RECYCLING, PACKAGING

1. Introduction
Recycling is steadily increasing in both the developed and under-developed countries. World population is both growing and becoming more concentrated in
urban areas. Increased urbanization will increase the concentration of packaging
wastes, thus improving collection efforts (1).
The United States Environmental Protection Agencys official statement on
packaging states that in most parts of the developed world, packaging constitutes as much as one-third of the non-industrial solid waste stream. As the developing world races to raise living standards, more countries are seeing significant
growth in their packaging waste. At least 28 countries have laws designed to
encourage reduced packaging and greater recycling of package discards. Many
countries are requiring manufacturers to take back packaging discards or pay
for their recycling (2).
There are no federal packaging mandates of similar nature in the United
States. However, state and local government concern about packaging waste continues to grow, while new containers emerge that complicate recycling. More
recently, government reductions in recycling subsidies and a growing demand
for secondary materials from abroad have placed increased pressure on domestic
recyclers, especially plastic recyclers, who are competing for limited feedstock.
New ways to increase the recovery of secondary materials, including packaging
and plastics, are needed.
Packaging can be made more sustainable by applying the principles of product stewardship. This means: eliminating toxic constituents; using less material; making packaging more reusable; using more recycled content; and
making it more readily recyclable (2).

2. Municipal Solid Wastes

In the United States, approximately 254  106 tons of municipal solid waste
(MSW) was generated in 2007 (3). Containers and packaging comprised about
41% of the total. Excluding composting, the amount of MSW recycled increased
to 63.3 million tons in 2007, an increase of 1.9  106tons 2006. The tons recovered
from composting rose slightly to 21.7  106 tons in 2007 up from 21  106 tons in
2006. The recovery rate (including composting) was 33.4% in 2007 up from 32.5%
in 2006).
Major sources of packaging wastes are grocery stores, restaurants, and
office buildings. Residential collection of waste materials is increasing, although
sorting of wastes is a major expense. The average composition of U.S. municipal
waste for 2007 is given in Table 1.
Both economic factors and governmental regulation are driving recycling,
energy costs associated with recycling are almost always less than in the manufacture of products from virgin material. In some areas, the number of landfill
sites is becoming limited. Although the number of landfill sites in the United
States is declining, the remaining sites are large, modern facilities and capacity

Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Copyright John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

RECYCLING, PACKAGING

has remained constant. The number of landfills in the U.S. in 2007 was 1,754
down from 1,967 in 2006. In 1988 there were 7,924 landfills.
Concerns about landfill disposal costs are becoming less of a factor in promoting North American recycling. The EPA reports that discards sent to landfills
after recycling and combustion with energy recovery declined to 2.5 lb/person/
day.
The European Union is planning to increase recycling to keep waste out of
landfills. By 2012 the Legislature of European Parliament Environmental Committee supported reforms that would stabilize the waste levels to 2009. Recycling
varies from country to country. The Netherlands and Denmark send 10% of
waste to landfills, Eastern Europe and the island nations send 90% of their
trash to landfills. Targets is to reduce 279303  106 t of greenhouse gases. A
ban on discarding biodegradable waste into landfills would be in place (4).

3. Separation of Commingled Materials

Solid wastes, particularly from residential collection programs, arrive at a material recovery facility (MRF) as a complex mixture. MRFs are typically built to
process 100-500 tons of waste per day. The wastes are dumped on a tipping
floor, where paper products are separated from metals and plastics. Metals
and plastics, mostly containers, are pushed into a conveyor belt. Two types of
magnetic separators remove steel and aluminum from plastics and glass. Density
differences or manual sorting are used to separate glass from plastics. The glass
containers are hand sorted by color. The plastics are separated into individual
polymer types by the MRF or in a separate reclaiming facility. Plastic bottles
are classified into: clear poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) soft drink bottles;
green PET soft drink bottles; translucent high density polyethylene (HDPE)
milk, water, and juice bottles; pigmented HDPE detergent bottles, poly(vinyl
chloride) (PVC) water bottles, and food containers.

