ATOMS, MOLECULES AND MOLES

In ancient time, people believe in phlogiston theory

Antoine Lavoisier (around the end of 18th century)
experiments comes into the conclusion of conservation
of mass law:
In any chemical reaction, mass is neither
created nor destroyed
- Joseph Proust (around the end of 18th century)
experiments results law of definite proportions
(composition):
In any sample of a pure chemical substance, it
always finds the same elements in the same
definite proportions by mass
-

Postulates of the atomic theory (John Dalton,

beginning of 19th century):
1. Matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called
atoms.
2. All atoms of given elements are identical, but differ
from atoms of other elements.
3. A chemical compound is composed of the atoms of
its element in a definite fixed numerical ratio.
4. A chemical reaction merely consists of a reshuffling
of atoms from one set of combinations to another.
The individual atoms themselves, however, remain
intact and do not change.

Lets see molecule AB where an atom of A is twice as

heavy as an atom B
Number of
Molecule

Number
of Atoms
of A

Mass of
A

Number
of Atoms
of B

Mass of
B

Mass Ratio
(Mass A)/
(Mass B)

1
2
10

1
2
10

1
2
10

500

500

2 units
4 units
20
units
1000
units

1 units
2 units
10
units
500
units

2/1
4/2 = 2/1
20/10 =
2/1
1000/500
= 2/1

500

By product of Daltons atomic theory: The of multiple

proportions:
If the masses of one element are the same in the two
samples, then the masses of the other element are in ratio
of small whole numbers
Example: For CO and CO2; ratio of O in CO / O in CO2 is
The Mole Concept
1 atom C + 1 atom O 1 molecule CO
100 atoms C + 100 atoms O 100 molecules CO
6.02x1023 atoms C + 6.02x1023 atoms O

1 mole atoms C + 1 mole atoms O

1 C + 1 O

6.02x1023 molecules CO

1 mole molecules CO

1 CO
2

C + O

CO

Atomic Mass:
Carbon-12 is assigned as exactly 12 u (units)
1 mole Carbon-12 = 12.0000 g
1 mole C (mixture of C-12 and C-13 in nature) = 12.011 g
- Percentage Composition
- Molecular Formula and Molecular Structure
- Relative Molecular Mass and Molecular Mass

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND THE MOLE

CONCEPT
Chemical Reaction:
H2 + O2

H2O

C + O2

CO2

Na2CO3 + HCl

NaCl + H2O + CO2

Pb + HC2H3O2 + O2
Pb(OH)C2H3O2 + CO2

Pb(OH)C2H3O2

Pb3(OH)2(CO3)2 + H2O + Pb(C2H3O2)2

Balancing Chemical Equations

Step 1. Write an unbalanced equation, being careful to
write the correct formula for each substance
involved.
Step 2. Balance the equation by adjusting the coefficients
that precede the formulas of the reactants and
products so that there is the same number of atoms
of each kind on both sides of the arrow.
Example:

Na2CO3 + HCl

NaCl + H2O + CO2

Na2CO3 + HCl

2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Na2CO3 + 2HCl

2NaCl + H2O + CO2

4

Is it correct to write the reaction in the following way?

5Na2CO3 + 10HCl 10NaCl + 5H2O + 5CO2
Exercise

C8H18 + O2

CO2 + H2O

Calculations Based on Chemical Equations

The combustion of ethanol:
C2H5OH + 3O2

2CO2 + 3H2O

1 molecule C2H5OH + 3 molecules O2

2 molecules CO2 + 3 molecules H2O
1 x 6.02x1023 molecules C2H5OH + 3 x 6.02x1023 molecules O2
2 x 6.02x1023 molecules CO2 + 3 x 6.02x1023 molecules H2O

1 mol C2H5OH + 3 mol O2

2 mol CO2 + 3 mol H2O

The coefficients in a chemical equation provide the ratios

by which moles of one substance react with or form
moles of another
Problem: How many moles of oxygen are needed to burn
1.80 mol C2H5OH.

