TOPIC 4: Biodiversity and Conservation

Background and Mass Extinctions

background extinction rate- natural extinction rate for species

E. O. Wilson- a biologist at Harvard, thinks that the current rate of extinction is 1000
times the background rate and is caused by human activities

hotspots- areas where species are more vulnerable to extinction

Biologists thing: we are the sixth mass extinction called the Holocene extinction event
To see all 6 mass extinctions refer to the Table on page 95
The Sixth Mass Extinction

far greater than any in the past

already wiped out many large mammal and flightless bird species

humans alter the landscape on an unprecedented scale

previous mass extinctions were due to physical (abiotic) causes over long time spans

current mass extinction is caused by humans (biotic causes) and is accelerating

humans:

o transform the environment

o overexploit other species

o introduce alien species

o pollute the environment

Worldwide Fund for Nature produces periodic report called the Living Planet Report
o measures trends in the Earths biological diversity

two phases to the sixth mass extinction

o 1. when modern humans spread over the Earth about 100 000 years ago

o 2. when humans became farmers 10 000 years ago

Hotspots

some regions have more biodiversity than others

in hotspots there are unusually high numbers of endemic species- those only found in
that place

tend to be nearer the tropics and are often tropical forests

tend to have large densities of human habituation nearby

Keystone Species

species that have a bigger effect on their environment than others

act as keystone in an arch, holding the arch together

their disappearance can have an impact far greater than and not proportional to their
numbers or biomass
o could destroy the ecosystem or imbalance it greatly

Example: elephants in the African savanna act as engineers, removing trees, after
which grasses can grow
Types of Diversity

Biodiversity- the numbers of species of different animals and plants in different places
o can be considered at three levels:
Genetic diversity- the range of genetic material present in a species

or a population

 Species diversity- the number of different species within a given

area or habitat

Habitat diversity- the number of different habitats per unit area that
a particular ecosystem or biome contains

Simpsons diversity index- measure species diversity in an area

o Simpsons reciprocal index- in which 1 is the lowest diversity

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where N = the total number of organisms of all species and n = the

total number of organisms of a particular species
How New Species Form

Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution which is outlined in The Origin of
Species, published in 1859
The theory is summarized bellow
o Speciation- when species are formed by gradual change over a long time

o when populations of the same species become separated, they cannot

interbreed and may start to diverge if the environments they inhabit change

o separation may have geographical or reproductive causes; humans speed up

speciation by artificial selection of plants and animals and by genetic engineering

o over time the population gradually changes= natural selection

o the survival of the fittest

Physical Barriers (examples of species and speciation)

o Large flightless birds (e.g. emu, ostrich, rhea, cassowary) only found in
Africa, Australia, South America

o cichlid fish in the lakes of East Africa, Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, Lake

Malawi
o Llamas and camels (llamas in South America and camels in Africa and

central Asia)

Land bridges: allow species to invade new areas

Continental drift: the movement of tectonic plates

Plate tectonics: the study of the movement of plates (continental drift)

Plates may either slide past each other, diverge, or converge

Factors that help to maintain the biodiversity

complexity of the ecosystem

stage of succession

(lack of) limiting factors

inertia
Factors that lead to loss of biodiversity

Natural hazards

loss of habitat

fragmentation of habitat

pollution

overexploitation

introducing non-native (exotic species)

spread of disease

modern agricultural practices

What makes a species prone to extinction?

narrow geographical range

small population size of reclining numbers

low population densities and large territories

few populations of the species

a large body

low reproductive potential

seasonal migrants

poor dispersers

specialized feeders or niche requirements

hunted for food or sport

minimum viable population size: that is needed for a species to survive in the wild is a
figure that scientists and conservationists consider
Species Examples (recovered, extinct, endangered)

Recovered Species
o Australian saltwater crocodile

18 out of 23 were once endangered

listed as protected species in Australia in 1971

overexploited for skin (leather), meat and body parts through illegal
hunting, poaching and smuggling

restored through ranching and closed-cycle farming

o Golden lion tamarin (GLT) recovered or not?

small monkey

endemic to Atlantic coastal rainforests of Brazil

omnivores

only 2% of their native habitat is left

poachers earn US$20 000 for skin

captive breeding program

some re-introduced to the wild but with only 30% of success

their future uncertain

Extinct Species
o Thylacine (Tasmanian tiger)

life expectancy of 12-14 years

habitat: open forests and grassland

competed with dingoes on the mainland of Australia

hunted by farmers whose stock of sheep was the species prey

hunting, poisoning, and trapping

shooting parties organized for tourists entertainment

last one has been killed in 1930

now introduced dogs have taken over the ecological role of the
thylacine

o Dodo

large flightless bird endemic to the island of Mauritius

ground-nesting bird

1505 Portuguese sailors ate dodo as a source of fresh meat

new species introduced that ate dodo

humans killed the birds for sport

destruction of habitat

extinct by 1681

fauna impoverished by its loss

became an icon due to its apparent stupidity

Endangered species
o Rafflesia

tropical parasitic plant in the forests of South-East Asia

single sexed

pollination must be carried out when the plant in bloom

vulnerable because they need specific conditions to survive

deforestation and logging destroy their habitat

now there are Rafflesia sanctuaries