piping system.
The upper
limit of free pipe length (i.e. the lower limit of
natural frequency) is usually governed by considerations other than vibration.
Moreover, shifting
natural frequencies toward the lower end as compared with the exciting frequency has the disadvantage of not completely eliminating possible vibration
during start-ups and shutdowns of machinery.
The
other approach, that of introduction
of additional
intermediate
fixed or elastic supports for the purpose of shifting the natural frequency of piping
toward the high side, appears to be a more appropriate method of eliminating
vibration
although
less economical and conflicting with requirements
of thermal expansion.
Wherever it is not possible to follow either of the
two methods described above, and the natural frequency of the piping system remains dangerously
close to that of the exciting force, considerable
attention must be devoted to isolation by gas pulsation dampeners,
elastic foundations,
balancing of
rotating
machinery,
and provision of adequate
damping
devices (shock absorbers)
at strategic
points in the system, So-called dynamic dampeners
which couple a secondary vibratory system to the
main piping system, the former being "tuned" so as
to reduce the amplitude of vibration of the main
system at or near resonance, do not appear to be
practicable
for piping.
It should be emphasized
that solutions given in this chapter apply only to
relatively simple piping and support configurations.
Unfortunately,
no general analytical treatment
is
available for dealing with vibration problems, and

sound judgment in making simplifying assumptions,

as well as experience, is always required.

9.3 Structural
tions

Natural

Frequency Calcula-

The primary prerequisite of vibration prevention

and control is the determination
of system natural
frequencies.
This section summarizes
the more
important results pertaining to structural frequencies
of various simple configurations.

FIG. 9.1

Spring-mass system.

9.3a The Spring-Mass Model. The simplest

and most fundamental of all mechanical oscillatory
systems is the one degree of freedom system consisting of a mass attached to a massless spring and
constrained to unidirectional motion (Fig. 9.1). Let
k

spring constant

= force in lb required to elongate or

compress the spring by 1 ft

m = mass in slugs
W

weight (lb)

acceleration

due to gravity

(It/sec")

Then the undamped angular natural frequency

of the system, expressed in radians per sec, is

In

and the frequency

In

(9.2)

in cycles per second, cps, is

Hence, the undamped

is

'1'n

JE

Wn

Wn

Wn

271"

271" '\j;

natural

fE.

=]_

(9.3)

period T, in seconds,

271"

271"

= - = - = -=
fn
Wn
Vk/m

(9.4)

as W = mg it is seen
Ila~ in feet of the spring

If the load (Ib) is designated

that the static deflection
under load will be

Oat

=-

mg
=-

Substituting
this into eq. (9.3) gives another expression for the natural frequency In, also in cps.

In = _.!_ /g =
271"

-i:

0.906
VOst

(9.5)

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

Equations 9.3 and 9.5 are of great usefulness, primarily because of their immediate generalization to
configurations
far more complex than the simple
system for which they were derived.
W=mg

FIG.

9.2

Structure

supporting a weight.

Thus, Fig. 9.2 shows a structure supporting a concentrated weight lV (lb). Assume that the weight
of the structure can be neglected as compared with
W, and that it is desired to estimate the natural
frequency of vibration
of the mass in a vertical
direction.
By virtue of eqs, 9.3 or 9.5 the vibration
problem is reduced to a purely structural one. To
use eq. 9.3, calculate the concentrated
force (lb)
required to deflect point 0 vertically 1 ft (i.e. the
spring constant k(lb/ft) in the vertical direction at
and also recognized as an influence coefficient in
structural deflection theory).
With W = mg given,
in is found by substitution into eq. 9.3. Alternately,
the static vertical deflection at point 0 under the
concentrated
weight lV can be found and in calculated from eq. 9.5.

t:

Example. Given a concentrated weight W = mg

being supported at the end of a massless cantilever
of length L, structural
moment of inertia I, and
material modulus of elasticity E (see Fig. 9.3). It
is required to estimate the natural frequency of
vibration of the system.
The vertical (static) deflection of 0 under the
weight TVis, from structural theory,

o.t =

WL3

48 EI

using dimensions of W (lb), L (ft),

I (in."), and Oot (ft). From eq. 9.5,

in =
In general,

0.906 J48WL

rEi

Ct

'\}1ViJ

= ~

lEI

VW

L2

(9.7 !

11

WI!

=
=
=
=

total weight, lb.

weight per ft of pipe (including
and insulation), Ibjft.
modulus of elasticity, Ib/in.2
moment of inertia, in."
length of pipe, ft.
natural frequency, cps.

pipe contents

Values for wlIJ I, and E can be found in Appendix C.

Table 9.1 gives values of Q:' for the cases indicated.
The concept of "effective mass" is a convenient
approach by which a distributed mass is treated as
an equivalent concentrated mass. Thus, for a massless cantilever of length L (ft) with concentrated
end load P (lb) the natural frequency is given by
eq. 9.6. For uniform weight distribution, the fundamental mode of vibration is:

E (lb/in.2),

= 0.130.Jlh

eq. 9.3 is of greater

where Ct is a coefficient which varies with the end

conditions and mode.
In order to follow the piping practice used in the remainder of this book, the
numerical constant Ct is left with the dimension
(ft/in.)(ftjsec2)~
and the symbols in eq, 9.7 have
the following units'' :

I
L

End weight on a cantilever.

261

eq. 9.5, since in the former case the notions of spring

constant or the purely elastic effect and notion of
mass or inertia effect are separate, while in eq. 9.5
the two notions are combined; as a result, eq. 9.3
lends itself more readily towards generalization.
This is illustrated by the concept of effective mass,
which will be introduced in the next subsection.
9.3b Frequency and Mass Effectiveness Factors for Different End Constraints.
Between
supports or anchors, a pipe is a beam with uniformly distributed
mass.
Each restrained
length
possesses an infinite number of degrees of freedom,
hence vibration may occur in an infinite number of
modes singly or in combination.
In practice, the
fundamental
mode is of main interest, but occasionally the second mode may also be of some
importance.
. The general expression for the natural frequencies
of beams with uniform mass distribution,
such as
pipes, is of the following form:

E
FIG. 9.3

AND CONTROL

usefulness

(9.6)
than

(see Table 9.1 and eq. 9.7)

2Thc constant a is nondimensional
dimensions.

---_. __ .. _

__ ._.

__ ._

for n consistent

set of

_ _----------------

.. ..

262

DESIGN OF PIPING
Table
Support

SYSTEMS

9.1
Frequency
Coefficient a for
Pipe or Uniform Bar

Mode of Vibration
Fundamental

(1st)

Cantilever
Second

....

Mode

Fundamental

--_-_

0.265

...

1.66

0.743

(1st)

Both ends simply supported

Second Mode

Fundamental
One end simply supported,

2.97

1.16

(1st)

other end fixed

3.76

Second Mode

Fundamental

(1st)

1.69

Both ends fixed

4.64

Second Mode

Hence it appears that the effective end weight of

a uniform weight distribution is
Well =

(O.13~)2
0.260

W = O.25W =

t TV

0.13~

0.13J

(tw:

L2

P)L3

EI
1
-w
4

P
L

(9.9)

(9.9a)

The factor of effectiveness, t, can also be derived

in a manner which may be generalized to the case of
nonunif ormly distributed
loading.
Thus, if the
total weight of the cantilever is Wand
L is its
length, then considering only the infinitesimal mass
dm between x and (x
dx) (Fig. 9.4), the spring

mass dm.

3EILg

(L)3

G~

3EI

dX) L3 ;-

the infinitesimal mass at x may be considered equivalent to an effective infinitesimal mass at the end
(z = L), multiplied by a weight factor (X/L)3. If
the effective infinitesimal masses at x = L is then
added, the total effective mass is
lV

J:L (x)3
L

gL.

dx

1 W

4:

lVeff

-g-

or

Werr

4'W.

Of course, this principle of addition of effectiv.e

masses is not exact but, as was seen, the approximation for uniformly
distributed
load is quite
reasonable.
On this approximate basis the procedure can also
be generalized to the case of a non-uniform mass
distribution on cantilever beams. Thus for a mass
as shown in Fig. 9.5, the effective end weight would
be
W

mass on cantilever.

the infinitesimal

Wclf = L-2
FlO. 9.4. Elementary

= 3EI/x3,

dm == Wx dx ==

+-

(W/Lg) dx, and the ratio

(9.8)

Consequently,
the fundamental
natural frequency
for a cantilever with a total weight W uniformly
distributed and a concentrated load P at the end is

In

constant

L1+L.

L,.J

(X)3
l-

dx -

(Ll

+ L2)4

(Ld'! W

4L 2 L3
(9.10)

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

AND CONTROL

263

Thus, for this mode, the dynamic deflection curve

may be taken as:

y(x, t)

f(x)

sin wnt

being the natural frequency for the particular

mode. If x varies between x = 0 and x = L, the
potential and kinetic energies are respectively:

Wn

FIG. 9.5

Distributed

mass on cantilever.

Potential energy

with a natural frequency, cps,

in

I(x)[f"(x)]2

dx

(9.12)
=

0.13 ~lVeffL

For a concentrated load W at x

eq. 9.10 reduces to
Wcrr

W (~

= L1,

L2

---+ 0,

and

Stiffness

= ~ wn cos2 wntlL

W(x)!f(x)]2

dx

(9.13)

and

Kinetic energy
so that

(9.11)

Apart from unusual cases, eqs. 9.10 and 9.11 will

yield results sufficiently accurate for engineering
estimates.
9.3c Variable

!Esin2wntlL

Variable

Mass.

There exists, since Rayleigh !3], a systematic procedure for the approximate calculation of natural
frequencies of structures with non-uniform stiffness
and non-uniform mass distribution.
With this
method a reasonable form of the deflection curve
during oscillation is assumed and then maximum
kinetic and potential energies are calculated and
equated.
The result is an expression for the natural (undamped) frequency. If, by chance, the exact form
of the vibratory deflection curve for a particular
mode has been assumed the resulting expression for
the natural frequency for that particular mode will
be exact. In general, at least for the fundamental
mode, any reasonable approximation to the actual
deflection curve will yield results good enough for
practical purposes. A reasonable deflection curve
is one which satisfies at least the major boundary
conditions of the structure (e.g., end conditions for
beams).

Max. potential energy =

tELL

. .
Max. kinetic
energy

1 wn

(xW

I(x)[f"

1L

dx

= - -

(J

W(x)[f(X)]2

dx

from which

E(JI

CtJn

I(x)[f"

(X)]2 dx

(9.14)

lL W(x)!f(X)]2

dx

By analogy with eq, 9.2, the numerator and denominator in eq. 9.14 represent an effective spring constant and an effective mass (or load) respectively.

FIG. 9.7

Cantilever.

For the fundamental mode, the approximate form

of the deflection curve for a cantilever, Fig. 9.7, is
f(x)

= 28 sin2 'l!"X

(9.15)

4L

where 8 = maximum deflection (at end).

FIG. 9.6

MllSS

distribution.

Thus, suppose a reasonable form of a deflection

curve for a particular mode for a beam with various
end conditions is I(x), the weight distribution is
W(x)
(Fig. 9.6), and the stiffness is expressed by a
variable moment of inertia I (x), x being measured
from a certain origin.

This satisfies the conditions for zero deflection and

zero slope at x = 0 and a condition for Zero moment
at z = L. It does not satisfy an end shear condition.
Likewise, for simply supported beams and fixedend beams the deflection curves may be taken respectivelyas
f(x)

where

= 8 sin
0 =

'7

and

f(x)

8 sin"

'7

maximum deflection (at the center).

264

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

For a. cantilever, it was seen that the uniform load

may be taken as equivalent to
concentrated end
load. Likewise, on the basis of the assumed deflection curves:
For a simply supported beam, by analogy with
eq, 9.14 the effective center load (equivalent to uniform load), after cancelling the constant 0, is

WIL .

=-

W cf(

dx

= _.W
2

For a fixed-end beam, the equivalent

Weir

= -WIL
L

(9.16)

I
~ (lW

El+

=0.13~'l
L2
1

4 + L
Wv

.
Simply
supported

beam j',

= 0.525

EI

+ P)L

('2lV

sin? -dx
L

uniform load

+ end load

uniform load

+ center

= *W

= /}

(9.17)

(9.18)

t; = 1.03

Fixed end beam

RI
-3=------::

~ (sW

lV

=
=

L =

E =
I =

= l.03~'I
L2

load for simply supported

or fixed end beam.

gWU + L
(9.19)

frequency of pipe (1st mode), cps.

total weight of pipe, lb.
weight of pipe per ft of length (including contents and insulation), lb/ft.
end load for cantilever or center load for simply
supported or fixed-end pipe (beam), lb.
length of pipe, ft.
modulus of elasticity of pipe material, Ib/in.2
moment of inertia of pipe section, in."

Values of WII, E and I for pipe can be found in

Appendix C. Then, for beams with loading conditions as stated above, the following formulas may be
used for the first. mode of vibration:

9.3d Combined
Bending-Torsion.
Consider
the cantilever in Fig. 9.S and assume its mass can
be neglected.
Then, the static deflection at point 0
for a weight Pis:
L

3 + 144~L L 2J

0= [ 48-a + 4s_b
ui,
EI"
where La and Lb

I a and I b

Ja

o=

C9.20}

modulus of elasticity,
Ib/in.2
torsional shearing modulus,
lb /in."
respective moments, of inertia of
the section, in."
polar moment of inertia about
the center of gravity of the circular section a or the "equivalent"
value for a noncircular section.
in."
deflection, ft.
lb/ It, for point () is
3

Eh/48Lb

=
1+

Configuration in bending torsion.

tions, ft.
= common

The effective spring constant,

9.8

GJa

= the two arms of the configura-

----;;::>
O</Gb
FIG.

+ P)I}

for cantilevers

= natural

WII

0.525
1rX

Thus, let:

in

P)3

center load is

For beams, the stiffness is usually constant along

the span and the form of the mass distribution is
frequently as follows:

and

in = 0.13

(9.9; 9.901
21rX

Stu -

Cantilever

(h) (LLb)3
a

i,

+ 3 El b (Da)
GJa

Lb

(9.21 )

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

AND CONTROL

265

and the natural frequency is then

EhjPLb3

In ::::0.13

(9.22)

If the mass of the piping (beam) cannot be neglected, and denoting by Wlia and Wyb the weight per
linear foot (lb/It) of length ~a and Lb respectively,

In

EhjlVeflLb3

= 0.13

FIG. 9.11

Two members: -

angle

between legs.

idealized as in Fig. 9.10. Analogous to eqs. 9.22

and 9.23 the following expressions can be written:
2Eh

In
0.13

= 0.13

(9.23)

""-2

Lb

1 In (La)3
3E t, (La)
1+-- +-32 fa i,
2GJa t.;

2Eh

+ 38 Wya

Lb

0.13

where Wa and W b are the weights of legs La and Lb.

Equation 9.23 is necessarily an approximation,
and in particular the effect of W b is a somewhat
crude approximation. A closer approximation can
be obtained by energy methods (see Rayleigh's
method described above). However, in most practical cases, additional refinements are not warranted.
The foregoing results may be applied, in an approximate manner, to estimate the fundamental
natural frequency of a particular pipe bend shown
in Fig. 9.9. For purposes of estimating the natural
frequency of vibration (in a mode perpendicular to
the plane of the paper), the configuration may be

= Lb

t,(L-a)3
1+--

1
32

Schematic of pipe bend.

p

fa

i,

Wyb

(9.24)
3Eh (La)
2GJa Lb

+--

Here again In is in cps; h, la, and Ja have units

of in."; E and G, lb/in."; La and Lb, ft; Wa and
Wb, lb; wI/a and Wllb lb/It; and load P lb.
9.3e Approximate
Natural
Frequencies
of
Pipe Bends with Two Members (Vibration Perpendicular to Plane of Bend). Consider a pipe
bend as shown in Fig. 9.11, having both legs the
same in diameter, thickness, and material. The mass
distribution is considered to be due only to the
weight of the pipes.
For the usual pipe materials, the ratio of bending
rigidity to torsional rigidity, El/GJ = 1.3 = 1.
With this approximation, the general expression for
the fundamental natural frequency of vibration perpendicular to the pipe bend will be of the form

f
:FIG. \J.9

(La)
Lb

ex"\j

lEI

lVI.}

(9.25)

wherejisincps,Eisinlb/in.2,Jisinin.\
W = total
weight of bend in lb, L = L1 + L2 = total length
of bend in It, and ex is a numerical factor depending
upon the ratio Ld L2 and the angle O.
Consider two extreme cases:
a. L2 = 0, L1 = L
In this case the bend reduces to a fixed-end beam
and a :::: 1.69 constant for all angles.
b. L1

FIG. 9.10

Idealized configuration

for Fig. 9.9.

= L2

!L

In this case (L1

L2), if 0

0, the bend reduces

266

DESIGN

OF

PIPING

La=L/2

FlO. 9.12

Two-member bend 0

1</2.

to two parallel cantilevers and a = 1.06. In the

other extreme, 0 = 7r, the bend reduces again to a
axed-end beam and a = 1.69. Consider now the
case,O = 7r/2 (Fig. 9.12). It can be shown that the
deflection Yo (in ft) at the point 0 due to a unit load
at that point, in a direction perpendicular
to the
plane of the bend, is given by

SYSTEMS

Obviously curves of a vs. e for all other length

ratios Ld L2, must be situated between the two
extreme cases (a) and (b) discussed above and
shown in Fig. 9.13. Even though it is not exactly
correct, a simple interpolation
between the two
extreme cases for any given length ratio is good
enough for engineering estimates.
Thus the two
extreme cases plus simple interpolation
define the
values of a for any length ratio and any angle 0 to
within reasonable approximation.
f (c.p .s. ) = a

f[

Wl'

Yo =

48/EI
1/Ll~
1-

1/L2'J

1-

1+ (EI/GJ)(Lz/Lt)

La = l(ll=O)

I------...;_-----~

1.69

1+ (EI/GJ)(LdLz)
(9.26)

1.60

For EI/GJ
1 as assumed
result reduces to

L3
Y = - X 144
o
384 EI
5

and LdL2

= 1, the
1.040

15 L3
= -

8 EI

(9.27)

The effective end weight for a cantilever due to

uniformly distributed mass is approximately
~ of
the total weight of the cantilever.
For a fixed-end
beam the effective weight at the center due to uniformly distributed load is % of the total weight of
the beam.
Clearly the coefficient of effectiveness for the 90
bend of equal pipe lengths is situated between ~
and %. If then the effective weight is taken as
We( = 916 total weight of bend, the result can not
be greatly in error.
With this value of effective
weight at the junction point and the expression for
Yo given above, it is found that a = 1.2. Thus for
the bend of equal lengths:

o
1.06

1.20

1.06

~--,---~--~----~--o
11'

1.2

(9.28)
where k
r

t =
E

If a curve of a vs. 0 is drawn through these three

points it appears as shown in Fig. 9.13.
In the other extreme case (L2 = 0; L1 = 1),
a = 1.69 = Constant
for all 0, as already remarked
above.
This "curve,"
i.e., the horizontal
line
a = 1.69, is also shown in Fig. 9.13.

lr

9.31 Plates and Radial Mode in Pipe. The

spring constant (for deflection caused by a concentrated load at center) of a simply supported circular
plate is

11'

1.69

FIG. 9.13 Approximate natural frequencies of pipe bend

with two legs (vibration perpendicular to plane of bend).

7r
2

'7

and

II

=
=

spring constant, lb/ft.

radius of plate, ft.
thickness of plate, ft.
modulus of elasticity, Ib/in.2
Poisson's ratio, assumed to be equal to
0.3.

For a concentrated load P (lb) at the center of

the plate, large with respect to the plate weight, the
natural frequency in cps is then

in =

1
211'

2GIEt3g

Pr2

lEt

- 14.6 r '\jp

(9.29)

VIBRATION:

PHEVENTION

The effective concentrated

weight (at center) of a
total uniformly distributed load W (lb) on a simply
supported circular plate may be taken as
WeH

tw

(g.30)

Using the above units, the natural frequency of a

circular plate clamped at the edge and acted on by
a concentrated
load P at the center is (assuming
J.' ;::: 0.3)

tfEt
In = 23.3; '\jp

load IV on a clamped
concentrated
load (at

For a uniformly distributed

circular plate, the effective
center) may be taken as:
lVe([

(9.31 )

lw

(9.32)

A high-frequency periodic pressure variation in a

pipe might induce a structural vibration in a radial
mode, which will result in alternate hoop tension
and compression.
The fundamental
natural frequency of a pipe, with a free length equal to, say,
at least 5 diameters, in a radial mode is [4]:

In

= 6~5

-l-

(9.33)

where D = diameter, in.

t = thickness, in.
Apart from large vessels or stacks, the natural frequency of ordinary pipe in an ovalling mode is high.
Structural
Factors

Resonance

267

discussion the reader is referred to standard references on the subject.

The motion of a spring-mass combination when
excited with a periodically varying force (F sin wt)
is governed by the differential equation:

mx +

kx

and Magnification

Since resonance is the most important

phenomenon in vibration, a few simple derivations of fundamentals will be given, although for an exhaustive

F sin wt
(9.34)

x being the displacement of the mass or deflection

in spring, relative to the system configuration
for
F = O. Although no damping is assumed so far, a
small amount of damping may always be supposed
to exist. Because of this effect the initial transients
will eventually be damped out, so that the remaining
"steady state" solution is of the form z = R sin wt.
Substituting
this solution
into eq. 9.34 gives
(-mw2 + k)R = F, or

R
F
since

Wn

1
=

I/k

k - mw2

= 1 -

(w2/wn2)

= vk/m or
R
F/k

-=

where D ;:::mean diameter of pipe, in., E is in lb/in.",

and p = density of material, lh/in."
However, for
typical cases the frequency In (cps), as given by
eq. 9.33, is so high that resonance of this type is
hardly ever likely to occur.
Ovalling Mode. Another mode of vibration (observed on large stacks at certain wind speeds) is
what is often referred to as ovalling. In this mode
of vibration the circular cross section assumes an
elliptical shape with the major and minor axes alternating in perpendicular directions once per cycle.
For steel pipe, the natural frequency (cps) corresponding to this mode may be estimated from the
expression

9.4

AND CONTROL

(w2/wn2)

1-

Now, F/k represents the sialic deflection of the

spring under the force F, while R is the maximum
dynamic deflection under the periodic force F sin wt.
That is F/k = X.t, R = XdyD, The absolute value
of the ratio of maximum dynamic deflection (maximum amplitude) to static deflection is defined appropriately as the magnification [actor, thus:

M.F.

IX I
dyn

(9.35)

S1

or, from the previous results,

M.F.

1- (w

~/w

(9.36)

2
n

A plot of M.F. vs. the ratio of forcing frequency w

to undamped
natural frequency w~ (i.e. w/w,,) is
sometimes referred to as a resonance curve (for zero
damping).
This curve is shown in Fig. 9.14, labeled
r = O. For this extreme case (i.e, no damping), the
magnification factor becomes infinite when the forcing frequency w coincides with the undamped natural frequency w".
In the presence of a finite amount of viscous
damping, the differential equation takes the form
mx cx kx = F sin wi, c being a coefficient of
viscous damping.
It is simpler to consider the
(ultimately equivalent) differential equation

mx

+ ci: + kx =

Fei""

(9.37)

DESIGN

268

OF PIPING SYSTEMS
>..2 + (CAlm)
which

+w

= 0,

wn2

kim,

m ~ 0, from

!I..F.

Critical damping occurs when the expression under

the radical is zero. That is:

f=O
6.0

(9.39)

By the use of eqs. 9.38 and 9.39, eq. 9.37, after

dividing by k, may be written in the form:

5.0

".0

The steady state solution for z is of the form:

r,

3.0

= Rei""

R being in general a complex quantity, the absolute

value (modulus) of which represents maximum displacement (spring deflection), i.e. IRI = Odyn. From
the differential equation:

:2.0

1.0

XBt

0
0

1.0
FIG.

9.14

e;W'

Resonance (frequency response) curves.

~
.,:

and

Odyn
Oat

= -v=l

The effective damping depends not only upon the

viscous friction coefficient but also upon the mass
and spring constant. The overall effect is expressed
in terms of a vi.scous damping coefficient or damping
ratio:

(9.38)
where Co is defined as critical damping, pertaining to
the particular system.
The critical damping of an effective spring-massdashpot system is defined as follows: If less damping
is present, the system will damp out in an oscillatory
manner when disturbed by a passing transient; for
damping greater than critical the system will damp
out in a nonoscillatory manner, as illustrated in
Fig. 9.15.
The critical damping for a given system is immediately determined from the differential equation
as follows:
For free vibration the differential equation is:
mx + cii + kx = O. This differential equation is
satisfied by the expression x = Ae~' provided that
).. is a root of the quadratic m)..2
C).. + k = 0, or

Wn

I !!:_ I = I I
OBl

+ i sin wt

(w)2

so that the magnification factor is:

M.F.

= cos wt

t -

Wn

2.0

where

.'.,

W.
1 + 2r-

(9.40)

Plots of M.F. vs wlwn for several values of r > 0 are

shown in Fig. 9.14, in addition to the "pure" resonance curve for r = O.
The maxima of the !v1.F. are given by:
1 ~ (M.F.) max

1
=

./

2rv 1 -

r2.

(9.41 )

and the maxima occur at:

co

"

FIG. 9.15

(9.42)

"

Oscillatory and nonoscillatory damped motion.

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

M.F.

Equation 9.41 holds only over the range

0<1-<--;::

1 ....
(9.43a)

- ~- V2

The corresponding range of frequency ratios is

o
1
r > --;::,

For

V2

<~W

n-

(M.F.) max

<1

(9.43b)
W

1 at-

= 0

Thus, the maximum magnification factors in the

presence of damping occur at frequencies somewhat
below the natural frequency. It is to be noted that
magnification disappears (i.e, M.F. max 1) at a
damping ratio r = 1/ v'2 which is less than critical,
since at critical damping, r = 1.
From Fig. 9.14 it is also observed that the maxima
of the M.F. fall off sharply with an increase of the
damping ratio r from zero. This is seen more clearly
from a plot of the maxima of M.F. vs. as shown in
Fig. 9.16. The usual effectiveness of hydraulic
shock absorbers or any other equivalent form of
viscous damping is based upon this phenomenon.

r.

M.F.

Ina.
7.0

Equation.
(M.F.) max

2t{l=F

5.0

..0

J.O

1.0

1.0

o+----------+----.-------------~~-o

FlO.

9.16

SY"em with
relalively
high nalu",!
{,equenty
relalivo la "
givon forcing
Iraquenty W I

W"

6.0

.!

{Z

269

AND CONTROL

1.0

'Maxima of magnification [actor

2.0
VB.

damping ratio.

FIG. 9.17

.,
1

M.F. as a function of

w/w

Generally little inherent damping exists in structures.

Structural damping (due essentially to
hysteresis effects in metals) varies with the mode of
vibration, but for fundamental modes (for cantilevers
say) the damping is of the order of a few per cent
at the most, i.e., r = 0.01-0.03. Thus in the absence
of any other damping, such low values of r yield
very high magnification factors in the neighborhood
of resonance. Hence, the resonance curve (r = 0)
should be used for estimating resonance magnification factors (M.F.) in structures.
In practical
estimates a probable maximum M.F. of 50 is sometimes used.
While compromises may be necessary, it is desirable, if possible, to design a system so that the
frequencies of possible external excitation fall
outside the frequency band equal to say one-half the
natural frequency on either side of resonance, as
shown in Fig. 9.17. In other words, either the
system is designed so that the frequency range W of
the. expected external excitation satisfies the inequality w/wn > ~-,or else the system is designed
so that w/wn < l In the first case the system is of
relatively low natural frequency (i.e, relative to the
frequency of the disturbing force), while in the
second case the system is of relatively high natural
frequency.
.
The first alternative is usually the more economical
but there are limitations.
If this alternative is
chosen, the system will always pass through a
resonance condition during starting or stopping.
However for continuous operation of relatively long
durationthis limitation is perhaps not of considerable importance. A more serious limitation may
consist in a conflict with strength or deflection
requirements. For ordinarily, in piping, the natural
frequencies can be reduced essentially only by an
increase in free length. If structural and related
requirements do not permit the choice of the first

270

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

alternative, then the system must be designed 011

the basis of the second alternative, that is by
increasing the natural frequencies SUfficiently. Again
this can be achieved in piping essentially only through
a reduction in free length by the introduction of
additional supports, rigid or clastic. If neither
alternative is possible, artificial damping must be
introduced, in the form of bracing devices which
dissipate energy through friction, (hydraulic shock
absorbers, etc.).
The results given above are based upon the use of
the spring-rnass-dashpot system as a model. This
model, being a system of one degree of freedom,
necessarily exhibits only one resonance peale
A piping system or even a simply supported beam is,
in reality, a system possessing an infinite number of
degrees of freedom and such a system will exhibit,
theoretically at least, an infinite number of resonance peaks. However, in general the first (fundamental) mode with the lowest natural frequency is
the most important one in any system, and the
resonance behavior in the neighborhood of the
first peak in any system is essentially the same as
that for the simple spring-mass model.
9.5

Damping of Structural Vibrations

9.5a Hydraulic Snubbers.i' In vibration surveys

the amplitude and frequency of vibration is determined at a point (or various points) of a vibrating
structure. If the amplitude of vibration is excessive
and if this amplitude can be reduced only by the
installation of a hydraulic snubber, it is of importance
to estimate the maximum force the snubber must
transmit and the degree of damping required to
reduce the amplitude of vibration to a tolerable
magnitude.
In this discussion it is assumed that the vibration
is of the forced type and the damping characteristic
of the snubber is of the purely viscous type. It is
necessary then that the following quantities be
known or be estimated or measured:
1. The amplitude of vibration,

Ro, ft
2. The frequency of vibration,

}
from vibration
survey

w, rad/see

3. Natural frequency of Vibrat-}

ing structure, Wn from calculations
4. Spring constant of vibrating or experiment
structure, k, lb/ft
(at point where amplitude is measured)
3-fhe terms "hydraulic snubber" and "hydraulic shock
absorber" are both used herein to denote the kind of damping
device described in Chapter 8.

If
R

= amplitude of vibration with damping, ft,

r=

viscous damping coefficient (nondimensional),

F s = maximum force to be transmitted by snubber,
lb,
Then, we have, from the relations given in the
text,
1

R/Ro = ---;::======

'I + [

'\)

2t(w/wn)
(w/wn)2

1-

(9.44)

J2

or
(9.45)
(9.46)
Thus, k, Ro, w, and Wn being known, by hypothesis,
the maximum snubber force F s can be determined
from eq. 9.46 for any given amplitude ratio R/ Ro of
damped to undamped vibration.
The required
damping coefficient t for a desired amplitude ratio
is given by eq. 9.45, or if t is known, the amplitude
ratio is determined byeq. 9.44.
If r is not known, eq. 9.45 suggests an experimental method whereby this quantity can be
determined.
Consider a simple system whose
natural frequency Wn is known, subject it to a
forced vibration of frequency w/wn and measure the
amplitude Ro; then connect a hydraulic snubber to
the point where the amplitude is measured; the
system is now subjected to forced vibration under
the same conditions as before and measurements
are obtained for the reduced amplitude R. The
damping coefficient t of the snubber can then be
determined from eq. 9.45.
A study of eqs. 9.44, 9.45, and 9.46 shows that
viscous damping is really effective only in the neighborhood of resonance (w/wn = 1). This can also be
shown from Fig. 9.14; equation 9.44 represents the
reduction of the M.F. obtained by reading along a
vertical in Fig. 9.14 from the no damping (s = 0)
curve to that for a given r. Outside the vicinity of
resonance (say when w/wn :$; t or w/wn ;::: ~), high
damping coefficients are required to reduce the
amplitude to a reasonable degree, i.e. very large
maximum snubber forces may be needed. This point
will be further illustrated numerically in Section 9.9.
From the above expressions is also obtained:
Fs

11 -

kRo
'\)

(w/wn)21

'I + [1 - (w/wn)2J

(9.47)

2Sw/wn

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

AND CONTROL

271
Unboloncod Mon m

Suppose now that n identical snubbers are connected

at the same point. This is equivalent to an increase
of S by the factor n, which changes the expression
for Fs to:
Fs = kRo

11 +

(w/wn)21

'I [1 -

"'J

)2J2

(9.48)

(w/wn

2ns w/wn

FIG.

It is seen that the total maximum snubber force

increases considerably less than proportionally with
the number of snubber units. Indeed as n ---7 cc the
max. total snubber force tends to a finite limit value
given by:
t

(9.49)
An infinitely stiff shock absorber (r = 00) is a rigid
connection; hence, eq. 9.49 represents the force
transmitted to the ground when the point in question
is rigidly connected. The above is true from a
dynamic point of view. However, shock absorbers
of sufficiently large r may still be used to allow
flexibility of piping equilibrium positions in view of
thermal expansion as well as serve to counteract
resonant vibration amplitudes.
From the preceding equations the following, perhaps more useful, relations can also be obtained:
If R;

amplitude for n shock absorbers

1 shock absorber)
amplitude without shock absorbers)
total max. force transmitted by n shock
absorbers
total max. force transmitted by 1 shock
absorber)

(RI

= amplitude for

(Ro
Fn

(F I

9.18

Rotating machinery on clastic foundation.

is the rotational speed, then the centrifugal force

F* (lb) due to the unbalanced rotor mass m
(lb scc2/ft) at radius r (ft) is:
(9.53)
Let k (lb/ft) be the overall spring constant of the
system. Then the static deflection of the spring
under force F* is
(9.54)

Since the undamped natural frequency

of the mass mo (lb sec2/ft) is

Wn

(rad/sec)

Wn=~

we have
(9.55)
and
(9.56)

Oat = {m/mo)r(w/wn)2

When the rotational speed is equal to the undamped

natural frequency, the static deflection and the force
F* will be independent of the natural frequency

O*.t

(9.57)

(m/mo)r

In the absence of damping, the maximum dynamic

deflection is

Then:

Omsx

11 -

(9.58)

(w/wn)21

and the maximum dynamic force in the spring is

Fmo.x

So that

r,
u;
-=nFl

(9.52)

RI

Thus if Rt/Ro :$ ! say, then F

9.50 and Rn = Rt/n by eq. 9.52.

= Fl

= mOWn

omsx

9.Sb Elastic Foundations for Rotating Machinery. The installation of rotating machinery on
Of,

amnx

= mo r

Fmax

11 -

mOwn

11 _

Substituting the expression for

into eq. 9.58 and eq. 9.59 gives:

from eq.

elastic foundations is a fairly standard means for

preventing vibration. The basic features of such an
installation may be illustrated on the basis of the
simple spring-mass model, Fig. 9.18. If w(rad/sec)

= kamax

Bt

(w/wn)21
08t

(9.59)

from eq. 9.56

(w/wn)2
(w/wn)21

11 _

(9.60)
(9.61)

(w/wn)21

in view of equations 9.55 and 9.57

Omnx/a\t

Fmnx/W'

11 11 -

(wn/w)21-1

)21-1

(w/wn

(9.62)
(9.63)

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

272

A plot of FrnD.x/F* and Omo.x/c5*Bt VB. (w/wn) is shown

in Fig. 9.19. The solid curves, represent Fmax/F*
while the dashed curves represent [jmax/c5* at.
From the above figure it is observed that if minimizing the deflection is of primary interest, then
(w/wn) ought to be as small as possible in which
case Fmnx tends to F. But if the reduction to a
minimum of the maximum force transmitted to the
foundation through the spring is of primary consideration, then (w/wn) should be Il.S high as possible in which case omnx tends toward 0* st. The
term elastic is appropriate, of course, only to the
second case. It is also seen from eq. 9.63 or Fig. 9.19
that Fmax :::; F* (centrifugal force) corresponding to
a magnification factor less than unity, only when
w/wn ;::: vi The above results are based upon the
spring-mass system with no damping present. If
the system is such that the rotating speed and natural frequencies are near to each other and for various reasons the ratio w/wn cannot be changed, or if
a range of rotational speeds must be provided for,
then viscous damping must be introduced by means
of dash pots (hydraulic shock absorbers, etc.), as
shown by the dotted outline in Fig. 9.18.
In this case the force transmitted to the foundation is the sum of the forces in the springs and in
the dashpots and the following results can be
verified:

~:::

[1 - (:)2J + (2t :)2

= {[
(:nYJ + (2t ~ Yr~
I -

FIG. 9.19

F m.x/F

and Om.x/o.t

VB.

w/w,., no damping.

fmax
F

(9.64)
FIG. 9.20

F rou/ F" vs. w/wn for damped vibration.

FIG. 9.21

o",~x/[j

(9.65)

the damping ratio! having been defined previously

(see Section 9.4).
Families of curves of Fmnx/F>t. and omnx/lf'" at vs.
W/Wn with r as parameter are shown in Figs. 9.20
and 9.21 respectively. It is seen from Fig. 9.20 that
for w/wn < V2, the maximum force transmitted to
the foundation is greater than the centrifugal force
2
mrw
(i.e. the magnification is greater than unity)
and it is in this range only that damping is beneficial.
It is also seen from Fig. 9.21 that in so far as deflection. in the springs is concerned, damping is
always beneficial.
The above results, even though based on a one
degree spring-mass-dashpot system, may be applied
to more complex systems provided the effective inertia (including possibly a distributed mass in the
"springs"), and the effective spring constant., can

VE.

w/wn for damped vibration.

VIBRATION: PHEVENTION AND CONTROL

be properly estimated.
Finally, the above results
illustrate also the essentials of the behavior of shock
absorbers, at least of the viscous type.

9.6 Acoustic Natural Frequency Calculations

Rigorous determination
of acoustic natural frequencies of a piping system is usually difficult.
However, approximate
estimates can be made on
the basis of results applying to a few simple configurations.
The piping engineer may find it difficult to interpret and to apply some of the material in the classical
texts on acoustic vibrations.
Furthermore,
there
does not appear to be an engineering
textbook
which would give an up-to-date summary of flow
vibration analysis and applications as well as a bibliography equivalent to the treatment of mechanical
vibrations by Den Hartog [lJ and Timoshenko {2J.
The following sections will present a number of
derivations
of flow vibration relations and a discussion of the general analytical approach to be
pursued by the piping engineer in dealing with
acoustic oscillations.
Section 9.9 gives an example
illustrating
the possible application of derived formulas. Subjects adequately treated in the literature
(e.g. water hammer) will be covered very briefly.
Several references dealing with specific acoustic vibration problems of possible interest to the piping
engineer are included in the list of references at the
end of this chapter.
9.6a The Organ Pipe and Resonators.
The
organ pipe is a tube with a large length/diameter
ratio, so that the motion of the fluid (say air) inside
the tube is essentially one-dimensional.
The major
acoustic unknowns are the end conditions.
Usually,
two extreme end conditions are considered, closed
and open ends. At a closed end the pressure variation is a maximum and such a point is referred to as
a node. At open ends the velocity is a maximum
and such points are denoted as loops. The fact that
a pipe end is geometrically open does not mean that
there is always a loop at that end. The designations
closed and open are, in general, strictly applicable in
an acoustical sense only.
.The longitudinal
natural frequencies, for a tube
with both ends closed, form a harmonic scale:

c;

"2 C ; 3" C

2C

2L
Period
Frequency

(sec) =

(cps) ;;: 2L'

I 2L

2L'

I 2L

etc ....

3C

2L etc ....

where C = velocity of sound in the fluid, It/sec,

L = length of the tube, ft.

273

For air, if T is the absolute

temperature

in degrees

R, the speed of sound is approximately

C

1120VT/518

49.3VT

(9.(j6)

The natural frequencies for a tube with one end

closed and one end open form an odd harmonic
scale (even harmonics are absent):

in

3C

5C

4L;

4L;

4L;

(9.07 )

etc ....

For a tube "open" at both ends, the natural periods are the same as for a tube "closed" at both ends.
As was pointed out above, it is not always easy to
decide whether a physically open end may be considered open in acoustic considerations.
In view of
this, the value of the length L in the above equations
may differ somewhat
from the actual physical
length.

rr:

...:A..:...,=Hod

AtM>

.1
FIG. !).22

Resonator.

Another frequently encountered acoustic element

is the Helmholz resonator.
A resonator is essentially
a chamber with a "neck," the chamber volume being
large as compared to the neck (Fig. 9.22).
A
resonator
is considered
as a simple spring-mass
system.
It is supposed that the air in the neck
vibrates as a solid mass while the air in the chamber
is alternately
compressed and rarefied.
Based on
these assumptions, the fundamental
natural period
is found to be (cf. Rayleigh (3], vol. ii, ch. xvi):

.
Penod

(sec)

271"~L-

= -

A
(9.68)

Frequency

or
where

(cps)

in

=!2271"'\IVi
fA

=
=
L =

speed of sound in fluid, It/sec.

volume of chamber, ft3.
length of neck, ft .
A = cross-sectional area of neck, ft2.
l'

Equation 9.68 holds for a "long"

resonator, so long as:

tv lrA

neck Helmholz
(9.68a)

A more general result given by Rayleigh [3] is:

in

= ~ ~~

(9.69)

DESIGN OF PIPING

274

where

SYSTEMS

(9.69a)

length Xis greater (by at least a factor of 2 or 3) than

a representative dimension of the chamber (say the
greatest linear dimension). Otherwise the results
given in eqs. 9.68 to 9.74 are in error.

has been designated by Rayleigh as an "acoustic

conductivity. "
Thus,

9.6b Special Cases of Multiple Resonator

Formulas.
A piping system with enlargements

J,J.

i" = 2...

+!v;;:A

27r\} VeL

+ !v'7rA)

(9.70)

If L !v;;:A then the result reduces to that given

by eq. 9.68. On the other hand, if L!v;A then

in = 2...
~
27r\)V'\};

(9.71)

This is the case of a "cavity resonator."

For a circular opening of diameter d
A = 7rd2/4
the cavity resonator equation becomes

in = ~

Jf;

(pulsation dampeners, vessels, etc.) constitutes a

multiple resonator system. General expressions for
the natural frequencies of multiple resonator systems
are given in Appendix B.1. 4 Simple types of multiple
resonators will now be considered. On the basis
of the results pertaining to simple and multiple
resonators it is possible to estimate, at least approximately, the pertinent acoustic frequencies of the
resonator type of a relative complex piping system
with enlargements. This will be illustrated numerically in Section 9.9.
Consider then the multi-resonator of Fig. 9.23
where the Jl'S are the "acoustic conductivities":

(9.72)

The last result holds provided, t d/4, where t is

the cavity wall thickness. Finally, for a spherical
cavity resonator, the result reduces to:

~ = 0. 22 Q
~
I.. = _E_
27rD'\};;. "D
D '\}"D

(9.73)

d and D being the diameters of the cavity opening

Jla

Aa
-----=--=

La

!V1I"Aa

while the L's, A's and V's are the neck lengths, neck
areas, and chamber volumes respectively.
The above system possesses two degrees of freedom
and can resonate in two distinct modes. The corresponding frequencies are given by:
(B.8)

and spherical cham her respectively, provided of

course, d/D 1. In general, in a Helmholz resonator,
a representative dimension of the neck is supposed
to be much smaller than a representative dimension
of the chamber or cavity An important quantity
in connection with the above results is the "wave
length"

C = 27r..J!:

In

(9.74)

Jl

All results given above hold so long as the wave

The /1'S being in ft, the V's in ft3, C in ft/sec and

In in cps. This is the result as given in Appendix B
in a slightly different form.
The smaller frequency or fundamental is given by
the (-) sign under the radical, the larger frequency
or harmonic corresponding to the (+) sign.
A few special cases may be of particular interest:
a. Suppose Jlz = 0 (say A2 = 0).
The multiple
resonator consists now of two completely separated
resonators and the result must reduce to the simple
4See also (24).
Chamber

Chamber
Neck

FI(.,. 9.23

Nock
V,

VI

Two-chamber

resonator system with both ends open.

VIBRATION:
resonator expressions.

II =!!_

211'

b. Suppose
from eq. B.S:

Indeed from eq. B.8:

r;;;;
v~

uj

112

h= c

211'

J.l.3

viTr;_,

it =!!_

211'

PREVENTION

Ilj VI

r;;;

(9.75)

V. Then

VV;_

= V2

h = V3

s.viTr;_

211'

(9.76) .

AND CONTROL

275

The meaning of this result is that if the resonator is

filled with fluid, a disturbance is then introduced
through an opening in a chamber, and the opening
is then closed, the fluid will vibrate in the closed
resonator with a frequency given by eq. 9.78.
e. Suppose As = 0, so that J.l.a = 0, while L2 is
large so that J.l.l J.l.2.
Assume also that V 2 VI
(Fig. 9.26). From eq. E.8 the following approximate result is found:

hence,

11

[z

2_
211'

- =

It

12

It is seen that the relation between harmonic and

fundamental resonator frequencies is not the same

for multiple resonators as in organ pipes.

2_
211"

r;;;,
vv.

(9.79)

r;;;

V~

But the fundamental is 12, i.e.

12 !J

V,

FIG. 9.24

Two-chamber resonator system

with one end closed.

c. Suppose Ila = OCAa = 0); J.l.l = J.l.2 = J.I.; VI =

V2 = V (i.e, one end is closed as shown in Fig. 9.24).
Then from eq. B.S

I=

211"

J(3 2 V5) 1:

or

11 =
12
whence

0.62-

J.I.

211'~ V

(9.77)

162- c~ -'
.

V'

211'

:&'=26

11

= 0, whereby J.l.l = Ils

as in Fig. 9.25. Then from eq. E.8

d. Suppose Al = Aa
112

Il,

C~

f = 211"

v~ + V;

(9.78)

J.I.
VI

FlO.

9.25

V,

Closed two-chamber

= 0;

resonator system.

FIG. 9.26

Acoustic coupling of resonator system

with very long neck.