Calculation Involving Grams

How many grams of oxygen are required to react with
0.300 mol Al and how many grams of Al2O3 will be
produced in the reaction: Al + O2 Al2O3
Limiting-Reactant Calculations
In an experiment, 12.0 g of Zn is mixed with 6.50 g of S
and allowed to react. Which is the limiting reactant?
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield
actual yield

Percentage yield =
theoretical yield

x 100 %

Ethylene, C2H4, is burned in air to form CO2 and water

according to the equation C2H4 + O2 CO2 + H2O.
When 1.40 g ethylene is burned and gives 1.44 g of water,
what is the percentage yield of water?

Reactions in Solution
H2 + O2

H2O

C + O2

CO2

Na2CO3 + HCl

NaCl + H2O + CO2

Pb + HC2H3O2 + O2

Pb(OH)C2H3O2

In what phase are the reactants?

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)

AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

(aq) to show that the compounds are in an aqueous solution

(s) to show that the compounds are in an solid phase (precipitate)
(g) to show that the compounds are in an gas phase

(l)
Terminology applied to solution
Solute
Solvent
Concentration: molar (M), molal (m), mole fraction (x),
% (w/w), % (w/v), %(v/v)
Concentrated
Dilute
Mole(s) of solute
molarity (M) =
liter of solution
mole(s) of solute
molality (m) =
kilogram of solvent
7

Calculating the molarity of solution

A 2.00 g sample of sodium hydroxide, NaOH was
dissolved in water to give a solution with a volume of
exactly 200 mL. What is the molarity of this solution?
mass of an element
number of moles (n) =

relative atomic mass

mass of a compound
number of moles (n) =

relative molecular mass

How many milliliters of 0.250 M NaOH solution are
needed to provide 0.020 mol of NaOH?
How many grams of NaOH are needed to prepare 500 mL
of a 0.300 M solution?
Preparing solution by dilution
Reagent
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4
Hydrochloric acid, HCl
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4
Nitric acid, HNO3
Acetic acid, HC2H3O2
Aqueous ammonia, NH3

Density Percent by Molarity

(g/mL)
mass
1.84
96
18
1.18
36
12
1.70
85
15
1.42
70
16
1.05
100
17.5
0.90
28
15
8

M.V = (mol/L) x L = mol

M1.V1 = M2.V2
How many milliliters of concentrated sulfuric acid are
required to prepare 500 mL of 3.00 M H2SO4 solution?
The stoichiometry of reactions in solution
Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, one of the antracid
ingredients in Maalox, can be prepared by the reaction of
aluminium sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, and sodium hydroxide,
NaOH. The balanced equation for the reaction is
Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6NaOH(aq)

2Al(OH)3(s) + 3Na2SO4(aq)

How many milliliters of 0.200 M NaOH solution are

needed to completely react with 3.50 g Al2(SO4)3?
Limiting reactant in solution reaction
How many grams of solid AgBr will be formed if 50.0 mL
of 0.180 M AgNO3 are mixed with 60.0 mL of 0.850 M
CaBr2, where the balanced equation is
2AgNO3(aq) + CaBr2(aq)

2AgBr(s) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)

THE PERIODIC TABLE AND SOME PROPERTIES

OF THE ELEMENTS
Some properties of the elements
At room temperature: gas, liquid, solid
metallic, non-metallic
soft, hard
very dense, low density
Is it possible to classify the elements, so they can be easily
studied?
The simplest method: divide into three categories
1. Metals: iron, aluminum, copper
have a high electrical conductivity
2. Nonmetals: carbon, helium
very bad conductor
3. Metalloids: silicon, arsenic, antimony
semiconductor
Dmitri Mendeleev (early of 1869) and Julius Lothar Meyer
(the end of 1869) arranged the elements in order of
increasing atomic mass; they found that the elements with
similar properties occurred at periodic interval.
They have made the first periodic table.

