Drainage XXXX

State of Qatar - Public Works Authority
Drainage Affairs
Contents
1.0
General ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Introduction................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2
Standards .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.3
Master Planning of Landscape and TSE Irrigation Systems ..................................................... 1
1.4
2.0
1.3.1
Landscape Development Master Plan ....................................................................................... 1
1.3.2
Irrigation Budgets ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.3.3
Irrigation Master Plan ................................................................................................................. 2
Irrigation Water Quality.............................................................................................................. 2

1.4.1
General ....................................................................................................................................... 2
1.4.2
Public Health Factors in Effluent Use ......................................................................................... 2
1.4.3
Quality of TSE for Landscape Irrigation ..................................................................................... 3
1.4.4
Recommended TSE Quality for Landscape Irrigation ................................................................ 4
1.5
Documentation .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.6
Environmental Impact Assessment ........................................................................................... 4
1.7
Building Permit .......................................................................................................................... 4
Design of TSE Transmission and Distribution System ..................................................... 7

2.1
Definitions.................................................................................................................................. 7
2.2
Standards and Sources of Information ...................................................................................... 7
2.3
Principles of Design................................................................................................................... 8
2.4
Sizing and Flow Estimation ....................................................................................................... 8
2.5
Pipeline Materials .................................................................................................................... 14

2.5.1
Ductile Iron Pipes ..................................................................................................................... 14
2.5.2
Polyethylene Pipes ................................................................................................................... 14
2.5.3
GRP Pipes ................................................................................................................................ 15
2.5.4
Asbestos Cement Pipes (Safety Note) ..................................................................................... 15
2.6
Hydraulic Analysis ................................................................................................................... 15
2.7
General Design Considerations .............................................................................................. 20
2.8
Volume 4
2.7.1
Pipeline Horizontal Alignment .................................................................................................. 20
2.7.2
Pipeline Vertical Alignment ....................................................................................................... 21
2.7.3
Internal Pipe Pressures and Restraint of Thrust ...................................................................... 21
2.7.4
Air Release ............................................................................................................................... 22
2.7.5
Pipeline Maintenance Draining.............................................................................................. 22
2.7.6
Isolation Valves ........................................................................................................................ 22
2.7.7
Flow Metering and Remote Sensing ........................................................................................ 23
Pumping Installations .............................................................................................................. 25

2.8.1
Pumping Plant .......................................................................................................................... 25
2.8.2
Plant Layout.............................................................................................................................. 28
2.8.3
Primary Movers ........................................................................................................................ 29
2.8.4
Variable Speed Drives (VSD) ................................................................................................... 30
2.8.5
Motor Control Centre (MCC) .................................................................................................... 31
2.8.6
Instrumentation and Control ..................................................................................................... 33
TSE System Design
1st Edition June 2005 - Copyright Ashghal
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Drainage Affairs
3.0
Page ii
2.8.8
Surge Protection ...................................................................................................................... 38
2.8.9
Air Valves ................................................................................................................................. 40
2.8.10
Filtration ................................................................................................................................... 40
2.8.11
Ventilation and Air Conditioning ............................................................................................... 41
2.8.12
Standby Generation ................................................................................................................. 43
2.8.13
Maintenance Access and Lifting Gear ..................................................................................... 43
2.8.14
Geotechnical Information ......................................................................................................... 44
2.8.15
Sub- and Superstructure Design.............................................................................................. 45
TSE Towers ............................................................................................................................ 47
2.10
TSE Ground Tanks ................................................................................................................. 47
2.11
Site Facilities ........................................................................................................................... 49
Design of Irrigation Systems ..............................................................................................50
3.2
5.0
Pump Suction and Delivery Design ......................................................................................... 37
2.9
3.1
4.0
2.8.7
Definition and Scope ............................................................................................................... 50

3.1.1
System Layouts ....................................................................................................................... 50
3.1.2
Pipework Materials ................................................................................................................... 52
3.1.3
Pipework Sizing ....................................................................................................................... 52
3.1.4
Minimum and Maximum Pressures.......................................................................................... 52
3.1.5
Irrigation Rates ......................................................................................................................... 54
3.1.6
Irrigation Equipment ................................................................................................................. 54
3.1.7
Control Systems ....................................................................................................................... 58
3.1.8
Co-ordination of Irrigation and Landscape Design .................................................................. 58
3.1.9
Under-Drainage ....................................................................................................................... 58
Landscape and Irrigation Management ................................................................................... 59

3.2.1
Irrigation Management ............................................................................................................. 59
3.2.2
Maintenance of Irrigation Systems........................................................................................... 59
3.2.3
Planting Management .............................................................................................................. 59
Health & Safety ....................................................................................................................60

4.1
General Guidelines ................................................................................................................. 60
4.2
Reference Documents ............................................................................................................ 60
References ...........................................................................................................................62
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Drainage Affairs
1.0
General
1.1
Introduction
This volume covers the engineering planning and

design of treated sewage effluent (TSE) systems for
irrigation use in the urban environment. TSE may
have other uses, e.g. in certain industrial
applications, but for Qatar, irrigation is likely to be the
primary use. As such, an overview of the broader
issues involved in the use of TSE for irrigation is
covered before discussion of engineering planning
and design of these systems.
1.2
Standards
A full list of standards used in all of the manuals for

design purposes is included in Volume 1, Foreword.
References used in this Volume are also included in
Sections 2.2, 4.2 and at the end of the text.
1.3
Master Planning of
Landscape and TSE
Irrigation Systems
1.3.1
Landscape Development
Master Plan
The following sections deal with the planning and

design of treated sewage effluent (TSE) distribution
networks including pumping stations and reservoirs,
for ultimate use in downstream irrigation systems.
The only purpose of this infrastructure and the related
irrigation installations discussed here, is the supply of
TSE for application to vegetation. Therefore, it is
necessary to provide an overview of the broader
landscape and planning context that the TSE
distribution infrastructure will serve.
Assessing the requirement for amenity landscape,
planning and design are the concern of other
professions. This is undertaken by town planners,
landscape architects and urban designers working
within their own professional fields, following client
requirements and design guidelines that are outside
the scope of a sewerage and drainage manual.
However, the utilities engineers and their teams are
very much concerned with quantity, quality and
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TSE System Design
applications of irrigation water for these areas, so

that the necessary infrastructure can be provided.
In this respect, knowledge of landscape planning is
necessary for TSE engineers.
A landscape master plan provides a strategic
framework for development within the urban and
surrounding environment.
Preparation of a
landscape master plan is a significant step to
ensuring that the finished development will be fit for
purpose. It enables co-ordination of the physical
built environment, with human recreational and
amenity needs, climatic and environmental
considerations, and a broader concept of the urban
landscape structure. It is also one of the most
important inputs in the establishment of irrigation
budgets and will be the basis for planning and
engineering of the irrigation distribution networks
and associated equipment.
1.3.2
Irrigation Budgets
The purpose of establishing irrigation budgets is to

ensure that the available resources of irrigation
water are apportioned so that the needs of future
and existing landscape areas can be satisfied. The
objective is to avoid both shortages and wastage,
so that the water needs of the vegetation can be
assured.
The starting point for setting the irrigation budgets
is to consider the total available quantity of
irrigation water, and also, the Landscape
Development Master Plan that defines the overall
distribution of land use. Division of the Landscape
Development Master Plan into irrigation sectors is
necessary so that budget irrigation quantities can
be allocated to each sector. Irrigation sectors will
not necessarily correspond to town planning
sectors. In case there is already an adequate
existing infrastructure for effluent distribution, this
will help to define a sectors extent and water
allocation. Hydraulic capacity of the existing
networks affecting the available water flows and
pressures may be constraints on water availability
within a sector, and therefore these need careful
analysis.
The irrigation budgets therefore simply provide a
peak daily irrigation volume for each sector over
time. They may be adjusted from time to time as
necessary within the overall TSE availability, and
according to any hydraulic and storage constraints.
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The irrigation budgets may highlight issues related to

supply that will be dealt with by the Irrigation Master
Plan (see section 1.3.3), and they will also provide
essential guidance to the landscape designers for the
quantities and types of vegetation that can be
sustained within each budget sector.
1.3.3
Irrigation Master Plan
The Irrigation Master Plan derives from the

Landscape Development Master Plan and the
irrigation budgets, but needs to address a broader
range of issues concerning irrigation supply. The
objective of the irrigation master plan is to study and
identify specific issues related to the supply and
distribution of irrigation water. It will also make
recommendations, for example regarding future
infrastructure requirements, or matters related to
irrigation water quality (refer to.1.4 below). The
Irrigation Master Plan should also contain a timescale or outline programme for execution of any
proposed projects, co-ordinated with expected urban
growth, future effluent availability, and the proposed
implementation of landscape projects.
Examples of typical recommendations that will be
made in the Irrigation Master Plan may include the
following:
Requirements for new irrigation infrastructure;
Recommendations
for
upgrading
or
refurbishing of existing effluent distribution
networks, storage reservoirs, pumping
stations etc.;
Proposals for control

installations (e.g. SCADA);
Proposed measures related to irrigation water

quality (salinity, chemical quality, and
filtration);
Recommendations related to existing use of

irrigation water, e.g. for improving efficiency,
or upgrading the irrigation systems;
Operational issues related

irrigation infrastructure.
and
telemetry
to
existing
1.4
Irrigation Water
Quality
1.4.1
General
Irrigation water quality is an issue of primary

concern wherever TSE is the source of irrigation
water for public amenity landscape. There are two
main areas of concern. Firstly, the chemical and
biological properties of the irrigation water must be
such that its application on areas of publicly
accessible landscape presents negligible health
risk to members of the public, and in particular
those who by reasons of health or age may be
more susceptible to pathogens or chemical
contaminants. Secondly, the chemical, physical
and biological properties of the irrigation water
should be entirely suitable for plant growth and for
the irrigation system through which the water will
be applied, or at least do not impose undue
constraints on the type of landscaping possible.
1.4.2
Public Health Factors in

Effluent Use
The potential risk to public health from wastewater

is generally assessed in terms of biological quality,
expressed as the ratio between biological oxygen
demand and total suspended solids (BOD:SS), and
also measured directly in terms of most probable
number of coliform organisms. Although there are
no internationally applicable standards for these
parameters, the World Health Organisation (WHO)
has recommended BOD and SS less than 10mg/l
and most probable number of coliform organisms
not to exceed 100/100ml.
Qatar proposes to adopt a standard of 5:5 for
BOD:SS. This standard would ensure minimal risk
to public health from TSE irrigation water.
However, although the final effluent from Doha
West STW is generally achieving 5:5, the final
effluent from Doha South STW has not been able
to achieve this standard. It may therefore be some
time before this could consistently be achieved in
practice.
Apart from biological impurities, chemical
contaminants in TSE can also affect human health.
The commonest chemical contaminants include
lead, nitrates, and carcinogenic organic
compounds.
Since the problem is usually
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associated with heavy industry, health issues related

to chemical contamination are less likely to be of
significance where the principal source of TSE is
domestic sewage.
The likelihood of human contact with irrigation water
can not be practically avoided in amenity landscape
areas. There are several possible means by which
pathogenic organisms from irrigation water could be
transferred to humans. The three most likely
methods are as follows:
Bodily contact with irrigation water or soil;
Breathing of air that contains fine droplets of

irrigation water;
Consumption of contaminated food or drinks

sourced from TSE irrigated crops.
Picnicking on grass shortly after it has been irrigated,

or being in the immediate vicinity when sprinkler
systems are in operation are the most likely means
by which pathogens could be ingested. Bacteria may
survive in the soil for two months or even one year in
some cases, although sandy soils and high
temperatures tend to decrease survival times.
Ensuring that lawn sprinkler systems are scheduled
to operate in the early morning hours is a necessary
precaution. Exposure to irrigation water is less likely
with drip irrigation and bubblers as compared to
spray sprinklers.
It should be noted that specific health risk is related
to an individuals threshold of susceptibility, and that
infants, elderly persons, and those having weakened
immune systems are the most susceptible. Even
with irrigation water of good biological quality, some
degree of health risk cannot be entirely eliminated,
and it is essential that special attention be given to
protecting those members of the public who may be
vulnerable. For this reason, the grounds of hospitals
should be irrigated with potable water, particularly in
those areas accessible to patients. For the same
reason, vegetation within the grounds of nursery
schools and primary schools needs also to be
irrigated with potable water.
1.4.3
Quality of TSE for

Landscape Irrigation
Salinity is the single factor most commonly affecting

the suitability of TSE for use as irrigation water. Salt
is poisonous to plants. Even relatively low levels of
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TSE System Design
salinity can restrict quite severely the range of

plants that may be used, with consequences for the
landscape character and variety of landscape
design options. Furthermore, the problem of salt
accumulation in the soil is exacerbated by the high
water-table and poor drainage in many parts of
Doha.
Qatar proposes to adopt a standard for Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS) not to exceed 2,000mg/l
(equivalent to 3,500mhos/cm). However, this
level of salinity is still sufficiently high to be
detrimental to many salt-sensitive plant species
and it would be highly beneficial if a lower figure
could be achieved. In fact, irrigation water having
TDS as low as 500-1,000mg/l is harmful to saltsensitive plant species. Actual TDS figures for
Doha West STW (for the period 21st 28th Sept
2003) range from 1,311 to 1,411mg/l. On the other
hand, TDS levels for Doha South STW were rather
higher over this period, ranging from 1,372 to
2,492mg/l. Therefore in order to achieve a target
TDS of better than 2,000mg/l it will be necessary to
address the underlying problem of salinity in the
incoming sewage.
The suitability of TSE for irrigation purposes also
depends upon its chemical properties, including
sodium hazard, usually expressed as sodium
absorption ratio (SAR), and the levels of harmful
ions. SAR is calculated from the ratio of sodium to
calcium and magnesium. Continued use of
irrigation water having a high SAR leads to the
sodium being absorbed, causing the soil to become
hard and compact, and increasingly impervious to
water penetration. Leaching and soil additives,
particularly gypsum, are used to counter these
affects. Sandy soils with a low content of clay
particles are less likely to be affected by high SAR.
Figures for SAR of Doha South TSE are available
from the recent sampling analysis presented by the
Quality and Safety Division. The analysis results
indicate that the SAR values for the TSE from Doha
South are in the range of 4.5 to 5.0, which is 50%
of the acceptable long term limit for irrigation
(please refer to Table 1.4.1).
The effect upon plant growth of the levels of
different chemical constituents in irrigation water is
a complex subject and dependent upon a number
of variable factors. Each plant species has its own
tolerance threshold for each anion or cation, often
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varying widely between species of the same genus.