This result is of practical interest, for it may be

applied to a piping system with a number of=relatively small enlargements ending with a long pipe
terminating in a large vessel. The result derived
here shows that the lowest resonator frequency of
the system may be found by considering merely the
long pipe and large vessel as a simple "long neck"
resonator and, for the purpose of calculation of this
lowest frequency, disregarding the rest of the system. Likewise the higher resonator frequencies may
be calculated disregarding the long pipe and large
vessel. In other words, the system is essentially
uncoupled into systems of low and systems of high
resonator frequencies. If the resulting low frequency
is low enough as compared to the higher frequencies
of the system, this procedure is justified. A further
approximation in the same direction is as follows:
The system is decoupled into simple systems of one
degree of freedom each and the uncoupled frequencies are thus calculated. In general, the frequencies
of the coupled system separate the frequencies of the
uncoupled system and vice versa. In this way, it is
possible to establish the approximate vicinity of
intermediate frequencies and upper or lower bounds
of an extreme frequency by simple calculation.
Applications to estimating resonator frequencies of
a piping system are given in Section 9.9.

276

DESIGN OF PIPING

volume=V

9.27

FlO.

f. Finally,
several neck
"necks" be
Then, it can

nn

Chamber with multiple necks.

consider the case of a chamber with

inlets (Fig. 9.27). Let the number of
n with conductivities MI, M2, J.I".
be shown that
~-------

fJ.ll + J.L2 + ... + M"

f = 2_
211' '\j
V

(9.80)

SYSTEMS

It is assumed in linear acoustic theory that the

diameter to length ratio of any segment is small.
The following result can be verified from classical
acoustic theory:
Let n segments meet at a joint; the area, length
and phase angle of the ith segment shall be iu, LSi,
and fJi and let f be one of the acoustic natural frequencies of the overall piping system which may
consist of (say) s joints. Then at the joint in question the following relation holds:

i, ai tan (~

f_

2 fo

;=1

+ f3i)

Ls.

= 0

(9.81 )

provided the necks are not spaced too closely.

In general, then, a complex piping system may be
considered as consisting primarily of a combination
of organ pipes and simple resonators. No explicit
formulas for the natural periods of a complex system
can be given here. For a detailed study the reader
is referred to Rayleigh [3] and Morse [5]. If the
system can be considered as consisting solely of
organ pipes, then the method given in Subsection 9.6c
and Appendix B can be used to determine natural
periods, while for resonators the formulas given
above may be used. Sample calculations of pulsations from the discharge of a gas compressor cylinder are given in Section 9.9. A coincidence of this
pulsation frequency with a natural acoustic frequency of the piping, organ pipe or resonator type,
should be avoided.
9.6c Piping Systems with Branches and Enlargements.
The following terminology will be
used in dealing with calculation of acoustic frequencies of branched piping systems (see Fig. 9.28):
A branch of a piping system is a continuous pipe,
straight or curved with constant or variable area.
The steady-state flow rate in a branch is constant.
A joint is a point where several branches meet or
a point where the pipe area of a branch changes
abruptly.
A segment is a part of a branch with constant cross
section.
Let C
fo

Ls

= speed of sound in the gas, ft/sec.

= CI4L = fundamental acousticfrequency,

fJ

cps, of a simple organ pipe of

length L with a node at one end
and loop at the other end.
length of pipe measured from the beginning of each separate branch, ft.
area of a segment meeting at a joint, ft2.
phase angle corresponding to segment,
radians.

Such relations hold for each joint. L is any reference length, but preferably a length giving a reasonable value of fo (such as an over-all length of the
main pipe branch) as a first estimate of the system
frequency.
The (+) sign is to be used for the segments with
flow towards the joint. The (-) sign is to be used
for segments with flow from the joint.
The following additional end conditions are also
to be satisfied:
At intake points
For node fJ = 0
For loop f3 = 11'/2
At discharge points
For node fJ = (1I'/2)[2m - (fIfo)],
Tn = 1 for fundamental.
Tn = 2 for 1st harmonic, etc.

(9.82)

For loop {3 = (1I'/2)[m - (fIfo)],

Tn = 1 for fundamental.
Tn = 3 for Ist harmonic.
Tn = 5 for 2nd harmonic, etc.

----.~,
Joint

'\. '"

".

Joint
~'

0
18,ond,

Joint

r/
~,
Joint

'.0.....

-===~J~~i_nt~E-:::_=~S

FIG. 9.28

Branched piping terminology.

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

Relations 9.81 for each joint plus relations 9.82

are sufficient to determine all {J's as well as I, the
fundamental or higher acousticrfrequency
of the
system, which is of greatest interest.
In order to apply the above theoretical results to
any piping system, consider the system as consisting
of one main branch of length L with one intake and
one discharge point and additional secondary
branches each with one intake, Then calculate the
frequency 10 for the main branch. The general system thus consists of a number of intake points but
only one discharge point.
The use of these relations will be illustrated in
Section 9.9 numerically. A graphical method which
is the counterpart of the foregoing analytical method
is given by Warming [14]. For a branched system
the analytical method appears to be less time consuming. A brief hydrodynamic derivation of the
above results is given in Appendix B.2.
The equations for the acoustic natural frequencies
of piping systems, considered as consisting of organ
pipe elements, are in general somewhat cumbersome
except for fairly simple systems. A system with
several branches and enlargements requires the solution of a simultaneous system of transcendental
equations and this can be quite time consuming. In
such cases it might be more practical to calculate
not the actual natural frequencies but their approximations by virtue of simplifications. No general
rules can be given, since each system might lend
itself to different simplifications, but the point may
perhaps be illustrated by the following example.
Consider a piping system as shown in Fig. 9.29.
Calculation of the acoustic natural frequencies of
this system considered as composed of organ pipe
elements will involve the solution of a set of simultaneous transcendental equations of high order and
would be lengthy. However, the first approximation of the acoustic frequencies of the system (at
least of the lowest one) may be gained by calculating
natural frequencies according to the following simplified procedure:
a. Calculate natural frequencies of branches ADE,
ADB, ADC, BDE, BDC, CDE, each considered as
a single branch with variable areas.
b. Calculate the same but on the basis of constant
areas.
The results of (a) and (b) should yield an insight
into the relative effect of area variation without involving excessive calculations.
c. Calculate the acoustic frequencies of the system as a whole but on the basis of no area variation.
The calculation is simple since only one joint is in-

AND CONTROL
A

B____j

--,

FIG. 9.29

277

~I
;:=:::]'

~
Example of branched piping system.

volved, A comparison of the results of (c) with

those of (b) ought to indicate the relative effect of
branches. The over-all results of (a), (b), and (c)
thus yield an understanding of the effect of both
area variation and branches.
Steps (b) and (c) could also be repeated with
constant area but with increased length of enlargements (i.e. length proportional to area). Calculations involved in steps (b) and (c) are very simple,
while the calculations in step (a) are only slightly
more complex. Yet, with some experience, these
relatively simple calculations should establish with
reasonable accuracy the vicinity of acoustic frequencies of the system.
Volumes with irregular area are handled by considering an average effective area and a length equal
to the volume divided by this average area. Let
the effective length thus obtained be Le. If the nondimensional expression: wLt/C where w is an unknown frequency (rad/sec), and C is the speed of
sound (It/sec), with L; in ft, is small as compared
to unity, then a simplification may be introduced
by writing tan wLe/C = wL./C.
If the general
formulas given in Subsection 9.6c of this chapter are
applied to the piping configurations shown in reference [23] and the above approximation is introduced, then the results reduce to those given in that
reference. However, the frequencies thus calculated
must then satisfy the inequality wL./C 1.
9.7

Acoustic
Factors

Resonance

and

Magnification

In structural resonance, the structure responds

with large-amplitude oscillations when excited periodically with a frequency in the immediate neighborhood of a structural natural frequency. In
acoustic resonance the analogous result is the response of the system in the form of pressure surges
of large amplitude, when excited by periodic pressure variations of relatively small amplitude but with
a frequency in the neighborhood of some acoustic
natural frequency, particularly the fundamental
one.
For a prototype organ pipe model, the magnifica-

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

278

maximum dynamic to static displacement is, in the

absence of damping, given by:

M.f.

.....

M.F.

(9.84)

3.0

A plot of the two magnification factors, as given by

eqs. 9.83 and 9.84, vs. w/wn is shown in Fig. 9.30.
Inasmuch as
2.0

-;

1.0

.,
0+-------~.~------+-------'3--------r-----W
..,

FlO. 9.30

1.0

2.0

"'k

Comparison of mechanical and acoustic

magnification factors.

tion factor, in the absence of any damping, is of the

form:
M.F.

I sec(~:J I

(cf', Rayleigh [3},vol. ii)

(9.83)

Wn
being the exciting and natural frequencies
respectively.
The magnification factor in this case represents
the ratio of the amplitude of pressure response at
some point in the acoustic system to the amplitude
of pressure excitation. The qualification "at some
point" is rather important, for there are locations
(loops) in an acoustic system where things are relatively quiet (pressurewise) even at a resonance condition. At other points however (nodes) there is
high pressure amplitude magnification. The determination of the nodes and loops in a complex piping
system, while possible in principle from the general
results given in Appendix B, requires rather lengthy
analysis. In general, damping in acoustic systems,
arising from viscous drag forces and heat conduction, is rather small.
It will be recalled that in the spring-mass system
the magnification factor representing the ratio of
W,

I Sec (~

:J I

represents the magni-

fication factor of a system with an infinite number

of degrees of freedom, it exhibits an infinite number
of peaks. However, for the somewhat arbitrary
range, say 0 ~ w/wn < .~ including the neighborhood of the first peak, it is seen that the magnification factor of the spring-mass system is still
representative.
In view of the fact that damping in acoustic systems is generally quite small, the frequency range,
t ~w/wn'~ t should, if possible at all, be avoided.
That is, if the frequencies of expected external
excitation are known, an attempt should be made
to design the system with a fundamental natural
frequency so that the ratio (or ratios) w/wn does not
fall in the range indicated above .
In reality, it is frequently not easy to achieve such
an objective. For while a few major sources of
excitation, discussed elsewhere in this chapter, and
their corresponding frequencies can be estimated in
advance, there may exist many other sources of
pressure disturbances which cannot be known in
advance at the design stage. In addition, since the
natural frequencies can be changed only by a change
in geometric configuration, a design with a proper
selection of desirable acoustic and structural frequencies cannot usually be achieved. Other means
of reduction of resonance peaks must usually be
resorted to, the most important one being the gas
pulsation dampener to be described in the subsequent section.
A few words may be added here about damping
in acoustic systems. First of all there is always
damping due to viscosity and heat conduction. But.
in addition, there exists another damping phenomenon in acoustic systems, and this damping is due to
the fact that the vibrating fluid in the pipe or resonator, when at least one end is open, communicates
with the outside, a certain amount of energy being
lost thereby to the resonating system. The following results are due to Helrnholz but have been modified here and transformed into familiar engineering
terms (damping ratio
In simple linear mechanical or electrical systems

n:

VIBRATION:
the magnification
damping is:
M.F.

where

r
Wn
W

PREVENTION

factor, in the presence of viscous

....

~[1 - (:J2J + (2r:Y

(9.85)

= viscous damping coefficient.

= natural frequency.
= forcing frequency.

in the absence of viscous dampfactor due to the second source

of damping as explained above, is also given by
eq. 9.85. However, the damping coefficient is now
a function of the ratio of forcing to natural acoustic
frequency.
Now, in a resonator,

ing, the magnification

(9.86)
with

f=L~=i~=~~

(9.87)

As will be shown numerically (in Section 9.9), the

numerical value of f is, in general, quite small, so
that the effect of this damping shows up only at the
resonance peak and also for large values of wi",,,.
In view of the existence of viscous damping and
since for large values of wlw" the magnification factor is small even without any damping, this second
damping effect is, for the purposes considered in
this chapter, perhaps of purely theoretical interest.
9.8

FJow Pulsation

Smoothing

This section deals with the important problem of

smoothing
gas pulsations
in piping, particularly
those due to the action of reciprocating compressors.
Equations and criteria useful for approximate
design estimates are developed and the comparative
merits of expansion chambers with and without orifice pressure drop, tuned resonators, as well as the
commercially
available
more complex pulsation
dampener
configurations,
are discussed.
A brief
summary of the subject of water hammer will be
found at the end of this section.
9.8a Tuned Resonators. In principle, it is possible to smooth gas flow pulsations via tuned resonators.
As will be shown in Appendix B.3 and
numerically illustrated in Section 9.9, tuned resonators do not appear practical for the purposes of
smoothing of gas flow pulsations associated with low
speed reciprocating
compressors.
In these cases,
snubbing devices or "bottles" with orifices appear
to be more effective.
These results are borne out

AND CONTROL

279

by experience, since it is the latter smoothing devices, rather than tuned resonators, which lire most
frequently employed for smoothing of low rpm reciprocating compressor flow pulsations.
However, theory also indicates that in the case of
high frequency excitation, tuned resonators can be
quite effective [151, particularly in conjunction with
orifices. It is because of this result that a very
elementary theory of the tuned resonator is included
in Appendix B.
9.8b Surge Tanks. The surge tank or "bottle"
is used to reduce pressure pulsations and fluid oscillations.
Surge tank information relating to reduction of hydraulic hammers in liquid systems is adequately summarized
by Rouse [16] and Reynolds
[17]. In gas systems, surge tanks are often used to
smooth flow oscillations [18, 19]. Briefly, smoothing
of flow pulsations via the surge tank is achieved by
means of volume capacity (energy storage) and some
moderate pressure drop between tank and piping
system, corresponding to moderate energy dissipation. As will be shown later, in any given case the
smaller the pressure drop the larger the volume
(capacity) requirement in order to achieve a certain
degree of smoothing.
In view of the existence of capacity and some
degree of dissipation the "bottle" acts as a hydraulic
filter. The electrical analogy is a simple R-C circuit
filter with dissipation via electrical resistance and
capacity via a condenser.
Inasmuch as dissipation
in gas flow is really not a linear phenomenon the
analogy is only approximate.
In order to gain an insight into the working of a
hydraulic filter for use in smoothing piping gas flow
oscillations, an elementary analysis for a basic filter
element is given in Appendix B. It is assumed that
the amplitude
of pulsations in the incoming flow
(from the compressor into the surge tank) is sn..rll.
The pressure-flow relations are linearized relative to
a mean flow rate and the resulting relations then become representative
of a simple linear filter, as represented by a first order differential equation,
While the theory is thus representative
of a very
idealized state of affairs, it nevertheless yields an
insight into the essentials of the behavior of hydraulic filters, which in turn are ultimately the prototypes of surge tanks or "bottles"
and, despite
their greater complexity, also of snubbing devices
or silencers of various types.
This elementary theory also yields some useful
approximate
design results.
These results urrshown in Fig. 9.31 in the form of a family of curves
showing attenuation
factors vs. volume capaeity

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

280
in

frOM Compreuof

Otific.

Effedi'to

\N\

...:s:.::vr:gO~T:on:::kJ- __

~.~

~
Piping S)'ltem

AF.

A"~nvafion

FodOf

Poram.,.t
Actuol ptl1lUt.
Ion, tgnk to
piping 'ylfem,.
in 1of m9Qn

'emk prouuro
200
20:1:

ISO

100

50

1);

1.0

0:1:

10

20

30

~o

50

yo

v/v= Ratio

of tcnk volume 10 'to~umoof 10""', tx.Hd on mean

tonk elr dem.ity, per ~Iroko pet ph-tall

A.f. =

["nOW

Variation

Ovtflow Vcttalion

FIG. 9.31

relotivo to mean RoW'ro'"

relativo to meon flow rotc!

Attenuation factor vs, volume ratio with actual

% pressure drop as parameter.

with pressure drop from surge tank to piping system

as a parameter. Specifically, the attenuation factor
is the absolute value of the ratio of flow rate pulsations, relative to the average flow rate, of the flow
into the tank to the flow rate pulsations, relative to
the average flow rate, out of the tank into the piping
system. Thus, an attenuation factor of 100 means
that the amplitude of pulsations has been reduced
by the surge tank to 1% of the initial value. The
abscissa of Fig. 9.31 is the ratio of volume of tank
to flow volume, relative to average tank density,
pel' stroke per piston of a reciprocating compressor
discharging into the surge tank. Finally, the parameter of the family of curves is the actual pressure
drop between tank and piping system expressed as
a percentage of the average tank pressure.
Thus, the curves indicate the capacity requirement of the surge tank for a given compressor in
order the achieve a desired degree of smoothing
(attenuation factor) with a given amount of pressure
loss. It is emphasized again that these results,
based as they are upon a very idealized situation,
are only of an approximate nature. In view of the
greater complexity of the flow patterns in com-

mereial devices (see Subsection 9.8d), rigorous

analysis of these pulsation dampeners has not been
attempted. Nevertheless, the results of the simple
hydraulic filter analysis may be of some value in
indicating, at least roughly, volume requirements,
based upon pressure drop estimates.
The mathematical derivation of the results is
given in Appendix B, but physically the filter operates about as follows. Due to the relatively large
volume capacity, even large flow rate pulsations
cause only small changes in density and pressure in
the tank. This will be so provided there exists some
resistance to the flow from the tank into the piping
system, so that the effect of an increase (or decrease)
in the flow rate is first felt throughout the tank. The
existence of such resistance to the flow from the tank
implies the existence of an effective orifice between
tank and piping and therefore, also the existence of
a pressure drop.
Thus, the greater the capacity, the greater the
reduction in pressure variation in the tank due to
flow pulsation and the greater the resistance, the
greater the number of individual pulses which are
thus averaged out and the variation from an average
reduced in magnitude. The result is a smoother
outflow from the tank into the piping system. The
curves in Fig. 9.31 illustrate these results in quantitative form.
The design curves given in Fig. 9.31 may also be
applied to filters in the suction line of a compressor
in a multistage compressor system, the output of
one stage being the input to the next stage. In this
case y* refers to the volume flow rate per stroke per
piston of the preceding stage.
9.8c Gas Pulsation Dampener Principles.
The discharge of a reciprocating compressor is periodic but intermittent rather than continuous. The
piping system into which the compressor discharges
is thus subjected to a periodic, although not a simple
periodic, pressure excitation of an almost impulsive
nature. Now, it can be shown by a simple Fourier
analysis that a periodic impulsive excitation contains all higher harmonics and consequently the
probability is rather high that at least one of the
acoustic modes of the more or less complex piping
system will be excited resulting in adverse effects.
The question is, how many harmonics are of
importance? The essential factor that enters into
consideration is the reduction in amplitude of the
harmonics relative to the fundamentaL In structural resonance the higher modes are always accompanied by greater damping so that the fundamental
and perhaps the lst harmonic only are of impor-

VIBRATION: PREVENTION AND CONTROL

tance, In acoustic resonance there is, in principle,
also an increase in damping (due to communication
with outside air, as shown by Helinholz) in connection with the higher harmonics. However, quantitatively the effect is much smaller as compared to
the case of structural damping. In the case of reciprocating compressors, some investigators advocate
that harmonics up to the 4th order should be considered.
These effects can be reduced to a large extent by
the introduction of devices known as pulsation
dampeners or snubbing devices, mainly at the point
of compressor discharge. As the term snubbing
device implies, smoothing of the pressure variations
is achieved ultimately by energy dissipation. However, the mechanism of energy dissipation is of a
special nature, soon to be described. In addition,
the dampener is provided with sufficient volume
capacity for the storage of energy [20]. A schematic
of a typical snubbing device is shown in Fig. 9.32.
The smoothing action of the pulsation dampener
appears to be as follows. At the instant of discharge
from the reciprocating compressor, a high velocity
slug of gas moves suddenly into the entrance tube
at A, followed by slower moving gases. The path
of least resistance is through openings C and, indeed,
the slower moving gases do move through this path.
However, the high velocity slug of air strikes the
wall (by virtue of its own inertia) at B and a high
pressure. zone is here established. This high pressure forces some of the gas through the perforations,
and, in the process, energy is dissipated. In this
way some of the energy contained in the high velocity
slug is dissipated and the mechanism of dissipation
is thus seen to be a selective one, since the low velocity
gases moving through the openings C do not lose
energy. Moreover, this is precisely what is wanted
since most of the undesirable acoustic effects appear
to be due to the high velocity moving gas slugs.
This principle of selectivity constitutes perhaps the
most important feature of the pulsation dampener'.
The screen effect of the perforated tubes constitutes another important feature of the apparatus.
For it appears that by proper proportioning of perforated areas relative to the surface area and over-all
dimensions, effective smoothing can be achieved
with relatively moderate pressure drops. In general,
completely effective smoothing cannot be achieved
by a single snubbing stage, hence additional perforated tubes are added, as shown.
Silencers are constructed very much along the
same lines except that in some tubes slots are used
instead of circular perforations while in other types

FIG.

0.32

28l

Typical snubbing device.

no attempt is made to introduce a screen effect, In

other words, in silencers the energy dissipation is
also selective but in some types this dissipation
occurs via pressure drops through orifice action in
the side tubes rather than by means of a screen
effect. It is thought that better smoothing with
over-all lower pressure drops can be obtained when
the screen effect is used.
As already remarked, enough volume is provided
in the pulsation dampeners to provide some effective
capacity.
The combination of dissipation and
capacity produces a filter effect (R-C circuit in electrical systems). However, in view of the additional
selectivity and screen effects and multiplicity of
arrangements, a quantitative analysis of pulsation
dampeners is difficult. An approximate theory of
simple hydraulic filters is given in Appendix B.4, in
relation to surge tanks ("bottles").
Some of the
results may perhaps be applicable also to more
complex pulsation dampeners, at least in rough
approximation.
9.8d Acoustic Expansion Tank, It will be noted
that the preceding material in this section emphasized the alleviation of low frequency flow vibrations
by providing capacity and a definite pressure drop
in the piping system. It remains now to briefly
mention acoustic expansion tanks whose design is
based strictly on the phenomenon of wave reflection
and which become effective in a certain neighborhood
of their own natural acoustic frequencies, considered
as organ pipes [15J.
Elucidation of the phenomenon of wave reflection
and interference, while not difficult, requires nevertheless a study of the wave equation and the proper
boundary conditions. This is somewhat beyond the
scope of this chapter and accordingly only the result
of the simplest type of such a dampener, as derived
by Davis, et al (15), is given here. In the reference,
results are derived for a great number of combinations of such expansion chambers with and without
resonator effects, The simplest type of installation

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

282

FIG.

9.33

Resonator chamber nomenclature.

of such an expansion chamber is the same as the

hydraulic filter previously dealt with (but without
an orifice) as shown in Fig. 9.33.
If the area of piping is a, the area of chamber A,
its length L and the speed of sound of the fluid is C,
then the attenuation factor due to wave reflection is:
A.F. = ~1

G(~-

~)sin(2~L)T
(cf. [15])

(9.88)

where j is the frequency of excitation (cps).

It is seen that the maximum effect is attained

27rjL
7r
-=nC
2

nC
4L

or

(n

j=--

at

= 1, 3, 5, ... )

i.e., when the exciting frequency coincides with the

natural acoustic frequency of the chamber, considered as an organ pipe open at one and closed at
the other end. On the other hand, at frequencies of
excitation corresponding to organ pipe types with
both ends considered acoustically "closed,"

n c
j=-2L

(n

1, 2, 3, '1, ...

the expansion chamber is totally ineffective,

The maximum attenuation factor is from eq. (9.88)
A.F.mnx

~i

For large attenuation

so that approximately
A.F.

1A
2 a

= - ._-

+ [~(~ - ~)
factors,

or

(9.89)

.11a must be large,

A

- = 2 (A.F.)
a

Hence, for an attenuation

factor of say 20, or
reduction
of pulsations to 5% of initial value,
A/a = 40. Thus, for a pipe ID of 3 in., the diameter
of the expansion chamber must be: V40 X 3 = 22
in. or approximately
2 ft. Moreover, for 250 compressor rpm or approximately 4 cps, the length L of
the expansion chamber must be (assuming speed of
sound at 1120 ft/sec) L = :} l1i...!! = 70 ft. It is
obvious from this example that expansion chambers

acting on the basis of wave reflection are totally

impractical
as "dampeners"
for low speed reciprocating compressors.
9.8e Comparison of Gas Pulsation Smoothing
Devices.
It is now intended to clarify the relative
merits of the tuned resonators, hydraulic
filters
(as well as more complex snubbing devices) and
acoustic expansion tanks dealt with in the preceding
subsections.
The hydraulic
filter acts via dissipation
and
storage of energy.
Storage is a function of tank
volume while dissipation depends upon the piping
system pressure drop.
The latter may be in concentrated form via an actual orifice or in the form of
a gradual pressure dissipation due to friction in the
pipe.
Insofar as purely sinusoidal excitation
is
concerned, or the fundamental
corresponding to a
periodic
(but not necessarily
purely sinusoidal)
excitation, it appears that the action of the hydraulic
filter is independent of the frequency of excitation,
provided, however, that this frequency is not in the
immediate
neighborhood
of an acoustic naturai
frequency of the piping system either of the organ
pipe or of the resonator type.
On the other hand,
if the exciting frequency is in the neighborhood of an
acoustic frequency of the piping system, then the
action of the filter becomes more complex and the
results given in this section are probably not valid,
or at least in error.
Parenthetically,
it may be
remarked
that the exciting
frequency
appears
ultimately in the form of flow rate.
The action of a hydraulic filter was studied by
Chilton and Handley [181, essentially along the
same lines as in this chapter, except for the following:
a. In [is}, the periodic but nonharmonic excitation
is first developed into fundamental
and harmonics
and the various harmonics are examined separately.
In this chapter only the fundamental
or purely
sinusoidal excitation is considered ..
b. The over-all pressure drop of the entire line
downstream of the main storage volume (bottle) is
considered as if it were an effectively concentrated
pressure drop through
an orifice.
Remarkably
enough, if the test results given in {l81 are considered as representative,
then it appears that this
assumption
is justified.
In this section, on the
other hand, it was assumed that the pressure drop
is due to an actual physical orifice existing at the
end of the bottle.
Reference is also made to an
actual installation
of this type [21] discussed in
Subsection
9.9j.
If, in eq. BAS, Appendix B,
100% pressure drop across the orifice is assumed,
equivalent to the assumption in [18], then one arrives

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

at the same results as those given in [18, 22] for a

"line tank," an installation corresponding to the one
studied in this chapter.
Despite the test results, it is thought that the
specification of an actual orifice with 11 small but
concentrated pressure drop, while perhaps conservative, is still 11 desirable feature in 11 hydraulic filter.
In connection with gas pulsation filtering the
question is: When is filtering really necessary?
Inasmuch as pulsating flow from reciprocating compressors always induces periodic forces and therefore vibration of pipe bends, filtering is always
beneficial. Insofar as resonance effects are concerned the following general statement may be
made. Unless the lowest acoustic frequency, in
either organ pipe or resonator configuration, is
higher than about 3 to 4 times the highest compressor rpm (twice as much for double action), some
resonance effects may be expected. Inasmuch as
the above requirement can hardly be met in typical
installations, it follows that practically, filtering
will be required on all reciprocating compressor
installations.
It should be pointed out that design curves of
Fig. 9.31 hold only for filtering of gas flow pulsations. For liquids (or any other nearly incompressible fluid) the filter is far less effective.
The other type of device studied in this section
is the tuned resonator. As shown in Appendix B,
this "dampener" acts in 11 manner diametrically
opposite to that of the hydraulic filter. Where the
hydraulic filter is effective for all frequencies of
excitation, except those in the neighborhood of an
acoustic natural frequency of the system, the tuned
resonator becomes effective precisely in the immediate neighborhood of only one frequency, namely,
the resonator frequency, and is ineffective for all
other frequencies of excitation. It is, however, also
shown that. the band of frequencies for which the
tuned resonator is effective can be widened somewhat if an orifice is installed, as shown in Fig. B.2
(Appendix B), resulting in a concentrated pressure
drop.
In Davis' investigation [15] of tuned resonators,
results given are equivalent to the assumption that
the area of the "orifice" (used in Appendix 13, Fig.
B.2) is equal to the area of the pipe, the ratio of
pressure drop through such an "orifice" to exist-ing
average pressure being thus necessarily small. It
can be shown that with this assumption, eq. B.23
for IRi/HI illustrated in Fig. B.3 (Appendix B)
reduces essentially to the results of [151 for the simple
tuned resonator.

AND CONTROL

283

Thus, as in the case of the hydraulic filter, the

results given in this chapter seem in a sense more
general than the results given in [151 and [18], and
also more conservative because of specification
of concentrated pressure drops. As has been discussed, most snubbing devices may be considered as
"hydraulic filters," but with the additional feature
of "selectivity." That is, part of the energy carried
by the high velocity slug is dissipated, the slower
moving gases passing through essentially without
dissipation.
The last type of "dampener" discussed in this
section, called an "expansion tank" in [15], acts
on the basis of the phenomenon of wave reflection.
This dampener becomes effective in the neighborhood of its own natural acoustic frequencies, considered as an organ pipe. As shown these acoustic
expansion tanks are not practical for smoothing of
low frequency gas pulsations.
In conclusion then, it would appear that the
piping designer interested in preventing serious
pressure surges in lines should proceed as follows:
a. Estimate acoustic resonant frequencies of
organ pipe and resonator type by the aid of formulas
given in this chapter, or in other references.
b. Insure that the natural frequency of the piping
system is sufficiently removed from any known
forcing frequencies.
c. Insert pulsation dampeners or simple tanks at
appropriate places, preferably very close to the
inlet and discharge from reciprocating compressors;
volume and pressure drop requirements may be at
least approximately (and conservatively) estimated
from the results given in this section.
d. For high frequency gas pulsations, tuned resonators or acoustic expansion chambers may be used
singly or in many different combinations.
This
section presents a few of the most useful formulas;
the interested reader is referred to [15], for experimental data and analytical investigation of a large
number of this type of "silencers."
9.81 Hydraulic Hammer. A complete treatment
of hydraulic hammer in a piping system consisting
of several branches with orifices and perhaps bypass valves, although not difficult, is rather lengthy
and cannot be given in this chapter. In view,
however, of the considerable importance of hydraulic
hammer in any piping system with liquid flow, in
which occasionally there may occur fairly rapid
closures of valves with a consequent possible high
pressure build-up, it is thought worth while to
discuss here at least a few fundamentals concerning
this phenomenon.

DESIGN

284

OF PIPING SYSTEMS
6p

2pL.U
2pLU
2pLU
= -= -_
t
i;
2/0

(6p) max = --

..
pU.

(9.91)

FIG. 9.34

Hydraulic system susceptible to hammer.

Consider the system of Fig. 9.34 wherein there

is a flow of a liquid in a pipe with constant velocity
U. Suppose that a valve situated at a distance L
from the reservoir is closed in a time t. It is desired
to determine the excess pressure build-up in the pipe.
Let the maximum excess pressure be 6p. TIlls
maximum will obviously develop when the valve
is completely closed, i.e., after a time t from the
start of closure.
On the other hand, at the beginning (i.e., at time t = 0), the excess pressure was
zero. On the basis of a linear build-up of excess
pressure, the r.verage excess pressure is 6p/2; this
average pressure acting on an area A at the gate
exerts a force
6pA.
The momentum
loss of a
column of liquid of length L, cross-sectional area A,
and flow velocity U when stopped at the gate is
equal to pALU, p being the mass density.
By
Newton's law then,

= pALU

!6pA

t
or

2pLU
t

6p=--

(9.90)

This is the expression for the excess pressure due to

valve closure. If p is in slugs/It", L in It, U in It/sec,
and t in sec, then 6p is in Ib/ft2
The above simple
derivation is not rigorous, but has the advantage of
simplicity.
Now, the result given by eq. H.90 holds so long
as the time of valve closure t is greater than the
natural period of the system, i.e. t 2: tn = 2L/0, 0
being the speed of sound in the liquid. This is true
because the derivation is based upon an assumption
that the time of closure t is large enough so that a
signal starting at time t = 0 at the gate could travel
to the reservoir, deliver the "message" and then
return to the gate with a "reply."
Only thus could
the entire pipe length of liquid participate
in the
compression effect. The minimum time in which
this can happen is: tn = 2L/0. If then the time of
closure is less than tn, i.e. t ~ 2L/C, then only a
reduced column length L. of magnitude L. = L(i/in)
can participate in the compression effect in the time
t. So that for t ~ tn

This is the maximum excess pressure which can

occur in a liquid of density p, speed of sound C, flowing with velocity U, during hydraulic
hammer.
This maximum excess pressure is seen to be independent both of the closure time t{~ in) and the
length L. Figure 9.35 indicates the relationship
between excess pressure and closure time on a nondimensional basis. Thus, for water, p = 2 slugs/en
ft, 0::= 4700 It/sec, so that the maximum excess
pressure (psi), even for instantaneous
valve closure,
IS

6Pmnx

where U

2 X 4700

144

= 65U

(9.92)

= flow velocity, ft/sec.

In complex piping systems with branches, orifices,

during hydraulic hammer is, of
course, complex.
But eqs. 9.90 and 9.91 yield in
most cases at least upper limits to the values of
possible excess pressure build-up.
If it is found that the possible pressure build-up
during valve closure is excessive and cannot be
tolerated, various measures may be instituted
to
reduce the water hammer effect. The simplest of
these is obviously to increase the time of valve
closure, if that is possible. The required minimum
time of closure in order to prevent a build-up of
excess pressure beyond a given magnitude can be,
at least approximately,
estimated from eq. 9.90 or
from the curve of Fig. 9.35.
If, for various reasons, the time of valve closure
cannot be increased, then other means to prevent
excess pressure build-up can be instituted, such as
"accumulator"
tanks in liquid su.pply systems,
relief valves in power systems, and the like. How-

etc., the situation

pUC

1.04----

__

.5

O+------~----~----~------~~,
o

FIG. 9.35

Non-dimensional excess pressure

sional closing time.

4
VB.

Hie

non-dimen-

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

285

AND CONTROL

ever, a discussion of the various means developed

through the years for the minimization of hydraulic
hammer effects is beyond the scope of this chapter
and reference is made to UB} and [17].
9.8g Magnitude and Direction of Forces on
Piping Bends.
At a pipe bend, forces are acting
during flow as a result of change in direction of the
stream which is equivalent to a change in momentum.

FIG. 9.37

Sample compressor piping configuration.

General estimates:
FIG. 9.36

Forces at pipe bend.

The magnitude and direction of these forces are as

indicated in Fig. 9.36 and in the relation:
F

where Q

2QU cos 0

(9.93)

= mass flow rate, slugs/sec.

U = velocity of fluid, ft/sec.

F = force on bend, lb.

Illustration
of Vibration
Simple Piping System

9.9a General Data

configuration in Fig.
purpose of illustrating
tion of the material
sections:

= 10.25Ib/ft.
Speed of sound in gas C = -v::;Rr.
Weight of pipe

Universal gas constant

M.W.
For air at T = 60 F, 'Y = 1.4, M.W. = 29,
C = 1120 ft/sec.
'_1.-27--2-9-6-8-0
For gas C = H20 -- X - X ~ 1.4
10
520
R=---.....::::..----

In the case of pulsating flow, e.g. from a reciprocating compressor, the mass flow rate Q is a periodic
time function leading to a cyclic bend force F. The
resultant effect is then a periodic excitation, with
magnification in the case of structural resonance
with the pulsation.
9.9

Structural moment of inertia of 3" Schedule 80

pipe I = 3.88 in."
EI = 3.88 X 29 X 106 = 113 X 106 Ib in.2

Analysis

of a

and Estimates.
The piping
9.37 was selected for the
a possible practical applicacontained in the preceding

Compressor Characteristics:
Single stage, double acting, steam driven.
Weight
= 15,000 lb.
Inlet pressure
= 415 to 665 psia,
Discharge pressure
= 1100 psia.
Discharge temperature = 220 F.
Gas molecular weight = 10.
Adiabatic constant, 'Y = 1.27
Inlet temperature
= 100 F.

= 2075 ft/sec.
9.9b Estimates
of Structural
quencies of Piping System

Pipe C-D

In =

25

113 X 106

)3
~ 102.5 X {10

56.3 cps

2. For simply supported ends (C and D)

In = 0.743
_1.69

Bend D-E-F (90

X 56.3

= 24.7 cps

0
)

L1
L = 13 ft 'L

10
13

= - =

0.77

= 13 X 10.25 = 133 lbs

From Fig. 9.13 we have (by linear interpolation)

% load
Piston Displ., cfrn

1.69

W
75%
156

= 102.5 lb.

10 X 10.25

1. Fixed Ends
From Table 9.1
Fundamental bending frequency

Table 9.2
100%
250
40

Fre-

L = 10 ft.

Speed and flow rate schedule:

Speed, rpm

Natural

50%
101
16.1

In

/113 X 106
= 1.47" 133 X (13)3

= 30.0 cps

286

DESIGN OF PIPING

The fundamental
frequencies of Bend DIIG (or
ABC) are then obviously above 30 cps.
9.9c Estimate of Lower Bounds of Structural
Natural Frequencies.
It appears from the foregoing that the natural frequencies of the pipes or
bends, shown in Fig. 9.37, when considered restrained
by the supports, are considerably higher than the
250 cpm which corresponds to the maximum rpm of
the compressor.
Therefore, resonance effects due
to the unbalance of compressor rotating masses are
not to be expected in this pipe system. A compressor
with a reasonably short connecting rod will also
have a fairly sizable excitation
at twice its rpm
(the "secondary unbalance force").
In the example
treated, this will occur at 500 cpm.
When this
secondary excitation gets into resonance it can cause
trouble, which has been observed repeatedly
in
service.
Nonetheless,
if all joints are rigid, as
assumed, even the secondary unbalance force will
not cause resonance in the structure of Fig. 9.37.
However, it may be worth while to estimate lower
bounds of frequencies due to, say, possible flexibility
of restraints.
To this end consider restraint C
removed first. Since point B is only 2 ft from point
A, point B may be considered as fixed (for the sake
of simplicity).
The natural frequency of BCD is
obtained by considering it as a 90 bend fixed at
Band
D. Then by extrapolation
from Fig. 9.13
with LdL = 10/1S,
0

113 X lOG .
In = 1.27 ~
0
3
18 X 1 .25 X (IS)

13.0 cps

If the flexibility of AB (in bending and torsion) is

also considered the natural frequency would be
lower. But it appears that even if restraint C is
removed, a resonance effect at 250 cpm is unlikely.
For the most conservative
estimate of a. lower
bound of frequency, consider now that restraints
C, D, and F are removed.
Also assume conservatively that ~ of the weight of pipe CD in addition
to the weight of DEF is supported at point D. This
total weight is:
W

(10

+ 3 -+

5) X 10.25

= 18'1.5Ib

Assume first that point H is fixed. Then H I) acts as

a cantilever
with a uniform
mass distribution
(10.25 lb/ft) and concentrated
weight of 184.5 lb
at the free end. By the use of eq. 9.9 in the text

in

= 0 13

'V[:}(8

= 4.3 cps

113 X 10
X 10.25)
184.5J[(8)J1

258 cpm

SYSTEMS

If the flexibility of pipe GJ[ (in bending and torsion)

is also taken into account then by eq. 9.23
Wef(

t X 2 X 10.25 +
+

~ X 10.25 X 8
184.5

= 230.6 lb

and

113 X lOG
In = 0.13

230.6 X

(S)3

2,i

1+-+3S

cps =

180

cpm

In using eq. 9.23 the ratio It! /GJ is assumed unity

for a pipe. This approximation
is good enough for
the present estimates.
It appears then that a fundamental
structural
natural frequency of the piping system in the rpm
range of the compressors (and therefore, a resonant
effect), is possible only if restraints C, D, and Fare
all flexible. If at least one of these is a proper
restraint, a resonance effect due to compressor rpm
is unlikely.
9.9d Effect of Elasticity of Machine Foundation. The lowest rpm of the machines is 101 rpm or
1.68 cps (Table 9.2 in Subsection 9.9a).
From
eq. 9.63 or Fig. 9.19 of the text it is seen that if the
periodic force on the foundation, due to the centrifugal force of an unbalanced mass, is to be reduced
to say -} of the magnitude of the centrifugal force
itself, then, with no damping present, the ratio of
forcing to natural frequency (of the machine on its
foundation) should be 3 to 1. It is also seen from
eq. 9.04 or Fig. 9.20 that, for this frequency ratio,
damping will increase rather than decrease the force
on the foundation.
For the above frequency ratio, the frequency of
the machine and (elastic) foundation is:In = 1.08/3
= 0.5G cps. From eq, 9.5 in the text, the static
deflection of the elastic foundation is
(I

/j.t

-)2
(271'

f n 2= 2.0 ft.

Such a "soft" foundation might well be entirely

impractical.
In that case, since the neighborhood
of a frequency ratio of unity must be avoided because
of resonance (unless artificial damping is introduced), the frequency ratio must be made less than
unity. If the amplitude of oscillation of the machine
itself is also reduced to say i of the "static" amplitude caused by the centrifugal force then the frequency ratio should be l
Since the maximum rpm of the machine is 250
rpm or 4.17 cps, the natural frequency of the

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

machine and foundation should be equal to or

greater than In = 3 X 4.17 = 12.5 cps. From eq.
9.5, this corresponds to a static deflection of
hot = (2~)2 f~2

= 0.0052 ft

ft in.

The force acting on the foundation in this case is.

very nearly equal to the centrifugal force of the
unbalanced mass, as seen from eq, 9.63 or Fig. 9.19,
and this force can be reduced only by a reduction
of the unbalance.
This example shows that at low rpm, elastic foundations do not appear practical. Therefore the
designer should proceed in the opposite direction.
That is, the foundation should be made as rigid as
possible (the natural frequency of machine and
foundation being 3 to 1 or greater) while mass unbalance of moving parts should be reduced as much
as possible.
9.ge Estimate of Hydraulic Snubber Force
and Damping Requirement
for Reduction of
Amplitude
of Vibration.
The spring constant
of a fixed-end beam for deflection at center is
k = 8 El/3 L3 (lb/It), Consider pipe CD shown
in Fig. 9.37. For C and D considered as fixed ends,
k = (8 X 113 X 106)/3(10)3 = 301,500 lb/ft. The
natural frequency for this pipe was estimated to be
56.3 cps. Vibration of this pipe due to compressor
pulsation will occur at 250 cpm or 4.17 cps.
The damping coefficient required to reduce the
amplitude of vibration to, say, 25% of the amplitude in the absence of damping is by eq. 9.45, Subsection 9.5a,

![1

- (4~56.3)2]

V(4)2 _ 1

= 26.0

56.3
This is an extremely large value of r and is probably
out of the practical range. The example merely
shows that viscous damping is really effective only
in the neighborhood of resonance. Indeed, from
eq. 9.46 of the same section the maximum force
transmitted
by the dampener is found to be
Fs = kRo[1 - (4.17/56.3)2jVl - (t)2 = kRo =
300,000Ro (lb), where Ro is the maximum amplitude of vibration (in feet) without damping. Thus,
the snubber force is practically equal to the force
required to produce in the structure a deflection
equal to the maximum amplitude Ro.
In the other extreme, when the ratio of forcing
to natural frequency (w/wn) is large, it is seen from
eq. 9.46 that the maximum force to be transmitted

AND CONTROL

287

by the snubber is considerably greater than the

static force required to produce a deflection Ro,
since for R/Ro :s; !, w/wn ~ 3, say, the force in the
snubber is approximately Fe = kRo(w/W,.)2.
Let
now the maximum value of be limited to Smnx = 1.
Then for this maximum value the amplitude ratio
(with damping versus without damping) is, from
eq. 9.44,

R
Ro

[2

4.17]2
X 5G.3

0.987

Thus the amplitude reduction is only a little more

than 1% and therefore hardly of any consequence.
9.91 Resonance Effect due to Wind Velocity.
In accordance with eq. 9.1 of the text, the frequency
J (cps) of vibration induced by wind velocity
U (ft/sec) is

f
or

= 0.18 -D
o

= 0.18 -/

2 = 0.617U
3.5 1

= -- f

0.617

162N
.

A reasonable assumption regarding the range of the

probable fundamental frequency of the above piping

system, based on previous estimates, would be:
Lowest nat. freq. = 12 cps
Highest nat. freq. = 53 cps
The corresponding range of wind velocity is, from
the last relation,
Min U = 1.62 X 12 = 19.4 It/sec

= 13.2 miles/hr

Max U = 1.62 X 53 = 86 It/sec

= 58.5 miles/hr

Inasmuch as at least part of the range of wind

velocities of 13-58 miles per hour is quite prevalent,
a resonance vibration of the piping system, if in the
open, under steady wind conditions, appears rather
likely. Whether this condition is serious depends on
the magnitude of stresses which, in turn, are a function of forces present during resonance. These forces
can be computed on the basis of full dynamic air
pressure acting on the projected area of the cylinder
with a reasonable magnificat on factor (say 50)
applicable for piping resonance.
9.9g Estimate of Acoustic Natural Frequencies. The speed of sound for the gas was estimated
above as approximately 2075 It/sec. Consider first
piping system ABCDEF, omitting for the time being

,
288

DESIGN

OF PIPING

the influence of branch DllG.

The length of the
former system is 33 feet. In accordance with the
formulas given in Section 9.6 aD._gAppendix B, the
lowest frequency is obtained by assuming A to be
an acoustically closed end and F an acoustically open
end. The fundamental acoustic period is then

4L

4 X 33

Period = C

= ---

frequency

is

2075

and the fundamental

10 =

1
0.0635

0.0635 sec.