10

The modern view of the atom

Is atom indivisible particle?
In the late of 19th century, subatomic particles, proton
(+1.60x10-19 C = 1+), neutron (neutral particle), and
electron (-1.60x10-19 C = 1-) were found.
1 Coulomb = 1 ampere of electrical current flows for 1 second

Mass
Particle

Charge
11

Mass of an atom is primarily determined by the number of

protons and neutrons in its nucleus
Nucleus is so tiny with the density of about 1014 g/cm3
Number of proton in nucleus = atomic number of the atom
Atom is neutral!!!
Number of proton = number of electron
An atom represented symbolically by writing its mass number
as a superscript and its atomic number as a subscript
A
Z

Z = atomic number
= number of protons
= number of electrons in (neutral) atom
A = mass number
A Z = number of neutrons
12
6

and

13
6

are isotopes of carbon

and Cu are isotopes of copper whose the masses are

62.9298 and 64.9278 u, respectively, and their abundance are
69.09 % and 30.91 %. What is the average atomic mass of this
element?
63
29

Cu

65
29

12

Atomic number and the modern periodic table

See the modern periodic table

13

Formation of ionic compound

When two or more substances combine to form a single
product the reaction sometime called a combination reaction
2Na(s) + Cl2(g)

2NaCl(s)

Atom of sodium loses one electron, which is transferred to a

chlorine atom
Sodium atom loses one electron, become positive ion, with the
charge 1+ called a cation, written as Na+
Chlorine atom gains one electron, become negative ion,
chloride ion, with the charge 1- called an anion, written as ClNaCl is an ionic compound
Metals tend to react with nonmetals to form ionic
compounds
IA
Li+
Na+
K+
Rb+
Cs+

IIA
Be2+
Mg2+
Ca2+
Sr2+
Ba2+

Group number
IIIA
IVA
VA
C4N3Al3+
Si4P3-

VIA
O2S2Se2Te2-

VIIA
FClBrI-

14

The transition metals are able to form more than one ion
Cations formed by some transition elements
Chromium
Manganes
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Silver

Cr2+
Cr3+
Mn2+
Mn3+
Fe2+
Fe3+
Co2+
Co3+
Ni2+
Cu+
Cu2+
Ag+

Au+
Au3+
Zn2+
Cd2+
Hg22+
Hg2+

Gold
Zinc
Cadmium
Mercury
Sn2+
Sn4+

Tin

Pb2+
Pb4+

Lead
Bismuth

Bi3+

Rules for writing formulas for ionic compound

1. The positive ion is always written first in the formula.
2. The total of positive charges equals the total number of
negative charge; the formula unit must be electrically
neutral.
3. The smallest set of subscripts that give electrical neutrality
is always chosen.
Example:
The compound form from Ca2+
The compound form from Ca2+
The compound form from Na+
The compound form from Al3+

and Cland O2and O2and O2-

is CaCl2
is CaO
is Na2O
is Al2O3
15

Ions can contain more than one atom

Cations
NH4+ ammonium
H3O+ hydronium
Anions
CO32- carbonate
HCO3- hydrogen carbonate
(bicarbonate)
C2O42- oxalate
CNcyanide
NO3 nitrate
NO2- nitrite
OHhydroxide
SO42- sulfate
HSO4- hydrogen sulfate
(bisulfate)
SO32- sulfite
HSO3- hydrogen sulfite
(bisulfite)

ClO4- perchlorate
ClO3- chlorate
ClO2- chlorite
ClO- or OCl- hypochlorite
PO43phosphate
2HPO4 hydrogen phosphate
H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate
CrO42- chromate
Cr2O72- dichromate
MnO4- permanganate
C2H3O2- acetate

Writing the formula of calcium phosphate: Ca3(PO4)2

Formation of molecular (non-ionic) compound
The nonmetals elements can react with each other to form
molecular (non-ionic) compound.
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
16