4. Glass
The United States generated 13.6  106 tons of glass in MSW in 2007. About 24%
was recovered for recycling. Soft drinks, beer, food, wine, and liquor containers
represent the largest source of glass generated and recovered for recycling.
Ninety percent of recycled glass is used to make new containers. Since glass
has an unlimited life, it can be recycled repeatedly (5). Glass Packaging Institute
members have set a goal to use 50% higher recycled content by 2013.
4.1. Collection and Sorting. Glass is collected at curb-side or drop-off
locations. Glass is usually co-mingled with different colors and types of glass.
This glass must be sorted by color or other characteristics at a materials recovery
facility. Often glass collected at a drop-off center is separated by color. Local recycling agencies instruct residents on how to recycle glass curbside. Although glass
is made of silica and soda, the type and quantity vary slightly with different
types of glass. These differences can cause manufacturing problems due to different melting points and chemical incompatibility. Neither amber nor brown glass

RECYCLING, PACKAGING

is used to make clear glass. Glass separated by color yields cullet (crushed glass)
of higher economic value. Sorting also reduces contamination.
Waste Management Recycle America constructed an automated optical
glass sorting line at its California Facility that removes ceramic and metal contaminants from color-separated clear, brown, green glass. The new sorting technology also has the ability to convert three-color mixed glass into clean usable
cullet.
4.2. Processing. When processing MSW, glass is generally removed by
hand sorting after separation paper and metals. The mineral jig may be used to
separate glass particles from other particles. Particles should be less than 5 cm in
their longest dimension. Glass occurs in the middle layer of the slurry formed by
the mineral jig. Froth flotation is most efficient for particles less than 850 mm in
size. A cationic fatty acid amine surfactant has been used to improve the efficiency of froth flotation of glass.
Today most glass manufacturers rely on a steady supply of recycled cullet to
supplement raw materials. To make glass, manufacturers mix sand, soda ash
limestone and cullet, heat the mixture to a temperature of 2,600 to 2,8008F,
and then mold into the desired shape. Sand is the only material used in greater
volume than cullet in glass manufacturing.
Cullet saves money and helps the environment. It costs less than raw materials and prolongs furnace life since it melts at a lower temperature. Cullet
demands less energy such as electricity, natural gas, and coal. Less energy
means reduced emissions.
4.3. Source Reduction. Source reduction is the process of reducing the
amount of toxicity of waste that is generated. Lightweighting reduces the
amount of material used to make a specific product. Money and resources
saved help make glass a more effective packaging product. The glass container
industry continues to reduce the weight of non-returnable glass. Manufacturers
reduced the weight of non-returnable glass containers by about 44% from 1972 to
1987.
Glass container maker Ardagh, as well as Coca-Cola. Coors, and other beverage companies are using facsimile bottles with built-in active RFID tags and
sensors to identify sites on assembly lines that subject glass to damaging pressure or collisions. In manufacturing, bottling, and transportation processes
were designed to handle heavier and studier bottles. These processes are not
always appropriate for the new more sustainable designs. With lighter glass
weight, the risk of breakage and waste in bottle and filling factories as well as
in transporting these bottles has increased. These new RFID tags were developed to address this problem (6).
4.4. Markets for Recovered Glass. About 80 percent of recycled glass
is used to make new containers. The demand for high quality cullet is larger than
the supply. Factors such as contamination can lead to low quality cullet. High
quality cullet is free of contaminants that can jeopardize the integrity of an
entire batch of glass. The Glass Packaging Institute (GPI) lists a number of secondary uses for high quality cullet: abrasives, aggregate substitute, bead manufacturing (used for reflective paint for highways), decorative applications,
fiberglass, frictionators, and fluxes in metal foundry work. Low quality cullet

RECYCLING, PACKAGING

is used in secondary applications such as the manufacture of fiberglass insulation, roadbed aggregate, driving safety reflective beads, and decorative tile (7)