Furthermore, sensitivity depends upon other factors
such as the nature of the soil. The pH and overall
chemical balance of the irrigation water also affect
the availability of different ions such as heavy metal
cations, which become more available to plants at
lower pH, i.e. at higher acidity levels. It can generally
be expected that the levels of heavy metal cations in
TSE from domestic sewage will be below toxic
thresholds.
1.4.4
Recommended TSE
Quality for Landscape
Irrigation
Guidance on typical content and requirements of

screening, scoping, EIA analysis, reports and data
collection is given in Volume 1, Sections 2.7, 3.7
and 4.7. This guidance should be referred to for
any environmental studies associated with TSE
system projects. Volume 5, Section 1.10 also
provides useful guidance information on the reuse
of treated sewage effluent.
1.7
Building Permit
The requirements for application for building

permits are described fully in Volume 1 Section 4.6.
Table 1.4.1 provides interim recommendations for

TSE water quality criteria to be used for landscape
irrigation in Qatar. Proposed current and future
effluent discharge standards for Doha sewage
treatment works are provided in Table 1.4.2.
Contents of this table should be considered as
temporary standards, which will be modified by the
Environmental Section (ES) within Q&SD during
2004.
1.5
Documentation
Documentation required by the DA to be prepared by

consultants in relation to TSE system design is
described in Volume 1 Section 5.
1.6
Environmental Impact
Assessment
The State of Qatar policy on sustainable

development and subsequent environmental
legislation (Law 30)1 requires that an environmental
impact assessment (EIA) process be followed in
planning, designing and implementing TSE system
projects. Consultation with the regulator, SCENR,
the Planning Department, and the Department of
Agriculture and Water Resources, throughout the
process, is a critically important activity.
Initial screening and scoping of potential
environmental impacts should be reviewed by the DA
before submitting to SCENR, the Planning
Department and the Department of Agriculture and
Water Resources.
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Table 1.4.1 - Recommended Quality Standards for TSE Irrigation Water in Qatar (Interim)
Recommended
Limit for Irrigation
Parameter
Units
Remarks
Long
Short
Term
Term
Lower than the standard of 2000mg/l proposed
TDS
mg/l
500
2000
for Doha - see text above
EC
mho/cm
1500
As for TDS
PH
SAR
BOD (5d
20C)
SS
Total coliforms
Ca
Mg
units
6.0 - 7.0
Significant indirect effects on plant growth
ratio
10.0
See text above
mg/l
5.0
5.0
According to proposed new standard for Doha
mg/l
5.0
5.0
No/100ml
100
100
Based on WHO recommendation
mg/l
mg/l
Na
mg/l
mg/l
No recommended limit, toxic to calcifuge plants
150.0
Minor plant nutrient
400.0
Major component of salinity
Essential plant nutrient, no recommended limit
Essential plant nutrient
Total P
mg/l
30.0
N (as NH3)
mg/l
1.0
N (as NO3)
Alkalinity
(HCO3 + CO3)
SO4
mg/l
50.0
Nitrogen is essential plant nutrient
mg/l
200.0
Affects soil pH
mg/l
400.0
Not toxic to plants
Major component of salinity
Cl
mg/l
650.0
F
Al
As
B
Fe
Cd
Co
Be
Cr
Cu
Cn
Mn
Se
Pb
V
Mo
Ni
Zn
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
1.0 *
5.0 *
0.1 *
0.75 *
5.0 *
0.01 *
0.05 *
0.1 *
0.1 *
0.2 *
0.05
0.02 *
0.02 *
5.0 *
0.1 *
0.01 *
0.2 *
2.0 *
Source:
15.0 *
20.0 *
2.0 *
2.0 *
20.0 *
0.05 *
5.0 *
0.5 *
1.0 *
5.0 *
0.1
10.0 *
0.02 *
10.0 *
1.0 *
0.05 *
2.0 *
10.0 *
Inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils

Only toxic in very acid soils
Toxic to many plants at varying concentrations
Essential nutrient, but toxic if too high
Nutrient but at high levels affects soil chemistry
Toxic to some plants at low concentrations
Toxic to some plants in acid soils
Toxicity to plants is not well established
Toxic to a number of plants
Toxic to some plants at low concentrations
Toxic to plants at low concentrations
Can be toxic to plants at high concentrations
Toxic to many plants at low concentrations
Not normally toxic to plants
Toxic to some plants in acid soils
Based on wastewater quality limits adopted by Sultanate of Oman

* USEPA guidelines, cited by Rowe and Abdul-Magid in Wastewater Reclamation and
Reuse
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Table 1.4.2 - Effluent Discharge Standards Available in Doha

Current
Standard Effluent Criteria
Standard
Future Standard
Basis of
Compliance
Suspended solids (SS)
5mg/l
5mg/l
90 %ile
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
5mg/l
5mg/l
90 %ile
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
50mg/l
50mg/l
90 %ile
Faecal Coliforms (MPN)
None Detected
/100ml
None Detected
/100ml
90 %ile
PH
6-9
6-9
90 %ile
Ammonia (NH3N)
1mg/l
1mg/l
90 %ile
Phosphate (PO4)
1mg/l
1mg/l
90 %ile
Total Nitrogen (N)
10mg/l
5mg/l
50 %ile
Dissolved Oxygen
2mg/l (min)
2mg/l (min)
90 %ile
Chlorine (Free Residual)
0.5 1mg/l
0.5 1mg/l
90 %ile
Turbidity
2NTU
2NTU
90 %ile
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
<2,000mg/l
<500mg/l
90 %ile
Intestinal Nematodes
<1.0 per litre
0.0
95 %ile
Enteric Viruses
<1.0 PFU/40 litre
<1.0 PFU/40 litre
90 %ile
Giardia
<1.0 cysts per 40

litre
<1.0 cysts per 40

litre
90 %ile
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2.0
2.1
Design of TSE
Transmission and
Distribution System
potable water system and, therefore, the same

standards and guidelines are applicable.
Definitions
British Standards Institution, 1989, BS

8010-1:1989 - Code of practice for
Pipelines, Part 1: Pipelines on land:
general, London BSI.

EN 805:2000, Water supply Requirements for systems and
components outside buildings, London,
BSI.

EN 1508:1998, Water supply Requirements for systems and
components for the storage of water,
London, BSI.
Tyson A., and Harrison K, Irrigation for

Lawns and Gardens, Extension
Agricultural Engineers, The University
of Georgia College of Agricultural &
Environmental Sciences.
Water Authorities Association/Water

Research Centre, 1989, Network
analysis - A code of practice,
Swindon,UK, published by WRC.
Water Research Centre, 1995, Pipe

materials selection manual - water
supply, 2nd edition, UK, Water
Research Centre.
Construction Industry Research and

Information Association, 1994, Guide to
the Design of thrust blocks for buried
pressure pipelines, Report 128, London
CIRIA.
HR Wallingford and DIH Barr, 2000,

Tables for the Hydraulic Design of
Pipes, Sewers and Channels, 7th
Edition, Trowbridge, Wiltshire, UK
Redwood Books.
T.M. Walski, D.V. Chase, D.A. Savic,

2001, Water Distribution Modelling, 1st
edition, Waterbury USA, Haestad Press
Inc.
A TSE transmission and distribution system

comprises: TSE storage reservoirs at the source;
pumping stations; transmission and distribution
mains; and chambers.
A list of general standards and references

pertaining to design is set out below but is not
limited to:
A TSE storage reservoir is a covered reservoir of

relatively large capacity and can be at ground level,
underground or elevated (water towers).
A pumping station is an installation designed to
provide adequate pressure and flow within the
transmission and distribution system. A transmission
main (or trunk main) is used to convey the majority of
the flow from the source, treatment and/or storage
facility to the distribution system.
A transmission main may have a small number of
connections on it, but in general, is intended to
deliver water to the distribution mains where the
majority of distribution points are located. In the Doha
irrigation system, a transmission main is usually a
large diameter pipe of 600mm diameter and above.
Examples of transmission mains in Doha are the
800mm diameter main from Doha West to TSE2 and
the twin 800mm diameter mains from Doha South to
Al Rakhia Farm.
A distribution main is the delivery system to the main
distribution chambers located at certain intervals
along main roads, and giving feed directly to irrigation
systems or to local reservoirs feeding such systems,
if applicable. In the Doha irrigation system, a
distribution main is usually a pipeline of 200mm
diameter and above.
A transmission main or a distribution main can be
either pressurised under gravity or pumped.
2.2
Standards and Sources

of Information
In general the TSE transmission and distribution

system should be considered in the same way as any
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TSE System Design
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Drainage Affairs
A.C. Twort, D.D. Ratnayaka, M.J. Brandt,

2000, Water Supply, 5th edition, UK, Arnold
and IWA Publishing.
Washington State Department of Health,

2001,Water System Design Manual,
Washington, State Department of Health.
be recognised. As a whole, transmission and

distribution mains, TSE sources, pumping
facilities, and storage facilities must be
designed so that, in combination, they will
optimize the TSE system.
Standards and manuals pertaining to specific pipe

materials and construction issues are quoted in the
relevant sections of this volume.
2.3
Principles of Design
In general, the Doha Irrigation System is evolving

towards a system of pressurised ring mains, whereby
irrigation water feeds the secondary and tertiary
(application) system directly without recourse to
intermediate storage and/or booster pumping
stations. However, there are cases where local
reservoirs and booster pumping stations would be
necessary. This would mainly be in areas having
specific landscape and irrigation requirements like
golf courses, university campuses, parks and other
amenity areas. In all such cases, it is reasonable to
provide a suitable feed off the distribution system and
leave the downstream arrangements, including local
storage and pumping facilities, to the
owner/developer of the land. Effluent allocation for all
such specific places should be established in
conjunction with: the overall irrigation strategy for the
city; assessment of available resources; and the
irrigation water budget established by the DA in
particular. In order to ensure that only the allocated
amount of TSE is used, the inflow rate should be
monitored by flow meter and controlled by a
motorised valve installed on the inlet to each local
reservoir. All proposed extensions to the irrigation
transmission and distribution system should be
designed in a way that the system provides for the
demand and pressure conditions anticipated at any
given time in all parts of the system.
2.4
Sizing and Flow

Estimation
Sizing of irrigation mains should consider a number

of factors including pumping cost, land use, system
demand, friction losses, and flow velocities. These
factors are interrelated and their relative influences in
the selection of optimum piping arrangements should
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Hydraulic calculation should be carried out in order to

demonstrate that the system will:
Satisfy the estimated demand;
Operate within the required pressure range;
Operate at acceptable velocities.
design manuals. There are also many

computer software packages readily available
to aid in the design of complex systems. Apart
from the above mentioned SynerGEE
(Advantica) other reputable software include
InfoWorks (Wallingford Software), InfoWater
(MWH) and WaterCAD (Haestad Methods). It is
expected that the design procedures used for
the irrigation system of Doha will be consistent
with those widely applied and accepted by
professionals world-wide as good engineering
practice.
Network analysis by a computerbased mathematical

model should be used to analyse the performance of
the existing system and proposed extensions to that
system. Models representing both transmission and
distribution mains are required to assess system
performance under a variety of supply and operating
conditions. A model would include elements
representing physical components of the irrigation
system like pipes, pumps, valves, regulators and
tanks that make up the actual network. The usual
input data for any hydraulic model includes: pipe
diameter and length; friction factor according to the
formula which is applied; node elevation; ground
elevation; pump curve or pump energy if the curve is
unknown; pump speed; tank profiles; upstream and
downstream pressure for regulators; valve status;
and flow coefficients. As an output, the model will
produce predicted flows, velocities, pressures and
head losses, which will indicate the network
performance. The results are then a basis for either
increasing or decreasing pipe diameters, adding new
pipelines or replacing pumps etc.. Hydraulic analysis
and computer models are discussed in Section 2.6.
The sizing procedure shall include the following

steps:
1.
Establish demands and flows
2.
Assume pipe diameters
3.
Carry out hydraulic analysis
4.
Correct the assumed pipe diameters,

as necessary
5.
Carry out final hydraulic check
Minimum Size
The minimum size for a transmission or
distribution main should be determined by
hydraulic analysis. In general, the minimum
diameter of all distribution mains should not be
less than 200mm internal bore. All sizes are to
be metric sizes. Recommended flow rates,
velocities and corresponding head losses for
different pipe diameters are shown in Tables
2.4.1. and 2.4.2. These examples are for pipes
with an assumed hydraulic roughness factor ks
of 0.15mm and 0.06mm.
The latest hydraulic model of the Doha irrigation

system was created using SynerGEE, and that model
should be referred to before starting any further
analysis.
Sizing Procedure
Procedures for sizing distribution and transmission
mains for irrigation systems have been established in
many engineering textbooks, reference books, and
Table 2.4.1 - Recommended Flows, Velocities and Resulting Head Losses for Various Pipe Diameters (ks
0.15 mm)
Flow (l/s)
Velocity (m/s)
Head loss (m/km)
Diameter
(mm)
From
To
From
To
From
To
200
16
29
0.5
0.9
1.3
4.1
250
29
48
0.6
1.0
1.3
3.5
300
48
72
0.7
1.0
1.3
3.1
Volume 4
TSE System Design
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Drainage Affairs
400
99
137
0.8
1.1
1.3
2.5
450
137
177
0.9
1.1
1.3
2.2
500
177
252
0.9
1.3
1.3
2.6
600
252
357
0.9
1.3
1.0
2.0
800
524
707
1.0
1.4
1.0
1.8
900
707
900
1.1
1.4
1.0
1.6
1,000
900
1,200
1.1
1.5
0.9
1.6
1,200
1,200
1,800
1.1
1.6
0.7
1.4
Table 2.4.2 - Recommended Flows, Velocities and Resulting Head Losses for Various Pipe Diameters (ks
0.06 mm)
Flow (l/s)
Velocity (m/s)
Head loss (m/km)
Diameter
(mm)
From
To
From
To
From
To
200
16
29
0.5
0.9
1.1
3.5
250
29
48
0.6
1.0
1.1
3.0
300
48
72
0.7
1.0
1.2
2.6
400
99
137
0.8
1.1
1.1
2.1
450
137
177
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.9
500
177
252
0.9
1.3
1.1
2.2
600
252
357
0.9
1.3
0.9
1.7
800
524
707
1.0
1.4
0.8
1.5
900
707
900
1.1
1.4
0.8
1.3
1,000
900
1,200
1.1
1.5
0.8
1.4
1,200
1,200
1,800
1.1
1.6
0.5
1.2
Page 10