20)

15.7 cps

10)

I
+tan ("IT'- --+.8
2 fa 33

2/033

Branch ABeD

=tan

Branch GIlD

(lO"lT'
I )
-+jS
33

fo

Branch DEF

In view of the assumption that ends it and G are

acoustically
closed, and since the pipe areas are
constant,

/3 (Branch ABCD)

0,

f3 (Branch GIlD)

So that the relation is:

tan

(10"lT' .!i+f31) = tan

33 fo
(DBF)

(1o

l.!.)
33 fa

"IT' .!i)+tan(5"1T'

33

10

It is seen at a glance that Idfo = 1 cannot be

satisfied by the last relation, so that due to branch
GIl D the frequency is indeed changed.
By trial and
error it is found that fl/lo = 0.9 is a root of that
relation to within a good approximation, so that

it

0.9 X 15.7

14.1 cps

It is seen that the fundamental

Due to the existence of branch DHG, the actual

fundamental
acoustic frequency is different.
The
effect of the second branch will now be estimated
from relations given in Subsection 9.6c assuming
that end G is acoustically closed, as was assumed
for end A. The branches are ABeD, GIlD, and
DEF. Since the areas of all branches are the same,
the general relation given in the above subsection
reduces in this case, for joint D, to:

I
tan ("IT'- --+jS

SYSTEMS

acoustic frequency
based on all branches is less than the frequency
which results when branch DIlG is omitted,
9.9h Estimate
of Acoustic Frequency
of the
System
Corresponding
to its First Harmonic
(2nd Mode).
It may be of interest sometimes to
estimate the acoustic natural frequency of the first
harmonic corresponding to the second acoustic mode.
In accordance with the results given in Subsection

9.6c
tan

C; -

1.3 :;

10) =

tan

7r

C303

10) +

(m -

= :::
2

G; 10)

By trial and error it is found that a root of this transcendental equation is 12/fo = 2.16, so that!2 = 2.16
X 15.7 = 34 cps. The ratio of the first harmonic to
the fundamental acoustic frequency isJz/!1 = 34/14.1
= 2.4. In a single branch with constant cross
sections the ratio would be 3 : 1. In general, it,
appears then that the effect of branch GIlD is to
reduce the fundamental
and higher acoustic frequencies.
9.9i Estimates
of Some Possible
Resonator
Frequencies.
Consider the system in Fig. 9.37
with some modifications, as shown in Fig. 9.38. All
piping, except where indicated, is of
in. OD
(3 in. IPS) pipe. Pressures, temperatures,
etc. are
as given in Subsection 9.9a. All equations used are
given in Section 9.8 or Appendix B.

3!

(9.94)

Since the area in branch DEF is constant, "phase"

/31 is constant for the entire branch.
On the other
hand, end F was assumed acoustically
"open,"
whence

/31

tan

10" dio.

L) m = 1 3 5

fa'

, ,

Hence, from the relation above, and for the fundamental mode (m = 1)
tan

-+-"IT'(
[1- o"IT' t.
33 fa

11)J =tan

1-2
fa

(1071"
11)
- -l-tan (57r
-33 fo

fl)

lorge

Veu..1
Dampener

33fo

t' dio.
Comp,euor

This is a transcendental
equation for the ratio ftl/o
where fo = 15.7 cps as calculated above for a simple
line ABCDEP with A acoustically
closed and P
acoustically open.

FIG. 9.38

Inclusion of pulsation dampeners in

compressor piping system.

~
.
=! ....

----------------------------------

t .

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

AND CONTROL

289

1. Consider a pulsation dampener as a "cavity"

resonator (one cavity):

..

'

L = 0;
11'

'4

A =

(3.5)2
12

= 0.07 f t;

FIG. 9.39
Il

2~

= 2~

= D = ~.: = 0.29 ft;

= 2075 ft/sec

Pulsation dampener system parallel configuration.

Volume=2X 1.57+(5+ 10+5)XO.07=4.5

Il

f = 2075 ~2X.022
l.57

142 cps

2075

t. = -=65
32

A second cavity will not change this result materi-

ally.
A =

We have also

C/f = 2075/142 = 14.6 ft

2 ft
(typical chamber dimension),

1-'1

1-'=

and

JI.

9.40

L+!v;A ,
_/

2075

40 =
1 0.022

52 ft

t = 252=

A = 0.07 ft2;

= 0.022 ft.

3=~vO.0711'

a.

1,.
min

40 cps

system in-line configuration.

~/J + 21-'2
f 2 =.E_
27l'
V

JJ. ~

a
211'

= -

If;;

If;
-

= 2075
-211'

f&j.022
-1.57

40 cps as

111

case 2.

b. Suppose, however, that the end entrances are

closed, then I-' = 0 and

3 ft.

fmin

2 X 10-4

It is seen that in this case t is quite small and the

influence of this damping is, in general, of no consequence.
3. Consider BCDII as a chamber with two entrances (Fig. 9.39):

""

Then it is found from the equations given in Subsection 9.6b that:

Then

0.07

v2

V, = V, =V

Pulsation dampener

fl = 2~

f = 2075 /0.022 =
27l' '\j 1.57

/J, =/J)=/J'
FIG.

3 ft;
A

LJ
11

v,

t = til/A = ~ X 0.29/14.6 = 0.01.

ft>30 ft
-

Hence, the above calculations will not be greatly

in error. r is very small.
4. On the other hand consider the system above
as shown with flow in one direction (Fig. 9.40).

thus satisfying a condition for using the above

equations.
The damping coefficient due to communication
with outside fluid is:

For lower frequencies, t is even smaller, as will be

seen.
2. Consider now a snubber with a 3 ft long neck
(distance from compressor). Then

=32 cps

4.5

2rr

f = 2075~.29
--211'

= 0.022 ft. Therefore

(per neck)

Hence, for one cavity:

ft3

0.07

JJ.2 =

20
and

/21-'2

= 211' '\}V

+ ~VO.071r

= 0.0034 ft

2075 ~2 X 0.0034

f = --

27l'

1.57

2075
-- 24 ft
27
'

r is

7 cps;

small.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

290
12'

Consider a "bottle"
The volume is

Chambo<

10 die.

,"

8'

3:1
dia.

dia.

FIG. 9.41

8f

t"

32

N.d<

N.d<

0.07
!VO.071r

0.0085 ft

= -11""(10)2
X 12 = 6.5 f t J

12

f = 2075

/2 X 0.0085

211"""\j
2075

]I. = -

17

~= 3.5

17 cps

6.5

122 ft

30

ft

X 10-5

It appears from all of the above results that the

only possible source of resonance (resonator type) of
4 cps, or 8 cps due to compressor higher harmonic
pulsation (500 rpm), may perhaps occur in the system representing the long end pipe terminating in a
large vessel. Such a system will possess a low resonator frequency and, in accordance with the remarks in Section 9.6, can be calculated on the basis
of a simple long-necked resonator, quite apart from
the rest of the system.
9.9j Estimate of Volume and Pressure Drop
Requirement
of Hydraulic Filters (Bottles) in
the Compressor Discharge Lines. It is thought
that an attenuation
factor of 20, corresponding to a
reduction of 5% to compressor pulsations from an
average flow rate, is a minimum requirement.
As shown in Table 9.2, the maximum flow rate at
intake per compressor is 40 cfm at 250 rpm. Now,
the average density ratio on discharge side vs. intake
is approximately
1100
----X
415
665

Pintl\kc

100

+ 460

220

+ 460

1.

2
Therefore, maximum discharge = 40/1. 7 = 23.5 cfm.
Hence, for a double-acting single piston compressor
the discharge volume How rate per stroke per piston
is approximately

V*

23.5
2 X 250

= 0.047

and 2 ft long.

11""

= - X 12 X 2 = 1.57 cu ft

On the basis of uniform gas density, the ratio of

"bottle" volume to volume How rate per stroke per
piston is:

Header pipe.

5. It may be of interest to consider a header pipe

as shown in Fig. 9.4l.
I.! =

12 in. in diameter

f
cu t

!_ =
V*

1.57

0.047

33.4

Figure 9.30 in the text or eq. BA8 (Appendix B)

shows that for an attenuation factor of 20, the pressure drop required between the tank and the piping
system is 2~% of mean tank pressure, or 0.025 X 1100
= 27.5 psi.
For the same attenuation
factor (95% reduction
of pulsation amplitude), and 904ft long "bottle" of
12-in. diameter the pressure drop required is only
1.2% of mean tank pressure or about 13 psi out of
1100.
Check with Some Test Data. The data given below
are taken from a British report [221.
The following results appear to be applicable:
Effective % pressure drop
= 3%
Effective volume ratio VjV* = 4
Reduction factor of amplitude of pipe vibration after installation, as measured, was
2~ to 3.
Now from eq. B.4S we have
Attenuation

Factor

/
"\j 1

A.F.

0.03)2
211"" X 0.75

_ 0.485

_ 3
-

If it is assumed, as is indeed reasonable and as is

pointed out in the above report, that the amplitude
of piping vibration is directly proportional to the
amplitude
of pulsation
(forces acting on bends
primarily), then it appears that the result given by
eq. B.4S (Appendix B) agrees with the measured
result.
In view of the fact that a uniform average gas
density is implied it is thought that these results arc
conservative.
Pulsation
dampeners,
with their
feature of selectivity, ought to yield better smoothing
with the same volume capacity and pressure drop
(see Subsection 9.8b).
9.9h Tuned Rcsorrator Geometry. Consider a
resonator volume equal to snubber volume of 1.57
cu ft. Suppose it is desired to tune to Wn = 250/60
cps = 26 rad/sec.
Consider a single cavity, with

;b'.

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

"acoustic conductivity" p.. Then, with C = 2075

It/sec (speed of sound in fluid), 26 = 2075Vp./1.57.
Or. p. = 1.57(26/2075)2 = 2.5 >('-10--4ft.
a. Assume at first a very thin walled cavity,
L tv;A. Then
p. = 2~~

= 2.5 X

10--4;

A = 5 X 1O-8ft2 = 7 X 10-6in.2

or

For circular opening

7rD2

.-

7 X 10-6

'

= 0.003 in.

b. Assume now a wall thickness of about 0.3 in.,

tv

then, as will appear, L

'nA, and p. = A/ (0.3/12)
= 2.5 X 10-4 ft = 3 X 10-3 in.; A = 0.75 X 10--4
in."; and for circular area, D = 0.01 in. For distributed cavities, the cavity area and diameter will be
still smaller.
It is seen from the calculations that the design of
tuned resonators for low frequencies is not practical
because very small cavities are required. This
difficulty can only be overcome by increasing either
the resonator volume or the neck length. This
means an increase in dimensions. In addition, long
narrow necks tend to get clogged up, requiring
troublesome maintenance. On the other hand, if the
desired tuning frequency were higher, say by a
factor of la, then the required cavity sizes would
become reasonable and, in conjunction with a reasonable orifice pressure drop, a tuned resonator
might be superior to an ordinary filter. Indeed, if
it is required to tune for only a narrow band of
forcing frequencies the tuned resonator is superior to
a filter ("bottle" with orifice), as soon as the frequency is high enough, making the resonator design
practical [15J. For wider frequency band tuning
requirements, additional calculations of pressure
drop requirements should be made for a given
specific case to determine whether a simple tuned
resonator is superior to a filter. These calculations
can be made using formulas given in Subsection 9.8a.
It should be noted that wider bands of attenuation
at relatively high frequencies (say above 10 cps) can
be obtained by combining tuned resonators and
expansion chambers.
9.10

Piping Vibration "Trouble Shooting"

9.10a Background.
The foregoing sections of
this chapter presented fundamental considerations
of piping vibration, general means for its correction
or control, and reference formulas for assistance in

AND CONTROL

291

vibration calculations. With the large number of

piping systems commonly encountered 011 process,
power, and other plants, the recognized general lack
of simple methods for natural frequency prediction of
the usually complex configurations, and the inability
to assess self-induced excitations, it is not presently
within the economics of plant design to perform
frequency analyses and regulate designs so as to
avoid vibration difficulties except for the most
critical applications. Accordingly, much vibration
engineering is performed in the correction of difficulties encountered in initial operation. This section
will attempt to assist the engineer confronted with
this situation.
Some basic design precautions, however, will
reduce the extent of field correction. Within economic limits, avoidance of suspected exciting influences is obviously desirable. Pulsation dampeners installed at the discharge of reciprocating
compressors as well as at the intake of high pressure
or otherwise critical units serve to reduce the magnitude of pressure and flow oscillations within acceptable values. Surging on discharge lines from
reciprocating pumps can similarly be reduced by the
installation of surge chambers which can be sized
using readily available formulas [22]. Certain fluid
flow conditions are known to excite vibration occasionally, and should be avoided; for example, a
piping arrangement where flows enter a common
line from diametrically opposite directions.
In
reciprocating machinery it is desirable to avoid
single cylinder machines with significant unbalanced
inertia effects, which can be accentuated by insufficient foundation mass and spread, particularly
on poor soil. Transmittal of -mechanical movements
from machinery through piping is minimized if the
system is provided with an initial flexible run and
then anchored, preferably by direct attachment to
an available massive foundation to avoid shaking
intervening structures or buildings, particularly the
compressor house; supports should be located so that
overhang or cantilevered portions are avoided, since
such portions may magnify amplitudes.
The safety and economic potentials of vibrations
should be recognized by the average designer.
Cyclic repetitions of sufficient number for a proportionate stress range can result in nonductile
fractures at stress levels well below yield point as
dictated by the magnitude at local stress raisers
rather than by the primary stress level. Fractures
can be accelerated by propagation of defects, particularly at welds or in castings. Damage can
result from rubbing wear, loosening of fastenings,

292

DESIGN OF PIPING

disintegration
of insulation, grouting, foundations,
etc. In addition, the noise and uncertainty
as to
structural
integrity of noticeably vibrating equipment may have adverse morale effect on operating
and maintenance personnel.
The three basic characteristics
of individual
vibrations
have direct structural significance: (1)
frequency dictates the number of cycles and hence
fatigue life; (2) amplitude indicates both the maximum stress attained and the stress range, the former
a measure of hazard of yielding or direct stress
fracture and the latter of fatigue life in combination
with the total cycles; (8) acceleration is a measure
of the dynamic
force producing the oscillatory
movement and which must be opposed in order to
reduce amplitude.
Since appraisal of the hazard
involved and need for or manner of correction must
be related to these vibration characteristics,
satisfactory comprehension
of their significance is essential. Early attention during initial operation may
avoid subsequent damage of considerable magnitude.
9.10b Vibration
IVlcasurement.
Specialized
equipment
for indicating
or recording vibration
characteristics is available in great variety to match
the many different conditions under which measurements are made.
Some instruments are compact,
light in weight, and readily portable, others are
suited only to laboratory or to permanent installations.
Mechanical, electrical, or inertia actuations
are made, some 'with direct sensing, others using
various types of pickups such as mechanical and
electrical strain gages, Bourdon tubes, diaphragms,
or inertia devices such as accelerometers, magnetic
and induction coils, etc.
Although detailed descriptions of vibration equipment are beyond the scope of this chapter, it may be
helpful to classify the general types of equipment
and their indicated usefulness.
A. Mechanical
Viorometers.
Most instruments
are of the recording type, and applicable to low or
moderate frequencies with the amplitude magnified
for improved measurement.
Compact and rugged
types which are suitable for wide usage are available
at reasonable prices. Included in this classification
are conventional recording instruments for pressure,
flow, etc.
B. Reed Vibromelers.
This is a most useful and
economic type which is widely employed on rotating
machinery, and generally applicable to frequencies
over lOcps. The range is wide and accuracy entirely
satisfactory
for structural
purposes.
They are
generally used for frequency determination,
but can
also be used for approximate amplitude evaluation.

SYSTEMS

C. Electric and Electronic Meters.

This classification covers a wide variety of electrical, electronic,
magnetic, and induction devices used singly or in
combination
for standardized
or special instruments to indicate or record vibration characteristics.
Some types are highly specialized, such as sound
meters, consisting of a microphone pickup, amplifier,
and a decibel reading indicator, which is useful for
analyzing flow noise and attendant
vibration and
also for general sonic frequency
measurement.
Most of the available units are based on resonance
principles, with adjustment of the natural frequency
of the instrument to coincide with that of the system
under study.
D. Stroboscopic Devices. These instruments
are
useful in studying large amplitude vibration.
Illumination of parts by timed flashes of light of short
duration creates the illusion of stopping or slowing
the movement depending on the relation between
the flash frequency and the frequency of vibration.
By slowing down the vibration until it can be
followed by the eye, simultaneous
observation of
several points is possible.
In the absence of specialized equipment, a general
idea of vibration
characteristics
can be obtained
under favorable conditions.
Visual observation of
pointer movements on an indicating gage against
timing with a stop watch can be applied towards
estimating the amplitude and frequency of oscillations of pressure, flow, liquid level, etc.: where
available motion pictures can be employed, the film
speed or a clock included in the picture providing
timing, and the successive photographs
the range
and number of surges. For high frequencies, indirect
means can sometimes be employed, i.e, obtaining
fluid oscillations as a measurement
of the forced
vibrations of the containing pipe, vessel, or structure.
For structural oscillations, visual observation and
moving pictures again provide a satisfactory
approach for low frequencies; this can be accomplished
by following the structure movement directly, by
using a dial gage actuated by a cord, or by using a transit, telescope, or telephoto lens. A simple recording
device for moderate frequency vibrations is the use of
a conventional recorder at its maximum chart speed;
the mechanism actuating the pen is disconnected
from the sensing element and made to respond to a
cord opposing its return spring; the cord is attached
to the structure under study and the resulting record
shows the amplitude
to full or amplified scale.
Higher frequencies can be approximated
by varying
the cord length of a pendulum attached
to the

VIBRATION:

PREVENTION

structure under observation until resonance is

approached, then calculating the corresponding
natural frequency for this dimension; a light wire
cantilever can be similarly used (simulating a reed
vibrorneter), varying the free length until resonance
is at a maximum; amplitude can be roughly approximated in the same manner as for reed vibrometers.
Recording at night the motion of a light attached to
a mechanical strain gage, or similar multiplier, on
a film in a still camera, slowly rotated through a
timed interval, will provide an approximate trace
from which frequency can be obtained and amplitude assessed.
9.10c "Trouble Shooting" Procedure. When
confronted with a specific case of piping vibration, a
first step is to assess the need for immediate action.
In some cases the situation is sufficiently serious to
cause a shutdown for correction or measures to
limit the amplitude of vibration. On the other hand,
it is frequently possible and entirely adequate to
reduce amplitudes of pipe or structure vibration by
providing temporary braces, supports, cables or
rod ties, guides, or similar restraints, so long as care
is taken to avoid possible thermal expansion difficulties on shutdown or during temporary operational upsets. Subsequently the temporary restraint is replaced by a permanent installation
designed to avoid resonance and yet to be compatible
with the requirements of the piping system for
expansion movements. In borderline cases, where
there is doubt about the seriousness of vibration,
an approximate idea of the actual maximum amplitude should be obtained for comparison with the
corresponding stress obtained from simplified beam
calculations. Where the full range of stress (based
on double amplitude) exceeds 2 X yield point of the
material in the most highly stressed local area,
imminent danger of failure exists, while lower
stresses may be compared with the SIN (stress vs.
number of cycles) curve for that material as an
indication of probable life in the absence of harmful
defects. It is emphasized that fatigue failure is
related to peak stress, so that nozzles, flanges, etc.
where local stresses above the average level exist are
focal points for possible failure.
More permanent corrective measures usually
require assessment of the vibration characteristics,
preferably by vibrometer records, otherwise by the
most effective substitute approach which can be
devised. Interpretation of this information must
take into account extraneous effects and operating
variables. Unless structural and acoustic natural
frequencies of the system are available from the

AND CONTROL

293

original design, rough calculations should be made to

assist in appraisal of the data. A comparision of the
field readings and calculated natural frequencies
should yield a rough indication as to whether the
vibration is of a forced or self-excited origin, and if
of the former type, whether resonance is indicated.
Where the trace exhibits a single period corresponding to the structural or acoustic frequency of
the system under examination, it can be assessed as
a forced vibration approaching resonance if the
pulsations are of appreciable magnitude.
If the
oscillation does not coincide with a natural period
of the system, it can be of either a forced or selfexcited origin, with the former generally more likely.
Further assessment of its nature can be accomplished
by altering the variables of either the system or the
operation, such as temporary supports or restraints,
changes in flow velocity by throttling, or variations
in machine speed. With this increased data the
exciting influence may be recognized. It must be
appreciated that self-excited vibration is nonlinear
and therefore a most difficult vibration phenomenon
to analyze. Proof of its presence must usually rest
on elimination of all possible external sources of
disturbance, and corrective measures similarly must
usually depend on experiment with and changing of
simplified components and influence.
With the frequency and nature of vibration
determined, the next step is a search for a possible
source, so as to eliminate it if practicable. As examples, the speed of a rotating machine may be
changed, taking into account the resulting effect on
flow, or unbalance of the machine corrected; similarly
the speed of reciprocating equipment may be
changed, which would also alter flow pulsations.
Specialized equipment such as flow dampeners and
surge tanks are effective in eliminating periodic
surges in flow from reciprocating compressors,
pumps, engines, etc.
Corrective measures also include means for
limiting amplitude or acceleration and concurrent
stress, such as stops, guides, damping devices, the
design of which is, in general, covered in Chapter 8.
Finally, it must be pointed out that interpretation of vibration data is a difficult task. Records
obtained in the field will frequently show a diversity
of small and completely random oscillations (noise)
superimposed on systematic oscillations of larger
magnitude, often masking the effect of the systematic
excitation. The difficulty is particularly evident in
the case of acoustic oscillations in view of the existence of many acoustic modes and misleading effects
due to the acoustic characteristics of the instrument

294

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

and connecting tubing. As a rule, however, vibrations of the noise type are so small as to be nondangerous. Usually only the welt developed sinusoidal vibrations are so large that they have to be
reduced in amplitude for safe operation.

References
1. J. P. Den Hartog, Mechanical Vibralions, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, 1940.
2. S. Timoshenko, Vibration Problems in Engineering, D.
Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1937.
3. Lord Rayleigh, Theory of Sound, Vol. I, II, Dover Publications, 1945.
4. A. E. H. Love, The .Mathematical Theory of Elasticity,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1927.
5. P. M. Morse, Vibration and Sound, Mcflraw Hill Book
Co., New York, 193().
6. H. F. Olsen, Dynamical Analogies, D. Van Nostrand Company, New York, 1943.
7. J. J. Stoker, Non-linear l'ibralions, Interscience Publishers, New York, 1950.
8. S. Timoshenko (revised by J. P. Den Hartog), "Vibration," in L. S. Marks, ed., Mechanical Enginur's Handbook, pp. 486-504, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1951.
9. R. O. Fehr, "Vibration and Noise Control," in C. Carmichael, ed., Kenl's Jl{echanical Engineer's Handbook,
Design and Production Volume, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1950.
10. C. E. Credo, Fibration and Shock Isolation, John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1951.
11. H. S. Ryder and E. K. Gatcombe, "Designing Vibration
Absorbers," Machine Design, V. 21, No. 11, pp. 142-145
(1!l49).

12. S. Goldstein, Modem Developments in Fluid Dynamics,

Vol. II, Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1938.
13. G. W. Housner, "Bending Vibrations of a Pipeline Cootaining Flowing Fluid," J. Appl. Mechanics, VoL 19,
pp. 205-208 (June 1952).
14. T. Warming, "Polar Diagrams for Tuning of Exhaust
Pipes," Trans. ASME, Vol. 68, No.1, pp. 31-33 (1946).
15. D. D. Davis, Jr., et al., "Theoretical and Measured
Attenuation of Mufflers ... ." NACA T.N. 2893, Feb.
1953.
lO. H. Rouse, ed., Enoineerinu Hydraulics, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1950.
17. T. W. Reynolds, "Water Hammer in Pipe Lines," Heatinq
and'Vclllilaling, Vol. 49. No.7, pp. 83-90 (1952).
18. E. G. Chilton and L. R. Handley, "Pulsations in Gas
Compressor Systems," Trans. ASME, Vol. 74, No.6,
pp. 931-941 (1952).
19. C. N. Taylor, "How to Stop Troublesome Pulsations
Without Excessive Pressure Drop," Oil Gas J., Vol. 52,
No. 44, pp. 101-102, 105, 112; Vol. 52, No. 45, pp. 113114, 117, 150 (1954).
20. M. L. Arnold, "Experiences in Dampening Pulsations in
Compressor Piping Systems," Oil Gas J., Vol. 50, No. 23,
pp. 109-110, 141-142 (Oct. 1951).
21. Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Ltd., Engineering Development Department,
Abadan, Iran, "Clark Compressor
Piping Vibration.
Effect of Fitting Pulsation Damping
Orifices," Engineering Report No. 415, January 27, 1947.
22. E. G. Chilton and C. R Handley, "Pulsation Absorbers
for Reciprocating
Pumps,"
ASME Paper 53-A-81,
August, 1953.
23. K Groth, "Untersuchung
liber Schwingungen io der
Druckleitung von Kolbenverdichtern,"
Z., VDI, Band
19, Forschungshef't 440, pp. 5-22 (1953).
21. V. F. Albert and G. S. McGinnis, "Multiple Helmholz
Resonators," J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., July, 1952. .

APPENDIX

-~.

A
History and Derivation
of Piping Flexibility Analysis

HIS appendix is principally of general background interest in the study of piping flexibility analysis.
It consists of (1) a brief historical review, (2) a rather complete bibliography
of published matter on the subject, and (3) the
derivation of the various formulas entering into the
calculations.
It contains material which was withheld from Chapter 5 in order to enhance that chapter's usefulness to the calculator
as a working
reference.

A.I

History
Analysis

of Piping

Flexibility

and

proaches, rather than to adhere closely to a chronological exposition.

Duplication has been avoided
with Chapter 3 to which the reader is referred for a
historical presentation
of the contributions
to an
understanding
of the increased flexibility and attendant stress distribution in curved pipes.
If the preliminary and inadequate developments
are passed over, Wahl !7] and Hovgaard [8] may be
considered as the pioneers in providing usable solutions for single-plane configurations including pipe
bends. Shipman [9], by pre-integration of the shape
coefficients and organization of the details and sign
conventions, established the first general solution of
the single-plane problem requiring only simple mathematics and suitable for routine design application;
this was the most significant single contribution
made to the field of analysis.
The analytical approach was further advanced by Tingey [25] who
introduced the virtual center of gravity or elastic
center, and a step further by Spielvogel and Kameros
[30, 32] who employed conjugate axes; in both approaches simplification of the displacement
equations accrues from placing the origin of the coordinate
system at the virtual center of gravity of the pipeline which, for single plane configurations, coincides
with the elastic center, so that all moments due to
loads and reactions vanish.
The resulting simplification of the simultaneous equations is offset by the
effort involved in establishing the coordinates of the
elastic center.
Extensions of the analytical approach to space
pipe lines were first published by Hovgaard [33] and
by Karelitz and Marchant [37]; the former gives a
general solution, while the latter deals with a selected
piping system by following Wahl's individual treatment of each pipe section, as combined by super-

Stress

Three decades ago the treatment of the expansion

problem was crude and patterned largely either on
the analysis of elementary structural frames, or- on
manufacturers'
data for simple expansion configurations (such as the lyre bend) for which experimental
confirmation was limited to isolated test data. These
load deflection values were never fully reconciled
with analyses, largely because the peculiarities
of
curved pipe were not understood.
At the present time a somewhat overwhelming
variety of so-called "methods" of analysis confronts
the piping engineer.
Closer inspection, however,
will reveal that in many cases the differences are
largely superficial and concern details such as the
order of succession of operations or the manner of
recording the calculations.
In order to arrive at
results of comparable accuracy and reliability, the
required quantity of work inevitably remains much
the same.
In the following brief review of the extensive literature on piping flexibility and attendant
stress
calculations, it has been considered more useful to
trace the development
of the various basic ap295

296

DESIGN OF PIPING

position and juxtaposition, and utilizes a tabular

form and sign conventions to avoid sign errors. In
a later paper [39], Hovgaard restated the foregoing
multiplane bend solution to include the so-called
secondary effects. The Engineering Department of
the Standard Oil Co. (Indiana) presented, as an
inter-company report in 1932, the first extension of
preintcgration to the space problem, in which the
shape coefficients for the additional planes were
derived from those of the basic plane by cyclic permutation of the coordinates' axes. Itself an outgrowth of Shipman's one-plane development, this
contribution was carried forward by The M. W.
Kellogg Company and eventually led to the publication in 1941 of the first edition of Design of Piping
System.s [49J. This volume contained the first comprehensive treatment of the thermal expansion problem, offering the designer a means of solving virtually
any configuration, however complex, with any manner of concentrated loading or restraint, the rapidly
mounting time required for the more complex solutions being the sole limitation.
Shortly thereafter, the first edition of S. W. Spielvogel's book [55] appeared, emphasizing the use of
the elastic center as 11 procedure easily followed by
the occasional user especially for single-plane applications; for rnultiplane systems, the secondary effects
are neglected, and the general procedure and establishment of the elastic centers are much more
complex.
The convenience of employing matrix notation
and the operations of matrix algebra as applied to
expansion problems were pointed out by Heath
[72, 73J and Brock [96J, while Johnson [99J described
application of the Kellogg General Analytical
Method to programmed calculations by automatic
punched card machines.
Other analytical developments which may be
mentioned are the dynamical analogy of Poritsky
and Snively [44J, and the column analogy of Wolosewick [69J; De Hart [61, 69, 75, 87] introduced
analysis by relaxation or "moment distribution" as
it is more familiarly known to structural engineers.
In addition to the purely analytical approaches,
a grapho-analytical method was presented by
Crocker and McCutchan [13, 65]. This involves a
successive-step solution which is readily visualized
and accordingly recommends itself to the occasional
user for relatively simple problems, although care
in guarding against sign errors is necessary.
Of the completely graphical approaches, Mitchell's
[11] is limited to lines of constant moment of inertia
with two fixed ends; square corners are substituted

SYSTEMS

for curved members, and the assumption regarding

the position of the axis as parallel to a line passing
through the end fixations is untenable in the absence
of a complete symmetry, and may lead to considerable error. Cocks [16J provided an excellent graphical treatment of bends in space, using the simplifying assumption of a shear modulus equal to one-half
of the modulus of elasticity in tension, by which the
torsional rigidity is made equal to the rigidity ill
flexure, This assumption is valid only for the
fictive limit of Poisson's ratio = 0; therefore torsional deflections are underestimated accordingly.
and over-all stiffness exaggerated. Bridge [69], utilizing Cocks' modulus assumption, introduced an
improvement of Mitchell's method through a modification in the empirical positioning of the thrust axis.
The use of presolved equations for the general
one-plane configuration into which dimensionally
dependent factors are introduced as obtained from
specific charts or tables for each arrangement is CO\'ered by Wert and Smith together with other collaborators [24, 31, 43J, Markl [88], and Spielvogel
[90, 91, 92]. Such chart solutions present the most
direct means for solving the selected configurations
but their use is limited to piping systems of few
variables in their layout geometry and hence are inapplicable to most runs of pipe as laid out in pmetice.
This approach has also been used to solve space
problems, although its usefulness is further limited
by an increased complexity in this application.
Over a period of seven years a series of articles,
sponsored by S. Crocker and A. McCutchan [69],
presented summaries of current piping flexibility
analysis methods; each contributing author was to
present a digest of a specific approach and calculations for each of two given problems as a basis of
comparison. Lack of space did not permit sufficiently adequate treatment for these articles to be
useful as 11 comprehensive reference compilation;
however, as a convenient summary they do provide
valuable assistance in the difficult evaluation and
recognition of an approach suitable for possible
standardization and Code adoption.
The foregoing is limited to technical contributions
in the English language, and as such covers U.S.
and British sources; articles have also appeared in
other language journals, which may present parallel
or possibly prior contributions.
In view of the
rapid advances in piping engineering in the U.S. it is
unlikely that important non-English contributions
would be overlooked, so that a digest and chronicle
of worldwide efforts in the field is not considered
necessary. It would be remiss however not to men-

HISTORY

AND DERIVATION

OF PIPING

tion the contribution of Henri Carlier [21,26, 27,28,

62,69] for a broad and thorough analytical approach.
The history of piping flexibility analysis. as
sketched above is admittedly lacking in completeness. The supporting bibliography which follows,
however, is believed to be the most comprehensive
yet prepared and should prove useful where greater
detail is desired.
,,\.2 Bibliography

on Piping

Flexibility

19.

20.

21.

and

Stress Analysis *
1. R. C. Taggert, "Expansion of Pipes," Trans. ASCE,
paper 1167, December, 1910.
2. C. E. Stromeyer, "Elasticity and Endurance of Steam
Pipes," Engineering, June 19, 1914, p. 857.
3. Mechanical Expert's Dept. of Crane Co., "Pipe Bends,
Their Growing Use and Efficiency," The Valve World,
October, 1915.
4. H. Carlier, L'ap!itude elastique des tuyaukries a vapeur au
point de vue dilafalion, 1920, 1923, 1925, 1927.
5. S. Crocker and S. S. Sanford, "The Elasticity of Pipe
Bends," Mech. Eng., Vol. 45, p. 159 (1923).
6. P. M. Gallo, "Expansion Steam Bends," Blas! Furnace
& Steel Plant, Vol. 13, No.5, pp. 218-220j Vol. 13, No.6,
pp. 261-262, 265; Vol. 13, No.7, pp. 300-302 (1925).
7. A. M. Wahl, "Stresses and Reactions in Expansion Pipe
Bends," Trans. ASME, Vol. 50, No. 15, pp. 241-255
(1928).
8. W. Hovgaard, "Deformation
of Plain Pipe Bends,"
J. Math. and Phys., M.I.T., Vol. 7, No.3, pp. 198-238
(1928).
!I. W. H. Shipman, "Design of Steam Piping to Care for
Expansion," Trans. ASME, Vol. 51, FSP-51-52, p. 415
(1929).
10. A. M. Wahl, J. W. Bowley, and G. Back, "Stresses in
Turbine Pipe Bends," Mech. Eng., Vol. 51, pp. 823-828
(1929).
11. C. T. Mitehell, "A Graphic Method for Determining
Expansion Stresses in Pipe Lines," Trans. ASME,
FSP-52-25, Vol. 52, pp. 167-176 (1930).
12. A. McCutchan, "The Design of Piping to Secure Flexibility," Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 2, No.9,
pp. 738-742 (1930).
13. S. Crocker and A. McCutchan, "Elastic Properties of
Straight Pipe and Bends," in Piping Handbook (J. H.
Walker and S. Crocker), Ist. Ed. (1930), pp. 499,570.
14. R. Livingston, "Bending Stresses in Steam Pipes,"
World Power, Vol. 16, No.9, pp, 226, 228-230 (1931).
15. A. McCutchan, "Designing High Temperature Steam
Piping-Part
I, Flexibility of lOOOF Line," Heaiinq,
Piping and A ir Cond., Vol. 3, No. 10, pp. 825-831; Vol. 3,
No. 11, pp. 918-923 (1931).
16. E. B. Cocks, "The Graphical Determination of Expansion Thrusts and Stresses in Steam Lines," Insi. of Civil
Eng. (London), No. 133 (1932).
17. H. Cartier, "Contribution a l'etude de l'aptitude elastique
des tuyautcries de vapeur au point de vue dilatation,"
Chaleur & ind., Annee 13, No.3, pp. 235-242 (1932).
18. E. T. Cope and E. A. Wert, "How to Obtain Flexibility
[1] to [33] for Chapter 3, covering the closely
of the flexibility of curved pipe.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.
27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

OSee also references

related subject

37.

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

297

in Pipe Lines," Pourer, Vol. 75, No. 12, pp. 4g4-488

(1932).
A. Thuloup, "Sur la deformation at les tensions internes
destuyaux
a ligne moyenne plane," Bull. Assoc. tech.
maritime ei aeronautique, No. 36, pp. 443-464 (1932).
R. H. Tingey, "Stresses in Pipes Due to Thermal Expansion," Mar. Eng. and Shipping Age, Vol. 37, No. 10,
pp. 442-443 (1932).
H. Carlier, "Contribution
a l'etude des deformations
6lastiques des tuyauteries it vapeur BOUS l'influencc de
la dilation," Chaleur & ind., Annee 13, No. 11, pp. 617626 (1932).
S. Kameros, "Graphic Solution of Some Common Pipe
Bends," Healing, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 5, No.7,
pp.342-347 (1933).
E. A. Wert, S. Smith, and E. T. Cope, "Detroit Edison
Engineers Present Graphs for Design of Piping for
Flexibility," Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 5,
No.8, pp. 405-408 (1933).
E. A. Wert, S. Smith, and E. T. Cope, A Manual for the
Design of Piping for Flexibility by the Use of Graphs,
The Detroit Edison Co., Detroit, Mich., 1934.
R. H. Tingey, "Method of Calculating Thermal Expansion Stresses in Piping," Mar. Eng. and Shipping Age,
Vol. 39, No.4, pp. 136-140 (1934).
H. Curlier, "La iiuiauierie de vapeur-son aptitude elasiique d absorber les eiJefs de la dilatation," Belgium, 1935.
H. Carlier, "Contribution al'etude de l'aptitude elastique
des tuyauteries de vapeur au point de vue dilatation,"
Chaleur & ind., Annee 16, No.7, pp. 321-329 (1935).
H. Carlier, "Contribution a l'etudo de l'aptitude elastique des tuyauteries de vapeur au point de vue dilatation," Chaleur & ind., Annee 16, No.8, pp. 395-401
(1935).
F. L. Snyder, "Design of Modern Industrial Piping
systems-Flexibility
of Piping," Heating, Piping and
Air Cond., Vol. 7, No.4, pp. 181-186 (1935).
S. W. Spielvogel and S. Knmeros, "Application of the
Elastic-Point Theory to Piping Stress Calculations,"
Trans. ASME, Vol. 57, No.4, FSP-57-10, pp. 165-168
(1935).
E. A. \Vert and S. Smith, Pittsburgh Piping Design
Manual, Pittsburgh Piping & Equipment Co., September, 1935.
S. W. Spielvogel and S. Kameros, "A Simplified Method
for Solving Piping Problems," Heating, Piping and Air
Cond., Vol. 7, No.9, pp. 425-428; Vol. 7, No. 10, pp.
474-478 (1935).
W. Hovgaard, "Stresses in Three-Dimensional
Pipe
Bends," Trans. ASME, Vol. 57, FSP-57-12, pp, 401-476
(1935).
E. Schwenk, "Festigkeitsbereehnung
von Hochdruckdampfleitungcn," Arch. lVurmewirtsch., Vol. 7, No. 10,
pp. 273-278 (1936).
E. A. Wert and S. Smith, "Field Testa Check Analysis
of Stresses and Change of Shape in Expansion Bend,"
Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 8, No. 12, pp. 661664, 671 (193G).
W. Budd and D. Cooper, "Load-deflection Testa of
Several One-plane Expansion Bends," undergraduate
thesis, Department of Naval Architecture and Marine
Engineering, M.LT., 1936.
G. B. Knrelitz and J. H. Marchant, "End Reactions and

298

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Stresses in Three-Dimensional
Pipe Lines," J. Appl.
Mechanics, Vol. 4, No.2, pp. A68-A74 (1937).
38. H. E. Msyrose, "Data Sheets for. Design of Piping,"
J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 4, No.2, pp. 49-51 (1937).
39. W. Hovgaard, "Further Studies of Three-Dimensional
Pipe Bends," Trans. ASME, VoL 59, No.8, pp. 647-650
(1937).
40. A. M. Thyer, "Design of Piping for High Temperatures
and Pressures," J. Inst, Engrs. Australia, Vol. 10, No.6,
pp. 203-215 (1938).
41. F. Peiter and M. J. Fish, "A Method for Determination
of Reactions and Stresses in Expansion Pipe Bends,"
Combustion, Vol. 10, No.6, pp. 26-31 (1938).
42. O. J. Baggerud and K. W. Jernstrom, "Graphic Analysis
of Pipe Stresses," presented at 1939 meeting of the Soc.
of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
43. E. A. Wert and S. Smith, Design of Piping for Flexibility
with Flex-Anal Charts, Blaw Knox Co., Power Piping
Division, Pittsburgh, 1940.
44. H. Poritsky and H. D. Snively, "Stresses and Deflections of Three-Dimensional
Pipe Bends," J. Appl.
Mechanics, Vol. 7, No.1, pp. A68-A74 (1940).
45. I{. Muto and T. Tunoda, "Thermal Stress of Steam
Pipes," Japanese Gov. Rys. Bull., No. 28, September,
1940.
46. K. Muto and T. TUnoM, "Thermal Stress of Three
Dimensional Steam Pipes," Japanese Gov. Rys. Bull.
No. 28, October, 1940.
47. D. R. Zcno and S. D. Vinieratos, Piping Flexibility and
Stresses, Cornell Maritime Press, New York, 1941.
48. R. G. Lovell, "Refinery Piping, Providing for Expansion
in Hot Lines," Petroleum Enqr., Vol. 12, pp. 27-28, 30
(1941 ).
49. The M. W. Kellogg Co. (by D. B. Rossheim, A. R C.
Markl, H. V. Wallstrom, E. Slezak), Design of Pipi7lf}
Systems, 1st Edition, 1941 (out of print; superseded by
2nd edition, 1956).
50. S. W. Spielvogel, "Stress Calculation for High Temperature Piping," Power, Vol. 85, No.1, pp. 68-69; Vol. 85,
No.2, pp. 67-69 (1941).
51. Mason S. Noyes, "Thermal Expansion Stresses in Piping," J. Am. Soc. Naval Enqrs., Vol. 53, No.2, pp. 275374 (1941).
52. W. E. Bleick, "A Simplification in the Meyer-Hovgaard
System of Pipe Stress Forms," J. Am. Soc. Naval Enqrs.,
Vol. 53, No.4, pp. 775-704 (1941).
53. A. S. McCormick, "Expansion of Formulas for Calculating Loads, Rotation and Deflection of Quarter Bends
and Tangents of Pipes," J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 9,
No.1, pp. A38-A42 (1942).
54. H. Miller, "An Analytical Method for Determining the
Flexibility of Piping Having Two or More Anchorages,"
J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 9, No.4, pp. A165-A170 (1942).
55. S. W. Spielvogel, Piping Stress Calculations Simplified,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1943.
56. A. McCutchan, "Design of Steam Transmission Piping." Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol. 15, No.8,
pp. 401--404; Vol. 15, No.9, pp. 450-455 (1943).
57. A. S. McCormick, "Expansion of Formulas for Calculating Loads, Rotation and Deflection of Quarter Bends
and Tangents of Pipes," Design Data Book &, AS/HE,
p. 61,19-14.
5S. H. E. Mayrose, "Data Sheets for Design of Piping,"
Design Data Book 1. ,1SME, p, 33, Hl44.

59. B. Lochak, "Simplified and Exact Method of An:..lyBia

of Reactions Developed by Expansion in a ThreeAnchor Piping System," Trans. ASME, Vol. 66, No.4,
pp. 311-318 (1944).
60. S. Austin, "A General Analysis of High Temperature
Piping," J. Am. Soc. Naval Enqrs., Vol. 56, No.4, pp.
468-502 (1944).
61. R. C. DeHart, "Moment-Distribution
Analysis for
Three-Dimensional Pipe Structures," J. Appl. Mechanics,
Vol. 11, No.4, p. Al88 (1944).
62. H. Carlier, "A propos de la question des deformations
clastiques des cICments de construction et des tuyauteries
en particulier," Chaleur & ind., Annee 26, No.5, pp.
39-50 (1945).
63. A. Osbourne and R. M. Meyer, "Application of Relaxution Method to Solution of Simultaneous Equations of
Type That Occur in Multi-Anchored Pipe Thermal
Stress Calculations," J. Am. Soc. Naval Enqrs., Vol. 57,
No.5, pp. 147-165 (1945).
64. G. A. Paul, "Aims of Pipe Stress Investigations," Power
Plant Eng., Vol. 49, No.9, pp. 103-104 (1945).
65. S. Crocker and A. McCutehan, "Elastic Properties
of Straight Pipe and Bends," Piping Handbook (S.
Crocker), 4th Ed., pp. 779-860; McGraw-Hili Book Co.,
New York, 1945,.
66. H. Carlier, "Sur les deformatlons clastiqucs des tuyauteries de vapeur," Chaleur & ind., Annee 27, No.4, pp.
85-8S (1946).
67. P. Bryan, "Simplified Pipe Line Computations," Petroleum Eng., Vol. 18, No.2, pp. 166-168; VoL IS, No.3,
pp. 152-156 (1946).
68. J. Barthelemy and H. DeLciris, "ll:tude de la deformation et des tensions internes de tuyaux il. ligne moyenne
plane, sans pression interne," Bulletin assoc. tech. maritime et aeronautique, Vol. 45, p. 139 (1946); Vol. 46,
p. 411 (1947).
69. "Methods of Making Piping Flexibility Analyses," a
series of papers published in Heating, Piping and Air
Conditioning, initiated by S. Crocker and A. McCutchan,
with the following sub-authors:
S. Crocker and A. McCutchan, "Methods of Making
Piping Flexibility Analyses," Vol. 18, No.6, pp. 69-73
(1946).
S. W. Spielvogel, "Elastic Center Method," Vol. 18,
No.7, pp. 78-S1 (1946).
M. J. Fish, "Graphical Method," Vol. IS, No. !J, pp.
83-88 (1946).
W. G. Hooper, "Tabular Integration Method," Vol. 18,
No. 11, pp. 70-76 (1916).
R. C. DeHart, "Moment Distribution Method," Vol.
19, No.1, pp. 9HI5 (1947).
H. V. Wallstrom, "General Analytical Method," Vol. In,
No.5, pp. 69-71 (1917).
L. C. Andrews, "Model Test Method," Vol. 19, No.8,
pp. 73-77 (1947).
H. Curlier, "Methods of Making Piping Flexibility
Analyses," Vol. 19, No.9, pp. 86-89 (1947).
F. E. Wolcsewick, "Column Analogy Concept," Vol. 20,
No.9, pp. 78-81 (HI48).
L. E. Partsch, "Straight Line Method," Vol. 22, No.7
pp. 92-95; Vol. 22, No. 10, pp. 94-97; Vol. 22, No. 11,
pp. 94-97 (1950).
T. E. Bridge, "How to Design Piping with Required
Flexibility," Vol. 22, No. 10, pp. 94-U7; Vol. 22,

HISTORY

70.