5. Paper
In 2007, a record 54.5% of the paper consumed for packaging in the United States
(45.24  106 t) was recovered for recycling. The amount of paper and paperboard
products in MSW was 80  106 t (3). The American Forest and Paper Association
has set a goal of recovery at 60% by 2012 (8).The paperboard and packaging category covers containerboard used to make corrugated shipping containers and
paperboard used in a wide variety of packaging applications such as folding cartons, blister cards, beverage carriers, mailing tubes, and video cassette boxes.
Containerboard (corrugated board) is actually a composite paperboard
made by sandwiching fluted corrugated medium in between layers of linerboard.
Linerboard, made primarily from both virgin and recovered fiber from old corrugated containers (OCC) is used to make the inner and outer walls of a box. The
inside fluted medium layer in the middle is made almost exclusively from postconsumer recovered fiber from OCC and old newspapers and office papers.
Paperboard containing recovered fiber is a multiply material, formed in
layers of recovered fiber. Often gray in appearance, a white top layer made
from recovered office paper is often used to provide a clean printing surface.
Paperboard mills use more recovered fiber than any other segment of the
paper industry to manufacture a wide variety of product packaging (9).
5.1. Processing. The primary process steps in recycling old corrugated
containers and other paper packing materials are pulping, high-density cleaning,
coarse and fine screening, centrifugal (reverse cleaning), fiber fractionation, and
refining. Pulping disintegrates the containers into individual fibers dispersed in
water. High-density cleaning removes large dense particles such as nails and
large staples. Coarse screening removes large low-density contaminants such
as un-pulped tapes and large adhesives particles. Screening is used to separate
contaminant particles such as plastic, wax, and adhesive particles.
Despite the use of screening and reverse cleaning to remove adhesive
stickies their removal is inefficient. Stickies in pulp cause paper-mill operating
problems by reducing pulp drainage rates on paper machines. They do this by
forming deposits on various areas of the machinery.
Fabrication separates fine particles and short, weak cellulose fibers from
longer, stronger fibers. Refining is used to develop the desired pulp drainage
properties on the paper machine and to control paper bulk and density, strength,
surface smoothness, and porosity. Caustic soaking improves OCC fiber properties. Extensive bleaching can produce high-brightness pulp. Many corrugated
containers are coated with wax. Waxes and adhesives can form a thin film
when making linerboard. Removal of the wax is difficult. Flotation can be
used, but high paper losses make this process uneconomical. A fiber can be
used five to seven times before it becomes too short (from too much pulping).
Recovered paper such as office paper has long cellulose fibers and has the greatest flexibility. It is more valuable and can be used for short fiber (newspaper) and
long fiber (office paper) products.

RECYCLING, PACKAGING

5.2. Source Reduction. Paper packaging is where lightweighting has

been achieved. Also related is the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). Recovered paper cannot fill the need for the demand for paper. Wood must also be a
source for paper. SFI gives third party certification to those companies using
trees that have been managed in a sustainable process, ie, harvesting trees
from perpetually growing forests (10).
5.3. Market for Recycled Paper. Recycling paper processing mills use
recycled paper as a feedstock. U.S. mills and industrial facilities convert corrugated containers and other paper packaging to new paper and construction materials. More than 60 of these produce linerboard and corrugated medium with a
recycle content of 100%. Other uses of recycled paper are the manufacture of
molded packaging, compost, and kitty litter.
6. Plastics
The United States generated almost 14  106 t of plastic in the MSW stream as containers and packaging, almost 7  106 t as nondurable goods and about 10  106 t
as durable goods. The total amount of plastic in MSW, almost 31  106 t represented 12.1% of the total MSW generation in 2007. The amount of plastic generated in MSW has increased from less than 1% in 1960 to 12.1% in 2007.
Plastics are a rapidly growing segment of the MSW stream. The largest
category of plastics are found in containers and packaging, soft drinks, bottles,
lids (see Table 2).
The economic attractiveness of plastics recycling is dependent on the cost of
the plastics, feedstock, crude oil and natural gas. Plastics use 8% of the world oil
production, 4% as feedstock and 4% for manufacture (10).
Primary recycling is the recycling of plastics that are plant scrap and have
not been sold for consumer use. Secondary recycling is the physical cleaning and
processing of postconsumer plastic products. Tertiary recycling is the chemical
treatment of polymers. This treatment is usually depolymerization to produce
monomers that are purified and then polymerized to produce a new polymer.
Using tertiary recycling materials such as fillers and fibers can be physically
removed from the monomer. The monomers can also be purified by distillation
and other processes prior to polymerization. The leading example of tertiary
recycling is PET.
6.1. Collection. According to the American Plastics Council more than
1800 U.S. businesses handle or reclaim post consumer plastics. Plastics from
MSW are usually collected from curbside recycling bins or drop-off sites. They
then go to a material recovery facility where they are sorted either mechanically
or manually from other recyclables. Sorted plastic packaging materials are
shipped, usually in bales, to processing plants to be converted to polymer resins.
6.2. Processing. The bales are broken and bottles sorted to ensure that
only one type of plastic is being further processed. The scrap is passed along a
shaker screen to remove trash and dirt and then washed into small flakes A flotation tank then further separates contaminants, based on different densities.
Flakes are then dried, melted, filtered, and formed into pellets. The pellets are
shipped to manufacturing plants where they are made into new plastic.