Drainage Affairs
Sizing of Gravity Mains

While sizing gravity mains, one must consider the
actual hydraulic gradient and the pipeline profile, and
make sure that the hydraulic gradient does not fall at
any point below the crown of the pipe. In certain
circumstances, the hydraulic gradient may be below
that level. In theory, up to 7m would be acceptable,
but it is recommended not to exceed 2 - 3m at the
critical point, providing that adequate air

release facilities are available to assist in
the air evacuation and pipe self-priming.
Such a gravity main will then work under a
siphon condition. Refer to the attached
Figures 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 from the
Rationalisation of the TSE system report2
for examples of land elevation versus
hydraulic
grade
(HGL).
Figure 2.4.1 Example of land elevation versus hydraulic grade (HGL) where HGL cuts the land elevation
under a flow of 650L/s due to high losses not desirable.
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Page 11

Drainage Affairs
Figure 2.4.2 Example of land elevation versus hydraulic grade (HGL), where HGL lies above the land
elevation under a flow of 550L/s - acceptable.
Page 12


Drainage Affairs
Peak Demands
The peak demands in an irrigation water system are
directly related to the type of landscape and irrigation
pattern. The irrigation pattern includes the irrigation
timing and irrigation rates. They are both subject to a
seasonal variation, meaning that more irrigation
water will be required in summer than in winter. The
irrigation scheduling should aim to achieve a
reasonably constant demand over the operating cycle
of each irrigation system.
It has been established in the Rationalisation of the
TSE system report2 that in the time of the peak
summer demand, the system would work for 12 to 16
hours and that the peak hourly demands should not
exceed 2000-2200l/s. Otherwise, the level of service
and pump efficiency would be compromised. The
maximum flows given above are based on the
assumption that the new pumping and storage
facilities PS TSE1 and PS TSE2, as proposed in the
conceptual design report, are in place.
Distribution pipelines should be able to sufficiently
deliver water to meet worst case peak hourly
demands at the required water head.
Minimum Distribution System Pressure
The distribution system should, in general, be able to
provide peak flows at no less than 30m water head
(300kPa), as agreed with the DA in the course of
writing the Rationalisation of the TSE system report
2. As various types of sprinklers and drip emitters
require different pressures, the actual requirements
for a given landscape area should be provided by the
designer of the downstream irrigation system. In case
the irrigation water is discharged into a local irrigation
reservoir, then the required pressure would be
governed by the level of the inlet pipe.
Maximum and Minimum Flow Velocity
In normal circumstances it will be desirable to avoid
unduly high or low velocities. A range from 0.5m/s to
2.0m/s under hourly peak demands may be
considered appropriate. However, in special
circumstances, velocities up to 2.5m/s may be
acceptable in the main trunk and distribution
pipelines. For pumping mains, a financial appraisal
should be undertaken to determine the most
economic diameter of pumping main, to minimise the
capital cost and discounted pumping cost. The
Volume 4
TSE System Design
resulting velocity will normally lie in the range of

0.8m/s to 1.4m/s. An important consideration is
surge, which becomes more problematic at
higher velocities.
Excess Pressure
The type of pipe used and the pressure
requirements of the system are significant factors
to take into account when designing an irrigation
main. Excessive pressure in a system can lead to
wasted water, and increase the risk of pipe
failure. In general, the pressure in the system
should not exceed 600-700kPa (60-70m water
head).
Surge and Transient Controls
Hydraulic surges and transients (water hammer)
are dependent on a number of factors, including
main size, length, profile, and materials of
construction. Analysis of transient conditions is
discussed in section 2.8.8. Pipe pressure tests
and thrust restraint should be based on the
maximum transient conditions, including an
appropriate factor of safety.
There are a variety of ways to provide surge
control. Methods include:
Open surge tanks;
Pressurised surge tanks;
Surge anticipator valves;
Vacuum relief valves;
Regulated air-release valves;
Optimising main size and alignment;
Electric soft start/stop and variable speed

drives for pumps;
Electric interlocks to prevent more than

one pump from starting at the same time;
Slow opening and closing valves; and
Increasing the polar moment of inertia of

the rotating pump/motor assembly.
A combination of methods may be necessary and

care must be taken in the design so that the
addition of a protection device does not cause a
secondary water hammer equal to or worse than
the original design could cause.
Page 13

Drainage Affairs
Reliability of the surge protection facility is important.

Where appropriate, redundancy should be provided
for essential equipment such as vacuum relief valves.
Adequate alarms should be provided on surge tanks
and similar components to give operators early
warning.
Consideration should be given to
preventing the pumping system from operating if the
surge protection facilities are not operable.
Surge suppression should always be provided where
modelling predicts negative pressure in excess of the
following:
GRP, cement lined DI
-1metre
Fusion bonded epoxy, ceramic epoxy or

polyurethane lined DI
-3 metres
HDPE, MDPE
2.5
-3 metres
Pipeline Materials
The existing TSE transmission and distribution

system consists mainly of ductile iron (DI), glass
reinforced plastic (GRP), asbestos cement (AC) and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes. Preferred materials
for new pipelines are DI or polyethylene (PE). PVC
should not be used on account of its susceptibility to
UV damage. It is known that PE is also susceptible to
UV damage, but to a lesser degree, and it is also
more generally robust AC is not permitted to be used
for new pipes on account of health risks.
Due consideration should be given to internal and
external corrosion. Protection from external corrosion
should be employed in areas where corrosive or
contaminated soils are prevalent, or when pipelines
leave the soil environment. This is especially true in
the coastal environment or other harsh environments.
Metal pipes should be evaluated for, and, if
appropriate, be protected against corrosion due to
stray electrical currents in the soil. This is most often
found when such pipes are near, or cross other
pipelines that are protected by impressed current.
The various materials used in the TSE systems are
discussed more fully in Volume 1 Section 4.3.
2.5.1
Ductile Iron Pipes
Ductile iron pipes and fittings up to DN 2000 are

covered under BS EN 5453. Installation of DI pipes is
covered by BS 80104 Section 2.1.
Page 14
Ductile iron pipes should be protected externally

in accordance with QCS. Internally as a
minimum cement mortar lining should be
provided. Fusion bonded epoxy, ceramic epoxy
and polyurethane are also suitable for internal
protection.
Ductile iron pipes can be considered as semirigid. Bedding design should be in accordance
with the manufacturers recommendations.
Ductile iron pipes have flexible joints and require
thrust restraint at bends.
Recommended Use
DI pipes shall, in general, be used for
constructing transmission and distribution mains
of DN 400 up to DN 1600, for underground and
above ground applications. DI pipes smaller than
DN 400 are perfectly acceptable from the
technical point of view, however, may prove to be
less economical than their plastic equivalents. DI
pipes are also recommended for all pumping
stations regardless of the manifold diameter.
2.5.2
Polyethylene Pipes
Polyethylene pipes are covered by BS EN

12201(Draft European Standard)5, WIS 4-37-176
and a comprehensive reference is included in the
Manual for PE Pipe Systems, 2002 edition, by
Water Research Centre and British Plastics
Federations Pipes Group7.
The material used for their production shall be in
accordance with QCS. They are classified by
nominal outside diameter and Standard
Dimensional Ratio (SDR),which represents the
ratio between the nominal outside diameter and
the minimum wall thickness (SDR=OD/e). For
pressure applications and Doha climatic
conditions, a minimum of SDR 17 Class PE 100
only shall be considered. The nominal pipe size
range is from DN 90 to DN 1000.
The approved jointing method for PE is fusion
jointing (electrofusion and butt-welding). Fusion
jointing of PE pipes produces a fully restrained
pipeline string and therefore thrust blocks and
anchorages are normally not required. A typical
self bending radius for SDR 17 is 25 times the
pipe OD.


Drainage Affairs
With the safety factor of 1.25 commonly accepted in

the water industry, the maximum continuous pressure
for a 50-year service life, and at 20C, is 16 bar for
SDR11 pipes and 10 bar for SDR 17 pipes. Where a
system is to be operated at temperatures in excess of
20C, then it must be de-rated in respect of the
maximum operating pressure or service life, or a
combination of both. For Doha conditions, the median
(TSE) temperature of 35C has been adopted, and in
order to maintain the service life of 50 years, the
maximum continuous operating pressure has been
reduced to 12.8 bar for SDR 11 pipes and 8 bar for
SDR 17 pipes.
Polyethylene pipes are flexible. They rely on the
bedding and surround for structural support and this
must be designed in accordance with the
manufacturers recommendations.
Recommended use
GRP pipes are suitable for transmission
mains. They are available in diameters
from 80mm to 2.5m but for TSE should
be considered from 1000mm dia
upwards.
GRP pipes should not be installed in
areas where there is likely to be ground
disturbance in the future as this could
lead to failure of the pipe surround.
GRP pipes are easily damaged by
machinery such as diggers and jack
hammers therefore if future construction
work nearby is envisaged caution should
be exercised in their use.
2.5.4
Recommended Use
Asbestos Cement Pipes

(Safety Note)
In general, PE pipes shall be used for transmission

and distribution mains buried in the ground.
Maximum recommended pipe size is 710mm OD.
The determining factor for recommending this
maximum size is the availability of electrofusion
couplings, which not always can be substituted with
but welding. This may change in future thus allowing
larger pipe diameters to be used. A large selection of
HDPE fittings, injection moulded in particular, exists
for pipes of 315mm OD and smaller. For pipes above
450mm OD, the choice is limited and the available
fittings are only segment welded and machined.
As stated in Volume 1, AC is no longer

acceptable for use in Qatar. However, workers
may encounter existing AC pipes when making
modifications to the system. Wherever this is
likely, the designer must include the handling of
these pipes in the design HARAS, and make not
in the Health and Safety Plan for the project in
order to protect the workers from associated
health risks.
PE pipes should not be installed in areas where there

is likely to be ground disturbance in the future as this
could lead to failure of the pipe surround.
Facilities are usually sized using a hydraulic

analysis to evaluate the design under various
flow regimes. It is expected that a computer
software package will be used for distribution
systems with more than two loops. Manual
calculations are adequate for simpler analyses.
2.5.3
GRP Pipes
GRP pipes shall comply with the QCS specification.