71.

72.

73.

14.

75.

76.

77.

AND DERIVATION OF PIPING

No. 11, pp. 94-97, 99; Vol. 22, No. 12, pp. 92-95
(1950); Vol. 23, No.1, pp. 136--139j Vol 23, No.2,
pp. 107-109 (1951).
""
J. E. Brock, "Matrix Method," Vol. 24, No.7, pp. 78-81
(1952).
A. McCu~han and W. P. Gregory, Vol. 25, No.3, pp.
92-97 (1953).
S. Crocker and A. Mefhrtchun, Vol. 25, No.7, pp. 87-90
(1953).
J. Yeakel, "Analysis of Stresses in Unsymmetrical Pipe
Frame," Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 26, No.6, pp. 113-116
(1947).
H. Carlier, "Contribution Ii l'etude des traces de tuyauterie a vapeur," Chaleur & ind., Annce 28, No. 11, pp.
276--278 (1947).
Lt. (E) P. T. Hoath, "Steam Pipework Design in Ships,"
presented at the September 1947 meeting of the Institute of Marine Engineers, London.
Lt. (E) P. T. Hoath, "Graphical Analytical Methods
of Stress Analysis," B.S.R.A. Res. Item &-Report IS,
January, 1948.
R. Desreumaux, "Calcul des tensions dans un tuyau
gauche soumis a une deformation calorifique empechee,"
Chaleur & ind., Annee 29, No.7, pp. 173-176 (1948).
R. C. DeHart, "Determination
by Moment Distributions of the Reactions and the Moments Arising from
the Expansion of Piping Systems," Montana State College BuUetin No. S, March, 1948.
J. R. Finniecome, "Thrust and Stresses in Two-Dimensional Pipe Expansion Bends," Insi. Mech, Enqre. (Landon) J. and Proc., Vol. 158, pp. 369-376 (1948).
A. Gage, "Les tuyauteries de vapeur de la centrale haute
pression de Gennevilllers," Rev. gen. mCccm., January,
1949, pp. 11-19.

78. A. Gage, "Methode generale d'etablissement des formulcs

de cal cui d'une tuyauterie sous temperature Premiere
partie: Tuyauterie sans contrainte en dehors des encastrements," Rev. gen. mecan., March, 1949, pp. 101-111;
"Deuxierne partie: Tuyauterie avec contraintes extericures," Rev. gen. mccan., July, 1949, pp. 2!l8-305.
79. Simon W. Lewaren, "Pipe Stress Analysis for Thermal
Expansion," Oil and Gas J., Vol. 47, pp. 80, 82-84,
87-88 (May, 1949).
80. L. Blanjean, "Etude de la sollicitation sous l'etTet de
variations therrniques, d'une tuyautcrie non librement
dilatable," Soc. roy. beige ing. et indo bull., Series B,
No.3, pp. 103-134 (1949).
81. J. J. Blank, "Quick Check for Pipe Stress, Thrust,"
Power, Vol. 93, No. 10, pp. 87-89 (1949).
82. C. H. Green, "Let the Flexibility Prism Help You
Analyze Pipe Stress," Power Generation, Vol. 53, pp.
58-{)2 (December, 1949).
83. Tube Turns, Inc. (A. R. C. Markl), "Introduction to the
Piping Flexibility Problem," Paper 4.01 of a series
entitled "Piping Engineering," Febriuary, 1950.
84. F. E. Wolosewick, "Expansion of L Type Bends,"
Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 29, pp. 143-144 (September, 1950).
85. F. E. Wolosewick, "Forces in Pipe Benda from Expansions," Petroleum. Refiner, Vol. 29, pp. 103-108 (October,
1950).
86. R. T. Kent, Mechanical Engineers' Handbook, Vol. II,
Power, ed, by J. Kenneth Salisbury, John Wiley &: Sons,
New York, 1950.
87. R. C. DeHart and N. Bassar, Jr., "Analysis for Three-

88.

89.

90.
91.

92.
93.
94.
95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

101.
102.
103.

104.

A.3

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

299

Dimensional Pipe Structures by Group Relaxation,"

M ontana Slate College Eng. Exper. Sta. Bull. No.9, 1950.
Tube Turns, Inc., "Z-, L-, U-, and Expansion Ll-Bends,'
(A. R. C. Markl), Paper 4.02 of a series entitled "Piping
Engineering," December, 1950.
F. E. Wolosewick, "Comparative Methods of Absorbing
Expansions of Long-Range Transmission Piping," Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 30, No.2, pp. 69-74 (1951).
s. W. Spielvogel, "Tables Speed Expansion-Bend Selection," Power, Vol. 95, No. 11, pp. 9&-99 (1951).
Grinnell, Piping Design and En(lineering (S. W. Spielvogel and others), copyrighted 1951 by Grinnell Co., Inc.,
Providence, Rhode Island.
S. \V. Spielvogel, Piping Stress Calculations Simplified,
Lake Success, New York, 4th printing, 1951.
S. W. Spielvogel, "Tables for Figuring Pipe Shape,"
Power, Vol. 96, No.6, p. 103 (1952).
S. W. Spielvogel, "Easy Tables Crack Tough Pipe
Problem," Power, Vol. 96, No. 10, pp. 92-93 (1952).
W. E. Cooper, "The Experimental Determination
of
Pipe Reactions," U. S. Atomic Energy Commission by
the G. E. Co., Aug. 4, 1952.
J. E. Brock, ttA Matrix Method for Flexibility Analysis
of Piping Systems," J. Appl. MechaniCS, Vol. 19, No. 12,
pp. 501-516 (1952); "Matrix Analysis of Piping Flexibility," J. Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 22. No.3, pp. 361-362
(1955).
A. E. Picardi, "How to Apply Method of Slope Deflection to Thermal Stress Analysis of Piping," Petroleum
Processing, Vol. 8, No.3, p. 368 (1953).
William E. Wilbur, "Thermal Stresses in Piping SYRterns," Pclroleum. Refiner, Part I, Vol. 32, No.3, pp.
143-148; Part II, Vol. 32, No.4, pp, 163-168; Part III,
Vol. 32, No.5, pp. 174-178 (1953).
L. H. Johnson, "Solution of Pipe Expansion Problems
by Punched Card Machines," Digest in Mech. Engr.,
No. 53-F-23, p. 1020, December, 1953.
R. L. Jackson and L. H. Johnson, "Designing Steam
Piping Systems," Heating, Piping and Air Cond., Vol.
26, pp. 112-115, November, 1951.
A. R. C. Markl, "Piping Flexibility Analysis," .4SME
TraIlS., Vol. 77, pp. 127-14') (February, 1955).
J. E. Brock, "Matrix Analysis of Piping Flexibility,"
ASME Paper No. 55-8-5 (1955).
J. E. Brock, "Try These Rules for Easy U-Bend Design," Heatillg, Piping and Air Cond., Vo!' 27, No.4,
pp. 99-105 (1955).
R. Michal, "Elasttc Constants and Coefficients of Thermal Expansion of Piping Materials Proposed for 1954
Code for Pressure Piping," ASME Trans., Vol. 77.
No.2, pp. 151-159 (1955).

Deriva lion
Method

of

the

General

Ana.lytical

The following derivations are presented in support

of the formulas comprising the General Analytical
Method of piping flexibility analysis, the application
of which was described in Chapter 5. The basic
equations are developed in sufficient breadth to
cover uniformly distributed as well as concentrated
loading but are applied at present only to static conditions. Subsequent relationships are derived which

DESIGN OF PIPING

300

are specifically adapted to the respective effects of

thermal expansion, weight, or wind. Because of the
number of quantities needed to' express the constraint of a pipe line, and the usually even greater
number required to express its shape, the flexibility
formulas in their entirety are exceedingly cumbersome expressions. The elements of which they are
composed, however, are essentially simple.
Attention is directed to the use of consistent dimensional units in all derivations, rather than the
units of practical convenience wbich are found in
foregoing text. Although not always dimensionally
identical the same nomenclature is used, however.
In the following presentation it is assumed that the
reader is familiar to some extent with the conventions and procedures used in the application of the
method.
The flexibility formulas are founded on well established principles of mechanics of materials. First
to be noted is the dependence on elastic theory derived from Hooke's law of the proportionality of
stress to strain. Comments on the validity of this
approach will not be repeated here as they are given
elsewhere in the book.
An assumption worthy of mention and also one
commonly made in structural analysis, is that deflections are small in proportion to the size of the configuration so that changes in position and shape of
a member may be ignored in their effect on flexibility
of the whole.'
Another assumption that will be made temporarily
in order to simplify the presentation is that the
effects of direct axial compression or extension, or of
shear deflection, are negligible in comparison with
the transverse bending and torsional effects. Later
in the development, inclusion of all these effects will
be discussed.
Considering the pipe as a prismatic bar under the
influence of a bending moment Mb which is variable
with respect to the pipe length l the total stored
strain energy is:
1 kMb2

Us =

1
0

2EI dl

SYSTEMS
G
I

= modulus of elasticity in shear.

= axial moment of inertia of the pipe cross

J
k
k,

= polar moment of inertia.

= flexibility factor in bending.

section.

= flexibility factor in torsion.

The energy in torsion may be expressed more conveniently as:

U =
t

2GJ dl

where
E

modulus of elasticity in tension.

IHescrvntions must be made in the case of local components where effects such M oross-sectionnl flattening of n
bend arc significant.

where the bending moment is expressed in components M band M' hr respectively in and transverse
to a reference plane containing the particular portion of the line, and the bending flexibility factor is
considered to be the same for both in-plane and
transverse bending.
The displacement under external loads of any
point in an elastic body is easily found from the
strain energy by the use of the Theorem of Castigliano. This theorem states that the deflection, 01'1
in the direction of and at the point of application of
a force F 1" is given by the partial derivative of the
strain energy with respect to the force F p. Thus at
a point located by the generalized coordinate p:

au
er

o -_
l' -

I'

The rotation,
M1':

01"

is similarly related to the moment,

0=-

_ (1 kiM?

if the ratio of the elasticity moduli is taken as

EIG = 2(1' + 1) = 2.0 (using Poisson's ratio, I' = 0.3,
the value commonly used for steel), and it is noted
that J II = 2, and further it is accepted that k, = l.
The total energy of bending and torsional deformation is

l'

Under a torsional moment M t the stored energy is

u, - J;

r 1.3M
Jo 2EI

aU

aMp

Thus the general expressions for the rotations and

displacements can be written:

o = -1
p

EI

[1'
0

kM

aMb Q dl

b -

iJ.M1'

11

kM'

aM' b Q dl
aMp

b --

HISTOHY
01'

= EI1

[1'
o

AND DERIVATION

1"
+1

b
kMb aM
-F Q dl

>-

aM!

1.3.M! aF

Q dl

(A.2)

in which EI/Q represents stiffness.

Figure A.1 illustrates a pipe line in space assumed
completely fixed at one end, point
and free to
rotate and deflect at the other end, point A. The
origin of the standard coordinate system is located
at an arbitrary point, O. The line is considered
weightless, but one member denoted as NF is acted
upon by positive unit. loads, w"" Wy, w., acting in the
three coordinate directions, the total loading being
w",L, wlJL, w.L.
The letters Nand
F indicate
respectively the point nearest and farthest away
from the fixed end 0'.
Due to the applied loading, the pipe will deform,
causing rotations 8", 01/, 8., and deflections 0"" 0IJ'
liz, at the free end, A. These deformations can be
altered by applying the moments ]If' x, M'v, M'.,
and the forces Ji'"" FIJ, F. at the end A, thus making
it possible to represent any degree of constraint.P

a',

y1\

~'"

l/2~P

.:

~ /7
1
1/

z=y/

Y
0

y'

-~~/

/'v,

Fy

M7l)\~y
y...:;..,r
M'

Fz

y...

ji

~.

Uniform loading
in x Direction

Tolall""d

= .... l

FJO. A.I

ANALYSIS

301

3While the member NF is shown in Fig. A.l as an inclined

straight member, the relationships are developed so as to
apply equally well to a curved member. Hence, I{I, the, inclination at P, is treated as a variable.

2By constraint is meant the external relation between the

deformations at the point of reactions, and the reactions
themselves.

FLEXIBILITY

With suitable values of these moments and forces,

the free end can be brought to a position of zero
deformation thereby conforming to the constraint
of a completely fixed end. Moments and forces thus
determined will constitute the reactions of an
anchor upon the pipe. Similarly any system, however complex, can be treated as a fictitious cantilever loaded by known loads and by unknown loads
(reactions) which result from known displacements.
Constraint may be partial or even elastic as long
as its variation can be expressed analytically.
Let P (x, y, z) be an arbitrary point on the member
N F whose length is L. The length of the portion of
the member from F to P is denoted as l and its
inelination'' at P is measured positive in the counterclockwise direction from the positive horizontal
axis and is denoted as 1/1. The coordinates of the
center of gravity of member l are s', s'. z'. The
internal moments in the pipe at the point Pare
functions of the moments and forces at A and the
uniform loading from F to P. For an arbitrary
point between 0' and N the internal moments are
functions of the moments and forces at A and the

eu', Q dl
kM b _aF1'
1

OF PIPING

Uniform loading
in y Diredion
Tolal load= wyl

Uniform loading
in z Diredion
TOlolload=wzl

Pipe line configuration

and loading.

ZA

F.

DESIGN OF I>IPING

302

entire load on L. For a point between F and A, only

the moments and forces at A apply.
The member NF is assigned to-the Z plane; hence
the bending moment M b in the plane of the member
is an M. moment.
The bending moment transverse

M'b

[M'II

- [M'", - FlI(ZA 1111 = [M'x

For another

z)

- FII(ZA' - z)

+ IM'lI -

Fz(XA

to the member, M' b, and the torsional moment, Aft,

are expressable in terms of 111::; and M 1/ moments.
Thus for the point P(x, y, z) located between Nand
F, the bending moment components and the torsional moment assume the following form:

+ F:z;(ZA
+ F.(YA

- x)

- F.(XA

- x)

SYSTEMS

+ F.(YA
+ F",(ZA

- z) - w.l(x'

- x)1 cos1/;

y)

+ wzl(fi'

- y)] sin1/;

- y)

+ w.l(Y'

- y)) cos1/;

- z) - w.l(x'

- x)1 sin 1/;

point (z, y, z) between 0' and N the relations are:

u', = [Mill - F.(XA - x)

MI

+ F",(z .

.J. -

- [M'", - Fl/(zA.. - z)

+ F.(YA

= 1M' x

+ [U'1I

- F:(XA

+ Fz(YA
+ Fx(ZA

FlI(ZA - z)
- x)

The partial derivatives of these moment

placements formulas (eq, A.2) are:

e)

+ w:L(z

- z) - w.L(x - x)] cos1/;

y) - wyL(z - z)

+ w.LCY

- y)1 sin 1/;

y) - wyL(z - z)

+ w:L(ii

- y)) cos if!

- z)

expressions

+ wzL(z

which are required

in the general rotation

iJM,

eu,

allf' 1/

eu',
--=+
a!s[llI

cos1/;

aM'b=O

iJM'o

er,

and dis-

+ cos if!

a.M,

--, =+ sm1/;
aM

I'

aMI -0

eu',
--=

(A.3)

- z) - wzL(x - x)] sin 1/;

aM'
--=0

(A.3)

()ill z

+(ZA -z) cos1/;

aft1,

aF::; = +(Z"I-Z)

aM,
aIt'z

sm 1/;

= +(Y.~ -y) cosif!-

(XA -x)

.
Sill

if!

HISTORY

ANIJ DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY

From eqs. A.2 and A.3 the following equations

EIG",

ANALYSIS

303

are obtained:

=
0'

(1.3cos2'f+ksin2'f)Qdl

+M'",.[

roo

+M'lIJA

(1.3-k)sin'fcos'fQdl

0' .

+F.j~

(z.-l-z) (1.3-k) sin 'f cos 'f Q dl

0'

[(YA-y)(1.3 cos" 'f+k sin2 'f)-

+F=.[

(XA

-x)(1.3-k)

sin 'f cos 'flQ dl

(A.4)

o:

+w;rL
-wvL

INr

(z-z)(1.3-k)

sin f cos 'f Q dl

0'

(z-z)(1.3 cos" 'f+k sin2 'f)Q dl

0'

+WrL'

+Wz.[.N [(ii'-y)

EIOII

cos2 f+k

Wi-y)(1.3

sin2 'f) - (x-x)

(1.3 cos2 'f+k sin2 f)-

(1.3-k) sin f cos 'f)lQ dl

(x'-x)(1.3-k)

sin 'f cosfllQ

dl

=
o
+M':z;l

(1.3-k) sin'fcos'fQdl
o
(k cos" f+ 1.3 sin2 'f)Q dl

+}If' v.[
0'

+p",l

(ZA

-P1l1

'

- Fz

-z)(k cos2 'f+1.3 sin2 'f)Q dl

0'

(zA-z)(1.3-k)sin'fcos'fQdl
0'

[(XII -x) (k cos" 'f+ 1.3 sin2 'f) - (YA -y)(1.3 - k) sin f cos fJQ dl

1
1

0'

-wvL

(z-z)(1.3-k)

sin 'f cos f Q dl

0'

-w:L

[(x-x) (Ie cos2 'f+ 1.3 sin2 f) - (ii-y)(1.3-k)

sin 'f cos 'flQ dl

(ii' -y)(1.3-k)

sin'f cos 'flQl dl

_Wz.[.N [(x' -x)(k

cos" 'f+ 1.3 sin2 'f) -

(A.4)

30t,

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

EIOz

+1I1'z

ro' kQ a;

J.1

1
0'

-F",

k(yA. -y)Q

dl

0'

-W;;L.[,

k(y-y)Q

dl

k(x-x)Q

dl

j,N key' -y)Ql

dl

(A.4)

(0'
+WIILJN
-w",

+WII1.

k(x' -x)Ql

+.M' x

dl

0'
(ZA

-z) (1.3-k)

(ZA

-z)(k

sin'" cos 1/1 Q dl

0'

+M'1I1

cos" ",+1.3 sin2 1/I)Q dl

(0'
-M'zJA

k(y" -y)Q

1
-Fill

dl

0'

+F",

[key:! -y )2+

(ZA

-z)2(k

cos2

"'+

1.3 sin2 1/I)]Q dl

0'

[k(x:l-x){y,,-y)+

(ZA

-z)2(1.3-k)

(ZA

-z)(z-z)(k

0'

[k(Y"l -y) (ii-y)+

+w",L (

IN

-wvL

(A.4)

sin'" cos ",]Q dl

cos"

"'+

1.3 sirr'

"')]Q dl

0'

[k(YA -y) (x-x)+

(z.-l-z)(z-z)

(1.3 - k) sin'" cos

"'}Q dl

-WzL'['
+w'"

l.N

0'

(z...-z)[ (x-x)(k

k(YA -y)

_WlI.N k(y..! -y)(x'

_wz.N

(ZA

cos"

"'+

1.3 sin2

"')

(Y-y)

(1.3-k)

sin 1/1cos 1/IJQ dl

(Ii -y)Ql dl
-x)Ql

-z)[(x'-x)(k

dl

cos21/1+1.3

sin" 1/1) - (y'-y)(1.3-k)

sin 1/1 cos 1/I]Qldl

HISTORY

AND DERIVATION

.,.

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

3415

0'

-M

OF PIPING

(zA-z)(1..3cos2!Jt+ksin2!Jt)Qdl

-M'l/I

0'

sin!Jt cos!Jt Q dl

(Z.-t-z)(1.3-k)

0'

+.M'. .A
[

k(XA -x)Q

dl

0'

-F.,

-=L

[k(X"l -X)(YA -y) + (ZA -z)2(1.3

- k) sin!Jt cos !JtJ()dl

0'

(ZA-z)( (YA -Y )(1.3 cos'' I/t+k sin2 !Jt)- (X"1- x )(1.3 - k) sin !Jtcos1/;]Q dl

.t

(AA)

0'

-WzLl

[k(X,l-X)(Y-Y)+(ZA

-z)(z-z)(L3-k)

[k(x.-t-x)

-z)(z-z)

sin I/tcos I/t]Qdl

"I

+wIIL

INr

-wzL

IN

roo

(x-X)+(ZA

(1.3 cos2 I/t+k sin:.! I/t)]Q dl

cos" !Jt+k sin21/;)-

(L3-k)(x-x)

sin 1/;cos !JtJQdl

cos21/;+k sin2 I/t)- (1.3-k)(x'-x)

sin 1/;cos1/;JQl dl

(Z.4-z)[(y-y)(1.3

-W:rJ;N

k{XA-x)(f/-y)Qldl

+W".[N

k(XA -x)(x'

-x)Ql

N
r
Jp (Z"l-Z)[(Y'

-y)(1.3

-Wz

Elo.

dl

+.M'"

1'

cos21/;+k sin21/;) - (XA -x)(L3-k)

sin 1/;cos 1/;)Qdl

cos2 I/t+1.3 sin2!Jt) - (YA -y)(1.3-k)

sin 1/;cos 1/;JQdl

A [(YA -y)(1.3

1/1 o

-111'

[(XA -x)(k

-F:r

cos" I/t+ 1.3 sin21/;) - (YA -y)(1.3

(ZA -z)[ (X.4-x)(k

-k)

sin 1/;cos I/t]Qdl

0'

-FI/l
+ F.

(ZA -Z)[(YA -y)(1.3

cos2 I/t+k sin2 if;) - (XA -x) (1.3-k)

sin 1/;cos 1/;)Qdl

[(YA - y)2 (1.3 cos2 if;+k sin2 if;) + (x.-l- x)2 (k cos" I/t+ 1.3 sin2 I/t)

,I

-2(XA -X)(YA

-y)(1.3-k)

0'

-W",L.

+w:L

(Z-Z)[(XA -x)

sin!Jt cos I/t]Qdl

(k cos2 !Jt+1.3 sin2 I/t)- (YA -y)

+1.3sin2

!Jt)- (YA -y)(x-x)(1.3-k)

+wz J;N [(YA -y)(y'-y)

- (YA -y)(x'

-x)(1.3-k)

(1.3-k)

cos21/;+k sin2 if;)+(XA -x)(x-x)(k

[(Y.{ -y)(y-y)(1.3

(A.4)

sin I/tcos"'-

(XA -x)(y-y)(1.3-k)

(1.3 cos2 if;+k sin2 if;) +(XA -x)(x'

sin'" cos 1/;-

(XA

-x)(y' -y)(1.3

-x)(k

sin 1/;cos I/t]Qdl

cos2

'"

sin 1/;cos "'JeJ dl

cos2 ",+1.3 sin2!Jt)

- k) sin if; cos 1/;]QIdl

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEl\IS

306
y

With reference to uniform loads:

Wb= -

L.

Wab=

)-------_x

Wu

Fro. A.2

Configuration in the y-plnne.

The integration limits are from the point of load

application (lower limit) to the fixed end, or to the
point where the loading is discontinuous. Thus, the
limits for the moments and forces applied at the free
end are from A to 0'. For the uniform load, two
sets of limits are needed, F to N, and N to 0', since
the load application begins at F, accumulates uniformly to N, and then acts with constant effect to
By inspection of the integrals it is seen that they
all are functions of the following basic expressions
called shape coefficients:

a'.

II

11

= IkQdl

I
=I

g =

(Ie cos2lf;

+ 1.3 sin lf;)Q

+ k sin lf;)Q

dl

(A.5)
(l.3 cos

10.3 -

lf;

dl

k)sinlf;coslf;Qdl

These expressions are conveniently employed in deriving a further series of constants also termed
shape coefficients. With reference to concentrated
loads these are:
Sa

= Ixds

Saa =

Sb

2
X

Uo

ds

= IydS

Sbb

Sab

= fXYdS

y? ds

Uoo

Va

Voo

= Izdu
=

x2 du. -

= IydV
=

!
= + I {Ii'
=-

(Xl -x)l

Wv

Wuv=-

-x)l

ds

du+

-y)l dv-

I (Ii'
f

!x(x'-x)ldu+

-f

y(jjl-y)l

IX(fi'-y)ld.,

Wba=+

-y)l

dq

(Ti' -x)l

dq

!y(X'-x)ldq

dv+

X(y' -y)l

dq

(A.5)

When the equations (formulas A.4) are expressed in

terms of the shape coefficients (formulas A.5) and
the coefficients are presented in tabular form under
their respective unknowns, the results appear as
shown in Table A.1.
By referring to the origin the moments and deflections at the free end in accordance with the following transfer formulas, the simplified form shown
in Table A.2 is obtained.
111'"

= 111" + FllzA

u',

= lll!)

MI.

= Mz

+ F,XA
+ FxYA

FzYA

fi'xZA

(A.6)

- FuIA

xy dg

(A.5)

- IXdg

y2 d -

Y(XI

{iii -y)l ds

(A.7)

- IYdq

Xl!

dg

Note that each of the columns headed by wxL, WilL,

and wzL in Table A.l has been divided into three,
the first two columns representing the moment at
the origin due to the accumulated load, and the Jast
column giving that load. By this arrangement the
recurrence of the shape coefficients can easily be observed in each column having moments and forces
with the same subscripts.

HISTORY AND

DERIVATION OF PIPING

The z-coordinate appearing under some of the integral signs in Table A.I is that of any point of the
member to the origin. As the line-is assigned to the
a-plane, z is a constant equal to the distance of this
plane from the origin. In Table A.2 the constant z
has been replaced by c. to indicate its true significance. Tables A.I and A.2 cover only the coefficients
for members in the e-plane, The corresponding coefficients for members in the z-plane or the y-plane
can be similarly derived or can be readily obtained
by cyclic permutation.
In the foregoing derivation the rotations and the
deflections have been visualized as taking place at
the free end A, the end 0' being fixed. These rotations and deflections may also be regarded as the
differences between deformations
at the free end
and those at the fixed end and expressed as follows:

=
0. =
li*", =
0ll

ANALYSIS
y

307

y'

l..-.

-L_x

FIG. A.3 Auxiliary coordinate system used in

integration of shape coefficients.

tions whose constant terms are the differences of

deformations of the ends of all the piping included.
The integration of the shape coefficients for the
partial configurations discussed above is facilitated
by establishing integration
limits so as to break
down the configuration into its basic shapes, henceforth referred to as members.
Practically, only two
shapes are encountered: straight runs and circular

0llA - OliO'
OrA - 0.0'
0*,;A - 0*::;0'

0* 1/ = 0* lIA
li*.

FLEXIBILITY

0*1/0'

O*.A - 0*.0'

Consider next
y-plane as shown
ation of the line
end A fixed and
of the equations

+ y,tOzA
= OvA + ZAOxA
=
=

OrA

OrA

+ XAOl/A

- XAOzA -

+ yo,O:o'
(Ol/O' + zo,Ozo'

- YAO",A -

(0.0'

ZAOl/A -

(0",0'

the pipe line AB which lies in the

in Fig. A.2 and which is a continu0' A of Fig. A.I. Designating the
the end B free, the constant terms
would be:

0ll

0IlB - 0IlA

Oz

OzB -

5*11

= 5*1/1) - 5*IIA

(A.9)

OzA

For the combined configuration 0'B, the difference in deformation

between the ends 0' and B
would simply be the sum of the deformations of the
partial configurations, 0' A and AB.

+ xo'Ovo'

ZO,OyO')

xo,Ozo')

YO,O",o')

(A.S)

arcs. If the integrals are evaluated for each of these

shapes taking dimensions, locations, and orientations
as variables,
sets of formulas are obtained which
permit the various shape coefficients or members to
be computed by simple substitution.
Shape coefficients for a group of members are simply summations
of those for the individual members.
Since the principle of cyclic permutation
permits
ready transformation
of formulas from one plane
to another, the integrations for concentrated loads"
are presented only for members in the z-plane. The
integrations are simplified by using an auxiliary coordinate system x', v', as shown in Fig. A.3 which
indicates the following transformations:

(A.IO)

x = a

Hence, the system of equations expressing the deformation

differences between 0' and 13 can be
found by adding the systems of equations for the partial configurations. In a like manner it can be seen
that similar operations may be performed for partial configurations in the z-plane.
Addition of the equations consists of adding the
coefficients of the respective terms as indicated in
Table A.3. The summation coefficients A""" A"'lI' etc.
thus determined are coefficients of a system of equa-

y ::::b

+ y'

0"=8,,A -8",0,+0",8 -O.,,{ =8x8 -0",0', etc.

x'

(A. 11 )

where a and b are the respective horizontal and vertical coordinates of the midpoint of a straight member and of the radius center of a circular member.
The distance of the plane of the member from the
origin is designated c, if the plane is a a-plane, c'" if
an z-plane, and ClI if a y-plane.
4Sepamlc integrations are presented for uniform loads since
the axis of load application changes for each case considered.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

308

Table A.I.
"liz

1'

dD

0
' dq

M'u

M',

dq

du

' d.!

10'
A

0'

1
1
II

1
0'

(ZA -z)dq

0'

(zA-z)du

0
+ 1 A'

(d.!b-YA ds)

0'

-1

0'
-.[

(zA-z)dv

(d.!o-XA

ds)

(ZA -z) dD

10'

(z,!.-z)dq

0'

II '

(d~o-y,!. dHxA.

dq)

II ' (dUo-tA

du]

d.!)

(d.!a -tA

_10

[d.!bb-2YA d.!b

d.!+(ZA_Z)2

-1

0'

(zA-z)dq

F.

Fu

du+yA. dq)

A ' (d.!b-YA d~)

+YA2

-1

-1
1

(ZII-Z) du

-1 0'

(ZA-Z)dq

II

0'

+1 A'

10'
1
1

Fz

General Equations

(d.!ab-YA

d.!o

-XA d.!b+tAYA th
+(ZA _z)2 dq)

0
0
+ 1 A'

-XA dU+YA dq)

0'

0'
[d.!ob-Y'!'

-x,!. d.!h+X'!'YA ds

1
0'

(d.!oo-2xA d.!. +

d.!o +1

(ZA -z)(dUo

+XA2 d.!+('-A _z)2 dD]

(ZA -z)(dDo

-YA dHXA

dq)

+(ZA _z)2 dq]

0
- 1 A'

(doo-YA dD

+1

+X,A dq)

0'

+YA dq)

1
0'

0'

+.

(dUo-XII du

(ZA -z)(duQ

(ZA -z)(dvo

(dUoo+dvoo

-2y,!. dv. -2xA dUo

-YA dOHA dq)

-XA dU+YA dq)

0
+ 1 A'

+YA2 do+x,!.2 du -2xAYA

dq)

Table A.2.
Mr

1 1
1
0'

dv

' dq

II

0
+1 '

II

'
dq

-1
-1
1 +1
1
0

du

'd.!

_1

0
' c,dq

-1

0
' crdu

c,dq

c,du

d.!b

'

d.!b

+1

1
1 +1

0'

C,dD

0
' dOD

II

+1

-l'd.!u

-1

(d.!ab

.1

+r,2 dq)

0'

-1

0'

-1

c,dq

+.[

d"o

0'
dq

-.

+ .[,0' du
N

+.

ds.

(d.!.b

-t'

+IN

c,duo

0'

0'
(ds cc

-1

c,dco

+.

ds

+.

d.!b

+.L

0'
'

"du

+.

c,dq

-.

d.!b

o
(d.!/)h

+c/du)

---.o

0'

c, du

0'

0'

'

d.!.

-J:

0'
(d.!ab

-I-C,2 dq)

0'
-1

c,dq
O

duu

+c,2 dD)

c,duo

Frw-wzL

M,w- -FrlDii

0'

-1

0'

duo

-1

with Moments

+c,2 dq)

0'
crdq

0'

MII\O~+F;=i

0'

C,dD

o
(d.!bO

+c,2 du)
0'

+.

0'

1
0'

0'

F,

II

0'

Fr
0'

!of,

Mil

General Equations

c,dro

-L

0'

+dvoo)

(du,,,,

+L

0'
duo

-.

c,du.

HISTORY

AND DERIVATION

OF PIPING

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

309

for a Pipe Line in the z-Plane

1L~L

...L
...L
-L
L (

-L
L
-.L (

0'

(i-~)dc

0'

{i-z)du

N ' (i-z)

0'

-.

d3bb-jj d3b

-xd3b+XYA

+(ZA -Z){Z -z) dql

-XA d.!b+XAfj
+(ZA -z)(i

+.

ru

(duo-xdu+ijdq)

(i -z)(du.

-XA dU+YA dq)

[ru.n -XA

+.

d3.

ru

-Constant

+ IN

dll',

+Elq,~

+ IN

dwu

+EI<t>v

+ [,N

dlCc

dWn

+EIq"

0'
+ [,N

(ZA -z)(duo

(dltbb

+ [,N

-YA dWb)

o:
+

(ZA -z)(d~o

+ IN

(ZA -z) dU)"

+EIo,

-IN

(ZA -z) dw.

+Elov

(dll'uo

+EIo,

-YA dwo)

-----

[,N

-ydo+xdq)

(dlCob

(dWbo

+XA dlCb)

[,N

(dwoo

+XA dwo)

del

o
(i -z)(dvo

-YA doHA

+ [,N

-xdu+ydq)

O'

+(ZA -z)(i-z)

0'

+.

d~

-x ru.+XA.X

-2) dq1

w,

[ruao-YJI dSa

-IIA d3b+fjyA. d3

[d3ob -jj d3.

dq)

0'

+(ZA -z)(i

-L

-s dHX

Wu

0'

dq

.-

0'

0'

(d~o

d3o-xds)

-z) dul

0'

w~

0'

(rub -fj d3)

-L
L

0'

(z-z)dq

w,L

wuL

1N

0
'
(duoo+dvoo

-x duo -y dvo -XA du.

dq)

IN

+YA dll'. -XA dll'u)

-YA dCo+XAX dU+!lAydv

-YAX dq -XAY dq)

and Forces Referred to the Origin

M"",= -Fuwi

w"

Mzw-

+FuwZ

' d~

II'

+.
.0'

0'
0

+L

dq

+1

T1N

dlCb

---+

11'
f'

t:dq

dU-b. +

N
+c,2 dq)

dvo

dq

' du

IN
p

Mvw= -F,,,,'i

+.

0'
dq

0'

dw.

dq
0'

du

F,w=IC,L

-.

0'

+.

0'

(chon

0'

c, dv.

IV -l()' -1 -.
1' +LO' -.
_LO'
+.
c,dq

dWob

i-

(,du

+ IN

dWa.

~Y

dvo

duo

[,N

dio;

= +EIO,

dwu

- +EIOv

~ +EIO,

(,du.

_.[,N

"dw"

- +E/o',

c,dvo

+.N

"dw,.

- +En"

(duao

+ .[,N

dw".

- +RIo*.

0'

duo

II'

+dDoo)
'-----

Constant

0'

II'

+1'

+ IN

0'

c,dq

c, dt

f'

dvo

W,

0'

(ruGb

0'

c,dt

0'

Cz

0'

rub

L
L

II'

N
+c,2 de)

M"", - +F,tcY

(,du

.r-

-. lO' -.
-----L -r- +.
-L
-.
0'

-+- .[,N

ru'

0'

dlCbb

Wu

0'

F uw-wvL

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

310

10

....
~

-tlc

'<>

it

I~

~;

"
.,1 "
1
"

'"

..

.. .....~ .,..,~ "..,~

~
J
+
+

"

J
+

I~
I~

~~3

+++

.
o 513 51"

o ~ ~

++

..

;s

+++

I
9

""..
9

"t...

~l

't
..,

..~

..'"

t:::l

t:::l

111

. .,

liI 51

++

++

.. ..
" .. ..
+++
"I
~

<:I

"

~ 0

;2

.:

...'"

+++

..

-o

.....

"

1:100:-

00

+++
o

.. ..,"

~:f
+1

"

..

I~

!f

'"

I~
.. I~

..
" ..
c

.. .

"

..,1~ "1'" "I.,

"

I~ I
0

.,.
"'"
"1 e e
..,., "
..,'" ..,'"

~;

..
-s

..
d,'
+

~~
I

..

"

..

.0

.., .,

.
c

"

J+

",,00

+
..

..

~I ~I ~1 J.
+

~~

.. .. "
U

.0

...

+++

o
()

II

,J
I

.:
I

~
I

..

... ., 0
+++

;S

+++

~
+

Co

..

"" ..,'" '"

+++

..

"",'

:8

~~~.J
r I 1
+

....

:8 8

.,

",'"

;., C'~

" ....
+++

.." "... '"

+++
..g "
+++

C'4HC'oI~

;:s

~I~

++t
~ g

..0

::s" .."

C4j:

~
!:II

...I "I .,1~ +

1

.0

~4

~~~

...
~

HISTORY

AND DERIVATION OF PIPING

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

311

The shape coefficient expressions for concentrated loads become:

s

Sll

Saa

= IkQdl

I
=I
=

kQx dt

= as

kQx2 dl

, =

where

S' a

+ 2as'a + S'aa

a2s

f
+
+
=f
=
+ + +
=f
=I
+
f f =
+
') = f
+
=I
f =
+
=f
+f
I =
=J
f
=

kQxy dl

Sab

b2s

2bs' b

abs

as' b

(k COS2.r

x du -

1.3

kQ (x')2 dl

kQy' dl

S' bb

bs' a

where s' ab

S' Ilb

= J'kQx'v' dl

Vo

+ Voo

where u'oo

y dv -

x2 du

sin .r)Q dl

au - bq

u'

where u'

x' du -

Iy'

dv -

y' dq

k sin" y,)Q dl

z dq

y2

CX')2 du -

v'oa = ICy')2dV

(A.12)

y dq

(1.3 cos2 y,

Uoo

(1,3 - k) sin.r cos.r Q dl

Uo

kQy2 dl

kQx' dl

where s' aa

where s' b

Sbb

bv - aq

xy dq

d - 2

v' 0

a'.!u

where v'o

+b v
2

- 2abq

Ix'

dq

+ 2au' + 2bv' + u' + v'

0

00

00

x'y' dq

IX'Y'

dq

The angle.r in the general expressions is a variable

angle measured from the positive horizontal axis to
the tangent at any point P of the member. The
angle a, constant for any given member, is the angle
between the positive horizontal axis and the point
of tangency at F. For a straight member, .r is constant and equal to 0:. For a circular member, y, is
variable over the length of the arc. In the formulas
which follow y, is replaced by a for straight members;
for circular members, it is replaced by (0: + 4 and
the limits of integrals are from 0 to <1>, The angle

notation for circular

Fig. A.4.

members is illustrated

a+tp

FIG. A.4

Angle notation for circular members.

In

312

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

.;....

y'

.!""----;----'''-y.

x'

I)
(t - I)

x' = (~ -

cos a

u' =

sin a

FIG. A.S Integration of shape coefficients for

concentrated landing of straight members.

members as shown in Fig. A.5, the integrations

For straight
s

Sf"

s'"a

s' b

S' bb

.[l" kQ dt

=.\Q(~

=
=

r
"0

lL
10

= .[

(!:!. _ l)2 cos

kQ

dl

kQ (~ -

l) sin o dl

(L'2 - )2

kQ

sin a dl

kQ cos2 a L3
12

(!:.2 - l)2 sin a cos

kQL

-l)cosadl

s' u~ = [\Q
q

are as follows:

L3

= kQ

sin2 a 12

a dl = kQ sin a cos a L3

12

[L (1.3 _

k) sin a cos a Q dt = (1.3 - k) sin a cos a QL

.[L (k

,0

11 :=

'II'.

:=

'1/' no

,[I' (~ [I,
U

l' :=

"',, =
11'0" =

COS2

[L

+ 1.3 sin" a)Q

l) cos a(k cos a

(!~- l)2
2

.il" (~ -1"(~- ly

No/{:: n'"o

+ k sin

+ k sin2

sin2 a(1.3 cos2 a

+ 1.3 sin
dl

ex

a)Q dl

+ k sin"

a)QL

_1L (~-

1.3 sin2 a)Q dl -

a)Q dl = (1.3 cos2

l) sin a(1.3 cos" a

+ v'oo = kQ

(k cos2 a

+ 1.3 sin2 a)Q

cos2 a(k cos2 a

(1.3 cos2 a

()

dl

rJo L (!:_2 -

+ k sin

l)2 sin2 a cos2 a(1.3 - k)Q dl

kQ cos2 a L3
12

a)QL

-11.(~ -

a)Q dt

l) sin" a cos a(1.3 - k)Q dl

l) sin a cos2 a(1.3 - k)Q dl

-.!- (~ - ly

sin2 a cos2 a(1.3 - k)Q d!

kQ sin a ~;

L:!
12

.............................

_._------------------

HISTORY

AND DERIVATION

OF PIPING

For circular members shown in Fig. A.6 the variable

s

s'" =

.~ kQR d~

f.~

kQR3 sin2

ANALYSIS

is changed and the integrations

t'

d~ = kQR2[COSa - cos (a + ifJ)]

+~) d~ = kQR3

(a

313

nrc as follows:

kQRifJ

.~ kQRz sin (a + 4

S'aa

FLEXIBILITY

[~

sin 2(0:

+ :) -

sin 2aJ
I = Ill{'
dl = Rd

kQR3

'>

S'ab

= -

1
o

u =

.4>[k

kQR [

u'o

kQR3 sin (0: +

(1.3 - k) sin (0: +~) cos (0:

OOS2

v'o

(0: +~)

+ L3 sin

sin 2(0:

4>

'2 +

1~

[k sin (0:

+ 4

(a

<1

ifJ

'2 +

1.3QR [

-1<1> {k cos

+ ~) t- k sin
sin 2(0: + 4l) -

= ('I> [k

cos2 (a

= l.3QR3

[~+

,10

Il sin (0:'
'{J)
-Reos (a + rp)

1-'10. A.ti lutegrution of

shape
coefficionts for
concentrated landing of
circular members.

ifJ) - cos 20:1

k)QR

y'

+ ifJ)

- cos 20:

d~
QR [ifJ

'2 -

(a

sin 2(0: + <1 4

sin 20:]

+ ~)

d~

+ ~)1QR3 d~

(a

sin

cos 2(0:

1.3 sin" (a

<I>

(cos 2(a

= - (1.3 -

(a

1.3QRZ[cos 0: - cos (0:

+ 4\

+ ~)
= 1.3QR3

sin 2(a

4)
[

'2 -

+ <I,)

sin 2a]

)1QR drjJ

20'] + kQR [4l'2 _

+~) sin2 (0: +~)

<1

+ 1.3

+ 1.3 sin

= 1.3QR2[sin a - sin (0:

v'oo

+ ~)lQR

+~) +

+ ~)cos"

~)QR d~

4 cos2 (0: + ~)]QR2

(a

(d

sin 20:]

cos" (a

- k) sin" (0:

= .4> [1.3 cos"

<1

(0:

cos" (0: +~)

- k) sin (a

14> {k sin
+ (1.3

!J

cos (o:'+~) d~ = --

4'

+ (1.3
U'on

(/

X'

+ L3 cos''

(a

sin 2(0:

+ ifJ)

sin 20:]

+~)

(1.3 - k) sin

(0: +~) cos (a

+ <I]QR2 de;,

+ <1]

sin2 (0: +~)

1.3 cos" (0: + 4

s_i_n_2~(0:___:+_:!....)
_-_s_i_n_2_0:
]

(1.3 - k) sinz (0:

+ 4

cos (a

+ ~)lQR3

d<l>

314

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

Table A.4.
Member

in e-Plane

Shape Coefficient Expressions for Uniform Loading

"

Member

= +J

=+

Woo

= - jX(X'

JV(X'

z-Wind
Wb = -

= +j

Wbb

=-

z-Wind
Wo

+J

Wab

= + Jx(z'

- x)l ds

Waa

=-

x(ij' - y)l' ds

J y(fj' - y)l' ds

Wb

=-

Wbo :=

Wbo

tv" = - J (x' - x)l du

+j
=+

- y)ldv

- jex'

- x)ldq

=-

=-

w ..

=-

=+

j Y(i/ - y)l' ds

Weight

(wu)

=-

j(i'

- x)l' ds

Wba

=+

jy(z'

J x(i' - x)l' ds

Wbo

== - j zeit - z)l ds

(x' - X)l' cis

(i - z)l du

w"

- x)ldv

=-

+j

(x' - x)l dq

j(x'

- z)lds

- z)lds

x-Wind (w:)

(wv)

-jW-Z)ldq

=-

- y)l' AA

Wb

+j
W.

y)l' cis

w"

=+

W-

y)l du

(Z' - z)l dq

(Z' - z)l dv

- jw

- y)ldq

w uv = - jY(f/

- y)ldu

jZ(i'

- z)l du

- x)ldq

+Jx(Z'

- z)ldq

- y)l dv

-Jx(x'-x)ldv

- J z(i' - z)l dv

+Jz(x'

+j

JX(X'

- x)ldu

+ Jy(X'
- Jy(y'

+J

Wao

Weight

(i/ - y)l dq

J(y'

J z(z' - z)l' ds

(w,)

(w.)

= + J (1/ = + jz(Y'

+ jZ(X'

s-Wind (w.)

Wa

Wob

=-

z-Wind

- z)l' de

z-Wind

(w%)

(wz)

(z' - z)l' d.~

- x)lds

J (fj' - y)l' ds

Wbo

(wu)

(:;' - x)l ds

Wob

tv".

)-.

y
Weight

in x-Plane
z

)-,

w.

Member

)-,
Wa

in y-Plane

x(ij' - y)l dq

W ...

- x)ldq

+J

z(y' - y)l dq

y(z' - z)l dq

HISTORY

AND DERIVATION

OF PIPING

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

315

The following symbols are introduced for the trigonometric functions appearing in the above shape
coefficients.
'-

= cos 0: - cos (ex+ <I')

Caa = 0.5<1> O_25[sin2(0: + <I
Cb = sin ex- sin (ex+ <1')
Cbb = 0.5<I>
+ 0.25[sin 2(0: + <I
Ca

Cab =

0.25[cos 2(0: +

<1

sin 2ex]

Vertical Axi.