RECYCLING, PACKAGING

6.3. Resin Identification Code. The Society of the Plastics Industries,

Inc, (SPI) introduced a voluntary resin identification coding system in 1988.
Municipal recycling programs traditionally target packaging containers, and
the SPI coding system offered a way to identify the resin contents of bottles
and containers found in the residential waste stream Plastic household containers are usually marked with the number so that the user can decide if this type of
plastic can be recycled. Code numbers are: 1, PET; 2, HDPE, 3, Vinyl, 4, LDPE, 5,
PP; 6, PS, and 7, other.
6.4. Source Reduction. The plastics industry has successfully been
able to reduce the amount of material needed to make packaging for consumer
products. Plastic milk jugs weigh 30% less than they did 20 years ago. Plastic
packaging is generally more lightweight than its alternatives, plastic, glass, or
metal.
6.5. Markets for Recovered Plastics. Markets for recycled plastic
resins, such as PET and HDPE are stable in most geographical areas in the
United States and are expanding in many others. Currently, both the capacity
to process post-consumer plastics and the market demand for recovered plastic
resin exceed the amount of post-consumer plastics recovered from the waste
stream. The primary market for recycled PET bottles continues to be for fiber
for carpet and textiles. The primary market for HDPE is bottles. Future uses
could include coating for corrugated paper and other natural fibers to make
waterproof products such as shipping containers. PET can be recycled into clothing. Recovered HDPE can be manufactured into recycled-content landscape and
garden products, such a lawn chairs and garden edging.
7. Metals
In 2007, 2,680  103 t of steel packaging was generated mostly as cans,
1,730  103 t were recovered (64.6% of generation), 950  103 t of discards were
reported. For total aluminum packaging including foil and closures,
1,870  103 t were generated, 730  103 t were recovered (39.0% of generation)
and 1,140  103 t were discarded (12).
In 2007, 53.8  109 cans were recovered and all were recycled (13). The Aluminum Association is aiming towards 75% of recovery of aluminum cans (UBCs,
used beverage cans) by 2015 (14).
7.1. Collecting and Sorting. Cans and other packaging are recycled at
curbside or brought to collection or redemption centers. Steel is recovered also at
multi-buyback centers.

7.2. Processing
Aluminum. Cans go to a material recovery facility (MRF) where they are
separated from other food and beverage containers. Since most UBCs are made
into cans, only high quality scrap must be produced. The scrap must be free of
steel, lead, caps, etc. Scrap is baled, which brokers can buy and can manufacturers can purchase. Can sheet manufacturers typically have arrangements
with food processors to refine metal and melt metal into ingots. The can-sheet
manufacturers then melt ingots into can sheets. They produce lids separately
and sell them to the beverage industry. The average can contains 40% of