The design of the pipe will be undertaken by the pipe
manufacturer in accordance with the particular
requirements and the general specification.
GRP pipes are flexible. They rely on the bedding and
surround for structural support and this must be
designed in accordance with the manufacturers
recommendations.
2.6
Hydraulic Analysis
Energy losses, also called head losses, are

generally the result of friction along the pipe walls
and turbulence due to changes in streamlines
through fittings and appurtenances. There are
two head loss equations that are in common use:
Colebrook and Hazen-Williams.
GRP pipes have flexible joints and require thrust

restraint at bends.
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Page 15

Drainage Affairs
Hazen-Williams equation
Colebrook-White equation
1
2.51
ks
= -2 log ( + )
Re
3.71 D
6.78L
HL = (V/C) 1.85
D1.165
Equation 2.6.2
Equation 2.6.1
Re - Reynolds number
HL - friction loss (m of liquid)
ks - roughness coefficient (mm)
C - coefficient
- Darcy-Weisbach non-dimensional friction factor
L - length of pipe (m)
D - pipe diameter (m)
V - average fluid velocity (m/s)
For ks values for various pipe materials refer to Table

2.6.1.
D - pipe diameter (m)

For C values for various pipe materials refer to
Table 2.6.2.
First estimates of pipe friction values are
obtained directly from standard tables using all
readily available information on pipe material,
size, age and internal bore condition. These pipe
friction values are refined during the model
calibration process.
Head losses also occur at valves, tees, bends,
and other appurtenances within the piping
system. These losses, called local head losses or
minor head losses, are calculated using the
following equation:
HL = KV2/2g
Equation 2.6.3
For typical values of K coefficient refer to Table

2.6.3.
Page 16


Drainage Affairs
Table 2.6.1 - Colebrook-White KS-Factors for Various Pipe Materials

Type of Pipe
Good
Old tuberculated irrigation main

Slight degree of attack
Moderate degree of attack
Appreciable degree of attack
Severe degree of attack
Galvanised iron
Epoxy or polyutherane coated ductile iron
Asbestos cement
Spun cement-lined (e.g. cement-lined DI)
MDPE or HDPE
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP)
PVC (with spigot-socket joints @6-9 metres
intervals
0.6
1.5
6
15
0.06
0.03
0.015
0.03
Ks (mm)
Normal
Poor
1.5
3
15
30
0.15
0.06
0.03
0.1
0.06
0.06
0.06
3
6
30
60
0.3
0.15
Table 2.6.2 - Hazen Williams C-Factors for Various Pipe Materials

Type of Pipe
Coated cast iron (smooth and new)
30 years old
60 years old
Galvanised iron (smooth and new)
Epoxy or polyutherane coated ductile iron
Coated asbestos cement (smooth and new)
Spun cement-lined (clean)
Smooth pipe (including lead, copper, PE and
PVC; clean)
Volume 4
TSE System Design
25
120
129
140
Pipe diameter(mm)
150
300
600
133
138
140
1200
141
106
90
70
50
112
97
78
58
117
102
83
66
120
107
89
73
97
79
58
39
133
142
149
149
149
102
85
66
48
107
92
72
56
112
96
78
62
145
150
150
150
148
152
152
152
148
153
153
Page 17

Drainage Affairs
Table 2.6.3 - Local Loss Coefficient for Common Fittings
Type of Fitting
Entrances
Standard bellmouth
Pipe flush with entrance
Pipe protruding
Sluice gated or square entrance
Bends 90
Medium radius (R/D=2 or 3)
Medium radius (mitred)
Elbow or sharp angled
Bends 45
Medium radius (R/D=2 or 3)
Medium radius (mitred)
Elbow or sharp angled
Tees 90
In-line flow
Branch to line or reverse
Contraction-sudden
D2/D1=0.8
D2/D1=0.5
D2/D1=0.2
Contraction-conical
D2/D1=0.8
D2/D1=0.5
D2/D1=0.2
Expansion-sudden
D2/D1=0.8
D2/D1=0.5
D2/D1=0.2
Expansion-conical
D2/D1=0.8
D2/D1=0.5
D2/D1=0.2
Gate valve fully open
Gate valve 3/4 open
Gate valve 1/2 open
Gate valve 1/4 open
Butterfly fully open
Swing non return valve fully open
Globe valve fully open
Angle valve fully open
Page 18
K value
0.1
1
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.8
1.5
0.25
0.4
0.75
0.4
1.5
0.18
0.37
0.49
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.16
0.57
0.92
0.03
0.08
0.13
0.25
1
5.6
24
0.5
2.5
10
4.3


Drainage Affairs
Computer
Networks
Modelling
of
Irrigation
The concept of the network model is fundamental to

an irrigation distribution model. The network model
contains all of the various components of the system
and defines how those elements are interconnected.
Network models are comprised of nodes and node
connecting elements (links). There are different types
of nodal elements, including junction nodes where
pipes connect, tank nodes, pump nodes and control
valve nodes. Models use link elements to describe
the pipes connecting these nodes. Also, elements
such as valves, pumps and tanks are sometime
classified as links rather than nodes. The most
fundamental data requirement is to have an accurate
representation of the network topology, which details
what the elements are and how they are
interconnected.
A computer model of the Doha irrigation system was

originally constructed using WATNET software and
then rebuilt using SynerGEE for Water, to suit the
new concept of direct supply eliminating the need for
water towers in the distribution system. The latter
model has not been calibrated as flow and pressure
readings were not available. The type of simulation
performed was a steady-state simulation. A demand
allocation was carried out for each node by assigning
relevant base flow (Q-base) for sprinklers and drip
emitters and applying demand profiles. An
assumption was made that the application system
operates for 12 hrs with drip emitters operating for 12
hrs and sprinklers for 6 hrs. Places having their
discrete irrigation systems, with service reservoirs
and pumping stations, were assumed to be fed in the
off-peak time.
A computer model is not necessarily an exact

representation of all pipes in the distribution system.
For large systems in particular, simplification of the
system (skeleletonisation) may be undertaken.
Methods of reducing the size of the model via
skeletonisation include:
While performing hydraulic analysis it is useful to

check the behaviour of the system by not only
applying fixed demands but also allowing free
discharge at points where water is delivered e.g. at
service reservoirs. That would allow identifying areas
of starvation and proposing appropriate zoning. It is
particularly important in areas of substantial ground
level variation.
(1)
Consider only pipes above a certain size;
Model Calibration
(2)
Eliminate tree type pipe regions in the

system;
(3)
Replace series and parallel pipes with

single equivalent pipes; and
(4)
Analyse distinct, separate pressure zones

separately.
In all cases, the demands to the regions not modelled

can be shown at nodes (junctions) leading to the
region eliminated. Skeletonisation shall by no means
result from limitations caused by computer hardware
or software. All major modelling packages are
suitable for analysing unlimited number of elements.
There are two basic types of simulation: steady-state
simulation and extended period simulation (EPS).
The former computes the state of the system
assuming that hydraulic demands and boundary
conditions do not change with respect to time, whilst
the latter determines the quasi-dynamic behaviour of
the system over a period of time (a series of steadystate simulations in which hydraulic demands and
boundary conditions do change with respect to time).
Volume 4
TSE System Design
If a hydraulic analysis is to be carried out on an

existing system where values for pipe roughness are
uncertain and/or the location and operation of valves
or pipes in a system are not clear, some adjustments
to a hydraulic model may be necessary. The model
should be calibrated, such that the system pressures
predicted for certain conditions are in general
agreement with field measurements. The calibration
process is necessary if the computer model is
expected to provide accurate and reliable results.
For simulations over extended periods, comparisons
are made between the predicted and observed flow
rates, pressures, and tank water levels.
Deviations between the results of the model
application and the field observations may be caused
by several things, such as:
Erroneous
model
parameters
(pipe
roughness values and node demand
distribution);
Erroneous network data (pipe diameters,

lengths, etc.);
Page 19

Drainage Affairs
Incorrect network geometry (pipes connected

to the wrong nodes);
Errors in boundary conditions (incorrect

pressure-regulating valve settings, tank water
levels, pump curves, and so on);
Errors in historical operating records (pumps

starting and stopping at incorrect times);
Equipment measurement errors (pressure

gauges not properly calibrated);
Measurement error (reading the wrong values

from measurement instruments); and
Field data collection error (e.g. moving too

quickly from one field point to another without
allowing the system to stabilize between
readings).
Elimination of errors will frequently require an

iterative process, especially for modelling larger
systems.
Generally, very old and corroded
distribution systems, and water systems with little or
no information, particularly regarding water use, are
the most difficult to calibrate.
The number of nodes at which field measurements of
pressure are made to calibrate the model should be
at least 15% of the number of nodes in the network
model that may be progressively reduced to 10% for
models of 1000 nodes and more. This pressure
monitoring is in addition to field measurements of
flow and pressure at all source and abstraction points
to the system.
Criteria for Model Calibration
Models can be calibrated at one or more snapshot
conditions. For improved results, calibration can be
for a 24-hour simulation period.
The following guidelines (according to the WRc Code
of Practice for Network Analysis8) represent the
acceptable performance criteria against which
modelled flows and pressures should agree with
recorded field data.
Flows
(1)
Page 20
Modelled trunk main flows (where the flow

is more than 10% of the total demand) 5%
of measured flow.
(2)
Modelled trunk main flows (where the flow

is less than 10% of the total demand)
10% of measured flow.
Pressure
(1)
85% of field test measurement 0.5m or

5% of maximum head loss across system
whichever is greater.
(2)
95% of field test measurement 0.75m or

7.5% of maximum head loss across
system whichever is greater.
(3)
100% of field test measurement 2m or

15% of maximum head loss across
system whichever is greater.
If after detailed calibration, any points still do not

conform to the stated flow and pressure calibration
criteria, they should be reported as anomalies and
investigated.
The elevation of points to be used for field pressure
measurement should be determined by a field
levelling exercise (to within accuracy of 25mm).
2.7
General Design
Considerations
2.7.1
Pipeline Horizontal
Alignment
Whenever practical and economic, the preferred

arrangements of ring systems with interconnected
branches should be employed. The use of linear
main arrangements with individual branch mains
should be restricted to simple extensions or
connections. The right-of-way will have to be
established and confirmed by the respective
authorities (refer to Volume 1 Foreword). Alignment
within the road allowance is shown in Standard
Details SR1 and SR2.
In order to minimise head losses, water transmission
pipelines should ideally follow a direct route and have
the minimum number of bends. Pipeline horizontal
alignments are largely constrained by the need to lay
the pipes along allocated service reservations.
Particularly at road interchanges, service
reservations will frequently deviate from the direct
route and additional bends may thus be required.
This is also applicable if avoidance of other


Drainage Affairs
conveyance systems or obstructions is necessary.

Preferred angles for bends are 11 15, 22 30, 30,
45, and 90.
Where pipelines must be laid around curves or small
changes of direction, the required alignment can be
achieved by angular deflection at joints or, if the pipe
is flexible, by bending the pipe itself. Product
standards, or the manufacturer, shall state the value
of allowable angular deflection at a joint, or pipe
minimum bending radius. The allowable angular
deflection will depend on the type of joint and the
pipe material.
The horizontal distance from foundations and other
pipeline or cable shall be not less than 0.40m in
normal circumstances. At points of congestion, a
distance of at least 0.20m shall be maintained except
where this distance cannot be achieved. In all cases,
suitable measures shall be taken to prevent direct
contact with obstructions. These measures shall be
agreed with the respective operators. There could be
cases where an operator has his own requirements
and those will have to be confirmed during the design
stage.
2.7.2
Pipeline Vertical Alignment
The vertical alignment of transmission pipelines is

determined by a number of factors:
need for dewatering, the maximum depth of cover will

be limited to less than 3m wherever possible. This
will not apply to the non-disruptive road crossings
where a minimum cover of approximately 3m to the
sleeve pipe will have to be maintained to avoid
settlement.
High and low points in the pipeline must be created to
encourage air to accumulate and to be released at
the higher points. The minimum recommended
gradients between air release valves and low points
are 1:250 (4mm/m) on descending pipeline sections,
and 1:500 (2mm/m) on ascending pipeline sections.
2.7.3
Internal Pipe Pressures

and Restraint of Thrust
Pipeline Design Pressure

In accordance with BS EN 805:20009 design
pressure (DP) is the maximum operating pressure of
the system or of the pressure zone, fixed by the
designer considering future developments, but
excluding surge.
Maximum design pressure (MDP) is the maximum
operating pressure of the system or of the pressure
zone, fixed by the designer considering future
developments, and including surge, where:
MDP is designated MDPa, when there is a

fixed allowance for surge;
Avoidance of other buried utilities and

underground structures;
MDP is designated MDPc, when the surge is

calculated.
A maximum depth of cover to limit the need

for ground dewatering;
The need to pass through road crossings;
For all pipelines, the system test pressure (STP) shall

be calculated from the maximum design pressure
(MDP).
To encourage the release of air liberated

during operation.
A minimum depth of cover;
To provide protection to the transmission pipelines

and to avoid minor buried utilities, the minimum depth
of cover adopted is generally 1.2m.
Wherever cables and pipelines cross, a clearance of
at least 0.20m shall be maintained. If this is not
possible, measures shall be taken to prevent direct
contact.
The maximum depth of cover has been determined
by the need to pass under existing large utilities, such
as surface water drains. However, to minimise the
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Surge calculated:
STP = MDPc +100 kPa
Equation 2.7.1
Surge non calculated:
STP = MDPa x1.5
Whichever is the least
STP = MDPa+500kPa
Equation 2.7.2
The design pressure (DP) of the Doha TSE
transmission and distribution system is 700kPa.
The fixed allowance for surge pressure included in
the MDPa shall not be less than 200kPa. Using this
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Drainage Affairs
figure the minimum system test pressure shall be

1350kPa (13.5 bar) and all the pipeline components
like line anchors, thrust blocks and other restraining
structures and joints shall be designed accordingly.
All flanges shall be rated to PN16.
Pipelines shall be designed to withstand a transient
pressure of 80kPa below atmospheric pressure
(approximately 20kPa absolute pressure).
Restraint of Thrust
Restraint shall be provided to prevent pipelines
moving under thrust arising from test and operating
pressures, including an allowance for surge effects.
The pipeline test pressure, being greater than any
operating pressure, will normally determine the thrust
restraint required as described above.
Out-of-balance thrusts, which must be restrained,
arise at bends in the pipelines, but there will also be a
requirement at other thrust points, such as closed
valves and branches, and blank ends. For pipelines
with joints which are not anchored by welded or
bolted flanges, etc, thrust blocks must be used. The
size and shape of a thrust block is decided by; the
force to be restrained, the size and type of the pipe
fitting, and local ground conditions. If adequate space
is not available, construction of piled thrust blocks, or
use of restraint piping systems should be considered.
2.7.4
Air Release
Mains shall be provided with facilities to release air

when the pipeline is being filled and also during
normal operation. On the other hand, it should be
possible to permit the entry of air during draining. At
each high point, a double-orifice air valve with a
separate isolating gate valve shall be installed. The
size of the air valve will normally be from DN 50 to
DN 200, depending on the main diameter, the
predicted flow rate of air, and the configuration of the
system. A general guideline for an air valve selection
is included in Table 2.7.1 below. The spacing of the
air valves should be such that it corresponds to a
maximum pressure drop of 0.3 bar in mains for a flow
rate induced by free flow for a given slope (sudden
break of a main). Reference shall be made to the
appropriate product standards for final valve
selection.
Table 2.7.1 - Typical Double Orifice Air Valve
Selection
Page 22
Pipe Size (mm)