(A.13)

sin 20:]

cos 20:]

Expressed in these symbols the shape coefficients

are:5
s

+ Cbb)

IcQR(caa

q = (k -

= kQRcf.>
S/a

S'aa
S'b

= kQR ca

u' 0 =

= kQR3Caa

u'

kQR2Cb

00

s'bb = kQR3Cbb
s' ab = kQR3cab

v' 0
V'

00

1.3QRZc

1.3QR3caa

= QR(1.3cbb

+ kcaa)

L3QR2Cb

= 1.3QR3Cbb
(A.I4)

The integration of the shape coefficients for uniform loads is a somewhat more complicated process.
The integrations to be performed are set down in
Table A.4, having been obtained for the a-plane
directly from Formulas A.5 and for the other planes
derived from a-plane formulas by cyclic permutation.
A variation of this procedure is introduced regarding the wind constants. Whereas the total weight
of an element is always the product of the unit load
and the length of the member, the total wind load
is considered to be the product of the unit load and
~As stated, the proportionate influence of bending and torsion on the various constants can be seen. For computation
purposes, however, it is noted that Caa
ebb = <I> and accordingly s = kQR<I> and u'oo
v'ao = 1.3QRJ'I>.

FIG_

A.7

The angle

01

for a straight member.

+ kCbb)

u = QR(1.3caa

1.3)QRcab

the projected length of the member. This is taken

into account in the final shape coefficients for members in planes not perpendicular to the wind and is
recognized in Table A.4 by the substitution of l' for
l in the cases affected, where l' is the projection of l
in the direction of the wind.
The shape coefficients for uniform loading are dependent on the end from which the integration proceeds, thus making it necessary to establish a reference direction which is always arbitrarily chosen to
be from the free end to the fixed end. Direction is
indicated by an arrow pointing toward the end of
the member denoted N which is nearest the fixed
end and which point is the upper limit of integration
for the member. The lower limit is the end denoted
F, farthest away from the fixed end.
The angle exfor a straight member is defined as
the angle between the horizontal axis and the member. It is considered positive if it is generated by
counterclockwise rotation of the member FN about
point N, where N denotes the end of the member
nearest the fixed end. This convention is illustrated
in Fig. A.7.

F~r weight loading of straight members in the z-plane as shown in Fig. A.8 integrations of the shape coofficiants are as follows:
Wa

Wab

f.

l2
kQ - cos exdl
026

= +bwa

where w' ab

+ w'

ao

[,
=1

l2

kQ"2

L3
kQ -- cos 0:

(L)
sin 0:cos 0: "2 -

l dl

24

Waa

-awa

where w

aa

= -

sill 0:cos a

(L)

l2
kQ .- cos" a _.-- l

022

y "" b

+ L2" sin a -

__

Z = a

+ -L2 cos

01 -

01 -

FIG. A_8 Integration of share coefficients for

weight of straight members in the a-plane.

W'aa

If.

+ L-2 cos

"
~----------~~

L4

= - kQ -

x = a

dl

L4
kQ - cos" ex
24

I cos

I sin
I

0:

cos

:n6

DESIGN OF PIPING

SYSTEMS
b +2"smaL.

X=

z ... a

FIo. A.9

For a member

.l2
0

= -

W"

-kQ

w~

+ L- sin

Z' ~ a

+-

COB

I .

a -

- filO a

2
I

cos a - - cos a

of shape coefficients for weight of straight members in the y"plane.

er.+ 1.3 sin" er.)Q dl

1Ll22
0

sin er.(l.3 - k) sin er.cos er.Q d1

COSer.

L2
l2

sin er.(l.3 cos2 a

+ k sin

er.)Q dl -

1L122

cos er.(l.3 - k) sin er.cos er.Q dt

'1'
6"
siner.

+kQ
W"v

LS

X' = b

- l

in the y-plane as shown in Fig. A.9:

2 cos er.(k cos

6"

+ L-2 cos a

Integration

I am
.

= +aw" -

bui;

+ w' uv

r (L'2-1) [2'2 cos2a(kcos2er.+1.3sin2er.)Qdl+

r (L2- ) 12

wherew'uv=-

Jo

Jo

'2sinacosa(1.3-k)siner.cosaQdl

L
y=a+-cosa-Icosa
2

L .
z=b+-sma2
Q

b
y

i' = b

'---------'-...__-y
FIG. A.IO

Integration

+ L-2 sm. a

= -

Wba

. l2
kQ - sin
()
2

-aWb

W ba

+bWb

Wbb

where w' bb

kQ

+ w'

bb

= Jo

= -

dl

= - J(Q -

Sill

er.

W'ba
L

where

L'J .

0:

r
J

e2' sin.

0:

cos

kQ ~ sin2
2

0:

0:

(L)'2 -

(!: - I)
2

I .
Sill a
2

- -

of shape coefficients for weight of straight members in the z-plnne.

For a member in z-plane as shown in Fig. A. 10:

Wb

I'sma

1 dl = -kQ

= kQ /}

sin2

dl

24

24 sin

0:

0:

cos

0:

HISTORY

AND DERIVATION

OF PIPING

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

317

Vcr1ic.at Axis

V.rtical Axis

f
FIG.

A.I I

The angle or for circular members

coun terclockwise.
FIG.

For a circular member the direction may be either

counterclockwise, or clockwise as the member is
viewed in its working plane. For the counterclockwise direction the angle if; in the integrals for the
shape coefficients is replaced by (a + ) where a is
a constant angle, positive if measured from the negative vertical axis in the counterclockwise direction.
The angle is a variable, positive in the counterclockwise direction. See Fig. A.II.
For the clockwise direction the angle if; in the integrals for the shape coefficients is replaced by

A.12

The angle or for circular members clockwise.

(a - ) where a is defined in the same way as for

the counterclockwise direction, and q, is a variable
angle positive in the clockwise direction (Fig. A.12).
It should be noted that in the integration of the
shape coefficients for concentrated loading the counterclockwise direction is used. If the clockwise direction is used the numerical values for the shape
coefficients will be the same although the formulas
will differ.

I
x
y

=
=
=

X' =

fo" z dl
_0 __

= a

+ R cos or -

fo" dl

Rrp
dl = R drp
a + R sin (or + rp)
b - R cos (ex + "")

COB

(or

+ 1")

I"

L--------------------4 __ ~x
FIG. A.13

Counterclockwise

integration of shape coefficients for weight of circular members in the a-plane.

Integrations of the shape coefficients for weight loading applied to circular members are as follows, beginning
with a member in the a-plane taken in the counterclockwise direction, as shown in Fig. A.13:

1<f> kQR lcos a3

Wa

W"b

= +bwa +w' ab

where w' ab

-i<f> kQR4[cos a +kQR4

waa

cos (a+)

{~

[1 -

sin (a+) d1>=kQR3{ <1>[cos

(a+<I+ cos a]-2(sin

cos (a

cos 2(;

+ )

- sin (a

(a+eI - sin all

+ )] cos (a + ) d<f>

+ eI] + '~[sin2(a + <I

sin 2a) - cos alsin (a

+ 4

sin a]}

= -awa + w'""

where w'''e>

-if.>

= kQR4

kQR4[cOS a - cos (a

{~[eI>-

sin 2(a

+ 4)

+ )
-

- 1> sin (a

i[cos 2(a

+ )] sin (a + q,) d

+ 4

cos 2a]

+ cos e[cos

(a

+ 4

cos all

318

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

l = R",
dl "" II d",
x =a
R sin (a - "')
y = b - R cos (0: - "')

t"

"

Jo

x'

X dl

"" a

= --

JoY dl

cos (0: - "') + R _-,--_:....:..__-

cos a:

'f'

~----------------~~--x
FIG. A.14

Clockwise integration

of shape coefficients for weight of circular members in the a-plane.

For a-plane members taken in the cl.ockwise direction

Wa

.[1> kQR3[COS

(0: - ) - cos 0: - sin (a - )] d

- kQR3 {1>[cos(a - 4
Wab

W'ab

-1<1> kQR4[COS
-kQR4

Waa

= -awa

where:

+ cos 0:] + 2[sin

(a - <I

sin a]1

+ w' ab

= +bwa

where;

(Fig. A.14):

(a - ) - cos 0: - sin (a - )] cos (0: - ) d

{~[1-

cos 2(; -

<IJ -

i[sin2(a

<1

sin 20:] +coso:[sin

(a - 4 - sinal}

+ w' aa

wlaa = -

= kQR

kQR1[cos (a - ) - cos a - sin (a - )] sin (a - ) d

{~[<I) + sin 2(a

- <I]

~[cos 2(a - <I -

cos 2a]

cos a[cos (a - <I

cos

l}

Note: The above expressions for wa, Wi ab, Wi aa in the clockwise direction may be obtained by substituting
- 4> for +4> in the corresponding expressions in the counterclockwise direction.
This rule is valid for all shape
coefficients for uniform loading. Hence, only the integration for the counterclockwise direction will be shown
for y-plane and z-plane members.

HISTORY

AND DERIVATION

OF PIPING

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

319

l = R'(J
dl = Rdl{!
= b - R cos (ex + I{!)
Z = (1 + R sin (ex
I{!)

(IP xdl
Jo

x'

fa

b
x

.r:

ex - sin (ex + "')

+ R sin
--___;,;_:___:_.:...:_

= b

= --

dl

I{!

zdl

i' = __

(1

+ R cos ex-

cos (ex

foP dl
FIG. A.15

Counterclockwise

integration

of shape coefficients for weight of circular members in the 1/-pln.ne.

For y-plane members taken in the counterclockwise direction

WU

== -

''"

+ 1<1> QR3[sin
= -QR3 {Ie

+ 1.3
WU

= +QR3

+awu

where: w

uv

+ 1>cos

+ 1')

(a

+ 4

QR3[cos a - cos (a

{k

[~sin
(a

0:

+ cos

+ 4') + cos

bur;

+ w'

COS

(0:

- 4> sin (0:

+ 1.3

+ 1/][1.3

+ 4')

1.25 cos a

sin (a

cos (0:

+ 1/]
+ 4

cos (a

+ 1/ + k sin

+ 4

dl/>

d4>

+ 2<IJ}
(a

cos (a

+ 2<I J + 1.3

0.25 cos (0:

(a

2<IJ

- k) sin (a

+ 0.25

sin a - 0.25 sin (a

cos" (a

+ 4](1.3

<I - 0.75 cos 0: -

(0:

+ 4

+ 1/] dl/>
+ 1/ d4>

[~sin

0:

+ 2<I J}

{k [cos
a
cos (0: + 24J
-2- - cos (0: + 4 +
2

a.

1.3[ -2- - 4>SIIl (o:

+Jt"
QR4
o

+ 0.25

+ 4

sin

UV

= - Jr;:
QR4 Sill
o

(a

(a

+ 1/ + 1.3

- k) sin (a

+ 4 + 1.25

- sin (a

+ 4 + I/> cos

QR3[sin a - sin (a

+ <I> sin
Wuo

sin a

(Fig. A.15):

cos2 (a

+ 4](1.3

(a

+ 4 + 0.75

- sin (a

+ I/][k

- I/> sin (a

+ 4 + I/> cos

a - sin (a

[~cosa

[~cos

1'"
-1'

= +

+ 1/

QR3[cos a - cos (a

+ "')

I{!

cos (0:

sin 0:
[ -2-

+ q.,)

+ 1/ Jlk [sin
-2-

+ tP cos

(0:

+ 1/

0:

cos (0:

+ 24J1

- sin (0:
sin (0:

Jd4>

+ 4 + sin

+ 21/>)J} dl/> =

(0:

+ 24J

1.3QR4

[<I>2

"2 + cos

<I> -

320

DESIGN

OF I)IPING SYSTEMS

R",

y '" a

z =
z

1.'

FlO. A.16

-----+~--y

Counterclockwise

integration

(0:
b - R cos (0:

fa
= --o

= b

Jo" dl

~--

" z dl

b
(I

dl

+ R sin

R d",

+ "')
+ "')
.

Sin

Bin

+ R -----__0: -

(0: + '"
---.:.___:__:..:.

or

of shape coefficients for weight of circular members in the z-plane,

For z-plane members taken in the counterclockwise direction (Fig. A.16):

Wb

Wbu

where

-l~

+ ) + cos (a + )] d
-kQR3{<J>[sin (a + ip) + sin aJ + 2[cos (a + <1')- cos all
kQR3 [sin a - sin(a

-aWb

10' ba =

W'ba

1+

kQR4[sin

-kQR4

where w' bb

<I>[
{"2 1

a -

sin

+kQR

kQR4 [sin a - sin(a

+ ) + cos(a + <IJsin(a + ) dip

+ cos 2(a2 + <IJ.

1~

(a

{~[eI' + sin 2(a

~[Slll

2(a

+ <1

..

Sin

2a]

+ Sill a (cos(a + ip)

- cos aJf

+ ) + cos(a + )] cOs(a + ) dq,

+ <},)] + ~[cos 2(a + <I') -

cos 2aJ

+ sin a [sin

(a

+ <),)-

.................

sill aJ~

--.-..------.~

HISTORY

AND DERIVATION

OF PIPING

As mentioned previously in connection with the

formulas of Table AA, the effective wind load on a
member is taken as the unit wind 'load multiplied by
the length of the member's projection on a plane
perpendicular to the wind direction. If the working
plane of the member is perpendicular to the wind,
the wind load is simply wI. The shape coefficients
are then the same as those already found for weight
loading, identified as Wu, Wv, and Wuv. For members in planes parallel to the wind, the wind load
is wI' where l' represents the projected length of
the member on a plane perpendicular to the wind
direction.

where

FLEXIBILITY

[L kQ (% -

W'bb

ANALYSIS
l) ~ sin

The upper
(0
(11"

signs apply when sin

For straight members in the y-plane acted upon

formulas apply because of cyclic permutation.

lOb

l' = l cos a when - ~

2

-L~-+x

It

11"

= -I cos a when 2

< .".
< 271'

z = b
z =a

l2
kQ - sin2

3
a

dl

= a

ii'

= TkQ L sin2
()

---

<

<~
2

3".

<a <-

+ HL
+ HI-

- 21) sin a
- 21) cos ex
HI- - 1) cos a

FIG. A.IS Integration of shape coefficients for straight

members in the y-plane acted upon by z-wind.

A.17
Integration of shape coefficients for straight
members in the a-plane acted upon by z-wind,

=L

L/2

is positrve

Ct

by wind along the z(horizontal) axis, the identical

Ct

Formulas for calculating shape coefficients Wb,

Wbb, and Wba are now derived for a straight member
in the a-plane, acted upon by a wind parallel to the
x (horizontal) axis as shown in Fig. A.17.
The relationships for 1', fj', and x accompanying
Fig. A.17 are readily derived therefrom. The two
functions expressing
are necessary since the unit
load W is considered positive and thus the total load
wZ' and the length Z' itself must remain positive for
any value of Ct.
Performing the integrations as indicated by the
formulas of Table A.4, yields the following results:

dl

< a < 11"); the lower signs when sin Ct is negative

< Ct < 211").

FIG.

Ct

Ct

l/2

I' = +1 sin ex when 0 < a

= -I sin a when.". < ex
X = (1. + HL - 21) cos a
y = b + HI- - 21) sin a
ii' = b + HI- - I) sin a

L4
kQ - sin3
24

)'

L-

321

For straight members in the y-plane acted upon

by a wind parallel to the x(vel'tical) axis, shown in
Fig. A.18, it is necessary to derive the coefficients
Wa, Waa, and Wab
Wa

Wab

lL

kQ ~ cos2

026

= +bwa

where w' "b

t:

24

Cla

kQ L3 cos2 a

(L )

sin Ct cos"

cos"

Ct

Ct

dl

Ct

W'"a

Ct

where w'

kQ ~ - 1 l2
'2 sin

L4
= -awa

dl

+ W' ao

=F kQ Waa

Ct

[L kQ (~

- l) ~ cos

Ct

dl

L4
where w'

kQ -

b" = [L

kQ (~ -

L'1
= TkQ -

24

Z) ~

cos Ct sin2

Ct

cos Ct sin a dl

24

cos3 Ct

The upper signs apply when cos Ct is positive

(-11"/2 < Ct < 11"/2); lower signs when cos Ct IS
negative (11"/2 < Ct < 311"/2).
For straight members in the z-plane acted upon
by wind along the a-axis, the identical formulas apply.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

322

FIG.

A.19

System of quadrants

for circular members.

The shape coefficients of circular members are given below. The signs to be used in the expressions which
follow are dependent upon the location of the arc R4> in a system of quadrants which is oriented from the
negative vertical axis as shown in Fig. A.19.
In deriving the shape coefficient formulas for circular members subjected to in-plane wind, the case of the
member in the a-plane acted upon by a wind parallel to the z-axis is considered first. Figure A.20 shows such
a member set up for integration in a counterclockwise direction.
y

I' =
dl'
X

FIG.

Wb

A.20

1'"

~~

Counterclockwise

kQR3 [cos
<1>

= kQR3
=

where

-aWb

+ 4]2

+ ...,)
+ cos (a + "')]

__

dtP

"4

(2

+ cos 20:) + sin 2(a8 + i{.

,= 1

W ba

- cos a sm(a

+ <1') + j sin 2a]

W'ba

1Q
'

k R

.1

Sill

+ 4>

W'bb

+ 1]2

[cos a - cos(a

2
Wbb

where

= sin (a + ",)R d",

= a + R sin (a + ...,)

Wba

+ ...,)J

integration of shape coefficients for circular members in the a-plane acted upon by z-wind,

cos(a

a -

dl' =R (cos a - cos (a

y = b - R cos (a
y' = b - !R [cos a

y
L-

.t::

+bWb

{Sin3 Ca

+ i{
6

+ 46

COSal

+ W' bb

1'1' kQR'1 cosCo: + 1 [cos 0: -

kQR

kQR4 [cosCo:

tP = .

+ 4]2

c;s(a

sin3 a

sin (0:
-

+ co~ 0: [<I> + sin(a + <!')cos(o: + <1

d4>

+ <I')

- sin 0:

sin(a

+ q,)cos al}

The upper signs apply when <1> lies in the I and/or the II quadrants; the lower signs when <1> lies in the III
and/or the IV quadrants.
When <I> lies in the I and IV quadrants or the II and III, it must be split up
into two arcs.
For the counterclockwise
integration of circular members in the y-plane subjected to z-wind, the identical formulas apply.

HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

323

"
l'

:=

.r:: dl'

(I

dl'
x

z'

:=
:=
:=
:=

:=

R [sin (a

cos (a
.,,)R d<p
b - R cos (a
a
R sin (a
<p)
a + ~R [sin (a + rp)

+ "")
+

'1') - sin a}

+ sin

a1

~----------------4-~~_~
FIG. A.21

Counterclockwise

integration of shape coefficients for circular members in the y-plane acted upon by z-wind,

The case of the circular member in the y-plane acted upon by a wind parallel to the z-axis is now considered.
Figure A.21 shows such a member set up for integration in a counterclockwise direction.

Wa

=F (of> kQR3 [sinCa

Jo
if>

where

W ab

1<f>kQR4

026

'4 (2 -

cos 2a) -

C
cos a

) [sin(a

Wall

where

W'"a

sin 2(a
8

if

.
+ Sill
a cos(a + if

'J

i Sill
2a

+ w' ab

= +bwa

- sin a}2 dq,

= =FkQR3 [
Wab

+ q,)

'".
1
o

= kQ
'. R

k<JR4 sm(a
4

{cos3(a

- si; a (<I> _

+ q,)

+ w'
+ ) [sin(a + ) =

-aWa

= .kQR4

cos3 a

[sin(a

+ if

sin a1

aa

sin a}2

+ (~6 -

sin(a

- sin af d

COsCa + <l -

COS

- --'----2-'----

+ <Icos(a + <1 + sin

a cos(a

+ <I}}

The upper signs apply when <J> lies in the [ and/or IV quadrant, the lower signs when <I> lies in the II and/or
I II quadrants.
When <1> lies in the I and II quadrants or the II I and IV, it must be split up into two arcs.
For the counterclockwise
integration
of circular members in the z-plane subjected to e-wind, the same
formulas apply.

DESIGN OF PIPING

324
Table A.5.

M,;c
+A"""
+A%II
+An
+B".:;
+B"II
+B""

M~
+Aru
+Aull
+AII,
+Bvr
+Bvv
+Bv.

General Equations

SYSTEMS

of Pipe Line Subject

Mz

F%

Fu

F,

+Arz
+Auz
+A ..
+B""
+B'II
+B"

+Br:
+BI/%
+Bu
+C%%
+C",v
+c:;:

+B"'II
+BIIII
+B'II
+CZII
+CI/ll
+CII,

+Brz
+Bllz
+B"
+C".
+CII,
+C ..

Up to this point, the development of the General

Analytical Method has been built around the zeneral case of the weightless pipe line subjected to
loading which is concentrated at a point, or uniformly distributed over a member. Such a loading
may arise from the weight of the piping components.
Weight effects are not ordinarily of great significance
although they become important when dealing with
materials of low breaking strength or poor creep resistance, that is, if premature fracture or excessive
sagging is not to be tolerated. The general formulas
derived, however, are readily adapted to the evaluation of the effects of thermal expansion loading
which are usually of primary interest.
Under thermal expansion, the strain energy is supplied by the temperature change involved; there are
no applied loads, hence the load terms in the general equations of Table A.3 become zero leaving a
system of equations which expresses the reactions
in terms of imagined displacements of one end, designated the "free" end.? If D. D.p, and D.: are the
free thermal expansions, directed from the end designated fixed toward that designated free, they will
enter the right-hand member of the equations with
a negative? sign as indicated in Table A.5. Displacements of the ends, denoted O*I' 0*11' 0*., which arc
due to movement of connected equipment, are entered with sign unchanged, so as to indicate the
direction of the relative movement of the free end
with respect to the fixed end. The angular displacements or rotations, 0", 0Il' e; are ordinarily
assumed to be zero. For a pipe line with two fixed
ends, six equations in six unknowns remain so that
the problem can be solved by various numerical
methods.
The components of rotation and deflection
(8"N, etc.) at any point N on the pipe line are obI,

6Eve~ though in actuality both ends are completely fixed,

the action of thermal expansion may be visualized most conveniently by imagining a fictitious case where one end first
expands without restraint and is subsequently restored by
means of the reactions to the position dictated by end constraint.
7The negative sign is needed since the restraining displacement is in the opposite direction to the free thermal expansion.

to Thermal

Expansion

Constant
+EIOz = 0
+EIOI/ = 0
+EIO, = 0
+EI(o*", - .c.."A) == +EI(o"'A
+EI(o*1I - D.II..t) := +EI(oIlA
+EI(o*,
- D..A) = +EI(o,A

- OrO' - .c..r)
-ovo'
- .c..1I)
- 0.0' - .c..,)

tained by substitution of the moment and force

components determined above, back into the same
relationships given in Table A.5 with the exception
that integration limits are from N to 0' and the
constants are expressed as in Table A.6.
Table A.6. Constant Terms for Deformation
of any Point of the Pipe Line

+EIO ",N
+EIOvN
+EIO.N
+EI(o",N
+EI(oIlN
+EI(o.N

- .J.:r:N+ yNO.N - ZNOIIN - 0%0')

- AIIN + ZNO"N - XNO.N -01/0')
- D..N + XNOIIN - yN8:r:N -0.0')

Also, it can be seen that for convenience or for checking purposes, the integrations may be taken from
A to N in which case the constants arc as shown in
Table A.7. It will be noted that the sums of the
constants in Tables A.6 and A.7 are equal to the
respective constants given in Table A.5.
The loading case of any concentrated force applied
at a point N on the pipe line of Fig. A.I can be obtained from the general equations given in Table A.3
by considering the total load on the member NF to
remain unchanged while its length is made infinitely
small. In this case, the shape coefficients in the colurnns headed by WI, WII, and w. vanish; the coordinates x, y, z become XN, YN, ZN respectively; the
moments MIN, MIIN, M.N, are those at the origin
due to the applied concentrated loads FIN, FIIN,
FzN; and the system of equations appears as shown
in the first six rows of Table A.S. When FIN, FIIN,
F.N are known loads the solution is obvious. When
these forces are unknown, such as the reactions at
Table A.7. Constant Terms for Deformation
of Any Point of the Pipe Line
with Respect to Free End

+EI(-OxN)
+EI(-Ol/N)
+EI(-O,N)
+EI(o:r:A - O"N - D.", + D.%N - yNf),N
+EI(oIlA - OliN - D.v + .c..I/N - zN8rN
+EI(o.A
- O.N - .c.., + D.zN - XN8vN

+ ZNO"N)
+ XN8,N)
+ yN8zN)

HISTORY

AND DERIVATION

OF PIPING

FLEXIBILITY

stops, it is necessary to introduce additional equations in order to obtain a solution.

Referring again to Table A.8, the lower six equations, derived from Table A.6, relate the various re:acting forces and moments to the rotations and
deflections at point N. Since there is no external
moment at point N:
MzN

I,

= F.NYN

FIINZN

(A.15)

MIIN

F"NZN

F.NXN

M:N

FIINXN

FzNYN

Furthermore, the deflections of the supports, stops,

etc. OzN, 01111', 0.11' are expressable in terms of the
forces which produce them, F"N, FilII', F.N (for the
usual rigid supports, 0,,11', 01111', OzN are commonly
taken equal to zero). Hence, the 12 equations of
Table A.8 contain but 12 unknowns and consequently can be solved.
In the case of a branch line BN connected to the
main point N as shown in Fig. A.22, the rotations,
OrN, BIIN, 0.11', as well as the deflections, OrN, 01111',
0.11', are affected by the flexibility of the branch,
Thus the rotations at point N cannot be considered
unrestrained as they were in the treatment of stops.
The junction moments in the branch at point N,
M' xli', ill'IIN, u' zN, expressed in berms of the terminal
moments.f ]t-Ir8, itlIlB' itlzB, are given by:
M'rN

M:z;B

M'IIN

MYB

M'.N

= M.B

+ FyBZN
+ F:8XN
+ FrBYN

F.BYN

F:z;8ZN

FyBXN

(A.16)

ANALYSIS

FIG. A.22

Three-anchor

configuration.

In the development of Table A.8, the moments

it! vN, itl.N, were understood to result only
from forces applied at point N since it was assumed
that at that point no external moments were applied
so that rotations 'were unrestrained. Consideration
of the more general case leads to redefinition of the
moment equations (A.15) as follows:
M"N)

FrN

Jl,f rN

FIINZN

M'yN

+ FrNZN

F=NXN

M',N

+ FIINXN

F:z;NYN

= M'xN

MVN

=
=

lIfzN

But

+ FzNYN

MrN

= Fz8,

M rB,

FyII'

1111111'

= Fyll,
1111/8,

FZN
Af:N

(A.17)

= FzB, therefore
= At zB. Hence,

with appropriate changes to the subscripts and limits of Table A.S the 12 equations for the branched
system arc derived, appearing as shown in Table A.9.
The influence of normal forces and shears is negligible in most piping calculations except that on
rare occasions for thermal expansion effects it may
warrant investigation. Hence, the development of
these constants is given only for the case of concentrated loads (or thermal expansion).
The energy of shear is given by the following:
U _

t" k.}"'F? dl

- J

SRcferred to the origin.

Table A.8.

325

System of Equations

(A.18)

2GA

for Stop at Point N

_._.

M~

Mv

lIf.

+An
+A.v
+Az:

+A.v
+Avv
+Au.

+A ..
+Av:
+A ..

--- -- ---_

+Bu
+B,v
+B ..

--

--

+1311 +Ba
+13w +B.v
+Bv: +B ..
2'

F~

Fv

F.

--

--

--

-_ --

+Bu
+Bv.
+B ..
+Czz
+C'I/
+C",

--

+BZJI +Bz:
+Bvv +Bv:
+B.v +B::

+CXlI
+Cw
+Cvr

+C"
+Cv,

-c.,

M.N

JlfvN

M.N

-- -- --

+Au
+AZJI +A ..
+...1rv +...11/11+AII:
+A .. +Av
+.11..
--'
+IJ +Bv. +B rs:
+Bzu +BIIV +BtV
+Brz +Bvz +B"

_-

--

Limits A to 0'

F.N

PvN

-- --

['\N

+B.v +Bzz
+BvlI +BI/:
+13.v +B ..

=
=

+C" +Cru +Cr:

+C'II +Cuv +Cv:
+Cz: +Cvz

=
=

+Bu
+Bvr
+Bzz

_- --

-,

Constant

+EIO.
+E1Ou
= +E[o.

+EI(Ii'",
+EI(ov
= +EJ(o'z

_.

__

--+13n
+B.v
+B ..

+A"I/ +.11..
+Avv +Av.
+...1v. +A ..

-_.,----- ..,---_ ......,,,,,,--

Limits N to 0'

--

--

+13vr +Bu
+Bvv +B.v
+Bv. +B ..

+Bn
+BZJI +B,. +A ..
+13v +13vv +l1v: +A'!I
+13:r +11:v +B.: +Az:

-+Cu

+C'I/
+C ..

Limits N to 0'

-- --

--

+Arv
+Avv
+Av:

--

+C%1I +Czz +Bn +Bvr

+Cw +CI/: +[3.v +Bw
+Cv' +Cu +B +lJv

+A". +Brz +Brv

+Av. +BV% +Bvv
+ ...1.. +B .. +Bzv

-+B:r
+B:v
+B ..

+13,. =
+BI/z
+Bu

+C,v +CZ:
+C%1I +Cuv +Cvz
+C". +CII: +C"

=
=

--

+Cu

Limits N to 0'

-- --

.. _._----

- ~.)
_ ~u)
- ~z)
...

+Arr
+A,v
+A ..

_ ..,_'_

_ .. - ...... _..

_----

+Elo~.~
+Elovx
+EJO:N
+EI (OrN - 6.H + YNO.N _ ZNOvN)
+EI(livN - ~I/N
ZNOrN - XNO.N)
+EI (Ii.N - ~:N + XNOvN - YNO.H)

DESIGN

326

OF PIPING SYSTEMS

and the energy of normal force by

_1lknFn2

Un where k,
A

=
=

FI

A
k

F;

and introducing the stiffness factor Q, the total energy due to shear and normal forces becomes

dl

(A.19)

ZEA

u.;

flexibility factor in shear = 1.

shear distribution factor which depends
on the shape of the cross section (= Z for
thin-walled cylinders).
shearing force.
cross-sectional area.
flexibility factor in tension or compression = 1.
normal force.

The shear equation may be written

I'(F 2 + F' 2)
GA

(A.20)

dl

where shearing force is expressed in components F.

and F'. respectively in and transverse to a reference
plane containing the particular portion of the line.
H the outside, inside, and mean radii of the pipe
cross section are designated by rs, r" rm respectively,
and the wall thickness by i, the properties of the
section and their approximate relationship can be
expressed as follows:
A

1r(ro2 - r,2)

= 2~I

Q(2.6F.2

= 1r-4

(1 0of

r.,4)

dl

(A.21)
Applying Castigliano's theorem, the displacement
in the x-direction is given by
0", =

EIJ

t" Qr", 2 ( 2.6F.

aF 8
,
",+Z.6F. ",
aF
oF

of'.

of

+O.5FnoFx

n)

dl

(A.22)
Similar equations can be written for all and Oz by
substituting for eir, the partial differential of the
applicable force.
The shear and normal forces for any point in the
z-plane are
F. = F z cos if; - F 1) sin y;

F'. = F",
Fn

F 1) cos if; + F: sin if;

Similarly for any point in the y-plane

F. = Fxcosif;

- F=sinif;

F'. = Fv

21rrmt

Fn
I

+ 2.6F'.2 + O.5Fn )rm

= xr
3t
" m

= F z cos if; + F", sin if;

and for any point in the z-plane

= Fli cos if;- Fez; sin y;

F'. = F,
F" = /r':; cos y; + F II sin if;
F.

A
Substituting

these values into eqs. A.I 9 and A.20

Table A.9.

;\{" .

--

+An
+Azv
+Ax:

--

+l1rz
+Brv
+11..

Mv.1

--

+A"y
+.1vv
+Av:

1I1.A

--

+Ar:

+.111:
+.1.:

-- --

+I3yZ +B:.
+BVY +Bry
+ BV. +lJ ..

r.,

---

+Bn
+13y
+B"

---

+Cu
+C"y
+Czr

Fv.1

---

+Bzv
+13VY
+B.y

---

+CZy
+CW
+Cv,

System of Equations
Mzn

F:.1

---

+13".
+Bv.
+13:;

+Au
+Ary
+An

---

---

---

+Crr
+CV:
+c::

+Bzz
+BrV
+B ..

M.n

F"n
-_-

+Arv
+Avu
+Av:

+A""
+.1v:

+13""

+Bvz
+ByV
+BV:

Mun

---

--+Brr
+Brv
+Bn

+:lrv +A",
+AVY +Av.
+Avr +.1u

--

--

+J1v" +B,.
+lJvv +lJ"v
+Bv, +B"

+Bzr
+BVl'
+B,z

---

+Cn
+C"lI
+C ..

Limits N to 0'

---

Configuration

Full

---

F.n

---

Constant

+.1..

+Byz
+B:x

+13rv
+Bw
+Brv

+B ..
+By,
+B"

=0
=0
= 0

+Bu
+B:v
+13"

+Czz
+C"]J
+cxz

+C"Y
+CW
+Cv:

+C"v
+CV:
+C"

= +EI (0".1 - tozA - 0,0')

= +EI (OVA - toV'" - 0VO')
= + EI (0. A - to:.~ - 0:0')

+Brv
+BI/v
+13:v

+13".
+By.
+B"

=0
=0
=0

+Cry
+Cvv
+CI/r

+C".
+Cy,
+C"

--- --- --- --Limits N to 0'

Limits A to 0'
+Arz
+.1zv
+A",

for a Three-Anchor

+B"v
+Bvv
+B,y

---

+C"v
+Cvv
+Cv=

+Bn
+Bv:
+B::

---

+A"r
+Arv

+.1,,:

+A"v
+Avv
+,1y:

+Brz
+Brv
+Brz

+Bvz
+Bvl/
+Bv,

--- ---

+Cr:
+Cv
+C"

_.-

+Azz
+Av.

+.1..

---

+Bu
+B,v
+13"

+Bu
+Bvr
+B",

--+Cu
+Crv
+C",

Limits B to 0'

---

+EI (orn - 6rll - 0,,0')

- tovB - 0vo')
= +EI (o,n - torn - /i,o')
= +EI(ovn

HISTORY AND DERIVATION OF PIPING

FLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS

327

a-Plane

er,
a
z-Plane

a
er,
a
aFII

ap'
a

er,
a

+1

iWI

a
dFv

-sin I/;

+cosl/;

+cosl/;

+sinf

er,
-sin Vt

+cosf

er',
a

Substitution

+1

of these values into the

0", 0ll'

and

0, equations, plane by plane, produces the following

er,

+COSVt

-l-sin

Vt

s = f2_6Qrm2dl

a
aF"

+cos Vt

a
aFII

sin Vt

f
v =f
=f

y-Plane

a
er,

recurring integrals

+1
0

+sinl/;

o
+cosl/;

TV

Qrm2(2.6 cos" I/;

+ .5 sin

1/;) dl
(A.23)

Qrm (2.6 sin2 I/;

2

Qr",22.1 sin

.5 cos2 Vt) dl

Vt cos I/; dl

The way these constants are entered into the simultaneous equations is shown in Section 5.10 of
Chapter 5.

APPENDIX

Derivation of Acoustic Vibration Formulas

This result was derived on the basis of a generalization of the method of derivation given by Rayleigh
in the "Theory of Sound," Vol. II (3), for n = 1, 2;
the n roots of the determinantal equation are all real
and positive, corresponding to n physical modes.
For It = I VI = 17, (172 = ... = V" = OC)) is
found the following:

NChapter 9, the derivations of certain expressions were omitted because of their length. As
they are not available in the literature, at least
not in the form given herein, they are included in this
appendix. Numbered citations below refer to the
list of references at the end of Chapter 9.
B.l

MUltiple Resonator of nth Order

Acoustic conductivity

JI.

71

f = !!.._

f-E_

= speed of sound in fluid (It/sec)

For

It

Then,
-

VI

(B.l )

211"

where

7]

is a root of the deterrninantal equation:

I)

---,
VI

1'1

11-1

, 0

r;;

(B ..'))

'\j~

71

J..I1

VI

_"""t

VI'

.i:
Jl2

=0

+ __!:_ + __!:_

_ .!!_

V2

Jl.2

V2

VI

, 0

V3

V2

211'

2 the determinant reduces to:

J..I3

I)

-+---,
V 3 V 4 1'4

(13.4)

= 0, (2nd neck closed)

11-2

= L + t V 1I"A (ft);

f=-V;

(B.3)

+11-2
VI

~Pol

211"

and for

71
Pol

01'

Jl.2

-+-+---=-+0+---=0
V" V"_1 V" Jln Jl.l VI
VI

tln

tln+l

General expressions for the natural frequencies of

multiple resonator systems can be derived and will
be given here for the sake of completeness (see also
[24)). Consider Fig. B.l. V (ft), A (ft2), L (ft) are
chamber volume, neck area, and neck length respectively. In addition let:

11,,+1

----,
V"

JLn-1

1
V n-I

......+1

(B.6)

-+--+--II"V"

l-n-I

Vn

~
jJ.,.

(11.2!

328

DERIVATION

OF ACOUSTIC

VIBRATION

FORMULAS

329

From which:
(IJ.)

2 _

11
+

+ IJ.2 + IJ.2 +.IJ.3)

VI

IJ.1 J.l3

V2

11

+ IJ.2(P.I + J.!3)

(B.7)

=0

FIG. 13.1 Multiple resonator.

V11'2
Finally it may be added that the results also apply
if the configuration of resonators, while in series, is
not in a straight-line direction.
B.2

General

Branched
For n
1:1

= 3,

+ J.!2+1l3 + 1l3+1l4

VI
0:2

V2

au
au
p-+pu-=
at
ax

V3

+ (IJ.I+J.lZ)(/J.3+J.l4)

III (J.!2+J.!3)+J.l2J.!3

V1V2

ap

VIV3
+

J.!11l2 (P.3 +1l4)

Bp

(momentum)

ax

(pU)

(continuity)

/J.21l3+(J.L2+J.L3)J.!4

where p, p, U are pressure, density, and velocity

respectively. In addition, for an isentropic process
for a gas.

+J.L3J.L4 (P.I +J.LZ)

p =

Then

with

-at + -ax

(B.9)

V2V3
1:3

for

The hydrodynamic equations of motion for onedimensional non-steady flow without friction or heat
transfer are:

let:

J.ll +J.l2

Characteristic
Equation
Piping System

Canst.

p'Y

If barred symbols represent mean values, while .::l'S

represent increments, then the equations assume the
form:
11

being a root of:

113-

2
1:111

+ 0:211

0:3

(B.IO)

The 3 roots of the cubic equation are real and positive, corresponding to 3 physical modes.
In particular, if all chamber volumes, neck lengths,
and areas are equal then

I=

-;

"\jIJ.L
v

Sill

(1n1l")
8

(p

+ i!.p) a(i!.U)
-+ (p + 6p)(U - + 6U)
at

a (i!.U)
--!l

ox
a(6p)

---

ax

a(.::lp)
at

(B.11)

+ (0 + i!.U)
lj +

6p

= P

a(6p)

ax

+ 'Y ~

+ (p + 6p)
6p

= P + C2

iJ(6U)

ax

= 0

.::lp

m = 1,2,3

A more general result for n resonators of equal volumes, areas, and lengths is:
a

m1l"

/J.L.

s; = ;: -Vy
= 1,2,'"

sin 2(n

(B.12)

1)

r:;p = speed of sound, considered constant.

\}~

Subtracting the mean values, considering the 6's

infinitesimal and neglecting terms of higher order
than 1st in the infinitesimals:

which is the same result as given in reference [24J,

eq. 19, except that in that equation there is an error
and n should have been printed instead of m in the
denominator of the argument of sin (~
m

!)

+ 12

CJ(.::lp)
at

+ 0 a(6p) + p a(6U)
ax

=0

ax

6])

= C26p

DESIGN

330

OF PIPING

Suppose now infinitesimal perturbations relative to

a quiescent state, i.e. (] = O, Eliminating A via
the 3rd relation gives:
p a (!:lU)

at

= _

----a;- =

Ap =

ax

A(pU)

(B.13a)

+ <p) eiwt }

iCR cos (~

c at
2

sin

(w; + )

(B.13c)
e,wt

satisfy not only the wave equations B.13b but also

equations B.13a, and hence represent a solution of
both systems of partial differential equations. R is
in general a "complex amplitude," while Ap is, of
course, a real quantity.
(B.13b)

Equations B.13b are the familiar wave equations for

pressure and velocity, governing the propagation of
small (infinitesimal) disturbances in a fluid medium
(C = speed of "sound" = speed of propagation of
infinitesimal disturbances).
Particular solutions of the wave equation are obtained by separation of variables. Thus if:
Ap =

substitution that the forms:

1 a(!:lp)

a(!:lU)
P

a(!:lp)

SYSTEMS

Boundary

Conditions

at a Junction.

The

boundary conditions at any junction are given by

continuity of both pressure and mass flow rate.
Thus at any junction of n branches or segments, for
pressure continuity:

.
(wLsn)
= .. '1CRncos
C-+n ...
(B.13d)

h (x)!2(t)

where LSlr Ls2 ...

LSn were defined previously.
While for continuity of mass flow rate:

Then

n
.L

Or

a,Ri

Sill

.~I

(WLSi
-C

+ cf>. )

(B.13e)

the a's being the areas and the () sign to be

taken as defined previously.
Since It is a function of z only and j', is a function
only of t, A must be a function of neither, i.e, a
constant.
The solutions for It and i2 are then of the form:
fl (x)
f2(0

Bl cos AX

+ B2 sin AX

= D, cos 'ACt

Substituting eqs. B.13d into B.13e yields:

u. cos (wLS. + i)"

i~

An equivalent form of the solution is also:

i\C;

ai tan

(wLs.)
T+

cf>i

Or, assuming the 1st factor .,r. 0, then

+ D2 sin 'ACt

i~

ai

tan

T+

(WLs.)

= 0

Now

Likewise, by analogous reasoning;

and writing
However, El, Bz, <PI and <Pz are not completely independent of one another, since the solution must also
satisfy equations B.13a. It can be verified by direct

(:Ji

instead of

i:

i a, tan (~2 fo1... LSIL + (Ji)

0 (B.13f)

;=1

which is the result given in the text above.

DERIVATION

OF ACOUSTIC

VIBRATION
B.3

End Conditions

a. Intake points, x
Node

au

Atanode,-

at

331

Tuned Resonator Relations

Consider the schematic below representing a piping system with a (tuned) resonator and orifice,
(Fig. B.2). The entire pressure loss in the pipe may
be considered as an orifice effect. This point will be
elucidated in somewhat more detail later.

FORMULAS

From eq. RI3e:

Rewnalor

Chamber

iwR sin

eu"t =

or
flow_

Q=Q+lIQ,

Piping

Loop

FIG. B.2

ap

at

Hence from eq. B.I3e

-weR cos ei"'l

or
={3=-

'lr
2

b. Discharge point, x

Node

. R sin
. (wL
C

+ ). e"" =
I

ZW

Tuned resonator.

Let bars represent mean values while ll.'s represent

increments. Thus let the mean values of flow rate,
pressure and density be: Q, j), p. Let the incremental
values of flow rates and pressures be: ll.Q, ll.Ql,
ll.Q2 (as indicated on the schematic), ll.Plt and !lP2.
In accordance with resonator theory a certain
amount of mass oscillates as a rigid body in the
neck; let the effective length of this mass column be
L* = L + !v'lrA where L and A are the length and
cross-sectional area of the neck, and suppose that
at a given instance this mass penetrates the resonator
chamber a distance z, measured from an initial
position. The distance x is supposed to be small,
of the same order as the increments. Then:

or

tlQ2

{p

D.pt)Ai

"=<

pAx

(B.14)

From the equilibrium of the vibrating mass:

pAL*x

+ All.P2 =

Atlpl

(B.I5)

and:
(B.1G)
m = 0, 1,2,
1n =

0 is trivial solution (quiescent).

= 1 is fundamental.

where Cz = dp/dp = speed of sound, considered

constant.
From B.14 and R1G:

2 is 1st harmonic, etc.

Loop

(B.17)

For a small pressure drop through the orifice we have:

wL

cos C
571'
- ...
2

'lr 3'lr
=

0;

= {3 =

'lr
_--=2

fo

"2 '

2'

+ tlQl

f)

'lr ( 7n-2
fo

While

m = 1,3,5
corresponding to fundamental, 1st harmonic, etc.,
which are the results given previously in the text
(Subsection 9.6e).

From which

+ tlpl

"=<

kvp

"=<

kvp - Po

- Po

(1 + ~~)

2 p - Po

332

DESIGN

OF PIPING

So that

SYSTEMS

Now let
2 Ap V

(B.24)

T=---=:

l'

p V

where

At) = ij - Po

Hence

(B.I8)

= - = average
p

volume flow rate

Then is a time constant of the resonator orifice

combination, considered merely as a filter. Since
T

Differentiating B.15, substituting B.17 and 13.18,

and simplifying:
2

_. C A .
Ap
x + V L * x - 2 pL *

(A(,h)
Q =0

C-

(13.19)

7)

-v I

and

w
n

C2 A

=-VL*

eq. B.23 gives the final expression for the magnification factor of AQdQ:

Also from continuity:

AQI

AQ2

If+

AQ

= ([

(B.25)

Or substituting from 13.14:

AQI

pA.