Simple compound of nonmetals with hydrogen

Group IVA
CH4
SiH4
GeH4

Group VA
NH3
PH3
AsH3
SbH3

Group VIA
H2O
H2S
H2Se
H2Te

Group VIIA
HF
HCl
HBr
HI

Simple compound of nonmetals with oxygen

Group IIIA
B2O3

Group IVA
CO2
SiO2
GeO2

Group VA
N2O3
N2O5
P2O3
P2O5
As2O3
As2O5
Sb2O3
Sb2O5

Group VIA
SO2
SO3
SeO2
SeO3
TeO2
TeO3

17

Some properties of ionic and molecular (nonionic) compound:

1. Melting point: ionic compounds have a high melting point.

NaCl, an ionic compound, melts at 800 oC.
eicosane (C20H42), one of the compounds in a mixture of
substance called paraffin wax, a non-ionic compound, melts
at 37 oC.
2. Ionic compounds can be crushed become powder, not with
non-ionic compounds.
3. Ionic compounds dissolve in water; non-ionic compounds
dissolve in liquids such as gasoline and paint thinner.
4. Electrical conductivity:
- Both ionic and non-ionic compounds in the solid form do
not conduct electricity.
- Molten non-ionic compounds do not conduct electricity,
molten ionic compounds does.
Oxidation reduction reactions
From the time that oxygen was discover, the term oxidation
has been associated with the reaction of this compound with
another compounds or elements to form oxides compounds.
Since known that iron oxide could be broken down (reduced)
to give the free metal, recovery of metal from its oxide known
as reduction.
18

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g)

2Fe2O3(s)

Fe loses 3 electrons to become Fe3+

Each O in O2 molecule gains 2 electrons to become O2Oxidation is the loss of electron(s) from a substance
Reduction is the gain of electron(s) from a substance
2Mg(s) + O2(g)

2MgO(s)

product of this reaction is an ionic compound, MgO, contains

Mg2+ and O2-, so the reaction can be considered as
Mg Mg2+ + 2e
(oxidation)
O2 + 4e 2O2(reduction)
O2 is oxidizing agent, it takes electrons from the substance
that is oxidized. O2 itself is reduced in fact.
Mg is reducing agent, it gives electrons to the substance that
is reduced. Mg itself is oxidized in fact.
Oxidation number
are numbers (either positive or negative) that we assign to
atoms in a compound so we can follow the changes that take
place in redox reaction

19

The oxidation number are assigned according to a set of rules

Rules for assigning oxidation numbers

1. The oxidation number of any element in its elemental form
is zero (Ne, H2, N2, P4, S8, Fe, Cu, etc.)
2. The oxidation number of any monoatomic ion (an ion
composed of only one atom) is equal to the charge of the
ion.
3. The sum of all the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a
compound is zero. For polyatomic ions, the sum of the
oxidation numbers must equal to the charge of the ion.
4. Fluorine has an oxidation number of 1.
5. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1.
6. Oxygen has an oxidation number of 2.
Examples:

FeCl3
KNO3
H2O2
Fe2(SO4)3
Cr2O72ClO3-

20

Identifying oxidation and reduction in a reaction

14HCl + K2Cr2O7
+1 -1

+1 +6 -2

2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 + 7H2O

+1 -1

+3 -1

+1 -2

Naming chemical compound

2 groups of compounds:
Inorganic compounds: their structures are not determined
primarily by linking together of carbon atoms.
Organic compounds: their structures primarily determined by
linking together of carbon atoms.
Names of anions:
IVA
VA
4C carbide
N3- nitride
Si4- silicide
P3- phosphide
As3- arsenide

VIA
O2- oxide
S2- sulfide
Se2- selenide

VIIA_____
F- fluoride
Cl- chloride
Br- Bromide

Common (systematic) name:

For metals that occur in one oxidation state:
NaCl sodium chloride
SrO
strontium oxide
Al2S3 aluminium sulfide
For metals that occur in more than one oxidation state:
Cr3+
chromic ion
CrCl3 chromic chloride
Cr2+
chromous ion
CrCl2 chromous chloride
3+
Fe
ferric ion
Fe2S3 ferric sulfide
Fe2+
ferrous ion
FeS
ferrous sulfide
Cu2+
cupric ion
CuO
cupric oxide
21

Cu+
Sn4+
Sn2+
Co3+
Co2+

cuprous ion
stannic ion
stannous ion
cobaltic ion
cobaltous ion

Cu2O cuprous oxide

Sn(SO4)2 stannic sulfate
SnSO4 Stannous sulfate
Co2(CO3)3 cobaltic carbonate
CoCO3 cobaltous carbonate

Stock name (system):

FeBr3 iron(III) bromide Co2(CO3)3
FeBr2 iron(II) bromide CoCO3
Cu2SO4 copper(I) sulfate Pb(C2O4)2
CuSO4 copper(II) sulfate PbC2O4
Non-metal compounds
NO2
nitrogen dioxide
N2O4
dinitrogen tetroxide
N2O5
dinitrogen pentoxide
PCl3phosphorus trichloride
PCl5phosphorus pentachloride

cobalt(III) carbonate
cobalt(II) carbonate
lead(IV) oxalate
lead(II) oxalate

CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide

Acids (when they dissolved in water)

HF(aq)
Hydrofluoric acid
HCl(aq)
Hydrochloric acid
HBr(aq)
Hydrobromic acid
HI(aq)
Hydroiodic acid
H2S(aq)
Hydrosulfuric acid
Oxoacids
H2SO4
H2SO3
HNO3
HNO2

sulfuric acid
sulfurous acid
nitric acid
nitrous acid

SO42SO32NO3NO2-

sulfate
sulfite
nitrate
nitrite
22

HClO4
HClO3
HClO2
HClO

perchloric acid
chloric acid
chlorous acid
hypochlorous acid

ClO4ClO3ClO2ClO-

perchlorate
chlorate
chlorite
hypochlorate

CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS

SOLUTION
Solution:
Concentrated: a large amount of solute dissolved in solvent
Dilute: small amount of solute dissolved in solvent
Saturated: contains maximum solute can dissolved
Unsaturated: contains less than maximum solute can
dissolved
Supersaturated: contains more than maximum solute can
dissolved (this solution is not stable).
Electrolytes
Water is very poor conductor.
When NaCl dissolved in water, the solution will conduct
electricity. The compounds that have the same property
with NaCl said to be electrolytes.
In water NaCl dissociates. The ions surrounded by water
molecules (in the reaction indicated by aq after the
formula of the ions), and said to be hydrated.
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
HCl(g) + H2O H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
These reactions called ionization reactions
For simplicity, labels (s), (aq) and (g) are very often leaved off
23

Strong and weak electrolytes

Compare the conductivity solutions of C12H22O11 (sugar),
NaCl, HCl, CaNO3, HC2H3O2 (acetic acid), NH3 (ammonia),
HCN (hydrogen cyanide)
C12H22O11 (sugar) is not electrolyte (non-electrolyte)
HC2H3O2 (acetic acid), NH3 (ammonia), HCN (hydrogen
cyanide) are weak electrolytes
NaCl, HCl, CaNO3 are strong electrolytes
Dissociation of weak electrolytes
% dissociated in 1.00 M solution
HC2H3O2 + H2O H3O+ + C2H3O20.42
NH3+ H2O

NH4+ + OH0.42
HCN + H2O H3O+ + CN2.0 x 10-3
HC2H3O2 + H2O
NH3+ H2O
HCN + H2O

H3O+ + C2H3O2NH4+ + OHH3O+ + CN-

Reaction between ions

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)

AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

In the solution electrolyte will dissociates

Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

There are no change the ions of NO3-(aq), Na+(aq) in the

solution, so the reaction can be written as
24

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

AgCl(s)

25