DN250
DN 250 to 600
DN 600 to 900
DN 900 to 1200
DN 1400 to 1800
Air valve Size DN

(mm)
50, 65
80, 100
150
200
2x200
The air valve assembly shall be installed in a

concrete chamber. For chambers, general
requirements, refer to section 2.7.6.
2.7.5
Pipeline Maintenance
Draining
Appropriate washout facilities, depending upon local

conditions, shall be provided according to operational
requirements for draining and flushing. The size of
the washout shall be related to the volume of water to
be drained, the time available and the capacity of the
receiving watercourse. The discharge diameter
should not normally exceed DN 200.
The wash out assembly will include an invert-level
tee and a gate valve housed in a chamber. The
discharge should be connected to a drainage system.
For chambers, general requirements, refer to item
2.7.6.
2.7.6
Isolation Valves
General Requirements
The location of isolating valves (shut-off valves) shall
be planned to facilitate shut-off in an emergency, for
maintenance, repair, replacement, or additions.
Isolating valves should be installed on all branches,
as close as possible to the through main.
The distance and location of isolation valves should
be fixed according to local conditions. In general, the
intervals between isolation valves should not exceed:
in trunk mains (transmission mains)- 5km
in principal distribution mains
- 2km
in secondary distribution mains
- 0.5-1km
In general, on mains up to and including DN 600,

gate valves should be used for isolating purposes.
For mains larger than DN 600, butterfly valves should
be considered. Gate valves larger than DN 400 must


Drainage Affairs
be equipped with a by-pass to overcome the problem

of opening a valve against unbalanced heads. It is
also acceptable for the gate valve to be between fiveeighths to three-quarters of the size of the pipeline. In
such cases properly designed tapers should be used
to minimise the head losses.
Unlike butterfly valves, gate valves are not intended
for controlling the rate of flow of water through a pipe.
to another should be made directly outside the valve

chambers.
Access Covers
Access covers should meet the requirements of BS
EN 12410. In general, the following classes of DI
covers will be applicable:
CLASS D400 - heavy duty, for streets and

roads;
CLASS C250 - medium duty, for sidewalks,

gullies, parking areas accessible for lorries;
CLASS B125 - light duty, for sidewalks,

parking areas only accessible to passenger
cars.
Valve Operation
For manually operated valves, extension spindles
must be arranged to run in brackets, rigidly attached
to the chamber walls. These extension spindles
should be fabricated to the exact length required to
allow easy operation from the top of the valve
chamber using a standard tee key. Clockwise rotation
of the tee key to close the valve is preferred. Where
frequent opening and closing of a valve is required,
such valves should be fitted with electric actuators.
Valve Chambers
All valves should be placed inside purpose built
chambers. Siting of chambers in carriageways
should be avoided; they should be preferably in the
road verge or in the footway.
Two flexible joints, with a rocker pipe should be
provided on either side of the chamber to avoid
damaging pipework in case of differential settlement.
Such joints are not required in the case of PE pipe
which is flexible in itself.
In a stop valve chamber, the valve should be
anchored on the upstream side, having a flange
adapter on the downstream side which permits the
valve to be removed. The chamber construction
should facilitate lifting out the valve.
In cases where non-restrained pipe systems are
used, the chamber must be designed to take the full
thrust when the valve is closed. There should be
sufficient working space and clearances inside valve
chambers, proper access arrangements and gravity
ventilation by employing vent pipes. Those general
requirements are applicable for all other valve
chambers i.e. wash-out chambers, air valve
chambers and other valve chambers.
The covers should preferably be medium duty, unless

they are subject to vehicular traffic. Wherever
appropriate, Aluminium covers with locking devices
shall be used, e.g. in grassed areas.
2.7.7
Flow Metering and Remote

Sensing
Flow Instruments
For monitoring consumption and checking leakage
and system losses, it is desirable to install permanent
meters on the flows from sources, pumping stations
and reservoirs, and on the flows to zones, direct feed
areas and local reservoirs. In general,
electromagnetic flow meters should be used in the
TSE transmission and distribution system. In some
circumstances, ultrasonic devices may be considered
e.g. where a retrofit is required. Standard
electromagnetic flow meters require pipes to run full
bore and also require a specific straight length of pipe
downstream and upstream of the flow meter. Table
2.7.2 provides a summary of available flow
instruments and their basic parameters.
In general, flow meter locations should facilitate day
to day system monitoring, and network model
calibration, as discussed in section 2.6. Flow meters
outside pumping station buildings, and associated
data loggers, should be housed in suitable,
underground concrete chambers.
All pipework within valve chambers should be ductile

iron and the transition from one type of pipe material
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TSE System Design
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Drainage Affairs
Table 2.7.2 - Summary of Available Flow Metering Instruments and their Parameters
Instrument
Magflow
Insertion
Magflow
Accuracy
+/- 0.2 %
+/- 2%
Power
Supply
Straight Pipe Length

Required
External,
sizes
>500mm.
Battery, sizes
<500 mm
5 pipe diameters
upstream
Battery or
loop powered
(from data
logger)
10 pipe diameters
upstream
Other Features
Can be direct buried
3 pipe diameters
downstream
Good response on large
flow ranges especially
good at low flow rates
5 pipe diameters
downstream
Ultrasonic
(clamp on)
<2%
External
10 pipe diameters
upstream
3 pipe diameters
downstream
Ultrasonic
(hot tap)
+/- 0.5%
External
10 pipe diameters
upstream
3 pipe diameters
downstream
Page 24
Not suitable to be installed

less than 20 pipe
diameters down stream of
a pump.
Not suitable to install in
concrete pipes
Not suitable to be installed
less than 20 pipe
diameters down stream of
a pump.
Difficult to install in GRP
pipes


Drainage Affairs
Pressure Instruments
Pressure sensing instruments are required in
pumping stations and across transmission and
distribution networks in locations as outlined below:
On pump suction manifolds;
On pump delivery manifolds;
Upstream and downstream of control valves

(PSVs and PRVs);
At major pipe junctions;
Along transmission/distribution mains at

approximately 5km intervals.
In general, pressure transducer locations should

facilitate the day to day system monitoring and the
network model calibration as discussed in section
2.6. Pressure tappings outside buildings, and
associated data loggers, should be housed in
suitable concrete chambers. Refer to section 2.7.6.
Level Instruments
Level instruments are required for irrigation water
balancing and storage reservoirs at sources. They
should also be located at local reservoirs fed off the
primary distribution system.
Residual Chlorine
In the TSE main pumping stations, the residual
chlorine level should also be monitored. This can be
achieved by sampling the TSE at the discharge from
the pumping station. The local telemetry or SCADA
system should be programmed to raise an alarm if
the level drops too low. In some main pumping
stations, additional chlorine dosing equipment may
be required to increase the residual chlorine level
before the TSE enters the distribution system. It is
good practice to leave a chlorine dosing connection
point upstream of the residual chlorine monitor so
that if a problem were to arise in the future, a
temporary chlorine dosing plant could be quickly
connected in an emergency.
content, which if left unresolved, could be

detrimental to the growth of plants. This system
would be in addition to any monitoring at the STW
and would be purely for the protection of plants.
2.8
Pumping Installations
2.8.1
Pumping Plant
Pump Types
The most suitable pumps for TSE are centrifugal
pumps as these are the only pumps which will
provide both the head and flow normally required.
Centrifugal pumps are available in a variety of
configurations using the same principle; a centrifugal
pump operates by passing the liquid through a
spinning impeller where energy is added to increase
the pressure and velocity of the liquid.
For high head duties, a pump can be constructed
with multiple impellers on a common shaft. Internal
passages are provided to direct the discharge from
each impeller to the inlet of the next; each impeller
increases the delivery head without increasing the
flow. These pumps are known as multistage pumps.
In a similar manner, two impellers can be arranged
back to back on a common shaft, each with a
separate suction but with both discharging to the
same outlet. The flow from each impeller is
combined, with no increase in head. These pumps
are known as double entry pumps.
Due to the impeller configuration, double entry
pumps have a casing constructed in two parts, split
along the shaft axis.
Large multistage pumps are often constructed in a
similar manner but they can also be constructed with
solid stage casings which are assembled along the
shaft, this is the common arrangement for the
smaller pumps. Other considerations include:
Centrifugal pumps for TSE duties should

have closed impellers with close fitting
suction neck ring seals to minimise
discharge bypass;
Single inlet pumps should have hydraulic

balancing within the pump to remove end
thrust;
Salinity Meters
Salinity meters or conductivity meters are required
on the main inlets to the distribution system. These
meters give an output which is directly proportional
to the salinity of the TSE. This will be monitored by a
telemetry system to warn of an increased salt
Volume 4
TSE System Design
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Drainage Affairs
Large centrifugal pumps should have a

maximum running speed of 1450rpm (4 pole
motor) while smaller low flow pumps
typically have an operating speed of
2900rpm (2 pole motor).
Performance Characteristics
Centrifugal pump performance will be dependant on
both the head and flow, as the head increases the
flow will decrease, and vice-versa.
Each type of centrifugal pump will have a different
performance characteristic according to the design
of the impeller and casing. Works testing of a pump
by accurately measuring the delivery against various
heads will give a series of performance curves
including absorbed power and efficiency.
When selecting any centrifugal pump for a specific
duty the performance curves should be examined
closely for the power consumption and efficiency at
both the designed duty and the operational
extremes.
The selected centrifugal pumps should have a
performance curve as flat as possible in the duty
area with the minimum drop in head as the flow
increases.
NPSH, Vibration, Cavitation and Noise
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is the minimum
total pressure head required in a pump at a
particular flow/head duty. It is normally shown as a
curve on the pump performance sheet.
NPSH is used to check an installation for the risk of
cavitation.
NPSH = Pa Vp + Hs Fs
Equation 2.8.1
Where:
Pa = atmospheric pressure at liquid free surface
Vp = vapour pressure of liquid
Fs = suction entry and friction losses.

In order to avoid cavitation, the NPSH available
should be at least 1m greater than the NPSH
required by the selected pump.
When calculating NPSH, absolute values for
atmospheric and liquid vapour pressures are used.
Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapour
bubbles in a liquid. Vapour bubbles are formed
when the static pressure at a point within a liquid
falls below the pressure at which the liquid will
vaporise. When the bubbles are subjected to a
higher pressure they collapse, causing local shock
waves. If this happens near a surface, erosion can
occur.
Cavitation will typically occur in the impeller of a
centrifugal pump, where it can cause noise and
vibration, as well as affecting the pump efficiency. If
allowed to persist it can lead to damage to the
pump, or even breaking away of foundations.
Pump Duty Point
Each pump has a performance curve where the flow
is plotted against head.
Each pipework system has a friction curve where
the friction head is plotted against flow.
The system curve is obtained by adding the static
head to the friction losses and plotting the total head
against the flow.
The pump duty point is where the pump
performance curve and the system curve cross. It
shows the flow that a particular pump will deliver
through the pipework system, at a particular total
head at the pump duty level. For examples of pump
and systems curves refer to Figure 2.8.1.
The duty point should be used when considering the
suitability of alternative pumps for a particular duty
by comparing the efficiency and power requirements
for each pump at the duty point.
Hs = height of supply liquid free surface above eye

of pump impeller
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Drainage Affairs
Figure 2.8.1 Characteristic Curve for Multiple Pumps
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TSE System Design
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Drainage Affairs
2.8.2
Plant Layout
TSE drywell pumping stations usually take their

suction from a storage tank. They do not need to be
directly attached to a wet sump.
The pumping station layout should be designed to
provide a flow route through the pumps and out to the
TSE distribution system with the minimum number of
bends and changes of direction.
Dry well design should incorporate the following

features:
The pumps should be installed with sufficient

space between them to allow access for
maintenance and repair (minimum of 1m);
The pumps should be arranged to draw from

and discharge to common manifolds;
The common suction and discharge

manifolds should be located either side of the
pumps. The suction pipe should be recessed
at a lower level and may require an open
mesh walkway over it at floor level with the
individual pump suction connections rising up
through the covers. This solution is not
practical in all situations, for example
hydraulic considerations such as NPSH
available may require that the suction
pipework be as simple and as straight as
possible. Whatever design is implemented, a
balance must be found between the
competing factors in dry well design. Each
design is different and requires a bespoke
solution;
The common discharge manifold should be

designed to accommodate a magnetic flow
meter, automatic filters and disinfection
requirements;
Platforms and walkways should be provided

to permit access to all equipment at a suitable
level for safe operation, maintenance and
repair;
Craneage should be provided for the removal

of all pumps, and valves 450mm dia and
over.
Careful thought should also be given to the

shipping route for removing equipment;
Access to the dry well and machinery should

be by staircase so that tools and equipment
can be carried in and out safely;
The dry well floor should slope gently towards

one side wall and then to one end where a
sump pump should be installed to keep the
floor as dry as possible;
The sump pump should be installed in a small

well, large enough to accommodate the pump
and should discharge to the drainage system;
The normal method of operation will be for the