AQ

-+-x=-

(B.20)

Equations (B.19) and (B.20) are two linear differential equations in terms of AQdQ and z, AQ/Q
being given as a function of time. For steady state
harmonic oscillation let:
AQI _ R

Q -

Ie

iwt

H, RI, and

Xo being, in general, complex. Substituting in B.19 and B.20 gives, after some rearrangement:
2

(w - w" )xo
RI

2Af)

+ pL*

. pA

+ tw

Xo

RI = 0

=R

(13.21)
(B.22)

Where w" 2 = C2 A / VL * is the square of the resonator

natural frequency, in accordance with the results
given previously.
From B.21 and B.22:
1

(~)w]

+ [ (2

W"

2)

.
t

whence the magnification factor (M.F.) for AQdQ

becomes

IRII = M F
R

..

J [-'(~) w]2
1

1+

(wn2

)2)

(B.23)

It is seen from eq. B.24 that

T is proportional to the
pressure drop across the orifice and the volume of
the resonator. The greater the value of T the smaller
the M.F. and the better the smoothing. However,
even for a very small value of T (say a very small
pressure drop across orifice), the magnification factor
still tends to zero if the resonator frequency Wn is
chosen so as to coincide with the forcing frequency w.
This then is the "tuning" phenomenon.
Since an ideal case is considered, the M.F. drops
to zero at the tuning frequency. In a physical case
this will not happen, of course, although in the neighborhood of the tuned frequency, the M.F. will drop
sharply. The effect of the orifice pressure drop and
resonator capacity, as reflected via the time constant
T, is to maintain a lower value of the magnification
factor in a band of frequencies around the tuned
frequency; the larger T the wider the band. If there
exists no orifice, then instead of a concentrated
pressure drop there will be a continuous pressure
drop due to pipe friction. The smoothing will then
occur in a finite length of pipe in the neighborhood
of the resonator. A curve of the magnification
factor for the outflow pulsations AQdQ vs. w/wn is
shown in Fig. B.3 for

= l/w"

Finally, from the previous results it is found that

the magnification factor for the flow into the resonator

AQz/Q

I AQ/Q

I = I Rzi
R

DERIVATION
I!.I

OF ACOUSTIC

VIBRATION

FORMULAS

333

Il,1

EIf.dive

[il0ndm

_____

FIG. BA

la,1
til

~_tOt P.botion M.f.

J~o
I [

-Tankp(l)

Q, (I)

From Compr ..... r

---1

Orifice

-Ql(l)
Piping Sy>lem

Schematic of Burge tank.

If smoothing is effective then the assumption that Po

is constant will be valid.

= density in tank, time variable, slugs/ft.

p(t)

temperature of gas in tank, degrees Rankine.

An isothermal process is assumed so that T is constant.

C
1.0

FIG. B.3

2.0

3.0

Tuned resonator magnification

process, It/see.

factors.

is given by:

and the magnification of the former is a maximum

(= 1) when the M.F. of the latter is a minimum
(=0) and vice versa. A curve of IR2/RI vs.
w/w for r = l/w is also shown in Fig. B.3. As
appears from Fig. B.3., if T is very small then for all
forcing frequencies, except in the immediate neighborhood of the tuned frequency, the pulsations pass
through unattenuated with the resonator quiescent.
But in the immediate neighborhood of the tuned
frequency the situation is suddenly reversed, the
outflow pulsations are attenuated while the resonator responds to the incoming pulsations. This
represents the action of a tuned resonator.

B.4

rt

Simplified Surge Filter Analysis

Derivation of Results (see Fig. BA).

Let V

gas constant, ft-lb/slugs X degrees F.

(B.26)

AQ2/Q is found to be 90 out of phase to AQdQ,

II

'i = ratio of specific heats.

I~I~~I+ [I~~~W")T
rt

= speed of sound, constant for an isothermal

4.0

volume of tank, ft3.

= ~IlT

It is assumed that the pressure drop across the effective orifice is moderate so that, at all times, the flow
is well in the subsonic range. In this case, instead
of the theoretically exact, but cumbersome, relation
between pressure drop and flow rate through an
orifice in the subsonic case, an approximate but
simpler relation of the Bernoulli type may be written:

(B.28)
where a = effective orifice area, including contraction coefficient X vi
Then, by virtue of the gas law,
(B.29)
and the definition of the speed of sound C, eq. B.27,

Q2(t)

a~

Vp(l)[p(l)

= mass flow rate from compressor, time

variable, slugs/sec.

Q2(t)

= mass flow rate from tank into piping

system, time variable, slugs/sec.

pet) = pressure in tank, time variable, Ibs/ft2.
Po = pressure in pipe, considered constant,

Ibs/It".

- Pol

(B.30)

From continuity:
QI (t) - Q2(t)

a = effective orifice area, ft2.

Ql ()

(B.27)

(p

V p (t)

dp/dl)

(B.31 )

But, on the assumption of an isothermal process:

p(t)

= p_(t) = 1'2 p(t)

RT
C

(B.32)

Substituting the last result into eq. B.31 gives:

(B.33)

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

334

Substituting now the expression for Q2(t) from eq.

B.30 into eq. B.33 and dividing through by a factor
yields the following:
.

pet)

aC

Vv~

C2

vp(t)[p(t)

- Pol = 'YV Ql (t)

order differential equation for the instantaneous

tank pressure pet). This differential equation, however, is non-linear.
It is supposed now that the pulsations are moderate in amplitude relative to their average values.
Let the average values, being time independent, be
represented by bars above the corresponding syrnbois. Thus:

+ 6Pi pet) = !lp == d(6p)/dt

= Ql + 6Ql = Qz + 6Q
i.e.,
= Q2 + !lQz = <21 + 6Q2

= p

Ql (t)

I}.

Q2(t)

_/

vp[p

I
"'pCp
-

Po] =

Po)

(a's) are
expression
by a bithe incre-

[11+ - ~Po/p/_ -_6P]

1 - Po P

(13.35)
Also, in terms of the average values only, eq. 13.34
reduces to:

aV:;_ /---

-C- V pCp - Po)

!lQl

-=x
Ql

Outflow variation with respect

to mean flow rate

!lQ2

-=y

<22

-rV P 1-po/p

Time contact

';h I-tPo/fi

CZ

=r
(13.40)

then eq. B.39 assumes the form:

ry + y = z

(13.41)

The last first order linear non-homogeneous differential equation is the familiar differential equation
of a first order filter, T being the "time constant" of
the filter, having the dimension of time.

Ql - Qz

On the assumption that the increments

small, relative to the average values, the
Vp(l)[p(t)
- Po] may be approximated
nomial expansion to first order terms in
ment 6p, as follows:

Inflow variation with respect

to mean flow rate

(B.34)

Ql (t), being the output from the compressor, is a

known time function. Hence, eq. 13.34 is a first

pet)

of the variation in inflow (i.e, into the tank), relative

to average values. If:

(13.36)

Ql

Since,
Then, if

C2

= -rRT ;; 'Y'P
p

Q*1 = Ql

represents the average volume flow rate, relative to

average tank density per unit time, the expression
for T becomes:
V 1 - Po/fJ
(13.42)
r=1
Q*1 1 - '2Po/fJ
The output from a reciprocating compressor is pulselike and all harmonics are contained in it. However,
if the fundamental harmonic is attenuated by the
filter, the higher harmonics can surely be disregarded and it is thus sufficient to consider !lQdQ! =
x of a purely sinusoidal form

. By virtue of eqs. 13.35 and 13.36,eq. 13.34 reduces,

after some simplification, to:
'Y V

C2

Ql

(C:.p) + 1 P

bolt}

1 - Po/fJ

6p

f)

6Ql

(13.37)

QI

yo(irw

Likewise, by virtue of eq. 13.35, it follows from

eq. 13.30that:
6p
-=

I -

I-

Po/fJ

!lQz

P I - Po/f)
C2 Ql 1 - bo/p

(M22)
Qz

+ !lQ2

+ 1)

==

_ 6Ql

<22 -

Ql

(13.39)

Equation 13.39is a first order linear differential equation expressing the variation in outflow as a function

(B.43)

Xo

The attenuation factor is the absolute value of the

ratio xo/Vo. Or,

(B.38)

boh} <22

Substituting the last relation into eq. 13.37gives:

'Y

Then the steady state solution for y is of the form

y == Yo;'" I, and from the differential eq. B.41:

i=

v=I

(13.44)

Consider a reciprocating compressor, with N = rpm

and m = number of cylinders, uniform spacing of
cylinders being assumed, then,
For single action,
w =

21l'-m
GO

DERIVATION OF ACOUSTIC VIBRATION FORMULAS

tween tank and piping, then (for 50% pressure

recovery):

For double action,

W

471"-m
60

= 271"

Po/p V
1 - tPa/P V*
1-

(1'1- PO)n = t<1i - Po)

<B.45)

where ji"

If then, V* = volume flow of gas per single stroke

per piston, calculated relative to average tank density, it is found, by virtue of eqs. B.42 and B.45,
that for either case:
TW

335

= 7"), hence,

and
1 - Po/p

1 - (Poh)"

(B.47)

1 - tpo/p - ~ - t(Po/p)"
(B.46)

Finally, Po is the pressure immediately at the

(effective) orifice. Actually, there is usually some
pressure recovery. The latter varies with orifice-topipe diameter. A pressure recovery of 50% is assumed. If (PO/P)a is the actual pressure ratio be-

substituting eqs. B.46 and B.47 into eq. B.44, gives

the final expression for the attenuation factor A.F.,
A.F.

~ 1

1 - (Po/Ma
1.( / -)

+ ( 271".i!.4 _

Po 71 a

V)2

V*

(BAS)

The results are shown in Fig. 9.30 (Subsection 9.8b)

for (Po/p)" = 0.99,0.95,0.9,0.8.

APP~ENDIX

Charts and Tables

C-l.

Properties and Weights of Pipe

..-

Nominal
Size
Outside
Diameter

Weight
Designation
and/or
Schedule
Number

Aver-

l\lini~

age
Wnll

mum

Thickness

Thickness

Inside
Diarneter

CrossSectional
Metal
Area

Moment
of
Inertia

1m

inches
d

square inches
A

inches!
I

wsu

Seetion
Modulus

(= ~t)

inches
D

inches
t
WE 0.049

Ys"
0.405

~"
0.540

%"
0.675

72"
0.840

40E
80E

0.068
0.0[l5

0.043
0.050
0.083

0.307
0.269
0.215

0.055
0.072
0.0[l2

0.0009
0.0011
0.0012

0.0043

40
80

Std.
XS

40

80

10E
40S
80S

0.065
0.088
0.U9

0.057
0.077
0.104

0.410
0.364
0.302

0.097
0.125
0.157

Std.
XS

40

lOS
40S

0.065
0.091
80S 0.126

0.057
0.080
0.110

0.545
0,493
0.423

Std.
XS

40

XXS

lOS 0.083
4GS 0.109
80S 0.147
0.187
0.294

0.073
0.0!)5
0.12!)
0.164
0.258

Std.

58
lOS
40S

80

80

%/1
XS

40
80
160

lOS
Std.
XS

40

40::

80

80S

160

XXS

Pip(J

Water

wI'

WID

lb per ft

lb per ft

O.OOGO

0.127
0.122
0.115

0.186
0.215
0.315

0.032
0.025
0.016

0.0028
0.0033
0.C038

0.Ql03
0.0123
0.0140

13.8
20.7
32.2

0.169
0.163
0.155

0.330
0.425
0.535

0.057
0.045
0.031

0.124
0.167
0.217

0.0059
0.0073
0.0086

0.0174
0.0216
0.0255

8.38
12.81
20.1

0.217
0.209
0.199

0.423
0.568
0.739

0.101
0.083
0.061

0.674
0.622
0.546
0.46B
0.252

0.197
0.250
0.320
0.384
0.50'1

0.0143
0.0171
0.020]
0.0221
0.0243

0.0341
0.0407
0.0178
0.0527
0.0577

6.95
9.79
14.7
21.1
47.3

0.269
0.261
0.250
0.240
0.219

0.671
0.851
1.0!)
1.30
1.72

0.154
0.132
0.101
0.074
0.022

0.057
0.073
0.0!)9

0.920
0.884
0.821

0.201
0.252
0.333

0.0245
0.0297
0.0370

0.0467
0.0566
0.0706

3.22
4.26
6.18

0.319
0.343
0.334

0.684
0.857
1.13

0.288
0.266
0.231

0.135
0.191
0.270

0.742
0.614
OA3i

0.434
0.570
0.718

0.0448
0.0527
0.0579

0.08.';3
0.100
0.110

9.21
15.1
26.9

0.321
0.304
0.284

1.47
1.94
2.44

0.187
0.128
0.064

0.065
0.109
0.133

0.057
0.095

0.255
0.113
OA(J4

0.0500
0.0757
0.0874

0.076
0.115
0.133

2.0()
3.60
4.57

0.443

0.868

0.128

lAO

o.ne

1.I85
1.097
1.0019

0.420

1.68

0.478
0.409
0.374

0.179
0.250
0.358

0.157
0.219
0.313

0.957
0.815
O.5(J9

0.639
0.836
1.08

0.106
0.125
0.141

0.161
0.190
0.214

6.66
10.58
18.76

0.'107
0.387
0.361

2.17
2.84
3.GB

0.311
0.226
0.122

0.OG5
0.083
0.113

0.218
0.308
5~

I"

Weight of

18.6
28.7
47.5

80S 0.154

XXS

1.315

Inches!

3td.
XS

160

1.050

inches

Bend
Radius
Characof
teristic
Gyruper Unit
tion
Bend
RAdius
l/ft
inches
h/R
ro

336

O.COS2

CHARTS AND TABLES

C-l.
Nominal
Size
Outside
Diameter

Weight
Designation
and/or
Schedule
Number

Average
Wall
Thickness

Mini:
mum
Wall
Thickness
(= %t)
inches inches
t
tm

inches
D

Moment
of
Inertia

Section
Modulus

inches
d

square inches
A

inches"
I

inchesf
Z

Bend
Radius
Characof
teristic
Gymper Unit
tion
Bend
Radius
lift
inches
Tg
h/R

Weight of

Pipe

Water

Wp

lb por rt

w'"
lb per rt

0.104
0.161
0.Il)5

0.125
0.193
0.235

1.23
2.17
2.91

0.56
0.55
0.51

1.11
1.81
2.27

0.80
0.71
0.65

o.iai

0.167
0.219
0.334

1.278
1.160
0.896

0.88
1.11
1.53

0.242
0.284
0.341

0.291
0.342

4.25
6.04
11.2

0.52
0.51
0,47

3.00
3.76
5.22

0.56
0.46
0.27

5S 0.0135 0.057
lOS 0.109 0.095
40S 0.145 0.127

1.770
1.682
1.610

0.38
0.61
0.80

0.158
0.247
0.310

0.166
0.260
0.326

0.927
1.63
2.26

0.65
0.63
0.62

1.27
2.09
2.72

1.07
0.90
0.88

80S 0.200
0.281

0.175
0.246
0.350

1.500
1.338
1.100

1.07
1.43
1.89

0.391
0,483
0.568

0.412
0.508
0.598

3.32
5.15
8.53

0.61
0.58
0.55

3.63
4.87
6.41

0.77
0.61
0.41

58 0.065
lOS 0.109
40S 0.154

0.057
O.On5
0.135

2.245
2.157
2.067

0,47
0.78
1.07

0.315
0.666

0.265
0,420
0.561

0.585
1.02
1.50

0.82
0.80
0.79

1.60
2.64
3.65

1.72
1.58
1.45

XXS

80S 0.218
0.343
0,436

O.HH
0.300
C.382

1.939
1.689
1.503

1.48
2.19
2.66

0.868
1.16
1.31

0.731
0.979
1.10

2.25
3.99
5.57

0.77
0.73
0.70

5.02
7.45
9.03

1.28
0.97
0.77

Std.

58 0.083
lOS 0.120
40S 0.203

0.073
0.105
0.178

2.709
2.635
2.16!)

0.73
1.0'1
1.70

0.710
0.988
1.53

0,494
0.687
1.013

0.511
0.759
1.37

0.99
0.98
0.95

2.48
3.53
5.79

2.50
2.3(\
2.08

XXS

80S 0.276
0.375
0.552

0.242
0.328
0,483

2.323
2.125
1.771

2.25
2.95
4.03

1.93
2.35
2.87

1.34
1.64
2.00

1.96
2.88
4.91

0.92
0.8n
0.84

7.66
10.0
13.7

1.84
1.54
1.07

Std.

5S 0.083
lOS 0.120
40S 0.216

0.073
0.105
0.IS9

3.334
3.260
3.068

0.89
1.27
2.23

1.30
1.82
3.02

0.744
1.04
1.72

0.341
0.501
0.961

1.21
1.20
1.16

3.03
4.33
7.58

3.78
3.61
3.20

80S 0.300
0.138
0.600

0.263
0.382
0.525

2.!l00
2.624
2.300

3.02
4.21
5.47

3.!)0
5.01
5.99

2.23
2.88
3.13

1,41
2.24
3.42

1.14
1.0f)
1.05

5S
lOS
408
80S

0.083
0.120
0.226
0.318
0.636

0.073
0.105
0.198
0.278
0.557

3.834
3.760
3.548
3.364
2.728

1.02
1,46
2.68
3.68
6.72

I.!)6
2.76
4.79
6.28
9.85

0.980
1.38
2.39
3.14
4.93

0.260
0.383
0.762
1.13
2.70

1.39
1.37
1.34
1.31
1.21

3.47
4.97
9.11
12.5
22.H

5.00
4.81
4.28
~.85
2.5~

58
lOS
40 40S
SO 80S

0.083
0.120
0.237
0.337

0.073
0.105
0.207
0.295

4.334
4.260
4.026
3.826

1.15
1.65
3.17
4,41

2.81
3.96
7.23
9.61

1.25
1.76
3.21
4.27

0.204
0.300
0.626
0.933

1.56
1.55
L51
1.48

3.n2
5.61
10.8
15.0

6.40
6.17
5.51
4.98

0.138
0.531
0.67-1

0.382
0.465
0.5!)0

3.624
3,438
3.152

5.59
6.62
8.10

5.18
5.!)0
6.79

1.27
1.62
2.21

1.45
1.42
1.37

19.0
22.5
27.5

4.47
4.02
3.38

40

XS

80
160

80S

0.250
0.382

XS

40
80
160

XXS

0.100

--Std.
XS

2.875

CrossSectional
Metal
Area

0.33
0.53
0.67

Std.

2%"

Inside
Diameter

1.530
1.442
1.380

XXS

2"
2.375

Continued

0.057
0.095
0.123

Std.

1}2"
1.900

and Weights of Pipe -

5S 0.065
lOS 0.109
408 0.140

lU"
1.660

Properties

337

xs

40
80
160

40
80
160

40

0.199

0.111

3"
3.500

XS

80
160

XXS

3}2"
4.000

4"
4.500

Std.
XS
XXS

Std.
XS

40
80

120
160
XXS

11.7
13.3
15.3

10.3
14.3
IS.6

2.8ti

2.31
1.80

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

338

C-l. - Properties and Weights of Pipe - Continued

Nominal
Size
Outside
Diameter

Average
Wall
Thickness

Wcight
Designation
and/or
Schedule
Number

Minimum
Wall
Thickness

Inside
Diumcter

square inches
A

inches!
I

inches"
2.50
3.03
5.45
7.43

0.17G
0.218
0.440
0.G69

1.93
U)2
1.88
1.84

6.35
7.77
14.6
20.8

9.73
~).53
8.66
7.88
7.09
6.33
5.62

Section
Modulus

(= '%t)

Std.

XS

XS

Water

0.109
0.134
0.258
0.375

0.095
0.117
0.226
0.328

5.345
5.2(J5
5.0.17
4.813

4.30
6.11

6.95
8.43
15.2
20.7

0.500
0.625
0.750

0,438
0.5-17
0.C55

4.563
4.313
4.063

7.95
9.70
11.3

25.7
30.0
33.6

9.25
10.8
12.1

0.936
1.23
1.55

1.80
1.76
1.72

27.0
33.0
38.6

0.109
0.134
0.280
0.432

0.095
0.117
0.245
0.378

6.107

6.357
6.065
5.761

2.23
2.73
5.58
8,40

11.9
14.4
28.1
40.5

3.58
4.35
8.50
12.2

0.123
0.153
0.331
0.541

2.30
2.30
2.25
2.20

5.37
9.29
19.0
28.6

14.0
13.7
12.5
11.3

0.562
0.718
0.864

0.192
0.628
0.756

5.501
5.189
4.897

10.7
13.3
15.G

49.6
59.0
66.3

15.0
17.8
20.0

0.735
0.988
1.25

2.15
2.10
2.06

36.4
45.3
53.2

10.3
9.16
8.1-1

58 0.109
lOS 0.148
0.250
0.277

0.095
0.130
0.219
0.242

8,407
8.329
8.125
8.071

2.92
3.91
6.58
7.26

26.5
35.4
57.7
63.4

6.13
8.21
13.4
14.7

0.072
0.099
0.171
0.191

3.01
3.00
2.96
2.95

9.91
13.4
22.4
24.7

24.1
23.G
22.5
22.2

40
60
80
100

40S 0.322
80S 0.500
0.593

0.282
0.355
0.138
0.519

7.981
7.813
7.625
7,439

8.40
10.5
12.8
15.0

72.5
88.8
106
121

16.8
20.6
24.5
28.1

0.224
0.289
0.361
0.441

2.94
2.91
2.83
2.85

28.6
35.6
43,4
50.9

21.7
20.8
19.8
18.8

120
140

HiO

0.718
0.812
0.875
0.906

0.628
0.711
0.766
0.793

7.189
7.001
6.875
(\.813

17.8
19.9
21.3
22.0

141
154
162
166

32.6
35.6
37.6
38.5

0.551
0.G3D
0.699
0.730

2.81
2.78
2.76
2.75

60.6
67.8
72.4
74.7

17.6
16.7
16.1
15.8

0.117
0.1-14
0.219
0.269
0.319

10.482
10.420
10.250
10.136
10.020

4.52
5,49
8.26
10.1
11.9

63.7
76.9
114
138
161

11.D

20
30
40

5S 0.134
lOS 0.165
0.250
0.307
408 0.365

14.3
21.2
25.6
20.9

0.057
0.071
0.100
0.135
0.163

3.75
3.74
3.71
3.69
3.67

15.2
18.7
28.0
34.2
40.5

37.4
36.9
35.7
34.9
34.1

80S 0.500
0.593
0.625
0.718
0.750

0.438
0.519
0.547
0.628
0.655

9.750
\).564
9.500
9.314
9.250

16.1
18.9
1(J.9
22.6
23.G

212
245
256
286
296

39.4
45.5
47.6
53.2
55.1

0.228
0.276
0.293
0.312
0.360

3.63
3.60
3.59
3.56
3.55

54.7
61.3
67.5
76.n
80.1

32.3
31.1
30.7
29.5
29.1

0.843
0.875
1.000
1.125

0.738
0.766
0.875
0.984

9.064
9.000
8.750
8.500

26.2
27.1
30.6
34.0

324
333
368
399

60.3
62.0
68.4
74.3

0.412
0.431
0.505
0.583

3.52
3.51
3.47
3.43

89.2
92.3
104

27.9
27.5
26.0
24.6

40
80

5S
lOS
408
80S

XXS

Std.

Pipe

inches
tm

120
160

6/1

Weight of

Moment
of
Inertia

inches
t

inches
D

5"
5.563

Bend
Itndius
Characof
teristic
Gymper Unit
tion
Bend
Radius
Ilfl
inches
lIlR
Tq

CrossSectional
Metal
Area

40
80

5E
lOS
40E
80E

inches
d

1.87
2.2D

Wp

IV",

Ib per ft

lb per ft

6.62.5
120
160

XXS

20
30

8"
8.625
Std.

XS

XXS

Std.

XS
10"
10.750

60
80
100

120
140
160

0.106

116

CHARTS AND TABLES

C-l.
Nominal
Size
Outside
Diamcter

Weight
Designation
and/or
Schedule
Number

Average
Wall
Thickness

~!opcrtics

Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(=

6.52
7.11
9.82
12.9
14.6

129
141
192
249
279

20.3
22.0
30.0
39.0
43.8

0.050
0.055
0.077
0.103
0.118

11.938
11.750
11.1326
11.500
11.376

IS.7
19.2
21.5
23.8
26.0

300
362
401
439
475

47.1
56.7
62.8
68.8
74.S

0.655
0.738
0.766
0.875
0.983
1.149

11.250
11.064
11.000
10.750
10.500
10.126

28.3
31.5
32.6
36.9
41.1
47.1

511
562
579
642
701
781

0.250
0.312
0.375
0.438
0.500

0.219
0.273
0.328
0.382
0.438

13.500
13.375
13.250
13.125
13.000

10.8
13.4
16.1
18.7
21.2

100

0.5!J3
0.625
0.750
0.875
0.937

0.519
0.547
0.656
0.766
0.820

12.814
12.750
12.500
12.250
12.125

120
140
160

1.0!J3
1.250
1.406

0.956
1.094
1.230

10
20
30
40

0.250
0.312
0.375
0.500
0.625

60

5S 0.165
lOS 0.180
0.250
0.330
40S 0.375

0.141
0.158
0.219
0.289
0.328

12.420
12.3!l0
12.250
12.090
12.000

0.406
80S 0.500
0.S62
0.625
0.687

0.355
0.438
0.492
0.547
0.601

0.750
0.843
0.875
1.000
1.125
1.312

10
20
30
40

60

Weight of

Pipe

Water

w'"
Ib per it

4.45
4.44
4.42
4.39
4.38

19.6
24.2
33.4
43.8
49.6

52.5
52.2
S1.1
49.7
49.0

0.128
0.160
0.182
0.204
0.227

4.37
4.33
4.31
4.29
4.27

53.5
6S.4
73.2
80.9
88.5

48.S
47.0
46.0
4S.0
44.0

80.2
88.1
90.8
101
110
123

0.2S0
0.285
0.298
0.348
0,400
0,481

4.25
4.22
4.21
4.17
4.13
4.07

96.2
107
111
125
140
160

43.0
41.6
41.1
39.3
37.5
34.9

255
315
373
429
484

36.5
45.0
53.3
61.4
69.1

0.064
0.080
0.097
0.1140.132

4.86
4.84
4.82
4.80
4.78

36.7
45.7
54.6
63.4
72.1

62.0
60.6
59.7
58.6
57.5

25.0
26.3
31.2
36.1
38.4

562
589
687
781
825

80.3
84.1
98.2
112
118

0.158
0.168
0.205
0.244
0.264

4.74
4.73
4.6!J
4.65
4.63

84.9
89.3
106
123
131

5S.9
55.3
53.1
51.1
50.0

11.814
11.500
11.188

44.3
50.1
55.6

930
1030
1120

133
147
160

0.315
0.360
0,426

4.58
4.53
4,48

151
170
189

47.5
45.0
42.6

0.210
0.273
0.328
0,438
0.547

15.500
15.376
15.250
15.000
14.750

12.4
15.4
18.4
24.4
30.2

384
474
562
732
894

48.0
5!).3
70.3
91..')
112

0.048
0.061
0.074
0.100
0.127

5.57
5.55
5.53
5,48
5.44

42.1
52.3
62.6
82.8
103

81.7
80.5
79.1
76.5
74.1

100

0.656
0.750
0.843
0.875
1.031

0.574
0.655
0.738
0.766
0.902

14.688
14.500
14.314
14.250
13.938

31.6
35.9
40.1
41.6
48.5

933
1050
1160
1190
1370

117
131
145
149
171

0.134
0.155
0.176
0.184
0.221

5.43
5.40
5.37
5.36
5.29

108
122
136
141
165

73.4
71.5
69.7
69.1
66.1

120
140
160

1.218
1.438
1.593

1.066
1.258
1.394

13.564
13.124
12.814

56.6
65.8
72.1

1560
1760
1890

195
220
237

0.208
0.325
0.368

5.23
S.17
5.12

Hl2
224
245

62.6
58.6
55.9

60
80

100
120
140
160

XS

16"
16.000

Bend
Radius
Characof
teristic
Gyraper Unit
tion
Bend
Radius
11ft
inches
h/R
ro

Ib per ft

40

80

XS

Section
Modulus
inches!

1m

inches
d

square inches

XS

Std.

Moment
of
Inertia

Continued

'YBt)

inches

Std.

14"
14.000

CrossSectional
Metal
Area

inches

20
30

Std.

and Weights of Pipe -

inches'
I

inches
D

12"
12.7S0

Inside
Diameter

339

80

--

Wp

340

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEl\IS

C-l.

Nominal
Size
Outside
Diameter

Weight
Designation
and/or
Schedule
Number

Average
Wall
Thickness

Properties and Weights of Pipe -

Minimum
WaU
Thickness
(=

inches
D

square inches
A

inches"
I

0.219
0.273
0.328
0.382
0.438
0.492
0.547
0.656
0.766
0.820

17.500
17.376
17.250
17.121
17.000
16.876
16.750
Hi.500
16.250
16.126

13.9
17.3
20.8
24.2
27.5
30.8
34.1
40.6
47.1
50.2

519
679
807
932
1050
1170
12!l0
1520
1730
1830

61.0
75.5
89.6
104
117
130
1<13
168
102
204

0.038
0.048
0.058
0.068
O.o7S
0.OS9
0.090
0.121
0.143
0.155

6.28
6.25
6.23
6.21
6.19
6.17
6.15
6.10

80

0.250
0.312
0.375
0.438
0.500
0.562
0.625
0.750
0.875
0.937

100
120
140
160

1.156
1.375
1.562
1.781

1.012
1.203
1.367
1.558

15.688
15.250
14.876
14.438

61.2
71.8
80.7
90.S

2180
2500
2750
3020

242
278
3013
336

10
20
30
40

0.250
0.375
0.500
0.5D3

0.219
0.328
0.438
0.510

19.500
19.250
10.000
18.814

15.5
23.1
30.6
36.2

757
1110
1460
1700

80

0.625
0.750
0.812
0.875
1.031

0.517
0.655
0.711
0.766
0.!l02

18.750
18.500
18.376
18.250
17.!J38

38.0
45.4
48.9
52.6
61.4

1790
2100
2260
2410
2770

100
120
140
160

1.281
1.500
1.750
1.968

1.121
1.313
1.531
1.722

17.438
17.000
16.500
16.064

75.3
87.2
100.
112

10
20

0.250
0.375
0.500
0.562
0.625

0.219
0.328
0.438
0.-102
0.547

23.500
23.250
23.000
22.875
22.750

GO
80
100

0.H87
0.750
O.!lGS
1.218
1.531

O.HOI
0.G55
0.8-17
1.066
1.310

120
140
160

I.S12
2.0G2
2.34.3

1.586

10

40
60

60

30

24/1
24.000

inches+
Z

Ys!)

Bend
Hadius
Characof
teristic
Gyraper Unit
tion
Bend
Radius
inches
l/ft

inches

30

Std.
XS

. Section
Modulus

t;

XS

20"
20.000

Moment
of
Inertia

inches

Std.

Std.
XS

CrossSectional
r..letal
Area

inches
t

10
20

IS"
18.000

Inside
Dinmeter

Continued

40

20

--

h/R

TU

Weight of

Pipe

Water

Wp
w'"
Ib per ft Ib per ft

6.06

47.4
59.0
70.6
82.2
93.5
105
116
138
160

6.04

171

10-1
103
101
99.7
9S.3
96.9
95.4
92.6
89.9
88.5

0.106
0.230
0.278
0.325

5.97
5.90
5.84
5.77

208
244
274
30!)

S3.7
79.1
75.3
70.9

75.7
111
146
170

0.031
0.047
0.0133
0.076

6.98
6.94
6.90
6.86

52.7
78.6
104
123

129
126
123
120

17D

210
226
241
277

O.OSO
0.097
0.10(\
0.115
0.138

6.85
6.81
6.79
6.77
6.72

129
154
166
170
200

120
117
115
113
109

3320
3760
4220
4590

332
376
422
459

0.175
0.210
0.252
0.291

6.63
6.56
6,48
6.41

256
296
341
379

103
98.3
92.6
87.8

18.7
27.8
36.0
41.4
45.9

1320
1940
2550
2840
3140

110
162
213
237
261

0.021
0.032
0.013
0.040
0.055

8.40
8.35
8.31
8.29
8.27

63.4
94.6
125
141
156

188
IS4
ISO
178
176

22.{l25
22.500
22.0lH
21.561
20.038

50.3
54.8
70.0
87.2
lOS

3420
3710
1650
5670
6850

285
30!)
388
473
571

0.061
0.067
0.088
0.113
0.146

S.25
8.22
8.15
8.07
7.96

171
186
238
296
367

174
172
166
158
149

2.050

20.376
19.876
19.311

126
142
159

7820
8630
9400

652
7Hl
788

0.177
0.206
0.240

7.87
7.79
7.70

429
483
542

141
134
127

0.312
0.375
0.500

0.273
0.328
0.438

29.37U
29.250
29.000

29.1
34.9
46.3

3210
3830
5040

214
255
33G

0.017
0.021
0.028

10.5
10.5
10.4

98.9
119
157

204
291
286

0.562
0.625
0.750

0.492
0.547
0.655

28.875
28.750
28.500

52.0
57.6
08.9

5640
6220
7380

376
415
402

0.031
0.035
0.012

lOA

177
HJ6
234

284
281
277

i.sos

30"

so.ooo
30

lOA

10.3

CHARTS AND TABLES

100

200

C-2.
300

Thermal Expansion,
400 500 600

17
16

16

15

15

14

14

13

13

12

12
II

i
..

a:
W
a..

10

..
z

10
9

(/)
I.!"

<t

Q..

Ii

.~

X
W

3
2

J
a

o
70

200

300

600

700

800

TEMPERATURE,

900

1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1&>0

Materials (Nominal Analysis)

I. Carbon, carbon-~% molybdenum, and ~% chromium-~% molybdenum steels.
2. 1% to 3% chromium-!% to 1% molybdenum steels.
3. 4% to l()% chromium-!% to 1~% molybdenum steels.
4. 18% chronllum-8% nickel steels (AISI types 302, 303, 304, 321, and 347).
Note: This chart is reproduced from a standard of The M. W. Kellogg Company that was used in the preparation
calculations in thia book. It is not in full agreement with data in ASA B31.1-1955.

of the sample

342

DESIGN OF PIPING
C-3.

Modulus of Elasticity,

SYSTEMS

Carbon and Alloy Steels

30

29
N

~
<,
(D

28

..J
ID

27

!::
(.)
i=

26

(,()
<{

..J
W
LL

25

o
(/)

=>
..J
=>
o

24

::E

23

W
..J

enz

w
.....

22

21

100

200

300

400

500

TEMPERATURE

600

700

F
19

18

MATERIALS

17

I. CARBON STEEL
CHROMIUM-NICKEL
SUCH AS
2. FERRITIC

ALLOY

SUCH AS

STAINLESS

AISI TYPES

STEELS

304,309,

310, 316,347.

16

STEELS

CARBON-MOLYBDENUM,
1/2%

TO 10%

AISI TYPES

.~

15

CHROMIUI.I-MOLY,

405,

410, 430, 446.

14

13
800

900

(000

1100

TEMPERATURE

1200

1300

Note: This chart is reproduced from a standard of The l\1. W. Kellogg Company that was used in the preparation of the sample
calculations in this book. It is not in full agreement with data in ASA B31.1-1955.

34.1

CHARTS AND TABLES

C-4. Chart for Criterion in Par. 620(a) in Code for Pressure Piping ASA 831.1

l~gW

y/u~

. mIX)

to

L()

'<t

80
7v

60
50
40 .

30

20J

Anchor distance, ft
Nominal diameter, in.

Analysis of piping is mandatory if

!::.
< a'
U

lllllill

111)1.[111

10;
9 . .
8

Nominal diameter of pipe, in.

Developed pipe length, ft.

Y = Resultant of restrained thermal expansion

and net linear terminal displacements, in.

6
5 :

U = Anchor distance (length of straight

joining anchors), ft.

line

Temperature, F.

The temperature scale may be used instead of

Y I U when there is no displacement of the anchor
points.

Basis of Chart
Analysis of piping is mandatory if the following
criterion is not satisfied:

DY

(L _ U)2 ::; 0.03

.9
.8
.7
.6

.5
A

.3

T.

g t-~ (~
g
1)
10
IX)

(~

344

DESIGN

. C-5.
Two-Member

OF PIPING

LENGTH

SYSTEMS

OF LEG REQUIRED

System, Both Ends Fixed, Thermal

Expansion

in Plane of Members

20
,

'E

!
I

1\

"

!
,

1,1

=,,,,"

9
8

6.

of leg AB, ft.

e = Unit linear thermal

5 I\'..\c L\:

t:'.'

expansion,

Value of E used = 29 X 106 psi.

41\~O,=,\-:'-'

SA

I~C=..\::

= Code allowable

(1.25Sc

31_~

1-=,:::'

I==i

21==,

,
,

! .

I,
_v
.f

.~
.5 ..

...J
o:t

so
z

_2

:1

.3

.5

,-,-

.6 .7 .6.9 1.0

K
Multiply

= Length

L by K to obtain length of leg Be required.

stress range

+ 0.25Sh),

psi.

in./ft.

CHARTS AND TABLES

C-6.

345

MOMENTS AND FORCES

Two-Member System, Both Ends Fixed

Thermal Expansion in Plane of Members
60

LIFT)

50

40

K<I

F::;A = -F",c

= -106At/cILl

FuA = -Fuc

= +106A21e1LZ

M.A

+106,13Ie/L

M.c == -106A.4Ie/L
LIFT)

I'
A

IQ

<{

<(

K>I

c
Fd

= -F",c

FuA = -Fllc

== -IOG1i2Ie/(KL)2
=

+I06,1IIc/(KL)2

Md

= lOGA4Ie/KL

ACe

= -lOGA3Ie/KL

F = Force, lb.

Moment, It-lb.

First subscript denotes direction.

Second subscript denotes location.
Signs are those of forces or moments acting on
anchors.
I

= Unit linear thermal expansion, in./ft.

Moment of inertia of pipe, in. 4.

Value of E used

29 X lOG psi.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

~C-7. LENGTH OF LEG REQUIRED

One Support

Two-Member System, Both Ends Fixed

Displaced in the Direction of the Adjoining Member

100
90
80

70
60
50
..
0
30

20

L SA

of leg AB, ft.

t. = Displacement

107 11

SA.

7
6
5
4
3

.6
.5
.4

.3

K
L by K to obtain length of Be required.

as shown of end A, in.

Value of E used = 29 X 106 psi.

10
9
8

Multiply

= Length

= Code allowable stress range

(1.25S<
0.25Sh), psi.

CHAnTS AND TABLES

C-8.

347

MOMENTS AND FORCES

Two-Member System, Both Ends Fixed

One Support Displaced in the Direction of the Adjoining Member
AI!.

10
9

8
7

A,

III

I"

AU
~

..::--

,<

...

c
~

;5

I=.

...

<t

I~"

-Fzc

F ~A

-FlJc = +105ILl.Az/3

.6

_,

.2

07

.05

no

.01

.1

.3

.'

.1

-105ILl.AtlL3

I = Moment of inertia of pipe, in.".

Ll. = Displacement in z-direction of end
..1, in .
Va lue of E used = 29 X 106 psi.

:~~-

F = Force, lb.
M = Moment, It-lb.
Fi rst subscript denotes direction.
Se cond subscript denotes location.
Si gns are those of forces or moments acting
on anchors.

.7

.4

M .A = +105ILl.AJ/L2
M c = -105ILl.A4/L2

o.

2.

F r.4

II

.6 .7.8 .91.0

15

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

348

C-9. LENGTH OF LEG REQUIRED

Two-Member System, Both Ends Fixed
One Support Displaced Normal to Plane of Members
t

L = Length of leg AB, ft.

tl = Displacement normal to plane, in.

Value of E used = 29 X lOG psi.

S....= Code allowable stress range (1.258<

+ O.258h), psi.

2.0

.0
.9
.8

.7
.6

Je"

.5

30"
!3

.4

....,
Ie"

!3_,

.3

16"
14"
12"

.2

10"

W
N
(/)

.~':.

.-.07
"

.v...

6"

oet

:z

4"

3"

....

21

.v
""

2"

,p

If,.

......

I!

I"
.ve,.

.1

.2

.3

.4

.5

K
MUltiply L by

J( to

obtain length of leg Be required.

.J

.6

.7

.8

.9

1.0

io
z

CHARTS AND TABLES

349

C-IO. MOMENTS AND FORCES

Two-Member System, Both Ends Fixed
One Support Displaced Normal to Plane of Members
L

~
uv

60
0:;

.., li"
o::l:
,
....
v

If

<{

111
c = -103- L'!' ,1,

"

~,

r<)

<{

~
N

o::l:

-c

Iv

9
8
7

---

5
4

Force, lb.
Moment, It-lb.

First subscript denotes direction.

Second subscript denotes location.
Signs arc those of forces or
moments acting on anchors.

:3

Moment of inertia of
pipe, in.",
11 = Displacement normal to
plane, in.
Value of Eused = 29 X lOG psi.

2.

350

DESIGN OF PIPING

SYSTEMS

c.n, REQUIRED HEIGHT

Symmetrical
',p
tJo

,po

'($I.$'

'/,s-

,.-----,

?-

,;

'/0

Expansion Loop

\\

Guido

./

'otJo

'0

A'

.0

G1.>ido

;;-----A

j-'=''''_~'-'!.

--

--..ti

B'

,9
1----

.6

fffW

.7

"J..

.6

~~i~
r...~(A ~,

~~

tlt~;-(6~JD
~.1'
~"1

Length from i1 to B. ft.

t.,

~L(l

Ll

Expansion from ~1tto B', in.

Outside diameter of pipe, in.

[(.)

Value of E used

.4

L ----i

29 X 106 psi.

SA ~, Code allowable stress range

0.25Sh), psi.

~,

(1.25S,

~'

.3

.2

L2 SA
(0706-

.11'\

.u.,

.ur

... ,..
........

05

....."
l"\~

.02
.05

.10

MUltiply L by Klll.nd K2 to obtain dimensions cf loop.

.2

,4

,5

.6

.7 .8 .9 1.0

CHARTS
C-12.

AND TABLES

MOMENTS

Symmetrical
I r---

ido

_t,

_j

351

AND FORCES

Expansion

Loop

, r;J
(,

K,t

~-J

0..' do

~ ---..t:
8
S'

Fr-i' = -FrY'

= -106Ad~/LS

Mr-i

-Mzy

lOSA2I~/L~

te

I = Moment of inertia of pipe, in.',

~ = Expansion from A' to B', in,
Value of E used = 29 X 106 psi.

F = Force, lb.
M = Moment, It-lb.
First subscript denotes direction.
Second subscript denotes location.
Signs arc those of forces or moments acting on anchors.

1:
\\

6
5

.~

A.
3

I
:.

~
~
"

'e

Ae

~
>1

'.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5

.4

.3

.10

... .,

....,. ...

.2.

.3

.4

.5

.6

.7

.8 .9

to

_------------------------

DESIGN

352

C-13.

OF PIPING

SYSTEMS

Guidcd Cantflevcr Chart

L = Length of leg, ft.

Lateral deflection, in.

Value of E used

29 X lOG psi.

+ O.25Sh), psi.

SA = Code allowable stress range (1.25S,

Assumed mode of deflection of guided cantilever.

20

10
9

,
,

1111

..

~o

,t, \

"

.,

\',

S
5

..

\"

~O
,

'1?\'?

"

!"

;;I.

O. 9

o.8
o, 7

II

o.S

II

,
I

o.5
o. 4

lit

..

o.3
o.2

(\J

s
0

,q

It)

..".

on

CD

...

"

<DQlO

8
Instructions: Determine value of LvSA/IO
Enter with this value of ordinate scale and read over to line for proper
nominal pipe size. Read down to abscissa scale, The value obtained will be the permissible lateral deflection for leg.
J,

353

CHARTS AND TABLES

C-14.

Factor j, Guided Cantilever

Correction

Method

'"~J.
Case I.

L. ( Le

Case II. For any interior leg L whose maximum deflection is in the plane of L and LA
where LA is the shorter of the connecting legs.

For any exterior leg L.

100
90
8v

70
60

M,

50
40

~~
~

30

.. . .
20
I

CaseIII. For any interior leg L whose maximum deflection is perpendicular to the plane
of L and LA where LA is the shorter of the
connecting legs.

,
Tl:mfil
::'IIi.,

l..<l.

~5fm;1

:i1i!'li

lilill
111:1;11

. I

t=
,~

,
,

-0

'''.

LA ::

I:

~ d

~t-~c

r-

LENGTH OF LEG UNDER CONSIDERATION

LENGTH OF SHORTER ADJACENT LEG

0_
c-I

C)

qV

10

q
CD

<?-

~. 0.
0
CD0'1 0

t-

354

DESIGN OF PIPING

C-15.
a

Design Data: Trigonometric

Ca

Co

Cab

Caa

Cob

0
15
30
45
60

+.0038
+.02G2
+.0468
+.0643
+.0774

-.0872
-.0832
-.0736
-.0589
-.0403

-.0038
-.0250
-.0395
-.0434
-.0357

+.0003
+.0080
+.0253
+.0475
+.0687

+.0871
+.0791
+.0621
+.0399
+.0187

75
90
105
120
C; 135

+.0852
+.0872
+.0832
+.0736
+.0589

-.0189
+.0038
+.0262
+.0468
+.0613

-.0184
+.0038
+.0250
+.0395
+.0131

+.0832
+.0871
+.0794
+.0621
+.03!l9

+.0042
+.0003
+.0080
+.0253
+.0175

150
165
II
180
.:t- 195
<>
... 210

+.0403
+.0189
-.0038
-.0262
-.0468

+.0774
+.0852
+.0872
+.0832
+.0736

+.0357
+.0184
-.0038
-.0250
-.03!)5

+.0187
+.0012
+.0003
+.0080
+.0253

+.0687
+.0832
+.0871
+.0794
+.0621

225
240
255
270
285

-.0643
-.0774
-.0852
-.0872
-.0832

+.0589
+.0403
+.0189
-.0038
-.0262

-.013,1
-.0357
-.0184
+.0038
+.0250

+.0475
+.0687
+.0832
+.0871
+.0791

+.0399
+.0187
+.0012
+.0003
+.0080

300
315
330
345
360

-.0736
-.0589
-.0403
-.0189
+.0038

-.0468
-.0643
-.0774
-.0852
-.0872

+.0395
+.0434
+.0357
+.0184.
-.0038

+.0621
+.0399
+.0187
+.0042
+.0003

0
15
3u
45
60

+.0152
+.05U6
+.1000
+.1335
+.1580

-.1736
-.1638
-.1-128
-.1121
-.0737

-.0151
-.0558
-.0816
-.0855
-.0665

75
90
105
120
135

+.1716
+.1736
+.1638
+.1428
+.1121

-.0303
+.0152
+.0596
+.1000
+.1335

150
0
165
II
180
.:t- 1\15
o
...
< 210

+.0737
+.0303
-.0152
-.0596
-.1000

225
240
255
270
285
300
315
330
345
360

(degrees)

1'00
0

<
~
or.>

~
If'.)