RECYCLING, PACKAGING

postconsumer recycled aluminum. Recovery reduces energy costs. A savings of

95% of energy needed to produce cans from recycles rather than bauxite is realized. Aluminum produced from recycled material requires 2.8 kWh/kg while primary aluminum production requires about 45 kWh/kg of metal produced (15).
Steel. Steel is hauled to a recovery facility, separated, and then crushed
into large bales. Bales go to foundries and mills and then melted steel. It is
cheaper to recycle steel than it is to mine virgin ore.
7.3. Source Reduction. Aluminum can weight has been reduced 52%
since 1972. Today 29 cans can be made from 1 lb of aluminum up from 22 cans
in 1972 (16).
Steel containers thickness has been reduced 30% from 0.20 mm to 0.14 mm.
New technology will allow a further reduction to 0.12 mm (17).
7.4. Markets for Recycled Metals. Most MSW aluminum and UBCs
are used to manufacture cans. It takes six weeks to manufacture, fill, sell,
recycle, and then re-manufacture a can. The automobile industry and building
sector also use recycled aluminum (16). Steel cans make up 90% of the food
can market in the United States. Cans contain 30% recycled steel. Cans used
often contain no tin. Therefore few mills operate detinning operations. Can
scrap can be used as a precipitant in copper leaching mining or in minimills
using electric arc furnaces. These furnaces use scrap iron and steel as feedstock.
Most postconsumer scrap of ferrous metals (steel) comes from automobiles and
ship breaking (17).

8. Regulations
Environmental regulations involving recycling and waste management affect the
packaging industry most.
All of the 50 U.S. states plus 12 of the Canadian provinces have environmental agencies and regulation that cover state, local, and municipal laws. Basically they follow the principles of product stewardship. New York States Solid
Waste Management Act of 1988 sets out the principles of reduce, recycle, and
reuse. The California Beverage Container Recycling and Litter Reduction Act
effective as of September 1986 and amended in January 2008 sets out the law
for efficient and large scale bottle and container recycling. Sections 14500
14501 declare that it is Californias intent to join in large-scale redemption
and recycling of beverage containers. The recycling goal was set out as 80%;
and when any one type of container falls below 65%, a refund value is increased.
The Legislature also urged cities and counties to make redemption and recycling
centers available to the public. The responsibility to provide redemption opportunities rests jointly with manufacturers, distributors, dealers, recyclers, processors, and the Department of Conservation. It established this act to significantly
reduce beverage container litter in the state.
Regulations outside the United States differ greatly, but impact U. S. products. In many countries, the polluter pays principle and the Extended Produce
Responsibility (EPR) is at the core of legislation. EPR has grown in popularity in
Central and Eastern Europe. Asia is involved in regulatory activities and has
achieved complex packaging design requirements.

RECYCLING, PACKAGING

8.1. Bottle Bills. The term bottle bill refers to a container deposit law,
that is, a refundable deposit is paid on a beer, soft drink, or other beverage container at the time of purchase.
History. It was not until after World War I that cans replaced refillable
bottles in the beer industry. By 1960, approximately 47% of beer sold in the
United States was packaged in cans and no-return bottles. Soft drinks were
still sold in refillable glass bottles. With the centralization of the beverage industry, soft drinks shifted to no-deposit no-return one-way bottles and cans. This
trend resulted in an explosion of beverage container litter. The first bottle bill
was passed in Vermont in 1953. It did not require a deposit but banned the
sale of beer in non-refillable bottles. This law eventually expired due to the
strong beer lobby.
By 1970 cans and one-way bottles increased to 60% of the market share.
British Colombia enacted the first beverage container recovery system in
North America in 1970.
In 1971, Oregon passed the first bottle bill (deposit law). By 1986, ten states
enacted some from of bottle bill. Some of these states covered water, juice, and
other beverage not included in the Oregon bill. However, in 2009, Oregon
made its first change to its original bill by covering bottle water and flavored bottle water containers (18).
Current Bills. In 2009, eleven states and twelve Canadian provinces have
a deposit law. Several states and provinces have expanded their laws to cover
beverages such as juice and sports drinks, tea, and bottled water. Most of
these beverages did not exist when the original bill was passed. No state deposit
law has been repealed. The eleven U.S. states are California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Michigan, Massachusetts, New York, Oregon, and
Vermont (19).
These bills were intended to reduce beverage container litter. Now the protection of natural resources through recycling and reduction of solid waste going
to landfills. Seven states reported a reduction in beverage container litter ranging from 73 to 83% (19).
Senator Ed Markey of Massachusetts has introduced an amendment to the
Solid Wastes Disposal Act to require a refund value for certain beverage containers (of metal, glass, or plastic or in combination). Deposits would be $0.05, adjustable for inflation. The resources would go to the state for pollution prevention
and recycling. This Bottle Recycling Climate Protection Act (introduced November 2007) would apply to all of the United States. States with high recycling rates
would be exempt (19).
Opponents of bottle bills include beverage container manufacturers, soft
drink bottlers, beer, wine, and liquor distributors, and retail grocers. They consider the bottle bills inefficient and costly. Bottlers of new age bottled drinks, ie,
juice, sports drinks, water have joined the opposition. A new group of bottle bill
opponents are haulers and owners of materials recovery facilities who want revenue from the valuable aluminum cans recovered by bottle bills (19).
Other countries that have bottle bills are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Israel, Keribati Federated Micronesia, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland.