storage tank to be filled at a steady rate, with the TSE
pumps being run for extended periods discharging
either directly to the TSE distribution system, filling
high level storage towers, or both.
For distribution duty, the pumps should be operated
under variable speed control to provide a constant
pressure under variable demands.
For storage tower filling, the pumps should be
operated at a constant speed, selected to fill the
tower at a particular rate.
A flow meter and pressure sensor should be installed
in the discharge manifold to record the flow and
control the pressure.
The pumps will usually be required to operate at
particular times, rather than on storage tank level
control. Level sensors should be installed in the
suction storage tanks to ensure priming, and prevent
loss of suction of the pumps. Level sensors should
also be installed in all storage tanks to avoid over
filling and spillage.
All pumps should preferably have variable frequency
drives and the control system should be designed to
start/stop, ramp up/down, adjust and match the
speeds of all running pumps as required on changing
demand, based on the system pressure.
Fixed speed pumps utilising a smaller jockey pump
and bladder type pressure vessel are an alternative
to the use of variable speed pumps particularly on
smaller systems. It is possible to omit the jockey
pump for off peak network pressurisation duty if the
pressure vessel volume is large enough to ensure the
main pumps do not repeatedly start and stop filling
the vessel under low flow conditions.
The control system should also be able to operate all
pumps at constant speed for tower filling.
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Drainage Affairs
A high level alarm should be installed in the

dry well to give a warning of flooding before
damage to machinery occurs.
Long drive shafts should have intermediate

support bearings supported from concrete
beams spanning the dry well.
Pump Installation
2.8.3
Double entry pumps have the suction in the centre on

one side of the pump, with the discharge directly
opposite on the other side.
Electric Motors
Multistage pumps have the suction and discharge at

the opposite ends of the pump. The suction can be
on the end or the side, the discharge is on the side
but can be in any direction relative to the suction.
Both pumps can be installed with the pump shaft
horizontal or vertical.
The most compact footprint arrangement is for the
pump to be installed with the shaft vertical and the
motor above, this allows the suction to be on one
side with the discharge on the other, but this will
require an upper floor for the motors.
Pumps installed with the shaft horizontal will have a
longer footprint with the motor in the dry well and at
possible risk from flooding. Horizontal pumps are
generally easier to maintain than vertical pumps.
Pumps should generally be installed in a closecoupled horizontal shaft configuration, unless the
drywell is deep or liable to flooding, when a vertical
installation
should be
considered. Other
considerations include:
The pumps should be installed with sufficient

space between them to allow access for
maintenance and repair;
The pumps should be supplied with a midrange impeller, which will meet the design
duty. However, the pump casing should be
sized to accept the maximum sized impeller
for that pump and the motor should be sized
to drive the maximum sized impeller;
Consideration should be given to fitting

temperature and vibration sensors to each
pump set and connecting them to the station
PLC;
Pumps and motors installed with a drive shaft

having universal joints should not be installed
directly in line; they should be slightly offset to
provide movement to the universal joints;
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Primary Movers
Care should be taken in selecting the type of electric

motor, with regard to the characteristics of the driven
load and the starting method. Where motors are to
be used in conjunction with variable frequency drives,
they should be designed for such applications, or
suitably de-rated. The complete drive system should
be matched to ensure compatibility. Other
considerations include:
All motors should be of the squirrel cage

induction type, suitable for operation with a
415V, 690V or 3.3kV 3-phase, or 50Hz
supply;
The continuous maximum rating of a motor

should be a minimum of 5% above the
calculated maximum power requirements
under all conditions of operation;
Consideration should be given to providing

thermistors for temperature protection on all
motors rated above 7.5kW;
Where the motors are installed vertically they

should be specifically designed for that
purpose with adequately rated end thrust
bearings;
Motors should be protected to IP55 class F.
Standby Pumping
Standby pumping should normally be provided by
electric motor driven pumps as this allows a greater
degree of control. In the absence of any electrical
power, the use of diesel engine driven pumps should
be considered.
When providing permanently installed diesel driven
pumps where the reservoir is below ground,
consideration should be given to installing the engine
at ground level with a 900 drive gearbox to a vertical
shaft pump installed below:
Automatic start/stop diesel engines can be

used for standby pumping;
Permanently installed diesel engines should

be located in a sound proofed enclosure;
Page 29

Drainage Affairs
The diesel engine should be fixed speed;
Torque is not controlled;
Pumps installed above the bottom water level

should be fitted with an automatic vacuum
pump for priming.
Motor status is not considered.
2.8.4
Variable Speed Drives

(VSD)
Variable speed drives are used in applications

requiring speed and torque control. This type of
motor control is required in applications such as
pressurised irrigation networks, where the network
pressure is used as the control variable to modify the
speed of the pumps.
AC drive flux vector control

using PWM
In this type, the speed and torque are controlled by

the current, voltage, and frequency.
The advantages of the flux vector control are:
Good torque response;
Accurate speed control;
The performance is very close to a DC drive;
Type of VSD
Full torque / zero speed.
VSDs convert the incoming fixed frequency 3-phase

AC power supply, into variable voltage and
frequency, to control the speed of the motor.
The disadvantages of the flux vector control are:
There are various types of variable speed drive in the

market. The main types can be categorised as
follows:
(1)
DC motor drives;
(2)
AC drives - frequency control Pulse Width

Modulated (PWM);
(3)
AC drives - flux vector control (PWM).
The construction of the above-mentioned

types varies from one to another according to
the control process required as follows:
AC drives frequency control

using (PWM)
The speed control of the motor is achieved by

controlling both the voltage and frequency.
The advantage of the AC drive technology over DC
technology is that standard AC motors are less
expensive.
The advantages of AC drive frequency control using
PWM are:
Low cost;
No feedback required.
Feedback required;
Modulator required;
High cost.
Selection of VSDs
The selection of the suitable VSD size should be
according to the following criteria:
Operating voltage (415V, 3.3kV, 6.6kV,11kV);
Operating frequency (Operation range);
Motor peak current;
Ambient temperature (site temperature).
For irrigation pumping applications the most suitable

type of VSD should give both variable torque and
variable speed. In normal applications, AC drives with
PWM are recommended. The manufacturers
guidance on the selection of the particular VSD
should be sought for applications above 300kW for
LV applications, and for all sizes of HV application.
HV applications should be avoided wherever
possible.
Example of Control Philosophy with
VSDs
An example of a variable speed pump irrigation
station can be seen in section 2.8.6.
The disadvantages of AC drive frequency control

using PWM are:
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Drainage Affairs
2.8.5
Motor Control Centre

(MCC)
The low voltage motor control centre (MCC) panel

forms the link between the electrical loads, such as
motors and actuator valves, and the power
generation source (main authority supply, generator
set).
In case of multi incomer and outgoing

(starters/feeders), Form-4 should be
considered for ease of carrying out
maintenance, without interruption to other
equipment in the case of isolation of a
particular feeder.
The bus bar rating should be suitable to carry

the total connected load as mentioned
previously. Consider any future loads, by
increasing the size of the bus bars and also
consider the suitability of extension at both
ends.
The design of the MCC should take into

consideration the following points:
Total Connected Load

The control panel sizing and design needs to
cover the demand of the total load
connected, including the standby load as
well.
Short Circuit Level
Type of Co-ordination
Electrical
components
co-ordination
according to IEC 97-4-111 provides two types
of protection. Manufacturer tests components
such as contactor, circuit breaker, undertaken
together, to confirm what will happen under
short circuit conditions.
According to IEC 947-4-1 the co-ordination
between the electrical components can be
categorised into the following types:
Protection Device
Type -2 co-ordination (personal/components

safety).
The designer shall categorise the entire load

connected to the switchgear according to the
criticality of its status in the process, and its
effect on operator safety. Some of the
protection types that can be used are as
follows:
Form of Internal Separation
1)
The form of separation should be according

to BSEN60439-112 or suitable equivalent. The
designer should consider Form-4 in all
designs for high personal safety and
equipment protection.
This type of protection is required to protect

the equipment against short circuit which can
be caused by insulation failure/damage, or by
incorrect switching operation. Short circuits
are associated with electrical arcs.
Type -1 co-ordination (personal safety only);
Type of Starter
The designer should consider the following
points when choosing the starter type to be
used. The motor size (KW) will decide
whether a standard starter (direct on line,
DOL, star delta starter, Y/D) or more
advanced type of starter (e.g. soft starter) is
possible. The main issue to consider is the
starting current. The higher the (KW) rating
the more starting current required. The high
starting current has an effect on the system
stability and other equipment installed. The
application of the motor or pumps should be
considered; e.g. for an irrigation system
where the network is always required to be
pressurised, a variable speed drive is often
used to keep the network pressure constant
and available all the time.
The short circuit level calculation carried out

according to the total connected load and
power source from the local authority
electricity network. Care must be taken in the
design stage to control the fault level. If the
total connected load is too high then the load
to the switchgear can be split into two or
more assemblies to reduce the fault level.
Bus Bar Rating
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Short circuit protection
Page 31

Drainage Affairs
2)
Overload protection
due to the wrong direction of operation. This

type of protection can be applied at the main
incomers of the switchgear or motor feeder
by a special relay to sense the phase status
(direction /availability) and trip the main
incomers/feeder if a fault occurs.

the equipment against overload current. This
occurs due to operational over current
occurring for excessive periods of time. If the
equipment (motor/cables) is incorrectly sized,
over current will also raise the (motor
winding/cable) temperature above the
permissible level and shorten its service life.
5)
This type of protection is required to: protect

the equipment and personnel in the event of
indirect contact; provide additional protection
in the event of single phase direct contact;
give earth fault protection; and protection
against fires resulting from earth fault leakage
current.
The task of overload protection is to allow

normal operational overload such as starting
current to flow, but interrupt this flow where
the permissible loading period is exceeded,
such as with a stalled motor.
3)
Under/over voltage protection
This type of protection can be applied at the

switchgear
outgoing
feeders
(motor/distribution board/other loads) by a
special relay which senses the earth leakage
current through a summation current
transformer. The unbalanced current from the
transformer will release a mechanism that
will trip the breaker if a fault occurs.

the equipment against over/under voltage
which is present due to: main power supply
instability (transformer taping change/load
fluctuating); unstable supply from a standby
generator due to a large load connected;
faulty governors or voltage regulators.
Operation with an under-voltage condition will
draw from the supply more current. This over
current will raise the motor winding or cable
temperatures above the permissible level and
shorten the service life of the insulation. The
same will be the case with over-voltage which
will effect the insulation of the motor or cable,
and cause insulation failure. This type of
protection can be applied at the main
incomers of the switchgear by special relay,
to sense the voltage supply and trip the main
incomers if the set limits are exceeded.
4)
Page 32
6)
Motor protection relay (electronic relay)
This type of protection is used to protect the

motor against many faults that can affect the
motor operation and safety. The required
protection type can vary according to the
motor application (critical/normal) and size
(cost considerations). The following type of
protection can be achieved by motor
protection relay:
-Over/Under current;
-Phase losses/unbalance/reversal;
Phase losses/phase reversal protection

the equipment against phase loss from the
main supply, or phase reversal, which can
happen in the event of main supply
reconnection, or reconnection of the motor
after service. Operation with phase loss or
reversal will raise the motor winding
temperature due to unbalanced current in the
motor winding. In the case of phase reversal,
the motor direction will be reversed, which
will result in equipment damage or faulty
operation (pump vibration, high sound level)
Earth leakage protection
-Ground fault;
-Locked rotor;
-Motor stall.
This type of protection can be applied at the
motor terminals. The fault signal from the
relay will release a mechanism that will trip
the breaker if a fault occurs. Fault indications
will appear on the relay LCD screen or
indication LED, to diagnose the fault type.
Interlocking Facility


Drainage Affairs
An Interlocking facility is required where more

than one incomer is used in the switchgear.
Some examples are as follows:
1)
Supply from two transformers/local

authority supply;
2.8.6
2)
Supply from two incomers, one from

transformer/local authority supply and
one from the standby generator(s)
panel;
Pressure Sensors
3)
Supply from three incomers, two from

transformers/local authority supply and
one from standby generator(s) panel.
The interlock facility should guarantee the

safety of operation by not allowing, under any
conditions, the connection of two different
incomers to the same bus bar section
(transformer/transformer) or (transformer
/generator), or main bus bars with the bus
coupler closed.
Accessibility
The panel access for cable termination and

maintenance can be arranged in the following
format:
a)
front access (suitable for installation

area with limited space at the back of
the MCC);
b)
back access (suitable for installation

area with available space at the back
side of the MCC, minimum 1m);
c)
front/back access.
In all cases a minimum of 2m clear space

should be provided in front of the panel.
Wherever possible bottom access should be

provided with a man entry cable chamber
extending under the entire control room.
Cable Entry
Cable entry to the MCC can be arranged in
the following format:
a)
bottom entry (suitable for MCC fixed at

the top of cable/MCC trench);
b)
top entry (suitable for MCC fixed in

below ground location with cables such
as feeders and incomers installed at
ground level or above the MCC top level.
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Instrumentation and
Control
Pressure detection devices can be classified on the

basis of the pressure ranges they can measure, on
the basis of the design principle involved in their
operation, or on the basis of their application. This is
one of the most important instruments for irrigation
networks, which are usually controlled based on
pressure.
Bellows-type Pressure Sensors
Bellows are formed from seamless tubes
hydraulically or mechanically roll-formed. The main
advantages of bellows are their ability to provide
longer strokes and to handle higher forces. When
absolute pressure is to be sensed with bellows
elements, it normally involves two bellows, one for
measuring and the other for reference. The
compensating (reference) element is fully evacuated
and sealed, while the sensing element is connected
to the process. Basically, an increase in process
pressure causes the measuring bellows to extend,
which results in an increase of readout through the
motion balance mechanism.
Diaphragm or Capsule-type Sensors
Among the electronic designs, the strain gauge,
capacitance,
potentiometric,
resonant
wire,
piezoelectric, inductive, reductive, and optical
transducers can all be provided with diaphragm
elements. The full range deflection of a single
diaphragm is usually limited to about 0.002in. and the
amount of deflection varies with the fourth power of
the diameter of the diaphragm. The total deflection
can also be increased by welding several diaphragms
into capsules. Diaphragm materials with good elastic
qualities and with very low temperature coefficients of
elasticity are used. The diaphragm is a flexible disc,
either flat or with concentric corrugations, which is
made from sheet metal of precise dimensions. Some
instruments use the diaphragm as the pressure
sensor; others use it as a component in a capsular
element.
Page 33