..;<

Constants for Circular Members

a

C....

ebb

Ca

Co

Cab

0
15
30
45
60

+.0341
+.0990
+.1589
+.2071
+.2112

-.2588
-.2412
-.2071
-.1589
-.0999

-.0335
-.0915
-.1250
-.1250
-.0915

+.0059
+.0394
+.097-1
+.1644
+.2224

+.2559
+.222,1
+.1644
+.0974
+.0394

75
90
105
120
00- 135

+.2588
+.2588
+.2112
+.2071
+.158!}

-.034J
+.0341
+.09\)9
+.1589
+.2071

-.0335
+.0335
+.0\)15
+.1250
+.1250

+.2559
+.255!'1
+.2224
+.1644
+.0!)74

+.0059
+.0059
+.0391
+.0974
+.1644

+.0!}99
+.0341
-.03H
-.0999
-.1589

+.2412
+.2588
+.2588
+.2412
+.2071

+.01)15
+.0335
-.0335
-.0915
-.1250

+.03!l1
+.0059
+.0059
+.0394
+.0!'74

+.2244
+.255\)
+.2559
+.222-1
+.164'1

225
210
255
270
285

-.2071
-.2412
-.2588
-.2588
-.2412

+.1589
+.0999
+.0341
-.03H
-.0999

-.1250
-.0915
-.0335
+.0335
+.0915

+.1614
+.2224
+.2559
+.2559
+.2224

+.097<1
+.0394
+.005l)
+.0059
+.039,1

+.0253
+.0475
+.0687
+.0832
+.0871

300
315
330
315
360

-.2071
- .1589
-.0999
-.0341
+.0341

-.1589
-.2071
-.2412
-.2588
-.2588

+.1250
+.1250
+.0915
+.0335
-.0335

+.IM4
+.O!l74
+.0394
+.0059
+.0059

+.0974
+.16-1-1
+.2221
+.255\1
+.2559

+.0018
+.0208
+.0576
+.1023
+.1431

+.1728
+.1538
+.1170
+.0722
+.0315

0
15
30
45
60

+.1310
+.2588
+.3660
+.4483
+.5000

-.5000
-.4483
-.3660
-.2588
- .1310

-.1250
-.2165
-.2500
-.2165
-.1250

+.0453
+.1368
+.2618
+.3868
+.4783

+.4783
+.3868
+.2618
+.1368
+.0153

-.0297
+.0151
+.0558
+.0816
+.0855

+.1689
+.1728
+.1538
+.1170
+.0722

+.0057
+.0018
+.0208
+.0576
+.1023

75
90
105
120
G 135

+.5176
+.5000
+.4483
+.3660
+.2588

0
+.1340
+.2588
+.3660
+.4-183

0
+.1250
+.2165
+.2500
+.2165

+.5118
+.4783
+.3868
+.2618
+.1368

+.01l8
+.0453
+.1368
+.2618
+.3868

+.1580
+.1716
+.1736
+.1638
+.1128

+.0665
+.0297
-.0151
-.0558
-.0816

+.0315
+.0057
+.0018
+.0208
+.0576

+.1431
+.1689
+.1728
+.1538
+.1170

150
165
180
195
210

+.1340
0
-.1310
-.2588
-.3660

+.5000
+.5176
+.5000
+.4483
+.3660

+.1250
0
-.1250
-.2165
-.2500

+.0453
+.0118
+.0453
+.1368
+.2618

+.4783
+.5118
+.4783
+.3868
+.2618

-.1335
-.1580
-.1716
-.1736
-.1638

+.1121
+.0737
+.0303
-.0152
-.0596

-.0855
-.0665
-.0297
+.0151
+.0558

+.1023
+.1-131
+.168U
+.1728
+.1538

+.0722
+.0315
+.0057
+.0018
+.0208

225
210
255
270
285

-.4483
-.5000
-.5176
-.5000
-.4483

+.2588
+.1340
0
-.1340
-.2588

-.2165
-.1250
0
+.1250
+.2165

+.3868
+.4783
+.5118
+.4783
+.3868

+.1368
+.0153
+.0118
+.0453
+.1368

-.1428
-.1121
-.0737
-.0303
+.0152

-.1000
-.1335
-.1580
-.1716
-.1736

+.0816
+.0855
+.0665
+.0297
-.0151

+.1170
+.0722
+.0315
+.0057
+.0018

+.0576
+.1023
+.1431
+.1689
+.1728

300
315
330
345
360

-.3660
-.2588
-.1310
0
+.1340

-.3660
-.'1183
-.5000
-.5176
-.5000

+.2500
+.2165
+.1250
0
-.1250

+.2618
+.1368
+.0453
+.0118
+.0153

+.2618
+.3868
+.4783
+.5118
+.4783

(degrees)

<0
e-l

150
165
II
180
.:t- 195
<.>
...
< 210
0

~
or.>

....

1'-

SYSTEMS

e-l

I.t;)

d
11

~
o

<

'0
M

CHARTS AND TABLES

C-15.
a
(degrees)

Design Data: Trigonometric

355

Constants for Circular Members - Continued

a

Co

C6

Cab

0
15
30
45
60

+.2929
+.4659
+.6072
+.7071
+.7588

-.7071
-.6072
-.4659
-.2929
-.0999

-.2500
-.3415
-.3415
-.2500
-.0915

+.1427
+.3012
+.4812
+.6-127
+.7342

+.6127
+.4842
+.3012
+.1427
+.0512

0
15
30
45
60

+1.0000
+1.2247
+1.3660
+1.4142
+1.3660

-1.0000
-0.7071
-0.3660
0
+0.3660

-0.5000
-0.4330
-0.2500
0
+0.2500

+0.('854
+1.0354
+1.2184
+1.2854
+1.2184

+0.7854
+0.5354
+0.3524
+0.2854
+0.3524

75
90
105
120
135

+.7588
+.7071
+.6072
+.4659
+.2929

+.0999
+.2929
+.4659
+.6072
+.7071

+.0915
+.2500
+.3415
+.3415
+.2500

+.73-12
+.6427
+.4812
+.3012
+.1427

+.0512
+.1427
+.3012
+.4842
+.6427

75
90
l05
120
00- 135

+1.2247
+1.0000
+0.7071
+0.3660
0

+0.7071
+1.0000
+1.2217
+1.3660
+1.4142

+0.4330
+0.5000
+0.4330
+0.2500
0

+1.0354
+0.7854
+0.5354
+0.3524
+0.2854

+0.5354
+0.7851
+1.035-1
+1.2184
+1.2854

150
0
165
II
180
~ 195
...
< 210

+.0999
-.0999
-.2929
-.4659
-.6072

+.7588
+.7588
+.7071
+.6072
+.4659

+.0915
-.0915
-.2500
-.3415
-.3415

+.0512
+.0512
+.1427
+.3012
+.4812

+.7342
+.7342
+.6427
+.4812
+.3012

150
165
180
195
210

-0.3660
-0.7071
-1.0000
-1.2247
-1.3660

+1.3660
+1.2247
+1.0000
+0.7071
+0.3660

-0.2500
-0.4330
-0.5000
-0.4330
-0.2500

+0.3524
+0.5354
+0.7854
+1.0334
+1.21S4

+1.2184
+1.0354
+0.7854
+0.5354
+0.3521

225
240
255
270
285

-1.4142
-1.3660
-1.0000
-0.7071

0
-0.3660
-0.7071
-1.0000
-1.2247

0
+0.2500
+0.4330
+0.5000
+0.4330

+1.2854
+ 1.2184
+1.0354
+0.7854
+0.5354

+0.2854
+0.3521
+0.5354
+0.7854
+1.0354

300
315
330
345
360

-0.3660
0
+0.3660
+0.7071
+1.0000

-1.3660
-1.4142
-1.3660
-1.2247
-1.0000

+0.2500
0
-0.2500
-0.4330
-0.5000

+0.3524
+0.7854
+0.3524
+0.5354
+0.7854

+1.2184
+1.2854
+1.2184
+1.0354
+0.7854

=0

~
.,.,

Coo

Cbb

00
l'-

(.)

'"
'<t'

II
~

t-.

"'"

C!
....
II

...

...:
to

0
t--

""?

....
II

...

(.)

<

Co

C6

Cob

Coo

Cbb

225
240
255
270
285

-.7071
-.7588
-.7588
-.7071
-.6072

+.2929
+.0999
-.0999
-.2929
-.4659

-.2500
-.0915
+.0915
+.2500
+.3415

+.6427
+.7342
+.7342
+.6427
+.4842

+.1427
+.0512
+.0512
+.1427
+.3012

300
315
330
345
360

-.4659
-.6072
-.2929 , -.7071
-.0999
-.7588
+.0999
-.7588
-.7071
+.2929

+.3415
+.2500
+.0915
-.0915
-.2500

+.3012
+.1427
+.0512
+.0512
+.1427

+.4842
+.6427
+.7342
+.7342
+.6427 .

0
Cl

-1.2z.t7

0
15
30
45
60

+0.5000
+0.7071
+0.8660
+0.9659
+1.0000

-0.8660
-0.7071
-0.5000
-0.2588
0

-0.3750
-0.4330
-0.3750
-0.2165
0

+0.3071
+0.5236
+0.7401
+0.8986
+0.9566

+0.7401
+0.5236
+0.3071
+0.1486
+0.0906

0
15
30
45
60

+2.0000
+1.9318
+1.7320
+1.4142
+1.0000

0
+0.5176
+1.0000
+1.4142
+1.7320

75
90
105
120
135

+0.965()
+0.8660
+0.7071
+0.5000
+0.2588

+0.2588
+0.5000
+0.7071
+0.8660
+0.9659

+0.2165
+0.3750
+0.433U
+0.3750
+0.2165

+0.8986
+0.7401
+0.5236
+0.3071
+0.1486

+0.1186
+0.3071
+0.5236
+0.7101
+0.8986

75
90
105
120
135

+0.5176
0
-0.5176
-l.0000
-1.4142

+1.9318
+2.0000
+1.!l318
+1.7320
+1Al<t2

150
165
180
195
210

0
-0.2588
-0.5000
-0.7071
-0.8660

+1.0000
+0.9659
+0.8660
+0.7071
+0.5000

0
-0.2165
-0.3750
-0..1330
-0.3750

+0.0906
+0.1486
+0.3071
+0.5236
+0.7401

+0.9566
+0.8986
+0.7401
+0.5236
+0.3071

150
165
~ 180
... 195
...:: 210

-1.7320
-1.9318
-2.0000
-1.9318
-1.7320

+1.0000
+0.5176
0
-0.5176
-1.0000

225
240
255
270
285

-0.9659
-1.0000
-0.9659
-0.8660
-0.7071

+0.2588
0
-0.2588
-0.5000
-0.7071

-0.2165
0
+0.2165
+0.3750
+0.4330

+0.8986
+0.9566
+0.8986
+0.7401
+0.5236

+0.1486
+0.0906
+0.1486
+0.3071
+0.5236

225
210
255
270
285

-1.4142
-1.0000
-0.5176
0
+0.5176

-1.7320
-1.9318
-2.0000
-1.9318

300
315
330
345
360

-0.5000
-0.2588
0
+0.2588
+0.5000

-0.8660
-0.9659
-1.0000
-0.9659
-0.8660

+0.3750
+0.2165
0
-0.2165
-0.3750

+0.3071
+0.1486
+0.0906
+0.1486
+0.3071

+0.7401
+0.8986
+0.9566
+0.8986
+0.7401

300
315
330
345
360

+1.0000
+1.4142
+1.7320
+1.9318
+2.0000

-1.7320
-1.4142
-1.0000
-0.5176
0

co
...

= +1.5708 =+1.5708

'<t'

(degrees)

.....

M
II
Q

C'l
00

-1,.1112

!
0

!
+1.5708

!
+1.5708

DESIGN OF PIPING

356

C-16.
'Horizontal

SYSTEMS

Spun vs. Stress,

Pipe Lines, Uniform Loud

1000
800
600
3

400
4
10
6

e
6

';:2

a... 4
0
0
0

~IO

(/)
(/)

a:

100

=>
...J
=>
6
0
Oe

__

t; 20

t(/)

(f)

(!)

Z
0

"

30

-----

___ --- ------

----

(/)

<,

...J

a...

40 r-

"
......

30

30

.8

60

.6

80

:=
20

z
=>
10

...J
<[

100

::g

r-

r-

.4

"

C/)

.3

:3

.2
2

Formula:

Key;

(.!)

r-

X
<!

"

u..

60 en

::I:

::g

=>
::g

80 r-

w
20 a...

40

60

(D

u..

z
<!
a...

(f)

r-

10

-3

(/)

200

<=

1.2wl2/Z

(1) Connect Z with 10 locating turning point (It).

(2) Connect (11) with s locating l.
Connect (A) with llocating s.

Example:

Given: Z = 24.5 in.",

Result: l = 29 ft.

w ""

66 lb/It, S == 2750 psi.

CHARTS AND TABLES

357

C-17. Span YS. Natural Frequency and YS. Deflection

Horizontal Pipe Lines, Uniform Load
1000

800
10

600

6
400

....o
4POO;:

z
2P~

c->

___

<t

1,000
800

100

--

t=

a:

---

~-------

fZ

--60

4Q

----~

__

<t

(!)

:::>
20

"

....
It

a:

.03

<t

.02

to

10

"

"
.O[

2
.2
2
.10
.08

Formulas:
Key:

1.0
=

17.1wl~/EI

(1) Connect E (or T)

(2) Connect
(11)
(3) Connect
(B)
Connect
(B)

Example:

In == 3.13/V8
with [locating turning point (/1) at intersection on l.
with w locating turning point (B) at intersection on I.
with 1 locating 8 (or In).
with is (or In) locating l.

Given: E = 29 X 106 psi, I = 28'10 in.",

Result: In = 0.76 cy/sec, 0 = 0.17 in.

w =

320Ib/ft.

_.

....<t

&: 20

0..

w
~

'30 ....

'3

....

40

::s

ILl
0..

.4

60

J-

(/)

(J)
_J

:r

o,

<t

1.0
.8
.6

eo

a:

6'-->

a:
UJ
a..

>-

100

20

---0
~
<t
a:
~
f<t

lu,

u,

----2:

20

10

l-

~"5~

tt

10
8
6

200

o
G
--

30

a:
w

fn

-- __ --.:::._
0

60 ~
40

(/)--2

ILl

~
0

---

c,

80

-400 -

100
80

---

___ --

600 ~ ____

200

'300

358

DESIGN OF PIPING

C-18.

Correction

Factors for Use with Charts C-16 and C-17

MOMENT

,/or1"

SYSTEMS

MfiXIMvM
DEFLECT/Of.!

DII9G.

/0

/0

.05U,

/. Z5

1.3/"

1.25

.547

./..,.l"

(R"'!"!!"!"'!l)

w-Z'I-

Et4 EI

llllil IIII IIIIIIQ.

~ 111111111 1111111111 ~

RIIII!lII!IIII!II~

~2'1.

185

ur:

2'1

E.I

\l111!!111111111111~
For Chart C-16:

Multiply S value from chartby

For Chart C-17:

Multiply

(j

Fs to obtain maximum stress for case shown.

value from chart by Fa to obtain maximum deflection for case shown.

APPENDIX

A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis

and
The Use of Digital Computers

359

Acknowledgment

This presentation has been sponsored by the Power Piping Department of The
1'1'1.W. Kellogg Company.
Development of the shape coefficient matrix theory,
in Section 5A-2, was carried out by Dr. A. M. Peiser, Staff Consultant in Mathematics.
Dr. D. H. Cheng, of the City College of New York and Consultant in
Mechanical Development to Kellogg, has been responsible for writing and editing
this presentation,
as well as undertaking
a critical review of the material in
Section 5A-2. The material in this work is substantially
original and cannot be
found elsewhere in the published literature.
Valuable suggestions and criticisms have been made by a number of members
of the company.
Notable among these have been: Messrs, D. B. Rossheim,
J. H. Riekerman, J. T. McKeon, A. F. Myles, and A. M. Mitchel.
]{E"'NI~TH

H.

i\hCWAT'I'

Sales 111anaqer
Power Piping Department

360

5A-l

Introduction

HE Kellogg general analytical method for

relating the expansion displacements of space
piping systems to terminal and intermediate
forces, moments, and stresses was organized for
internal company use in the early 1930's, and was
formally published in 1941 in the First Edition of
the UDesign of Piping Systems." In the Second
Edition of the "Design of Piping Systems," published
in 1956, the presentation was extended to include
the combined effects of terminal and intermediate
restraints, and of concentrated and distributed loads.
This Second Edition also provided the mathematical
basis for the simplification of complex problems by
the inversion method, and a brief discussion of the
then current application of computing machines.
In recent years, rapid developments in the field
of digital computers have permitted the solution of
increasingly complex piping systems with economy
and versatility, not previously attainable. Although
exploratory computer solutions were carried out
much earlier, routine solutions were first obtained by
Kellogg in 1954 using card programmed computing
equipment. The magnetic drum type computer obtained ill 1956 reduced computation time to onetenth. The magnetic core type computer acquired
by Kellogg in 1961 has further reduced computation
time by still another factor of ten. With speed of
this order, the ultimate objective of completely automatic machine analysis of arbitrarily complex piping
systems has become a reality.
With the development of computer programs of
.ever widening scope, the task of the program planner
has become more demanding. The program must be

so planned that any conceivable configuration can

be analyzed, regardless of the number of branches,
anchors, stops, or internal multiple closed loops.
The program should require a minimum amount of
input datu, and provide' a maximum amount of
automation. Essential to the attainment of these
objectives is a rigorous statement of the computational problem in concise mathematical terms.
The importance of this is attested by the growing
acceptance of the notation of matrix algebra in the
description of the piping problem. III recent. years,
Kellogg engineers and mathematicians have used
vector and matrix algebra in re-deriving the shape
coefficients for spatial pipes of any orientation and
securing efficient solutions to piping problems of any
complexity. This chapter summarizes the current
Kellogg approach.
In Section 5A-2, the symbols and nomenclature
will be defined, followed by a step-by-step derivation
of the shape coefficient matrix, referred to an arbitrary set of right-hand orthogonal coordinate axes.
It will be shown that the shape coefficient matrix
can be expressed as a function of two sub matrices,
one of which refers only to a. local origin and a local
coordinate system and, hence, is independent of the
skewness of the member with respect to the common
coordinate system chosen for the entire piping system. The other matrix serves to transfer the local
coordinates to the common coordinate system, and is
independent of the geometrical configuration of the
pipe element, whether it be straight 01' curved. Following the theoretical derivation, the shape coefficient matrices for straight pipes and circular bends
will be constructed, and a method of obtaining these
matrices from minimal input data will be given.

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

362

In Section 5A-3, the two anchor problems will be

extended to the multiple branch and loop problems
in a manner that provides convenient automatic
assembly of shape coefficient matrices by computer.
Systems with intermediate restraints will be treated,
including skew stops.
A brief discussion on computer solutions currently in use will be presented in
Section 5A-4, with the machine input data and printout results for a simple illustrative problem. Finally,
the chapter will be concluded with a brief review of
a selected bibliography.
5A-2

Derivation
Matrix

(i) A vector is distinguished from II scalar by a

bar over the symbol, thus j is a vector; f;
is a scalar representing the component of j
in the i-direction.
A vector with a superscript, [iii, represents
a six-component
force (including moment)
vector acting on the pipe branch i. Also,
a' represents a six-component displacement
(including rotation) vector at the end of
branch i.
(ii) An element in a matrix, located at the i-th
row and the j-th column, is represented by a
symbol with two subscripts, such as Aii
A matrix consisting of an array of numbers,
Aii> is represented by IAiil, or by a capital
letter without subscript and vertical bars,
e.g., A, B, etc.
A matrix with a superscript, 11 i, represents
the shape coefficient matrix of the branch i.
The transpose of a matrix A (or IAiil) is
denoted by A ' (or IA iii).
A zero (null) matrix is denoted as 101.
A diagonal unit matrix is denoted as 11\.
(iii) L =
L represents a summation with

= L qjXj

q(x)

and the position vector of point Pis:

of the Shape Coefficient

1. Definitions
and Nomenclature.
Unless
otherwise specified in the text, the following definitions and nomenclature
will be used consistently
in this chapter.

b. At the convenient local origin, q: Xl, X2,

5:3, called the A-system;
c. At any point along the pipe line, P; ~l'
~2' h called the ~system.
Note that Xi, Xi and ~i are all unit vectors.
(v) The following position vectors are defined:
a. With respect to the z-system, the position
vector of point q is;

15 =

L
PiX ...
;

b. With respect to the x-system, the position

vector of point Pis:
P

L p/i.. ...
i

Figure SA.l shows a space curve in the

z-system.
Any point P on the curve can
be defined by the equation:

1} =

PiXi

ij

+p

ij

(5A.I)

1.

(vi) A vector defined in one coordinate system

may be transformed
to another
system
through a linear transformation
defined as
follows:
a. From the X-system to the ~system:
~j

= L ~jjXi'

= 1,2,3.

(5A.2)

b. From the z-system

to the X-system:
j

= 1,2,3.

(SA.3)

It may be noted that, ~ji represent direction

cosines of the unit vector ~j with respect to

x.
q ~

I.~i",
.i,i,of

.-1,2.3

respect to i of the term or terms following

this sign, when i varies from I to 3.
(iv) A right-hand, orthogonal coordinate system
is denoted by one symbol with permutable
subscripts 1, 2 and 3. The following coordinate systems are defined:
a. At the chosen origin, 0'; Xl, X2, X3, called
the z-systern;

+ L p;'i..i.

(chosen origin)

F!Gt;It~; 5A.1

S ~,".I

A MATRIX

METHOD OF PIPING

ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL COJ\lI'UTERS

unit vectors Xi. Similarly, Aji represent direction cosines of the unit vector Xj with
respect to unit vectors Xi .. ,(vii ) Nomenclature
F = Redundant Force Vector
M = Redundant Moment Vector
A = Displacement Vector
if, = Rotation Vector
j = Internal Force Vector
m = Internal Moment Vector
Fi(i=I,2,3)

= Components of F in

Xl,

forces and moments and the corresponding displacements are functions of the coordinates of the points
of application. To facilitate analyses, it is customary
to consider all the redundant forces and moments,
and the corresponding displacements, to occur at a
common origin and in the fixed z-systern.
In what follows, we shall develop the shape coefficient matrix for a two-anchor system subject to
thermal expansion. The generalization of this development to multiple anchor and loop problems will
be discussed in Section 5A.3. We define:

X2,

and X3 direction, respectively.

11.[;(;=1,2,3)
= Components of iiI in XII X2,
and X3 direction, respectively.
.6i(i=I,2,3)
= Components of A in XI, X2,
and X3 direction, respectively .
cPi(i=1.2,3)
= Components of in Xl, X2,
and X3 direction, respectively.
!;(i=I,2,3)
= Components of j in ~h ~2'
and ~3 direction, respectively.
mi(i=l,2,3)
= Components of ill in ~I' ~2'
and ~3 direction, respectively.
ai, bi(i=1.2,3) = Flexibility factors as defined
in Eq. SA.9.
(Xij, fjij
As defined in Eqs. SA.I4
and 5A.24
As defined in Eqs. SA.I5
and 5A.25
s; = P X ~r, as defined in Eq. 5A.22
,pI = 0 + sin 0
,p2 = 0 - sin 0
o = Central Angle of a Circular Bend
kl = In-plane Bending Factor of a. Pipe
kz = Out-of-plane Bending Factor of a Pipe
Sj = Spring
Constant (in lbs/radian for
j = 1,2,3; Ibs/in for j = 4, 5, G) in
the j-direction.

2. The Shape Coefficient Matrix.

In piping
analyses, it is convenient to consider a complex
piping system, consisting of straight and curved
members randomly oriented in space to be a cantilever (or a series of cantilevers), rigidly fixed at one
end and free at the other (or others) upon which the
redundant forces Ii' and moments M act to preserve
the prescribed physical conditions. These redundant

363

j1'

= I:Fixi
i

(5A.4)

as the redundant forces and moments at the free

end of the cantilever, but transferred to the common
origin; also, the corresponding translative and rotational displacements at the same origin as:
A =

.6ixi

if, =

(5A.5)

I:t/>/X,..

The condition of static equilibrium requires that

the internal forces and moments at any point along
the line be:

j = Lh~i= F,
(5A.(

{ iii

= ~ mi~i

= iiI -

IJ X P.

The force and moment components may be obtained by vector algebra as follows:

Ii =

t.t;
(5A.7)

{
7Ili

= ~iiiI -

~i'l'j

+ 15 X

ii' = kM.

~,P.

The total internal strain energy (11 scalar quantity), induced by F and M in the pipe is:
U

_1_

2EI'

fI:i"

(ar

+ b1/I2)
I

(5A.8)

<is
,

where a, are the flexibility factors associated with

the so-called direct effects (axial and transverse
shear) and bi, those associated with bending (including torsion) effects. Taking Poisson's ratio as
0.3, and assuming thin pipe of uniform stiffness 11,
the quantities ai and b, have the following values:
at = 0.5

r2

/)1

= 2.0

r2

b2

= k2

a3 = 2.6 r2

/)3

a2

1.3

k,

(5A.9)

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

364

where r is the mean radius of the pipe, kl and k2 are

the in-plane and out-of-plane bending factors. If
there is any portion of the pipe \\'ith stiffness BNI N
different from the constant EI, the integration of
Eq. 5A.S must be performed in segments, and a
correction factor Q = EI/ENIN
be applied to all ai
and bi.
Using Castigliano's Theorem which states that:
j =

aM'

au
-,
er,

U jk

1,2,3

=
=

Jam'2;: a},;.
J L. - ~
lum,

ds

(M -

bi{~i'

.'
I

ds

- -

~i'Xj

ami

aF

- anti] ds,

X F) aF

-~i'

afi

(5A.12)

= (p X ~i) -z;

f~
+t f~
biaijlXik

L ill kfL
k

ds

bi{3ijaik ds

U = U',

f 1i

1,2,3,

(SA.IG)

bi{3.jaik ds.

L Mkl'

jk

i=

+ L Ji'kU

1,2,3

jk,

+ H'12M2 + WJ3M3 + VllF

+ l'I2F2 + VJ3F3,
EI2 = lV21Ml + W M +
+ V2lFJ
+V
+ l'23F3J
1t_,'13 = W llf, + W3zM + W33M:1 + V Ji\
+
+
(5A.17)
EID.l = lTllMl + 1'21M2 + 1'31M3 + UlIF
+ U '2Fz + U ,sFa,
EID.z = VlzM +
+ M + U';!lF
+U F +U
ElD.3 = FI3Ml + l'23Mz + V33M3 + U: F,
+
+ F
I

lV23M3

221<'2

3I

1133F3,

F22M2

V:!Z

ZZ 2

23Ji'3J

U:!2F2

U:!3 3'

l1

Equation
5A.17 can
matrix form:

Ell
=

or

jk,

bi{3,"kf3ij lis,

W = Wi,

3l

(5A.13)

or

+ l:
/'\V
k

l'321<'2

Fk

HI D.j

= lVkj,
= Ukj,

22

u,

(5A.I5)

= WIlMI

EIJ

Substituting Eq. 5A.12 in Eq, 5A.II and collecting

terms, we get:

= ~

ds,

if3ii{3ik)

or in a detailed form:

BI i

ik

es,

(ii X Xj)

nr

= L AhWjk

EID.i =

=-,

_
=

+b

(ajaijaik

From Eqs. 5A.4 and 5A.7, we see that:

ami

(5A.l4)

Substituting Eqs. SA.IS and 5A.16 in Eq. SA.13, we

get:
EIj

j = 1,2,3.

eu,

(p X ~i)Xj.

V kj = 1" jk

~i'

+ bi(M~

f 2;:

Ujk

=fl: (aI 'aF.ali + bnn, ami)

aF.
[t:-7 - [a;l'-;aFaJ,=

X F)] aM. ds,

(5A.!I)

f s.,

It may be noted in Eq. 5A.IS that the subscripts j

and k can be interchanged for H'jk and Ujk without
affecting the results, but this is not true for Vik. In
other words, the matrices IWjd, IUjkl are symmetric but !Vjkl is not. Thus we have:

ami

EID.

~i'

(5A.IO)

we obtain from Eqs, 5A.7 and 5A.S the following

equations:
j

D.j

Xj,

aij

We introduce the notation:

au

EI

where

Ai

I = I J~!k
1

Jk

be written

V j"
U jk

li;,!"k
I'

simply in the

I= A

M"
Fk

I'

(SA.IS)

A l\lATRIX

METHOD OF PIPING

ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS

where the displacement and force (including moment) matrices are column matrices, while matrix A
is a 6 X 6 square matrix known under various names
as shape coefficient, influence coefficient, or performance, matrix. According to Maxwell's law of reciprocity, matrix A should be, and is, in the present
case, symmetrical about its diagonal.
It should be noted that the elements in matrix A
are obtained by performing line integrations in Eq.
5A.I5. Since a line integral can be evaluated by segments, i.e., a line integral is the sum of line integrals
of the component segments, the shape coefficient
matrix for the entire pipe may be obtained by summing the shape coefficient matrices of the component
segments.
Equation SA.IS can be used to solve the redundant
moments and forces at the freed anchor provided that
the displacements at the same point are prescribed.
Once the redundants become known, Eq, 5A.7 will
give the internal forces at any point along the pipe
as follows:

I t.rn; I I aij0
=

The elements aij, and

SA.I4.

{3ij

aij

{3ij

I I Mr, I
j

365

Equation 5A.20 may be written as:

fJ X ~i

+ L c,rXr

~irUr

(5A.23)

r.

= L

~ir

Lk

+ L e.; L

UrkXk

ArkXk.

Substituting Eqs. 5A.2, 5A.3 and 5A.23 in Eq. SA.14,

we get:
(SA.24)

Equation 5A.I5 will then take the following form:

U jk

= 2:: Arj L

Atk

a,f~irEit

ds

+ L Urj L lltk 2:: biftirEi!

(5A.I9)

+ Lr

are determined by Eq.

ds

(5A.25)
bif~ireit

ds

+ 2:: Arj 2:: Atl.; 2:: bifEireit

ds.

Urj

Aile

3. The Subm ateices of the Shape Coefficient

Matrix. The coefficients aij and (3ij, being function
of direction cosines and the position vector 1), may

be easily obtained for favorably oriented straight

line pipes or simple bends. If the pipe is skewed with
respect to the fixed z-systern, we shall select. a convenient local origin, ij, as shown in Figure 5A.I,
Section 5A-2.1, and introduce a local coordinate
system with respect to which the given segment of
pipe will have the simplest form of shape coefficient
matrix. We can then refer the shape coefficient
matrix back to the z-system by means of suitable
matrix operations which will be derived below.
Let the local coordinate system be identified as the
A-system. Using Eqs, SA. 1 and SA.2, one gets:

ti =

P X
Introducing

the vector
Ur

{j X

= ij

~irXr

+P

~i'

(.5A.20)

defined in the a-system as:

X Xr =

L UrkXk,

(5A.21)

We define:

= IBTt! =

C = ICTtl =

lli

EirEil

I 2:: aifEirEiI
I

D =

bif

IDTII = I

tls
<is

I,
+ 2:: bifCirCil

~ b,ft,rell

(5A.2\)
ds

II,

ds

I,

each being a 3 X 3 matrix. Upon substitution of

Eq. SA.26 in the matrices of Eq. ;1A.25,we get.:

and the vector

cr

defined ill the A-system as:

= L'BL,
I Ujkl = L'CL
IWjkl

+ N' BN + N' DL + 1./D'N,

I Vjk] = L'EN + L'D1...

(5A.27)

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

366

Substituting
Eq. 5A.27 in matrix A which is defined
in Eq. 5A.18, it is easy to verify t~at:

= \~,

~,

\~,

1 ~

(5A.28)
where 0 represents

a 3 X 3 null matrix.
X

_I

If we let:

D' C

(5A.29)
Y

1 ~

point along the pipe, except that

defined by Eq. SA.24.

= Y'XY.

The following observations

subrnatrices in Eq. 5A.30:

(s,

0, 0)

~I

(1,

0, 0)

~2

(0, 1, 0)

~3

(0, 0, 1)

(5A.30)

may be made on the

1. The 3 X 3 matrices B, C, and]) (Eq. 5A.2G) in

X matrix have identical meanings ill the Asystem as IWjkl, IUjkl and lVikl (Eq. 5A.15)
in the z-system.
In fact, if the local origin is
taken as the common origin, and the A-system
identical to the x-system, N would become a
null matrix as can be seen from Eqs. SA.21 and
5A.2G, and L would become II diagonal unit
matrix us can be seen from Eqs. 5A.3 and 5A.2o.
Consequently,
A simply becomes X. Therefore, X may be called the shape coefficient matrix, but referred to the A-system. It is implicit
here that X can be computed for every segment
of a pipe irrespective of the x-system.
2. The A-system, or the coordinates at, the local
origin, can be chosen so as to make the construction of the X matrix as simple as possible.
The correct. choice of the A-system for common
piping configurations is not difficult to obtain
as will be demonstrated
in the illustrative
examples in Section 5A-2A.
3. The Y matrix, consisting of terms which arc
functions of the position vector {j and the local
coordinate Xi only, can be computed for every
piping segment. irrespective of its geometrical
eon figuration.
Once if and Xi arc given in the
z-system, Y follows from Eq. 5A.29.
When matrix il becomes available for every segment of the pipe, the shape coefficient matrix for
the entire pipe may be obtained by summation.
Equation
5A.IS can again be used to obtain the
rcdundants and Eq. 5A.l n the internal forces at any

are now

4. Illustrative Examples
a. Straight pipe (Figure 5A.2). The local origin
is chosen at the mid-point.
The A-system and tsystem are defined as shown.
The systems are
chosen such that each axis will coincide with the
proper principal axis of the pipe.
Let the length qP be denoted as s, With respect
to the A-system, the following vectors with components in the 1,2, and 3 directions listed in parentheses
are first determined:

be the submatrices of the matrix A, Eq. SA.28 can

then be written as:

(Xii, {3ij

Cl

P X

~I

(0,

0, 0)

e2

P X

~2

(0,

0, s)

e3 = p X

~3

(0,

s,

0).

Then, following Eq. 5A.2G, the submatrices

and D can be computed as follows:
B = IBTII =

L Vi 11/2

-1/2

1/2

J_

-1/2

L hi
i

B, C

~iT~it ds

1 0 0

100

o
o

1 0

010

bll

o
o

V2l

03l

FIGURE

5A.2

ds

A l\IATRIX METHOD OF PIPING ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL COMPUTEHS

c=

I~

aiJ~ir~il

ds

+ ~ bife_tAI
0

all

a2l

aal
0

all
=

a2l

?~
-

\
l3

b2

12

"

+ 12

\
\~.

I
I

f -

>-.
);.,

0
b2l3

+ 12

aal

0'
FIGURE

bll

b2l

b31

all

a2l

P ( R sin ~ ,

R cos ~ ,

(cos ~ ,

- sin ~ ,
s

b3l3

+ 12

- cos -,

0
(0,

aal

+ 12

cosfi

/3 ~

1;'1

SIn

"2

(bd/l

- cos

"2

(llt.J!2

0,

e2

(0,

0,

-)1

-b2 cos

2 SIn

= 0

+ sin 0,

Sill

0
baRO

.J!2 = ()- sin

where

.J!l

R .

. S
SIn -

+ b2.J!1)
0

(0,

bl cos

-1

0
2

-1).

-R),
0),
S

fi '

Equation 5A.21i gives:

R
s

CI

e3 ( -R cos ~,

- sin

+ b ,h)

0,

It follows that:

b. Circular Bend (Figure 5A.3).

The X and ~
systems are chosen as shown, ~1 being parallel to the
chord of the circular arc and ~2 directed toward the
center of the bend, Qj whereas ~I is tangent to the
arc in the increasing direction of the arc length and
~2 is directed toward point q.

R8

0) ,
0) ,
0)
J

b2l3

5:\.3

Let the arc length QP be denoted as s, Then the

following vectors can be specified in the X-system:

~l

"

b3(J

The matrix X then takes the following form:

\f(\P:!1
.\f I

D = 101.

X=

12

.~\

b3l3

ds

367

o.

(a)

0
-ba

lis

0) .

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

368
Similarly,

c=

"2R (ad1z + azVtl + baR

o
o

D=
2b3R

~ . 0
-2 bI R ~ SIll-

Sill

20

Vt2)

Then the X matrix is:

R

:2 (bj-I + b2fz)

x'"

2b IR'-sm. 0
2

"2 (bl'P2 + b2fJ)

iJaRO

2baR2sin ~
2

2. b3 R'- Sin
. "20

. 0
- 2 bl R'-Sln2

"2 (alf, + a2fz + baR-h)

c. Construction
of the Y Matrix from Working
Points.
So far, only the X matrix has been COIlstructed for a straight pipe as well as for a circular
bend.
To refer the shape coefficient matrix to a
definite x-system at the chosen origin 0', the Y
matrix appearing in Eq. 5A.30 must also be constructed, and the proper shape coefficient matrix will
simply be y' X Y.

2" (a I'fz + aZ'h + /JaR-.rz)

/loCaa

+ blRz)

It is customary to specify working points whose

coordinates are given in the z-systern,
For a straight
pipe, the starting and terminal points are usually
given (Figure 5AA), and the necessary calculation
for the construction
of Y matrix can be outlined
below.
Given

d = 6-

(1,

then
l = v;[:d,

Xl = d/l,

(b)

);2 = any unit vector satisfying

XI . >:2 = 0,

X3 = XI X Xz,
and, finally,
ij

= HIT

Now, let ij be expressed

ij

qlXl

+ 6).

by:

+ qZX2 + qaxa.

(c)

A MATRIX

METHOD OF PIPING

ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL COMI)U'nmS

369

we have

+r
(J
2 cos 2
t

5:1=--,
_
A3

SIn

and

Fmnmc

The position vector

5A.5

(0

l' X 1

= -.-'

{j

can be expressed as:

R _
Substituting

Ur2

=
=

Ur3

Uri

{j

in Eq. SA.21, with Eq. 5A.3, we get:

q2Ar3 -

q3Ar2

q3Ari

qlAr3

qlAT2

q2Ari

(d)

where Ar3, for instance, is the direction cosine of Xr

with respect to ;f3, etc. All the direction cosines are
available from Eq. (b). The Y matrix can finally be
written as;

."_"

All

A12

A13

Uil

U12

U13

A21

A22

A23

1(21

U22

U23

A31

A32

A33

U31

U32

U33

All

A12

AI3

A21

A22

A23

A31

A32

A33

-,

Y=

{j

(e)

= c-

--0

eos

It is clear that the matrix Y for the bend can be

constructed by an identical procedure as outlined
previously for a straight pipe.
5A-3

A Matrix Method of Piping Analysis

The shape coefficient matrix derived 011 the basis

of a two-anchor problem was presented in the previous section. In order to solve a more complex piping
system, a certain generalization will be necessary.
To illustrate this, we shall consider a system with
two anchors and two closed loops as shown in Figure
5A.G. Subsequently, the effect of intermediate restraints will be discussed.

d=C-li
=

[j -

C.

Then the lengths ac and cb arc respectively,

l=~

l'=~

and the unit vectors are:

t

= d/l,

t' = d'/l'.

Since

ti'

= cos 8,

(g)

For a circular bend, three working points (a, b,

and c in Figure 5A.S) arc usually given in addition
to the radius of the bend, R. Let,

(1'

"2.

FIGUnf: 5A,6

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

370

1. Systems with Multiple Anchors and Loops.

Denote the fixed anchor as point 0', and label all the
joints sequentially as shown. The shape coefficient
matrix for each branch, all referred to a common
origin, is given with a superscript for identification.
One of the customary methods of treating a statically
indeterminate system is to imagine cuts in the system
with the points of cut loaded with equal and opposite
redundant
forces to maintain continuity.
Figure
5A.7 illustrates the cut system.
It may be noted
that the given system requires a solution to three
sets of redundant forces (including moments), and
the forces are such that the equilibrium condition is
satisfied everywhere.
For each set of redundant forces, a set of elasticity
equations can be written, using the proper combination of shape coefficient matrices along the path
of action.
Where several forces interact, Maxwell's
law of reciprocity can be used in writing the equation. The following table summarizes the procedure
by which the proper simultaneous equations may be
obtained.

7
FWI'RE

5:\.7

Summation of Shape Coefficient Matrices For

Redundant
Forces

{h
[7'~

th + p~
]?5
[h

+ ]7'4 + ps

Combining

Displacemcnts (EI)

Path

p~

Ji'3
0'123
0'14
36
0'125
57

the equations

AI

AI+A~+AJ

Al
0
AI

AI
.I1~

and simplifying,

AI+A2+A3+Atl+A7

p~

p.,

0
A4

.Iii

AI

[h +

+.112

the following matrix equation

a3

+115

aJ
as -

(iJ

(i7 -

a~

as

.41+,12

p~ + [7'5
0
0

.11 '
0

AS

.41+116+A7

{h +

A7

results:

AI +A(l+A7
111+A1+.4u+A7

111+112+11'
Equation SA.3J points up the fact that the assembling of shape coefficient matrices along any path
of action of the redundant forces can be made automatic by various coding techniques on computers.
It is also clear that the final solution requires no
specification on how the system is imagined cut.
Suppose in Figure SA.7, points 3, 4 and 5 were
anchors, and members 4G and (i7 not existing, we
would get a multiple anchor system.
Equation

]7'-1

(SA.31)

Al+A'
5A.3] would still be valid except that Ii(I and A 7
would vanish and the elements in the displacement
column matrix should be a3, (i-l and a5
2. Systems with Intermediate
Rcstruin te,
Figure SA.8 shows the same two-anchor and twoloop system with an intermediate restraint at point
8, located between branch points 1 and 2. Denote
the shape coefficient matrix for branch 18 as Ii8.
Theil the following matrix equation can be written:

A MATRIX METHOD OF PII)ING ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL COMPUTEHS

c/

a?
a?
as

EI

AI +A2+A3+Ao+A7
AI+A6+A7

Al

+ AS

F3

AI

p.!

AI +A2+A5+l1i

Al + .18

ji'5

AI +.18

Al + ...18

F8

AI+Ao+...17

AI+A2+A7

AI+A4+Ao+A7

AI+A2:+-A7

.18

AI

AI

+ Ai

AI

AI +.Ie

371

(5A.32)
stops occurring at point 8, it is necessary to modify
Eq.5A.32.
Let pS8 be the force (including moment)
vector at point 8, but not referred to the origin; and
aSs be the corresponding displacement (including rotation) vector at point 8 with respect to the undeformed position of point 8. We have:

ps = I<osPss,
(5A.33)
where,
0
[{os

-q3

g2

q3
-q2

-ql
0

(/1

J
(.jA.34 )

I
0

=q
0

q:l

So far, all the forces and displacements are referred

to the common origin. To account for the effects of
a7

AI+A2+A3-1-A6-1-A7

lX7

AI+:16+..17

a7

AI-l-A2-1-A7

K'solXs8

EJ

Al+A2-1-A3+AG+A7
..11+:16-1-.-1'

a7

AI+/(2+A7

aSs

K'os(A

+ AS)

11

and gl, 12, q3 are the coordinates of point S. Upon

substitution of Eq. 5A.33, Eq. 5A.32 becomes:

AI-I-A6-1-:l7

:1 I -I- ..12 -I- 117

(AI+A~)K08

[;'3

:1 I/{ 08

p~

AI +:17

..11+A~-I-AG+A7
Al -1-.-\7

(.-I I + :I ~)K08

A'+A2+A;+A7

AI

Al +A8

Since from Eq. 5A.34, gos/{'so

a7
a'

-ql

5:\.8
-(/2

EI

(/2

[{'so =

7
FIGUItE

Al

+ A8

(:1 1

+ ..[$)/\1)8

I
;

p.
pss

= 1, the last equation may be modified as follows:

Al +116+117
AI-I-A~+AG+A7

A'

ICos(A

(A I

+:17

AI-I-A2-1-A5+A7

A'+:l7
K' ORA

AI+A2-1-A7

+ A B)

I }(ON

(A'+:18)l\o~
/{'os(tI'

I po

+ A S)J(U8

..t M)/(OS

I ! pl

p"

(5.-\.35)

PSg

Equation 5A.35 is applicable to cases having orthogonal rigid stops whose directions coincide with the directions
of the chosen coordinate axes. For orthogonal elastic stops, we must include the effects of elastic springs
as follows:

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

372
,f1

,e
EI

a7
aSs

...11+...16+117

AI+A2+A3+...16+A7
AI+A.6+A7

+ .18)

(It

AI +.117

AI+A.4+A6+A7

AI+A2+A7
K'os(A

.1'+...12+.17

A' +.117

AI+A2+A5+A7

K'os...1B

K'os(A

(A

+ A B)

K'os(A

+ A 8)Ko8

p3

I11K08

1'4
p5

+ ',18)Kos
I + A B)Ko8 + Ii'
I

pBS
(5A.36)

where A' = diag. 11/s!, 1/s2, 1/s3, 1/84, 1/s5, l/sol, and 8p (p = 1, ... ,6) are spring constants of moments
and forces for the orthogonal elastic stops.
In the case of a skew force-stop which has direction cosines with the fixed coordinate axes as {lI, {l2 and {l3,
Eq. SA.36 will be modified to be:

EJ

a7
a7
a7
askew

11.1+..16+.117

A' +A2+A3+A6+A7
A1+A6+A7

.Itt

AI+A4+A6+.lt'
Al +...17

AI+A2+A7

T' K'os(A

.111+.112+.117

+ A 8)

T'K'osAB

(A

+A7

A lKosT

+ A S)KosT
08(A 1 + A 8)K08 + A'IT
(A

A +A +A +..1
T' K'os(A

+ A B)

+ A B)KosT

T'(K'

p3
p4
P5
F.kew
(5A.37)

where Peke ... is the skew force and a.kew, the skew
displacement.
They bear the following relationships
with pss and aSs:
(5A.3S)
where

'J" == 10, 0, 0, {ll.