RECYCLING, PACKAGING

Unclaimed Deposits. Unclaimed or unredeemed deposits remain the

property of the distributor and the bottle bill state. In Michigan and Massachusetts, the courts deemed that the unclaimed deposits are abandoned by the public
and belong to the state. Hawaii collects all of its container deposits.
8.2. Recycled Content Mandate. Some states have a minimum
recycled content standards for plastics (California, Oregon, Wisconsin), glass
containers (California, Oregon), and trash bags (California).
California Beverage Container Recycling and Litter Reduction Act Section
14549 states that every glass container manufacturer shall report to the
California Department of Conservation the amount of total tons of new glass,
food, drink, and beverage containers and the tons of California postfilled glass
used in the in the manufacture of these containers. Each glass manufacturer
shall use a minimum of 35% postfilled glass in the manufacture of glass beverage
and food containers measured on an annual basis; but if a glass manufacturer
demonstrates that its use of postfilled glass during the annual period is made
up of at least 50% mixed color cullet, then the manufacturer may use a minimum
of 25% postfilled glass. A new law in California (AB 2449) covers the recycling of
plastic bags.
Oregons Rigid Container Recycling law (Or Rev St 459A.650-655) required
that by 1995 all rigid containers must contain 25% recycled plastics or plastic
resins that are recycled at a rate of 25% or must be reused at least 5 times.
Wisconsin has a law that requires 10% recycled content in rigid plastic containers eight ounces and over.
8.3. Heavy Metals Ban. The model Toxics in Packaging Bill developed
by the Coalition of Northeastern Governors (CONEG) is law in 18 U.S. states. In
1995, six states moved to amend the law in an effort to clean up loose ends (20).
The model bill states that no package may be sold if any component (including inks, dyes, pigments, adhesives, stabilizers or other additives) contains lead,
cadmium, mercury, or hexavalent chromium intentionally introduced during
manufacture or distribution. The model law allows state regulators to later institute bans on other heavy metals if they are found to be a threat.
8.4. Fees. Fee programs around the world differ. Each country has a
unique method for allocating recovery costs by settling fees and defining categories. Most countries place responsibility for ensuring packaging collection
and recycling on the packer/filler. Industry associations have established collective systems to manage compliance of the companies involved. Usually costs are
distributed among members. In some countries, the government continues to
provide collection and recycling services and charges a tax to the industry.
Fees must be paid by the importer of goods. Fees are determined by the packaging weight and the type of material used. Material definitions are not uniform
and depend on the specific materials used. If a product is made up of various
materials, the component would fall into several categories. For example, a
paper (70%) and aluminum (30%) product would fall into two categories (21).
8.5. The European Directive. The European Directive on Packaging
was first passed in 1994 and amended in 2004. It contains some of the most comprehensive requirements focused on reducing packaging waste. All companies
who sell products in the EU (European Union) must comply with the following
(1) Source reduction: companies must demonstrate that they have reducd their