Drainage Affairs
Flow Meter Selection

Magnetic flow meters offer the designer the best
solution for TSE pumped flow. Magnetic-type flow
meters use Faradays law of electromagnetic
induction for making a flow measurement. That is,
when a conductor moves through a magnetic field of
given field strength, a voltage level is produced in the
conductor that is dependent on the relative velocity
between the conductor and the field. Faraday
foresaw the practical application of the principle to
flow measurement, because many liquids are
adequate electrical conductors. So these meters
measure the velocity of an electrically conductive
liquid as it cuts the magnetic field produced across
the metering tube. The principal advantages include
no moving components, no pressure loss, and no
wear and tear in components. Magnetic flow meters
should always be installed with full pipe conditions.
Care should be taken during design to provide
sufficient straight run, up-stream and down-stream of
the flow meter in accordance with the manufacturers
installation instructions. As a general guideline, 12
pipe diameters of straight pipe on the inlet and 6 pipe
diameters on the outlet will ensure that the flow meter
is able to achieve the specified accuracy. If the
amount of space available is restricted then the
minimum usually accepted by manufactures is inlet
run > 5 pipe diameters and outlet run > 3 pipe
diameters.
Refer to Volume 8 for standard installation details.
The installation should allow for the future removal
and replacement of the flow meter. The
manufacturers
requirements
should
take
precedence.
The following International and British Standards are
a good source of information on flow meter selection
and installation, and can be quoted in specifications:
BS EN ISO 6817: 1997: Measurement of

Conductive Liquid Flow in Closed Conduits13;
BS 7405: 1991: Guide to Selection and

Application of Flow meters for the
Measurement of Fluid Flow in Closed
Conduits14.
Flow meters should be pressure tested and

calibrated by the manufacturer and certified to a
traceable international standard. As a minimum, the
overall accuracy should be better than 0.5% of the
Page 34
flow range. The repeatability of the result should be

within 0.2%.
In addition to the calibration certificate, the flow meter
manufacturers should provide the following:
(1)
Isolated 4-20mA DC and pulse outputs;
(2)
Programmable in-built alarm relays for

empty pipe, low and reverse flows;
(3)
In-built digital display for flow rate, total and

alarms;
(4)
Transmitter enclosure shall be protecteto

IP67;
(5)
Calibration and programming kit.
The earthing rings should be included according to

the individual manufacturers instructions. The sensor
lining should be neoprene or an equivalent material
of similar or improved properties. In below-ground
flow meter chamber installations, the installed
equipment should be submersible to the maximum
chamber depth.
Control Equipment
PLC
PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller. The
PLC is a microprocessor-based device which is
programmed to perform certain controlling tasks. The
PLC is the brain of the overall process. It can receive
analogue and digital signals from the process
devices, analyse them and send digital and analogue
signals to control these devices or activate certain
alarms.
PLCs were originally used for controlling purposes.
Almost all PLCs are now equipped with signal
transmitters (i.e. they include some RTU features)
that are capable of transmitting data to the network
operation centre.
A redundant PLC system with hot standby
configuration is highly recommended for critical
applications where uninterrupted control is required.
The power Supply for a PLC system is usually 24Vdc
or 110Vac. In case of power failure, the equipment
should be backed up by a UPS system which can
supply the PLC with up to 8 hours of power
depending on the importance of the process.


Drainage Affairs
The modular type CPU (Central Processing Unit) in

the PLC is capable of: solving application logic;
storing the application program; storing numerical
values related to the application processes and logic;
and interfacing with the I/O systems.
The PLC carries out a significant task which is PID
control. PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) control
allows the process control to accurately maintain setpoint by adjusting the control outputs. For example,
pump flow rate set-point is maintained by the
following:
Proportioning Band: is the area around the

set-point where the controller is actually
controlling the process. The output is at some
level other than 100% or 0%. The band is
generally centred around the set-point (on
single output controls) causing the output to
be at 50% when the set-point and the flow
rate are equal;
Automatic Reset (Integral): corrects for any
offset (between set-point and process
variable) automatically over time by shifting
the proportioning band. Reset redefines the
output requirements at the set-point until the
process variable (flow rate) and the set-point
are equal;
Rate (Derivative): Shifts the proportioning
band on a slope change of the process
variable. Rate in effect applies the "brakes" in
an attempt to prevent overshoot (or
undershoot) on process upsets or start-up.
Unlike Reset, Rate operates anywhere within
the range of the instrument. Rate usually has
an adjustable time constant and should be
set much shorter than Reset. The larger the
time constant, the more effect the Rate will
have;
Modulated Simplex I/O system: is the
preferred solution for safe process since the
duplex (redundant) I/O system is usually
expensive. The modulated simplex I/O
configuration guarantees that any failure of a
single I/O card will not cause the relevant I/O
rack to fail. For instance, if a rack contains
three I/O cards which control three pumps (2
duty, 1 standby), the failure of one card will
cause the whole pumping process to fail. In
Modulated Simplex I/O systems, it will cause
Volume 4
TSE System Design
the failure of one pump which will be classed

as the standby pump, and the other two
pumps will continue to run normally.
RTU
RTU stands for Remote Telemetry Unit. This unit
delivers remote information back to network
operation centres. Operations staff can access
remote sites that have RTUs, via a web browser,
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
Manager, and XML (Extensible Markup Language). If
an ethernet connection is not available, then the
RTU's may be accessed via PSTN (Public Switched
Telephone Network), normal dialup and even SMS
(Short Message Service) messaging.
Earlier generation RTUs were hardwired and
supported limited functionalitys such as data transfer
and alarming. The new generation RTUs are
equipped with a powerful processor which allows the
RTU to control certain instruments/devices, and
receive/transmit analogue and digital I/O
(input/output) signals.
The microprocessor-based RTU has a proven track
record within the water and wastewater industry, a
robust modular construction, and is constructed for
ease of maintenance and repair. These are intelligent
devices capable of handling data collection, logging,
reporting by exception, current data retrieval and
pump sequence control programs.
RTUs equipped with RS232/485 links are
recommended for interconnection to standalone
control systems, standard equipment packages and
PLCs (Programmable Logic Controller). A dedicated
serial port should be provided for connecting a hand
held programming unit or the PC.
The RTU software enables the RTU to process
locally input equipment information before
transmitting it to the master station to reduce
transmission overheads. A report by exception
operation is necessary for cost effective
communication. The report is triggered by change of
state of digital values or analogues reaching
threshold values or varying by specified amounts.
The RTU also reports when polled and when the
memory buffer is full.
SCADA and Telemetry Systems
Page 35

Drainage Affairs
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is

an industrial measurement and control system
consisting of a central host or master (usually called
a master station, master terminal unit or MTU); one
or more field data gathering and control units or
remotes (RTUs); and a collection of standard and/or
custom software used to monitor and control
remotely located field data elements. Contemporary
SCADA systems exhibit predominantly open-loop
control characteristics and utilise predominantly longdistance communications, although some elements
of closed-loop control and/or short distance
communications may also be present.
Systems similar to SCADA systems are routinely
seen in factories, treatment plants etc. These are
often referred to as Distributed Control Systems
(DCS). They have similar functions to SCADA
systems, but the field data gathering or control units
are usually located within a more confined area.
Communications may be via a local area network
(LAN), and will normally be reliable and high speed.
A DCS system usually employs significant amounts
of closed loop control.
SCADA systems on the other hand generally cover
larger geographic areas, and rely on a variety of
communications systems that are normally less
reliable than a LAN. Closed-loop control in this
situation is less desirable.
The main use of SCADA is to monitor and control
plant or equipment. The control may be automatic, or
initiated by operator commands. The data acquisition
is accomplished firstly by the RTUs scanning the field
inputs connected to the RTU (it may be also called a
PLC - programmable logic controller). This is usually
at a fast rate. The central host will scan the RTUs
(usually at a slower rate). The data is processed to
detect alarm conditions, and if an alarm is present, it
will be displayed on special alarm lists. Data can be
of three main types: Analogue data (i.e. real
numbers) will be trended (i.e. placed in graphs);
Digital data (on/off) may have alarms attached to one
state or the other; and Pulse data (e.g. counting
revolutions of a meter) is normally accumulated or
counted.
The primary interface to the operator is a graphical
display (mimic) which shows a representation of the
plant or equipment in graphical form. Live data is
shown as graphical shapes (foreground) over a static
Page 36
background. As the data changes in the field, the

foreground is updated, e.g. a valve may be shown as
open or closed. Analogue data can be shown either
as a number, or graphically. The system may have
many such displays, and the operator can select from
the relevant ones at any time.
The SCADA control centre in Doha City is currently
using Intouch Wonderware as the main software for
control and networking between the controlled sites
and the central station.
Control Philosophy
The control philosophy is the way the system will act
to process changes to achieve the objective required.
For the control philosophy to function according to
the client requirements several points should by
taken into account:
Overall controlling plan. This involves

preparing an overall plan of how the task
required will be achieved. In other words
stating the main tasks which will allow
performance of the general task required;
Realistic operational function. The sequence

and the functions of the operation should be
realistic and achievable. This means all
process restrictions and conflicts should be
identified and avoided while producing the
control philosophy document;
Compatibility of products. This is about

verifying that the control philosophy planned
is achievable by existing industrial products;
Cost effective. The choice of the products

should be cost effective. That means
unnecessary items should be taken out. At
this stage, it is possible to change the control
philosophy slightly if it will decrease the
overall cost of the project, on the condition
that the overall control philosophy will be
unaffected;
Hazard awareness. When designing the

control philosophy, we should take into
account that a failure in the devices or an
error in the process might appear. In this
process, all possible hazards should be
located and their effect on the control
philosophy should be cleared or at least
minimised.


Drainage Affairs
Example Irrigation Station

Philosophy Using VSDs
Control
The main pump control shall be achieved using

variable speed pumps controlled by a PID controller,
usually resident in the PLC or RTU. The set-point
(SP), Proportional (P), Integral (I) and Derivative (D)
terms of the controller should be configurable locally
or be downloaded via the SCADA system. The
process variable (PV) shall be the discharge header
pressure.
Upon receipt of the pump permissive signal, the
control system shall start the duty 1 variable speed
drive and ramp its speed up to the 1 pump operation
set-point (default 70%). A pre-determined
stabilisation period (default 30 seconds) should then
allow the pressure in the discharge header to settle.
The PID controller should then alter the speed of the
pump to control the discharge header pressure to
equal the set-point pressure.
The controller shall continue to modulate the speed
of the variable speed drive based on changes in the
discharge header pressure. If the pressure rises
above the set point the pump speed shall be reduced
and if the pressure falls below the set-point, the pump
speed shall be increased.
If three pumps are running and their speed has been

reduced to the minimum operating set-point (default
70%) and the controller is still calling for the speed to
be reduced; the first pump to start (the duty 1 pump)
should be stopped. The remaining two pumps should
then be controlled to allow the header pressure to
equal the set-point value.
Similarly, if two pumps are running and their speed
has been reduced to the minimum operating set-point
and the controller is still calling for the speed to be
reduced, the pump that has been running the longest
should be stopped and the remaining pump
controlled until the pressure has reached the setpoint value.
2.8.7
Pipework
The pipework installation should incorporate the

following features:
The pipework should be designed to allow the

pumps to draw from and discharge to
common manifolds;
The common suction and discharge

manifolds should be located either side of the
pumps. The suction pipe should be recessed
at a lower level and may require an open
mesh walkway over it at floor level with the
individual pump suction connections rising up
through the covers;
The pipework should be designed with

sufficient flange adapters or bends to allow
easy dismantling and removal of pumps, nonreturn valves or other major items of
equipment;
All flexible couplings will require restraint to

prevent displacement under pressure. The
pipework design should allow the suction and
discharge pipework to and from the pumps to
be completely bolted, with bends to allow
dismantling;
Each pump should be installed with suction

and discharge isolating valves bolted directly
to the common manifolds which permit
isolation for maintenance, while allowing the
other pumps to continue operating normally;
When the duty pump reaches full speed and remains

at full speed for a pre-set time (Usually around 120
seconds), the duty 2 pump should be started.
The duty 2 pump should ramp up its speed to the 2
pump operational set-point (usually 75%),
concurrently the duty 1 pump should be controlled to
the same value.
Once both drives have reached the selected speed
they shall be controlled together by the PID
controller. With the speed being increased and
decreased based on changes in the discharge
header pressure.
Similarly in the case of a three duty pump station the
third duty pump shall be started when two pumps are
running and have reached maximum speed for the
pre-set period (around 120 seconds). At this point the
duty 1 and duty 2 pumps shall be ramped down to
the 3 pump operational speed set-point (usually 75%)
and concurrently the third pump ramped up to the
same set-point.
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Pump Suction and