5A-4

{l2,

{l31.

(5A.39)

An Example

Figure 5A.9 shows a sketch of a reactor coolant

loop representing a piping system with two anchors,
one closed loop, and four elastic stops. Thus, a total
of sixteen unknown moments and forces has to be
determined.
Page 3i5 shows the input to the machine.
By
using the table marked "Key to Input Data", the
input is self-explanatory.
It should be noted that
the flexibility factor (k) and the stress intensification
factor (i) for curved members are automatically
calculated if not specified.
Page 3i5 also shows the check of coordinates of
the end points of each branch.

Page 376 (at top) shows the restraining moments

and forces on anchors and stops as well as on additional points specified on the SUM-line on the
input sheet A. The total actions on the anchor at
the reactor are obtained by adding those for points
1 and 101. The maximum stress in the system is also
automatically
recorded.
Page 376 also gives the stresses, moments, deflections and rotations at each point of the system.
Since a curved member in the input is denoted by
a radius only, the machine calculates the tangent
points which are indicated as A and B.
Finally page 3i7 gives the moments, forces and coordinates referred to the origin at the anchors, stops
and intersections.
These moments and forces are
actually those from the solution of the equations.
A complete print-out
of the equations and the inversion of the same may be obtained by substituting
an IND-card
for an END-card.
Utilizing this
device, it is possible to split a complicated piping
system into two or more parts if the capacity of the
machine is insufficient to solve the required number
of equations.

FIGURE 5A.9

,11;

-,

-fl
0

"'.

\
~

-- k:;;::J:

~~
o.
... o

~
0
II

U
"~ "..i'i ...<c
U

~'t\~'....,." 1\

<>~.

<,

OJ

,.

If 01

0\1):
0. ";
B ....
:> z,j
~.
1-'
,jIi

~I

II
-;:1
-1:1

~~

OJ

""- '"

oJ

>Z

<t
a.
;,:
0

U
t!I
t!I

....

,..
;;;
..J

~
~
%

...
...'"

'"t'"
05

::JIII ,..!:

~ ..J

~ ...
)(

..J

:i ..,

II.

III

...J:
...

VI

.....

"'......

wa

!;
Go

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

374

THE
PIPING

1I. W. KELLOGG
FLEXIBILITY

COMPANY

AND STRESS

ANALYSIS

Key to Input Data

Problem Identification
Selected Points for Summary Sheet

CAL
SUM
Symbol

Basic Material Properties

Special Material Properties
Change of Material Properties
Origin
Intersection
Anchor
Curved Member
Straight Member
Stiff Member
Cold Spring
Concentrated Load
Extraneous Rotation
Extraneous Movement
X-8top
Y-8top
Z-8top
Skewed Stop
Nozzle Rotation
Moment Restraint at Anchor
Force Restraint at Anchor
Special Shape Coefficients
Shape Coefficients Only
Inverse Matrix and Solutions Only
End of Problem

BMP
SMP
CHA
ORG
INT
ANC

STM
CSP
ECL
ERO
EMO
STX
STY
8TZ
STS

NRO

No.
From

Origin

To

---

B.A.
Point
Point
Point
Point
Point
Point
Point

For

FI
F2
-- --

X
X
X
x
x
x
x
x

Rx

Dx

y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
Ry
Dy

F3

O.D.
O.D.
O.D.

I,

It

z
z
z
z
z

I,
I,

F6

--Mat'l
Mat'l
Mat'l
(i)

(k)
(k)

(i)

(k)
(k)

(i)

(k)

(i)

F7

F8

F9

of
of

Ell

Ec

(i2)

(b)

--- -- -OF

(q)
(q)

(i)

(i)

FlO

--

Dt
Px

Py

Pz

(q)
(q)

Itz

Dz

Dz
x

F5

Z
Z
Z

Dy
Ly
y

F4

-- --- --

Dx

Lx

Date

Lz
z

(Cx)
(Cy)
(Cz)
(C)
L

MRA
FilA
SCF
COF

(Dt)
(q)

INV
END

N ornellc/atuTc:
It = Radius of Curved Member (ft.)
O.D. = Outside Pipe Si7.C(in.)
k = Flexibility Factor
t = Thickness of Pipe (in.)
i = Stress Intensification Factor
e = Expansion Coefficient. (in./lOO')
E = Modulus of Elnslicity (psi/ lOG) q = Moment of Inertia Correction Factor
Q = Stiffness Factor
X,Y,Z = Coordinates (It.)
x.y,z = Change in Coordinates (It.)
L = Equivalent Length (It.)

B.A. = Base Anchor

Rx.Ry.Rz = Rotations (radians)
Dx.Dy.Dz.Dt = Movement (in.)
Cx,Cy,Cz,C = Spring Constant (lbs.jin.)
Lx,Ly,L~ '" Dircctioual Cosines
Px.Py.Pz = J~xt.ernal Loads (kips.)

A MATIUX

l\1ETHOD OF PIPING

ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL

THE .M. W. KELLOGG

PII'INC

FI,~:XInIJ,JTY

COMPUTEHS

375

COilrPANY

ANI) STRESS

ANAI,YSIS

Input Data
Typ
Sym

Fr

To

15

1
2
3

-29.209

4
5

+17.471
+2.532

+4.385

6
6
7

+2.664

+4.615

F4

F5

F6

F7

33.052

2.276

LCS

+480

F8

1"9

SUM
BMf'

ORG
STM
STM
SMP
CHA
STM
ECL
STM
STY
STM
STY
STM
STY
STM
STY
STM
SMP

-0.500
+5.000

-10.086

+8.833
33.052
3.750

2.276
3.81
!

IS-8
1.58

+650

LCS

+480

+6.87

2ii.1

28.3

26.2

28.3

F!l

FlO

-600.0
-4.950

+4.950
600000
-9.900

600000
9

+9.!l00
600000

10

+9.900
600000

STM
INT
STM
CliA

11

-2.286

-4.615

12
13
14
15

+0.502

-0.S70
-8.015

--1.701
-0.753
+0.000
-1.864

16
17
18

-4.950
33.052
3.750
a.750

2.276

IS-8

+4S0

+4.77

+8.6~H
+1.3!)2
+0.000
+3.445

+0.000

-ii.S15

I
24.000
3.000

+10.802

0.S57
7.16

2.42

+7.833
Input Data

Typ
Sym

Fr

STM
STM
STM
ClIA

1"2

1"1

To

22
23
INT

24
25

CHA
STM
STM
ANC
SMP

102
101

-0.824
-2.75n
-Z.27n
-13.571
-1,4W
-7.976

-2.750
-2.279
+5.552
-1.416
-7.976

-4.603
+7.307
-2.807

-6.246

STM

STM
STM

26
27
28
2~)
30
:31
23

INT
END

F6

1"8

1"7

,I

-'l-""

33.052
3.750

2.276

3.750
LCS

+480

18-8

+4S0

-6.246
-5.000
-0.500

-2.072

F5

-2.S33
-0.824

-29.20!)
IS

1"01

---~

+4.167

l\)

20
21

2:3

F3

-10.086

+4.355
+3.478
+4.167

-3.0H2
-2.152
-6.255
-13.571

24.000
3.000

+3.830

0.857

26.2

+1.77

28.:3

-2.000
+1.001 .
+0.697
+2.021
+.1 ..152

-4.603
+7.397

;3.000
I

I
I

Coordinate Checks
..
Branch
I~nd Pt
No
015
023
101
023

Calculated

Coordinates

:r.

(fl.)

Y
(ft)

(ft)

(fl.)

+0.00
-13.57
-29.21
-13.57

+0.00
+7.40
-0.50
+7.40

+0.00
+5.55
-10.00
+5.55

+0.00
-13.57
-29.21
-13.57

~'--

Given Coordinates
y

(fl.)

Z
(ft)

(fL)

+0.00
+7.40
-0.50
+7,40

+0.00
+5.55
-10.09
+.'>.55

+0.00
+0.00
+0.00
+0.00

Difference
Y
(fl.)

+0.00
+0.00
+0.00
+0.00

Z
(ft)

+0.00
+0.00
+0.00
+0.00

376

DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS

THE

M. W. KELLOGG

PIPING

FI.EXIDILlTY

COl\fPANY

AND STRESS ANALYSIS

Calculation Summary
Moments (ft Ibs) and Forces (lbs) Acting on Restraints
Point

M(X)

B.ANC

001
003
005

ECL
STOP
STOP
STOP
STOP

006

-37378
-39539
+41435
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
+157475
-25930
-71212
+31328
+153418
-21159
+27242

ANC

007
008
009
010
011
018
021
025
101
027
030

M(Y)
-164217
-160398
+151752
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
+1-:19148
-9176
-45288
+33017
+164217
-60169
-14907
Maximum Stress

THE
PIPING

M(Z)

F(X)

F(Y)

F(Z)

-4061972
-2585385
-901191
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
+137087
-59242
-89845
-508499
-735616
+74250
+113240

-20573
-20573
+20573
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
+20573
-8725
-8725
+20573
+20573
+29298
+29298

-178813
-178813
+178813
+600000
-20643
-32364
-180001
-168283
-19893
+6981
+6981
-19893
-19893
-26874
-26874

+432
+432
-432
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
-432
+4740
+4740
-432
-432
-5173
-5173

22112 psi at Point 003

M. W. KELLOGG
FLf)XI81l.lT

COMPANY

AND STRESS

ANALYSIS

Stress, Moments, Deflections and Rotations at the Point

Dr
No

Pt
No

01
01
01
01
01
01
01
02
02
03
03
04
04
05
05
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
06
07
07
07
07
07
07

001
002
003
004A
004B
005
006
006
007
007
008
008
009
009
010
010
011
012A
012B
013A
013B
014
015
015
016
017A
017B
018
Ol!}

-- --

Stress
(psi)

--0
0
22112
2931
9461
7808
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2100
3258
2734
2.197
1468
1003
0
0
:JS8\J
2399
1602
2131
0

M(X)

M(Y)

(ft 1h)

(ft Ib)

-37378
-3953!)
-3n539
-39539
-40350
-41435
-43430
-,13130
+20114-18
+20H448
-1923944
-1!l2:~944
-1923941
-1923!lH
-61000
-61000
-157175
-157-175
-156665
-155256
-88024
+19315
+47006
+882.58
+64209
+7219
+3021
+25930
+45683

-16,1217
-161217
-160398
-153782
-152378
-151752
-150600
-150600
-50903
-50903
-25-1577
-254577
-250297
-250297
-46623
-46623
-14!).j.j8
-1494018
-14\)231
-149231
-8214[)
+27598
+55910
+!)72.14
+76014
+25728
+9476
+9476
+9476

M(Z)
(ft 1b)

-406 H)72
-4161Sa8
-2585385
+151534
-6!l3656
+(1011\)1
+1282603
+1282603
+3:367481
+3367481
+3367481
+3367481
-277508
-277508
-277508
-277508
-137087
-1:n086
-108514
-41431
+71218
+129295
+ 144275
+44718
+31705
+868
+17075
+5!1242
+95598

D(X)

D(Y)

D(Z)

(in)

(in)

(in)

+0.000
+0.000
+0.000
+0.172
+0.304
+0.172
+1.355
-0.374
+1.653
-0.390
+1.824
-0.260
+2.031
-0.167
+2.031
-0.167
+1.800
-0.034
+1.800
-0.03:1
+1.921
-0.05-1
+ 1.921 -0.054
+2.261
-0.300
+2.261
-0.300
+2.140
-0.280
+2.140
-0.280
+2.007
-0.302
+2.007
-0.302
+1.!lS2
-O.4!H
+1.892
-0.650
+1.640
-0.740
+1.3!l6
-0.586
+1.333
-0.517
+ I.:J3:J -0.547
+1.177
-0.451
+0.8-16 -0.25!J
+0.834
-0.061
+0.950
+0.170
+ 1.012 +0.:368

R(X)
(rad )

It(Y)
Crud)

+0.000
+.000000
+.000000
+0.000
+.000000
+.000000
+.000000
+.000000
+0.000
-.000172
-.000527
+0.049
-.000124
-.000900
+0.07-1
-.000164
-.001022
+0.086
-.000164
-.001022
+0.110
-.00016-1
-.001022
+0.110
-.001022
+0.219
-.000161
-.000164
-.001022
+0.219
-.000164
-.001022
-0.121
-.OOOIG4 -.001022
-0.121
-.000164
-.001022
-0.000
-.000164
-.001022
-0.000
-.000164
-.001022
+0.341
+0.311
-.OOOlG'1 -.001022
-.000164
- .001022
+0.151
-.OOOIG-1
-.001022
+0.151
-.000434
-.00115!
+0.165
-.000541
-.001287
+0.184
-.001026
-.001578
+0.:H4
-.001613
+0.5-15 -.oolosn
-.00108!1
-.001613
+0.597
-.001613
-.oolosn
+0.597
-.00108(1
-.001613
+0.725
-.00091)2
-.000618
+1.048
-.000558
+ 1.1-12 -.00053!)
-.0004-17
-.000-179
+l.lll
-.000-17\)
+1.08!1 -.000447

R(Z)

(rad )
+.000000
+.000000
+.000000
-.004079
-.002577
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002071
-.002267
-.002319
-.002461
-.002297
-.002297
-.0022\)7
-.002297
-.002106
-.002075
-.001833
-.001833

A MATRIX

METHOD OF PIPING
THE
PIrlNG

ANALYSIS AND USE OF DIGITAL

M. W. KELLOGG
FLEXIBILITY

COMPUTEHS

377

COl\lPANY

AND STlU-:SS ANAI,'SIS

Stress, Moments, Deflections and Rotations at the Point (Colllillued)

Pt

Br
No

No

07
07
07
07
07
08
08
08
08
08
08
00
09
00
00
00
09
09
09
09
00

020
021
022A
022B
023
023
024A
024B
025
102
101
015
026A
026B
027
028
029
030
031A
03lB
023

-- --

Stress
(psi)
0
1008
1241
1191
1161

282G
3613
3975
4175
0
0
4298
4068
37~6
3645
0
0
4372
7418
2461
9763

M(X)

MCY)

(ft Ib)

(ft Ib)

+65460
+71212
+80836
+88420
+84563
+154255
+142369
+99676
-31328
-155580
-153418
-41252
+22928
+32722
+21159
-395
-54143
-2n12
-163'13
+706
+69692

+34193
+45288
+63851
+93099
+113124
+164265
+151131
+105313
-33017
-164217
-164217
-41324
+39692
+60169
+60169
+60169
+1573
+14907
+20312
+27372
+51141

M(Z)
(ft Ib)

+95598
+89845
+80221
+51106
+14515
+262063
+300822
+377495
+508499
+632751
+735616
+!l9557
+42156
-8756
-74250
-196334
-196334
-113240
-79588
-11)703
+247-548

THE
PI r-rxc

D(X)

D(l.)

(in)

D(Y)
(in)

+1.058
+1.024
+0.966
+0.839
+0.711
+0.711
+0.657
+0.529
+0.215
-0.000
-0.000
+1.333
+1.274
+1.280
+1.323
+1.411
+1.435
+1.275
+1.210
+1.110
+0.711

+0.353
+0.367
+0.390
+0.349
+0.232
+0.232
+0.182
+0.135
+0.172
+0.172
-0.000
-0.547
-0.297
-0.179
-0.072
+0.127
+0.121
+0.189
+0.219
+0.246
+0.2.12

1\'1. W. KELLOGG
FU:XIllll.ITY

R(X)

R(Y)

R(Z)

(in)

(rnd )

(rad)

(rad )

+0.954
+0.910
+0.836
+0.729
+0.662
+0.662
+0.63-1
+0.529
+0.215
+0.000
+0.000
+0.597
+0.659
+0.670
+0.663
+0.651
+0.556
+0.566
+0.571
+0.583
+0.662

-.000447
-.000447
-.000406
-.000306
-.000227
-.000227
-.000167
-.000207

-.000479
-.000179
-.000157
-.000340
-.000236
-.000236
-.000160
-.000071
+.000000
+.000000
+.000000
-.001613
-.001555
-.001238
-.001008
-.001008
-.001008
-.001008
-.000977
-.000636
-.000236

-.001833
-.001833
-.001788
-.001743
-.001706
-.001706
-.001602
-.001005
-.000000
-.000000
-.000000
-.002297
-.001782
-.001633
-.001755
-.001755
-.001755
-.001755
-.001924
-.002752
-.001706

-.000000
-.000000
-.000000
-.001089
-.001179
-.000319
-.000240
-.000240
-.000240
-.000240
-.000273
-.000601
-.000227

COi\IPANY

AND STRESS ANALYSIS

Moments, Forces and Coordinates Referred to the Origin

Br
No

End
PI,

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09

001
()(}G
007
008
009
010
015
023
101
023

--

Ident
B.ANC
Eel,
STOP
STOP
STOP
STOP

ANC

M(X)

l\1(Y)

M(l.)

(ft Ib)

(n Ib)

(ft Ib)

+1841098
-G05IG()(}
+106021
+486625
+2706547
+864302
+-17006
+88258
+47006
-41252

-55910
+0
+0
+0
+0
+0
+55910
+97234
+55910
-41324
EI/144

-1150680
-1374600
-54889
-86056
+1303112
+1218539
+ 14427.'1
+44718
+144275
+!l9557

F(X)
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F(Y)
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F(%)

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(ft)
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378
5A-5

DESIGN OF I>IPING SYSTEMS

Selected Bihliography

Since 1956, considerable literature has been published, using matrix algebra. Brock's comprehensive
treatment" of the piping problem, using matrix
methods, stimulated wide interests in this method.
The author treated first the two-anchor problem subject to expansion, then the problem of two anchors
with restraints and finally, the multiple-anchor problem with restraints. The shape coefficient matrices
for straight members as well as circular bends
situated in one of the principal coordinate planes,
and a straight member skewed in space were given.
Soule (1) t introduced lethe connecting tensor,"
which enables one to solve, with greater facility, a
problem with multiple branch intersection points.
This scheme was extended subsequently to the closed
loop problem by the same author (4). Peck et al,
(5) reiterated Brock's transfer matrix for shape coefficients, and generalized it to solve loop problems
by synthesizing the piping system so that the size of
matrices is no larger than 6 X (), the procedure being
similar to the well-known inversion method. In the
same paper, a method was also suggested for obtaining shape coefficients for any pipe through integration, the integrand being the product of five matrices.
Chen (6) proposed a method by which a multiple
anchor and loop problem can be handled in a systematic manner. The summing of stiffness (the
inverse of flexibility) matrices of various interconnecting members follows a logical pattern consistent
with the piping configuration. The effects of uniform
and concentrated loads on straight, planar members
were treated by Soule (2). A general, mathematical
solution for weight effects on straight and curved

members was proposed by Owens (7), and later illustrated (8) by its application to 11 planar structure
with straight members. Inspired by Brock's matrix
approach, Crawford (3) elaborated on the effect of
concentrated loads and extended the method to dynamic loadings.
Many other pertinent publications have not been
reviewed here due to space limitations. The rcviewed ones are listed below in the order of the date
of publication.
I. J. W. Soule,

"The Solution of Multiple-Branch

Piping
Flexibility Problems by Tensor Analysis," JI. of App.
l\'lech., Trans. ASME, Vol. 78, 1956, pp. 17G-IS0.
2.. 1. W. Soule, "Tensor-Flexibility
Analysis of PipeSupporting Systems," Ibid., pp, 181-184.
3. L. Crawford, "Pipe Stress Analysis for Static and Dynamic Loading," Trans. Soc. of Naval Arch. and Marine
Engrs., Vol. 65, 1957, p. 197.
4. J. W. Soule, "Tensor Flexibility Analysis of ClosedLoop Piping Systems," .JI. of App. Mech., Trans. ASME,
Vol. 80, 1958, pp. 11-16.
5. L. G. Peck, R. F. Meyer, 1'. F. Strong lind H. Kalson,
"The Autornnt.ie Cnleulatiou of Forces and Deflections
in Piping Systems,"
Trans. ASIVIE, Vol. SO, 1\)58,
pp, 2.'35-244.
(I. L. H. Chell, "Piping Flexibility Analysis by Stiffness
Matrix," JI. of Appl. Mech., Trans. AS!lIJ~, Vol. 81,
11)59, pp. 608~12.
i. R. 1-1. Owens, "Flexibility Analysis of Piping Systems
Formulated for Digital Computer Solution," Proc, 3rd
U. S. Nat. Congo of App, Mech., pp. '119-1aO.
8. It. H. Owens, "An Elementary Development. of Piping
Flexibility Analysis with Illustrative Example," A.S.N.E.
JI., Feb. 1960.
"Design of Piping Systems," sec Appendix A, Section
A-2, "Bibliography on Piping Flexibility and Stress Analysis,"
pp, 297-299, reference /96/.
t Number in brackets refers to the Selected Bibliography
of this Chapter.

Index
Abnormal temperature differentials, 43
Accelerated creep tests, 12
Accuracy of General Analytical Method, 116
Acoustic conductivity, 274
Acoustic expansion tank, 281
Acoustic filters, 279, 290, 333-335
Acoustic resonance, 2i7, 281
Activation energy, 11
Allowable stresses, 7, 31, 43
as related to Su or Sv for various codes, 35
for wind, earthquake, etc., 37
Allowable stress range, 37
ASA code, 40
in expansion bellows, 221
Anchor, 232,244, 251
Andrade's analysis of creep, 9
Angle notation for circular members, 311
Angle of inclination a, of straight members, 120
of curved members, 123
Angular frequency, 258
Approximate methods, value of, 90-92, 97, 100, 102, 114-115
Arc cf> of members, 123
ASA Code for Pressure Piping, 31
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, 31
Attenuation factor, 280, 334
Auto-frettagc, 45
Automatic data processing, 115, 116
Axial movement type expansion [oints, 225

Bellows expansion joints, force to compress, 214-215

testing and quality control of, 222
Bellows fatigue, 221
Bellows materials, 220
Bend characteristic for curved pipes, 53
for miters, 61
Bending-torsion vibration, 264
Bingham material, 10
Blind flanges, 82
Boardman Iorrnula, 43
Bolting (of flanges), 74-77
Braces, 232, 242
Brackets, 253
Branch connections, acute angle, 64, 68-69
Code rules for, 67-69
fabrication of, 69-70
fatigue of, 66-67
internal pressure, 62-64, 67-69
pressure reduction ratio for, 68-69
tests on, 63, 66-67
thermal expansion (repeated) loading of, 66-67
types of reinforcement of, 62-63, 70
Branched piping, acoustics of, 276
characteristic equation (acoustic) for, 329
development of flexibility relationships for, 325
flexibility analysis of, 1-15, 165
Brittle crack propagation in steel, criterion for, 18
Brittle fracture, 13-15, 16-20, 41-42
effect of crack length on, 19
of stee I~, 1(1
Buckling of pipe, 37
Bursting pressure, 7

Balanced expansion joints, 225

Ball joints, 214
Banks, piping in, 233
Barlow formula, 43
Bauschinger effect, 3
Beams, vibration of, 261
Bellows, layer construction of, 215-216
life of, 220-222
support and protection of, 216
welding of, 217
Bellows attachment details, 218
Bellows contour, 215
Bellows expansion joints, 214
establishing purchasing requirements for, 219
fabrication of, 217-219

Calculating aids, 116

Calculators, training of, 116
Cantilever, vibration of, 261
Custigliano, Theorem of, 300
Cast iron, use of for pressure parts, 42
Cavity resonator, 271, 289
Charpy test, 19-20
Chart solutions, piping flexibility, 94-95, 296, 344-352
Check of equations, 118-119
Circular members, 123-126
angle notation for, 123, 311
3i!l

380

INDEX

Circular members, approximating effect of, 112-113

integration of shape coefficients for, 313, 315, 317, 322
trigonometric constants for, 354-355
Circumferential pressure stress, 44
Clamps, 249
Classification of piping systems, 211
Clevis, 249
Codes, 30-33
ASA Code for Press~re Piping, ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code, 31
Coefficient of viscous damping, 267
Coil springs, 245
"Cold" modulus, 47
Cold spring, 3S, 49-50, 86-87, 166, 169-170
Cold spring factor, 49
Combined stresses in piping, 47-48
Compressor piping, pulsations in, 279
Computers, 116
Concentrated loads, support of, 239
Cone-to-cylinder intersections, 82-83
Cone under internal pressure, 44
Conical reducers, 82
Considere's geometrical construction, 5
Constant effort support, 232, 241, 246
Constraint, 301
Coordinate system, standard, 102
Corrosion, 220
Corrosion fatigue, 21,28
Corrugated bellows, 215
Corrugated pipe, 70-73
fabrication of, 72
stress analysis of, 73
test results, 72
Corrugated pipe bends, 72
Counterweights, 217
Cover plates, 82
Crack length, effect on brittle fracture of, 19
Cradles, 249
Creased pipe bends, 72
Creep, 8-13
Andrade's analysis of, 9
effect of strain hardening and recovery on, 11-12
effect on flanged connections of, 76
effect on life of, 36-37
logarithmic formula for, 10
safety factor in, 3G
Creep fracture, 13
Creep testing, 12-13
Criterion, Code, on flexibility analysis, 93, 313
Critical damping, 268
Curved pipe (see also Circular members), bending of, 52-{)1
effect of tangents, 58
Cyclic permutation, 127-128
Cyclic service, criterion for, 93
Cylinder, stress variation in wall of, 45
Cylindrical shells, local loading on, 85-86
under external pressure, 46-47
under internal pressure, 6, 43-46
Damage (fatigue), 28
cumulative eflect of overloads, 42-43
Damping, 258, 267-271
coefficient of, 267

Damping, critical, 268

Damping devices, 232, 247-248, 270-272
effectiveness of, 269
hydraulic snubber force, 287
pulsation dampeners, 31, 279-281, 289
Damping ratio, 268
Dashpots, sec Damping devices
Davidenkov Wittman Theory, 17
Deflection of horizontal pipe lines, 239, 357-358
Deflections lind rotntions in piping, at any point, 153, 155,
157-158,324
at ends, 129, 131, 307
calculated, significance of, 49
Deformations, clastic, 1
of a pipe line, 49
calculation of, 153, 155, 157-158
development of formulas, 321-325
Degrees of freedom, 258
Derivations of flexibility formulas, 299-327
of acoustic vibration formulas, 328-335
Dimensional units used, 261, 300
Direct and shear effects, 127, 325
Direction, convention for weight analysis, 175,317
Direct tension or compression, share coefficients for, 127, 325
Distortion-energy yield condition, 3, 48
Double-bellows expansion joints, 2IG
Draining, bellows expansion joints, 215
pitch of lines for, 210
Ductile fracture, 13, 15-16
Dynamic loading, 41
Ears, 250
Earthquake, acceleration of, 41
Effective mass, 2Gl
Elastic center, 104, 295-296
Elastic follow-up, 38
Elastic foundations for vibration prevention, 271-272, 286287
Ellipsoidal welding caps, 82
Elliptical nozzles, 66
Emergency loads, 42
Endurance limit, 72
Equalizing rings, 216
Equations of a pipe line, 308
check of, 118-119
solution of, 117-119
Equicohesive temperature, 13
Equipment, intcreffects with piping, 83-86
Erection stresses, 8G-87, 255
Errors, 116-117, II H
Examination, magnetic powdcr-, radiographic-, 51
Expansion, thermal, 91-92
chart of, 3-11
providing for in limited space, 210-212
Expansion bellows, 214-223
action under movement of, 227
fatigue life of, 220-222
Expansion joints, 210-230
establishing movement demands of, 22G-230
fabrication of, 217
prepositioning of, 227
types of, axial movement, 225
bellows, 21-1-223

.....

_-----------

INDEX
Expansion joints, types of, double bellows, 216
hinged, 224.-225, 228-230
pressure balanced, 225
packed (slip), 212-214
tied,224
universal, 224
Expansion joint systems, pressure reaction of, 212, 214
support of, 242
Expansion loop, chart solution for, 350-351
Expansion stresses, 47
Expansion tank, 283
Extraneous movement, 32
Fabrication, bellows expansion joints, 217
residual stresses, 255
Failure, "by excessive deformation, 1, 5
by plastic instability, 5
types of, 1
Fatigue, 20-28
damage by cverstresa, 27-28
elevated temperature, 26-27
general theory of, 22
influence of notches and surface flaws on, 25
notch sensitivity in, 25
of expansion bellows, 221
of local components, 59
warping of slip planes, 2Z
Fatigue limit, 21
Fatigue strength, 21, 72
Fatigue tests, 26
flanges, 77
Filter, hydraulic, 279, 290, 333-335
linear, 279
Fittings, heavy walled, 70-71
standard, 31-32, 81-82
Fixed end, 102
Fixtures, 243
Flanged connections, 74-79
bolting, 74-77
effect of creep, 78
external loading, 78
stress analysis of, 74-75
test results, 74, 77
Flanges, blind, 82
insulation of, 78
Flat plates with circular cut-outs, 64-65
Flexibility analysis, bibliography on, 297-299
by General Analytical Method, 115-197
by Model Test, 198-209
history of, 295-297
simplified methods for, 90-114
Flexibility factor, 48
bends, 53-54, 60-62
branch connections, 67
corrugated pipe, 72, 73
effect of in flexibility analysis, 111-112, 123
miters, 61
Flexibility formulas, derivation of, 299-327
Flexibility of piping, prelirninary assessment of, 92-94
Follow-up elasticity, 38
Forced vibration, 258
Foundations, 271-272, 286-287
Fracture, brittle, 13-15,16-20,41--42

381

Fracture, creep, 13
ductile, 15-16
Fracture stress, 13
dependence on shape, 35
Free end, 102
Free movement piping system, 211-212,243
Free vibration, 258
Frequency, angular, 258
fUndamental,258
Frequency coefficient, 261-262
Fundamental frequency-mode, 258
Gaskets, 75-76
Gas pulsation smoothing, 279-283
comparison of devices for, 282-283
expansion tank, 281-282
pulsation dampener, 280-281
surge tank, 279-280
tuned resonator, 279
Girth welds, 50
Glass, delayed fracture of, 20
Goodman diagram, 24
Gradient of supports, 240
Grapho-analytical
method, 296
Griffith equation, 15
Griffith Theory of Fracture, 13
Guide, 232, 244
Guided cantilever, chart for, 352
correction factor, 353
method,97-100
Hangers, 232, 240
Heat treatment, 255-256
thermal unloading, 87, 255
Helical springs, 245
Helrnholz resonator, 273
High pressure, 4-1-15
Hinged expansion joint, 224-225
Hinged joint piping systems, 129, 134, 211-212, 228
History of piping flexibility analysis, 295
Horizontal pipe lines, span of, 238-239, 269-270, 356-358
deflection of, 239, 357-358
Hose, flexible, 212
Hydraulic damping devices, see Damping devices
Hydraulic filter, 279,290,333-335
Hydraulic hammer, 283-285
Hydraulic snubbers (see also Damping devices), 270-271,
287
Hydrostatic tests, 222
Hysteresis, 3, 2.'l
Inclined members, 120, 222-123
Infinitely stiff members, 103
In-plane bending of curved pipe, 52, 54-55
Inspection, 50-51, 70
Instability, buckling of pipe, 37
clastic, 1
plastic, 1-2,5-7
Insulation of pipe attachments, 251
Integral pipe attachments, 250-251
Integration of shape coefficients, 306
Internal pressure, 6
cylinder under, 43-401

382

INDEX
Mode, 258
Model testing, 198-209
basic principles of, 200
description of Kellogg Laboratory for, 201-202
history of, 199
need for, 198
Modulus of elasticity, chart of values, 342
use of in determining stresses and reactions, 47, 49
Molecular cohesion, 13
Molecular strength of a material, 14
Moments of inertia, pipe, 336-340
Movements, expansion joint, 227
Multi-layer bellows, 215
Multiplane pipe lines, approximate and simplified solutions,
97-103, 107
General Analytical Method, 128-129
Multiple necked chambers, 276
Multiple resonators, 274-275, 328-329

Intermediate restraints, 146, 153

Internal sleeves, 216
Inversion procedures, 157, 159, 165-166.
IPS pipe, dimensions and properties of, 336-340
Izod test, 17
Jointed struts, 238
Joint efficiency, 50
Joints, lap, 77-79
of dissimilar materials, 79-81
screwed, threaded, socket welded, 82
Kelcaloy process, 80-81
Kellogg General Analytical Method, 115-197, 29G, 299-327
Kellogg Model Test Laboratory, 201-202
K-weld,81
Lame formula, Boardman approximation of, 43
Lap joints, 77-79
Layer construction of bellows, 215-216
Layout, importance of, 211
vibration considerations affecting, 259
Layout to facilitate support, 232, 235
Leak detection, 51
Levy-Mises equations, 4
Life, effect of creep on, 36-37
of expansion bellows, 220-222
Life r actor, 36
Limit stop, 232, 242
Linear filter, 279
Load constants, 170, 175
Loads, emergency, 42
Loadings, piping design, 32-33
Local components, definition of, 52
Localized stresses, 3t
Local loads on cylindrical shells (see also Pipe attachments),
Location of supports, etc., 236-242
Logarithmic formula for creep, 10
Logarithmic strain, 6
Longitudinal pressure reaction, 212, 214
Longitudinal stresses, 50
Loops, 273, 278
Luder's bands, 4
Lugs (see also Pipe attachments), 250
Magnetic powder examination, 51
Magnification factor, 258,267,279
as a function of damping ratio or frequency ratio, 269
strain, 39
Maintenance of supports, etc., 254
Matrix notation, 296
Maximum load point, 5
Maximum shear-stress yield condition, 3, 48
Measurement of vibration, 292
Members, 102
circular, 123-136
inclined, 120, 122-123
infinitely stiff, 103
skewed, 131
Mises yield condition, 3, 48
Mitchell-Bridge Method, 101-102
Mitchell's Method, 296
Miters, 60-62

Natural frequency, 258

calculations, acoustic, 273-277, 287-290
structural, 260-267,285-286
of horizontal pipe lines, 239, 357
Neck (of resonator), 273
Nodes, 273, 278
Non-ductile materials, 42
Non-cqualizing expansion joints, 216
Non-integral pipe attachments, 249-250
Non-rigid piping systems, 211-212, 242
Notch brittleness, IG-20
Notch sensitivity in fatigue, 25
Nozzle rotation, effect on piping of, 86, 131
Nozzles, elliptical, 66
pressure vessel, 61-65
85

Octahedral shear stress, 3

Offset (of expansion joints), 227
Openings in plates and shells, 64~6
Organ pipe, 273
Origin, location of, 102
Out-of-plane bending of curved pipe, 52-58
Ovalization of pipe bends, 53
Ovalling mode, 267
Overloads, cumulative damage due to, 12-43
Overpressure protection, 33
Packed expansion joints, 212
Packing friction, 213
Partially constrained ends, piping systems with, 129, 134-135
Periodic excitation, sources of, 259
Period of vibration, 258
Pipe, properties of, 336-310
corrugated, 70-73
Pipe attachments, 243, 248-251
insulation of, 251
integral, 250-251
location of, 236
non-integral, 249-250
Pipe banks, 233
Pipe bends (see also Circular members), creased, 52~1, 72
effect of internal pressure, 60
effect of tangents, 53
forces acting on due to flowing fluid, 285

INDEX
Pipe bends, ovalization of. 53
Pipe clamps, 249
Pipe supports, etc., 231-256
glossary of terms used, 232
Pipe wall, stress variation in, 45
Piping systems, classification of, 211
Pitching of pipe lines, 239-240
Plastic instability, 1-2,5-7
Plastic constraint, 16-17
Plasticity, 2-S
cylinders under pressure, 45-46
stress-strain relationships, 4
Plates, openings in, 64-66
Point of maximum stress, 101
Pre-integration of shape coefficients, 295, 306, 315
Preliminary assessment of piping flexibility, 92-94
Prepositioning expansion-joints, Z27
Prerequisite data for flexibility analysis, 103
Prespringing, 38, 49-50, 86-87, 166, 16~-170
Pressure reaction of expansion joint systems, 212, 214
Pressure stresses, in cylindrical shells, 6, 43-47
in pipe bends, 00
in shapes of revolution, 44
Pressure surges, 277
Pressure testing, 50-51, 222
Primary stresses, 31, 37
Principal creep rates, II
Principal stresses, 3
Proof stress, 3
Pulsation dampeners, 31, 27~l-281, 289
Pulsations, flow, 273-288
in compressor piping, 27\l
Pumps, piping reactions on, 83-84
Purging (of an expansion bellows), 217'
Quality examination, of expansion joints, '223
of fabricated piping, 50-51, 70
Quality factor, 50
Radiographic examination, 51
Radius of gyration, pipe, 336-310
Range of stress, of reactions, of deflections, 37-41, 48-49, 116
Rayleigh Method for approximating natural frequencies, 263
Reactions, piping, 48-50, 86-87, 116
effect on equipment of, 92
Recovery creep, 11-12
Reducers, 82
Reed vibrorneters, 292
Reinforcement of branch connections, nozales, 62-71
Relaxation, 38, 86
Residual stresses from fabrication and erection, 255-256
Resilient support, 232, 241
fixtures, 245
Resonance, 258, 267, 277
due to wind, 259, 287
Resonator, 273
cavity, 274, 289
Helmholz, 273
multiple, 328-329
tuned,331
Resonator chamber, 282
Resting supports, 240
Restraint, definition of, 232

383

Restraints, 233, 234, 237

intermediate, calculations involving, 146, 153
Resultant restrained thermal expansion, 91-92
Rigid fixtures, 244
Rigid support, 232, 210
Ring, 250-251
Roller supports, 240
Rotary slip joints, 214, 224
Rotating machinery, foundations for, 271
Rotation of hinged expansion joints, 230
Rotation of nozzles, effect on piping of, 86, 134
Rotations and deflections of pipe line, at any point, 153,
155-156,321
at ends, 129, 134, 307
Routing piping for favorable support, 233-237
Rupture (creep fracture) test, 13, 36-37
Rupture strength, fictitious, 37
Safety factors, 8, 35-36, 46-48
Sag, 239
Schedule number, pipe, 336-340
Screwed joints, 82
Seal welding, 77, 79
Secondary stresses, 34
Secondary term g, 125-127
Section modulus, pipe, 336-3,10
Self-equalizing expansion joint, 216
Self-excited vibration, 258
Saddle, 249
Self-springing, 38-40, 49, 86-87
Semi-rigid piping systems, 211, 242
Service conditions, 33
effect on allowable stresses of variations in, 42
Set-up procedure, General Analytical Method, 103
Shape coefficients, 306
for concentrated loads, 306, 311
circular members, 123, 125-126, 313
straight members, 120, 125, 312
for weight, 314
circular members, 175-185, 317-320
straight members, 175, 315-316
for wind, 314
circular members, 176, 178, 186-18S, 322-323
straight members, 185, 321
for shear and direct effects, 127, 325
for simplified General Method, 103-104
integration of, 306, 314-323, 325-327
tabulated for x, y, and z planes, 310
Shear and direct effects, 127, 325
Shear strain energy yield condition, 3-4, 48
Shells, local loading on, 85-86
openings in, 6-1-66
Shock absorbers (see also Damping devices), 247-248, 270-272
Shock loading, 41
Shoes, 250-251
Short radius bends, 56-57
Short time service conditions, 33
Shrink ring loading, cylindrical shells, 85-86
Signs, 102, 10,1, 118
Silencers, 281
Simultaneous equations, solution of, 117-119
Single plane calculations, General Method, 119-123
Simplified Method, 103-111

384

INDEX

Skewed members, 134,136-137

Skirts, 25(}-251
Sleepers, 254
Sleeves, internal, 216
Slings, 249
Slip type expansion joints, 213
Snubbers (see also Damping devices), 27(}-271, 287
Socket welded joints, 82
Solid support, see Rigid support
Spacing of pipe supports, 238-239, 356-358
vibration considerations affecting, 269-270
Sphere under internal pressure, 44
Spring-mass, model, 260
Springs, 245
Squirming, 216
Standards, 31-32
Stiffness, variable, 120, 122-123
Stiffness ratio Q, 103, 120
Stiff piping systems, 211
Stops, 232, 237, 244
eq uatious !or, 325
treatment of in piping flexibility calculations, 146, 153
Straight members, integration of shape coefficients, 120, 125,
175, 185,312,315-316,321
Strain, linear,S
logarithmic, 6
Strain energy in piping systems, 300, 325
Strain gages, use of in model testing, 201
Strain hardening, 3
rate of, 8
Strain magnification, 39
Strength, molecular, 14
Stress corrosion, 20-21
Stresses, allowable, 7, 34-43, 221
combination of, 47-48
expansion, 40
fabrication, erection, 37
in girth welds, 50
in horizontal pipe lines, 356, 358
in pipe bends (see also Stress intensification factor), 53-60
localized, primary, secondary, 31
pressure, circumferential, 43-46, 50
Stress evaluation, 43-47
in expansion bellows, 221
Stress intensification factor, 40, 48
for bends, 53-60
for branch connections, 65-67, 69
for corrugated pipe, 72-74
for flanges, 77
for miters, 61
in flexibility analysis, 111-114, 123
in straight pij e, 61
Stress range, allowable, 37-41
Stress rupture test, 13
Stress-strain curve, 2
Stroboscopic devices, 292
Strouhal number, 259
Structural connections to pipe supports, etc., 251-254
deflection of, 252
location of, 236
Struts, jointed, 238
Square corner assumption, effect of, 111-113
Summation coefficients, 129,307, 310

Support, definition of, 232

of concentrated loads, 239
Supporting, etc. from pressure vessels, 253
Supporting structures, 254
Supporting system, elements of, 236
erection and maintenance of, 254
Supports, 238-247
adjustment of, 255
location of, 236-242
vibration considerations affecting, 2(l(}-269
maintenance of, 254
spacing on horizontal pipe lines of, 238
Surge effects, pressure, 277
Surge tanks, 279, 333
Swivel joints, 214
Symmetry, of equations, 118
of piping, 102, 157
Temperature differentials, 'abnormal, 43
restrained expansion, 91-92
Terminal fixation of piping, 83-86
Tests, expansion joints, 222
hydrostatic, 5(}-51
significance of, 5(}-51
Thermal cycling, fatigue effect of, 26
Thermal expansion, chart of data, 341
restrained, lH-92
Thermal fatigue, 28
Thermal unloading, 87,255
Thick cylinders, 7, 45-46
Threaded joints, 82
Three-hinged systems, 228-230
Thrust axis, 101
Tied expansion joint, 221
Tie rods, 238
on expansion joints, 224--226
Time constant, 334
Tolerances, expansion joint, 227
Toroidal bellows, 215, 222
Torus under internal pressure, 44
Transfer of moments, 104
Transient creep, 9
Trigonometric
constants for circular members, 123, 315,
354-355
Transition temperature, 17,42
Traverso, 213
Tresca yield condition, 3, 48
True stress versus ultimate stress, 8
Trunnion, 250-251
Tuhc (see (llso Cylindrical shell), plastic instability of, 6
Tuned resonators, 279, 290, 331-333
Turbines, piping reactions on, 83-8:1
Two-member systems, chart solutions for, 344-349
Ultimate tensile stress, 5
relation to allowable stresses, 35
Unbalanced pressure loads, 212, 214
Uniform loading, 170, 175-180,185,314--320
Universal type expansion joints, 224
Unrestrained expansion, 91, 92
Unstable deformations, 1
Vacuum exhaust steam service, design temperature

of, 33

INDEX
Valve closure, pressure build-up during, 283-285
Valves, 81
Van Stone flanges, 76-79
Variable load springs, variability, 245
Velocity effect in brittle fracture, 18
Vessels, piping reactions on, 84-85
Vibration, field correction of, 291-291
forced, 258
free, 258
measurement of, 292-293
of beams, 261
of plates, pipe (radial mode), 266
of two-member configurations, 265
types of, 258
Vibrometers, 292
Virtual length, 134
Viscous creep, 9, 10
Visual inspection, 51
Von Karman vortices, 259, 287
Von Mises yield condition, 3, 48

385

Wall thickness, pipe, 336-310

determination of, 43--17
Water hammer, 41, 283
Wave equations for pressure and velocity, 330
Weight loading, 170, 175-180, 185, 314-320
Weight of pipe, water, 336-310
Welding, quality examination and inspection of, 50-51, 70
Welding caps, 82
Welding elbows, 58
Welding neck flanges, 77
Welding tees, 64, 67
Wind loading, 185
shape coefficients for, 176, 178, 185-1SS, 314, 321-323
Working planes, 127
'Yorking stresses, 7, 34-43, 221
Yield conditions, 3-4
Yield point, 2
Yield stress, 2
relation of allowable stress to, 35