10

RECYCLING, PACKAGING

packaging as much as possible. And then identify the critical area which prevents
further reduction in weight or volume of the packaging component. (2) Recovery
standards. Packaging components must be recoverable by at least three recovery
routes (energy, organic, or material recovery). (3) Reuse. Optional but must meet
the requiremnts of the reuse standard if it is claimed as reusable. (4). Heavy
metal content. Sets a concentration limit for lead, cadmium, mercury, and hexavalent chromium. (5) Hazardous substances reduction. Noxious substances must
be minimized if they could be released in emissions, ash or leachate when the
packaging is landfilled or burned.
All packaging placed on the EU market must be in compliance with ERP or may
be removed from the market. U.S. companies must incorporate the ERs into their
packaging design and document how each standard of the Directive considered.
One of the problems with the Directive.is that each country can set up its
own economic instruments (ie, taxes, deposits, industry collection fees, or a
combination), and each country can stress different types of packaging from different sources. However, the European Parliament has adopted binding targets
for the recycing of waste for its 27 member countries. Plan should be formed by
2014 for full use by 2020. Countries that fail to comply will be faced with full legal
action (22).
8.6. International Material Restriction. South Korea currently bans
packaging press packed, coated or shrink-wrapped in PVC. Several countries
are expected to charge more for PVC packaging. Expanded polystyrene is forbidden in South Korea for packaging toys and composite matrials. Phase outs apply
to packaging of electrical, office, and audio-visual products. An increasing number have restrictions on the use of phthalates (Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and
Japan) used in food packaging and toys. Many retailers, especially in Asia and
Europe refuse to accept packaging made of PVC. France and Denamrk provide
a fee reduction of certain materials that contain more than 50% recycled material. China has banned free plastic bags (23).
8.7. International Packaging Reduction. Several countries have
implemented restrictions of empty space and the permissible number of layers
in a packaging product. South Korea has a limit of no more that 1035% empty
space or 25-40% for a set product (a gift containing several packaged products).
Australia has limits that range from 2540%. There is a 40% limit in Japan for
cosmetic products. New Zealand has regulations that forbids deceptive packaging. Many countries, such as, Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands, Greece,
Slovakia, Spain, and South Korea require companies to submit a detailed packaging reduction plan. The EU may make packaging reduction part of its reporting
requirement. Reduction plans vary. Belgium, Greece, and the Netherlands
require a company to develop a plan only if the goods are manufactured in that
country. Spain and Slovakia require a plan if the quantity of packaging placed in
the market exceeds a cetain tonnnage (21).

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RECYCLING, PACKAGING

11

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Quality, June 26, 2007.
19. Bottle Bill Resource Guide, Container Recycling Institute, www.bottle.bill.org, 2009.
20. New York State Hazardous Packaging Law (article 37), www.dec.ny.gov/chemical.
21. D. Allway, International Packaging Regulations, State of Oregon Department of
Environmental Quality, Portland, Ore., www.deq.state.or.us, 2005.
22. New Recycling Targets in Europe, www.eurobserver.com, June 19, 2008.
23. China Bans Free Plastic Bags, AP Press International, Herald Tribune, January 9,
2008.

MICHALINA BICKFORD
Staff

12

RECYCLING, PACKAGING

Table 1. Composition of U.S. Municipal Solid Wastea

Component

Weight %

paper
plastics
metals
glass
rubber, leather, textiles
yard trimmings
food scraps

32.7
12.1
8.2
5.3
7.6
12.8
12.5

Ref. 3.

Table 2. Plastics Containers and Packaging in MSW, 2007a,b

Product
Resins in Packaging
PET
HDPE
PVC
LDPE/LLDPE
PP
PS
other resins
Total in Packaging
In MSW/by resin
PET
HDPE
PVC
LDPE/LLDPE
PP
PS
Other resins
Total plastics in MSW
a

Total generation,
103 t

Recovery,
103 t (%)

Discards,
103 t

2,960
4,150
410
3,000
2,040
300
770
13,630

680(23.0)
570 (13.7%)

2,280
3,580
410
2,690
2,030
280
770
12,040

3,760
5,650
1,660
6,400
4,570
2,620
6,070
30,730

Ref. 12.
PET = poly(ethylene terephthalate)
HDPE = high density polyethylene
PVC = poly(vinyl chloride)
LDPE = low density polyethylene
LLDPE = linear low density polyethylene
PP = polypropylene
PS = polystyrene
b

310 (10.3%)
10(0.5%)
20 (6.7)
1,590 (11.7)
680 (18.1)
570(10.1)
310 (4.8%)
10(0.2%)
20(0.8%)
500(8.2%)
2,090(6.8%)

3,080
5,080
1,660
6,090
4,560
2,600
5,570
28,640