Delivery Design
Page 37

Drainage Affairs
Each pump should also be fitted with a

discharge non return valve to prevent reverse
flow through the pump and a suction strainer
to prevent blockage of the impeller passages
by debris;
2.8.8
Consideration should be given to providing an

isolating valve on the pumping main before
any over-pumping connection, to allow the
pumping station to be fully isolated and the
fixed pipework drained for repair.
Consideration should also be given to
providing a valved connection for draining the
discharge pipework. Suction velocities should
not normally exceed 1.8m/s but should be as
low as practical to improve the NPSH
available (see 2.8.1). Discharge velocities
should not normally exceed 2.5m/s;
There are four common causes of surge in a pipeline:
Sumps should be designed in accordance

with the recommendations of the CIRIA guide
The hydraulic design of pump sumps and
intakes15 which gives guidance on sump
design, suction bellmouth clearances and
measures to avoid vortex formation.
Valves
Valves should incorporate the following features:
Isolation valves for TSE should be of the

double-flanged wedge-gate type with a bolton bonnet. When fully open, the gate should
be withdrawn completely from the flow. The
valve handwheel direction of operation should
be clockwise to close. Station valves should
have metal seats;
All sluice valves above 500mm bore (300mm
if power actuated) should be provided with
jacking screws;
Reflux valves for TSE should be of the double
flanged, quick action single door type,
designed to minimise slam on closure by
means of heavy doors weighted as
necessary;
Reflux valves should be provided with covers
for maintenance without the need to remove
the valve from the pipeline. The covers
should be large enough to permit removal of
the flap and inspection of the seat.
Page 38
Surge Protection
Surge (or water hammer) is an oscillating pressure

wave generated in a pipeline during changes in the
flow conditions.
pump starting;
pump stopping/power failure;
valve action;
improper operation of surge control devices.
The most likely one of these is the sudden stopping

of all pumps caused by a power failure.
An approximate calculation for a simple pipeline is:
P = a x V
g
Equation 2.8.2
Where:
P = Pressure change (m)
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)
V = flow velocity change in 1 cycle (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s2)
The simple cycle time can be calculated with the
formula:
Cycle time = 2 x pipeline length
Wave velocity
Equation 2.8.3
Table 2.8.1 below shows wave velocity in m/s for
pipe materials.
Table 2.8.1 - Indicative Surge Wave Velocity
Values for Selected Pipe Materials
Pipe Material
Velocity (m/s)
Ductile Iron
1000 1400
Reinforced Concrete
1000 1200
Plastics & GRP
300 500
NOTE:
As the wave velocity is partially dependent on
the physical properties of the pipe, the wave velocity for
the particular pipe under consideration must be
assessed for each scheme.


Drainage Affairs
If the surge pressure approaches zero or the pipeline

maximum pressure, a full surge analysis should be
carried out.
Surge Suppression Methods
Surge suppression could be achieved using one of
the following devices. The most appropriate device
will depend on the individual circumstances of the
installation:
Flywheel;
Pressure vessel with bladder;
Dip-tube surge vessel;
Surge tower.
Air valves should not be used as a method of surge

control, but their operation under surge conditions
should be carefully considered.
Flywheels
Flywheels absorb energy on start-up, slowing the rate
of velocity change in the pipeline. In reverse, when
the pump is stopping, the flywheel releases energy
again, slowing the rate of velocity change. Together
these two actions reduce the peak surge pressure.
As the flywheel must be located on the drive shaft it
is not suitable for submersible pumps or closecoupled pumps. However, they are simple devices
for wet well/dry well pumps and are preferred where
possible.
If submersible pumps have been chosen, a larger
pump running at a slower speed may have the effect
of a flywheel.
Because the flow continues through the pump after
the stop signal, the effect on the stop and start levels
should be carefully considered.
Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels for surge suppression are tanks
partially filled with a gas (air or nitrogen). Usually the
liquid is contained in a bladder with gas on the
outside to prevent the liquid absorbing the gas or
coming into contact with the inside of the pressure
vessel, and this is the preferred type. The bladder
material should be carefully selected for use in the
conditions experienced in Qatar.
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Refilling is usually from a high-pressure cylinder and

care should be taken to avoid over pressurisation of
the bladder. Bladders should not lose pressure in
normal operation, but they can fail, leading to
absorption of the gas into the liquid, and a drop in
pressure.
Vessels without a bladder are charged with air
pressure from an air compressor, either manually or
automatically. There is therefore additional machinery
and an additional maintenance requirement. This
type of surge vessel is not recommended.
On pump start-up, liquid enters the vessel,
compressing the gas until it equals the liquid
pressure. When the pump stops, the gas pressure
forces liquid back out into the pipe system, both
actions slow the rate of pressure change, which
reduces the peak surge pressure.
To dampen oscillations, a non-return valve may be
fitted to the surge vessel outlet pipe, to allow
unrestricted flow into the pipeline, and a bypass
around the NRV fitted with an orifice plate to restrict
the flow back into the vessel.
Dip Tube Surge Vessels
A dip tube surge vessel is pressure vessel, the top
portion forming a compression chamber limited by a
dipping tube with a shut off float valve.
This type of vessel is particularly appropriate for use
on rising mains with flat profiles.
Surge Towers
A surge tower is a vertical tank or pipe fitted into the
pipeline, open to atmosphere and the energy storage
is by the static head of the liquid in the tower.
Surge towers are only practical for systems with
relatively low heads and surge pressures, but can
pose an odour risk.
Due to the design of a surge tower, there is no
routine maintenance required to ensure the surge
tower keeps operating correctly.
It is unlikely that surge towers would be appropriate
for use in Qatar.
Page 39

Drainage Affairs
Air Valves
Air valves are required on the pumping mains to
release air, but they should not be used as a surge
protection measure.
However, air valves, particularly if fitted with a vented
non-return valve or in-flow check valve, may assist in
surge control, and their operation must be carefully
considered.
Air valves require regular maintenance because if the
air valve does not function correctly, large or negative
surge pressures could result, with consequent
damage to equipment or personnel.
If air is allowed into the rising main on pump stop/trip
through an air valve, the pump control system should
be designed to prevent a restart until the transient
pressures have stabilised.
Control of the pumps is usually by start/stop level
signals, but where surge on start-up may have a
significant effect, the use of soft starters should be
considered.
2.8.9
Air Valves
Double orifice type air release valves should be

installed on the pipeline at appropriate points in order
to prevent air pockets from building up.
As a minimum air valves should be provided at the
following locations:
All high points
At least every 1000m
The valves shall be capable of handling TSE water at

40C without any adverse effects and have 316
stainless steel or Ethylene Propylene Diene
Monomer (EPDM) coated float balls.
All air valves should be fitted with an isolating gate
valve.
The manufacturers data sheets should be referred to
for the performance data to be included in any surge
analysis.
2.8.10
Filtration
Clean irrigation water is an essential requirement for

trouble-free operation of irrigation systems and for
helping to minimise maintenance commitments. Drip
Page 40
irrigation in particular requires very clean water if

clogging is to be avoided. This can be achieved by
either providing a very high standard of effluent for
the sewage treatment works (5mg/l SS) or by
provision of filters at the tertiary pumping stations.
The filtration installation needs to suit the specific
requirements of the downstream irrigation systems.
In the case of a system such as that proposed for
Doha comprising pressurised primary transmission
and distribution pipelines feeding the irrigation
systems directly, the filtration system must be
provided at each main pumping station. The
specified filtration must meet the highest filtration
requirements of any of the downstream irrigation
systems and be effective at preventing clogging of
drip emitters, damage to the solenoid valves,
scouring, and wear or damage to the pumps. In
order to satisfy these requirements and provide the
preferred level of protection, the filtration system will
normally comprise the following elements:
a
Coarse Filtration
The primary purpose of coarse filtration is to provide

protection to the pumps. From time to time, objects
such as grit, stones and pieces of wood etc. find their
way into the irrigation water and can cause serious
damage to the pumps. It is normal practice to include
a large Y-strainer to ensure that such debris will not
enter the pumps, and to provide the first line of
defence in the overall irrigation filtration.
The Y-strainers will be installed on the suction line
from the reservoir and will have a relatively coarse
screen of typically about 20-mesh, or as necessary to
suit the recommendations of the pump manufacturer.
b
Main Pressure Filters
The main pressure filters need to provide filtration

that meets the requirements of the downstream
irrigation system. They must be able to remove
particulates (sand etc.), which will clog drip emitters
and which will also damage the valve seats of
solenoid valves. It is also essential that they are able
to remove biological organisms (especially algae)
that build up and clog drip emitters.
The degree of filtration depends upon the selection of
drip emitters and other application devices, but 150mesh (equivalent to about 100 microns) is


Drainage Affairs
recommended as a good specification that would

substantially reduce maintenance problems.
If there is algae growth in a TSE resevoir it can cause
a particular problem with drip irrigation systems.
Algae growth can be prevented by ensuring that light
does not enter the reservoir and also by chlorination.
Algal slime or similar organic matter will readily
squeeze through any type of filtration screen, even of
fine mesh, and it also attaches itself to the filter
screen where it will hold tiny particles that otherwise
would pass through. For these reasons, screen
filters do not provide effective filtration against algae,
and the overall effectiveness of filtration will also be
reduced. The options for irrigation filtration that are
effective at removing algae as well as hard
particulates are either media filters or disc filters.
Selection of the most appropriate solution will depend
upon cost considerations, space availability, pump
characteristics and pumping station configuration.
The main characteristics of these two options are as
follows:
Media Filters
Media filters work by forcing water through
large vessels containing uniform size crushed
sand or similar medium. The sharp edges of
the medium are able to trap organic matter
such as algae. Media filters are cleaned by a
back-flushing process that lifts and separates
the medium. A small amount of the medium
escapes, and needs to be replenished from
time to time. Media filters are less effective
for removing sand particles because these
are not flushed out during back-flushing.
Media filters are physically large in size and
therefore space availability may be an issue.
It is necessary to place a screen filter on the
outlet to trap the escaping particles of
medium. For optimal operation, media filters
need to be carefully matched to system flow
rates and do not work well with low flows;
Disc Filters
Disc filters comprise stacks of plastic discs
with a special surface that catches both
inorganic and organic particles as the water is
forced between the discs. They are typically
factory-assembled into multiple batteries.
The back-flushing cycle pushes the discs
apart, loosening them and allowing them to
Volume 4
TSE System Design
spin round and release the filtered matter.

They are relatively compact in size but should
be installed indoors, preferably in the
pumping station. Disc filters are well suited to
medium-sized irrigation pumping stations but
there is no technical reason why they should
not be installed in a main centralised pumping
facility.
Irrespective of the type of filtration selected, the
performance of the pump sets must take into account
the head loss through the filtration system. Head
loss through the filters increases with increased flow
as well as with the degree of filtration. The
requirements of the back-flushing cycle also need to
be taken into consideration in the specification of the
pump sets and design of the pumping station.
c
Downstream Final Filtration
Although not part of the pumping station installation,

as a final line of defence, a Y-strainer should be
provided at the downstream end of the irrigation
system in each solenoid valve. Refer to section
3.1.1.
2.8.11
Ventilation and Air

Conditioning
Ventilation systems should be designed so that in the

event of a fire being detected in any area, all the air
conditioning equipment and ventilation systems are
shut down. All supply and exhaust ventilation louvers
should shut automatically to compartmentalise the
building to restrict the spread of the fire and smoke,
and ensure effective use of automatic fire
extinguishing systems.
The air conditioning system and ventilation fans
should be run together and ventilation fan louvers
should shut, when the fan stops.
Louvers should be sized to keep the air velocity
through them below 0.5m/s.
Air ducts should be designed to ensure the velocity
through them does exceed 6m/s in occupied areas.
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Drainage Affairs
Air
Conditioning
Systems
Ventilation Capacities
and
one unit fail, the other unit will provide 75% of the
required air conditioning capacity.
The required air conditioning systems and

ventilation capacities are shown in Tables 2.8.2 and
2.8.3.
The required thermal load should be calculated on

the basis of peak conditions.
Table 2.8.2 - Air Conditioning Systems
Location
Air Condition system
Electric Switch
Gear
Control Room
Dual Split AC unit

system
Split AC unit system
Table 2.8.3 - Ventilation Capacities

Location
Electric
Switchgear
Room
Pump hall,
motor room
and control
rooms
Kitchen
and Toilet
Approx. air
changes per
hour.*
1
Ventilation
The required quantity of exhaust air should be
removed from electrical switch gear rooms to the
pump room by a fan with an actuated louver.
Air inlet should be by natural supply through a
filtered and actuated louver.
In the event of a fire, the electrically actuated
louvers should be closed to seal electrical switchgear rooms during the use of any fire extinguishing
system.
Control Rooms, Kitchens and Toilets
12
12
Electrical Switch Gear Rooms

Electrical switch gear rooms should be completely
isolated from the remainder of the building for the
following reasons:
The thermal loads are higher than elsewhere in

the building;
In the event of a fire being detected, the air

conditioning should be switched off to allow the
fire suppression equipment to operate
effectively.
Air Conditioning
Two split AC units working independently
(mechanically and electrically) of each other should
be used to air condition the room, with air diffusers
discharging horizontally towards the panels. Return
air should be sucked back by the split unit, via
receiving air diffusers located at evenly placed
points between the supply air diffusers, and fixed to
the ceiling.
Air Conditioning
A single split AC unit should be provided for air
conditioning the control room. No air conditioning
should be provided for the kitchen or toilet.
The kitchen and toilet areas should be ventilated by
exhausting part of the control room air through them.
Ventilation
Exhaust air in the kitchen and toilet areas should be
discharged outside the building. The fans should be
run continuously for the following reasons:
Providing the required air changes for the

control room and kitchen;
Keeping the toilet and kitchen area

ventilated;
Air louvers should be fitted in the bottom of

kitchen and toilet doors.
Pump Rooms
Ventilation
Air supply should be provided by either two or three
duty fans and one standby fan, depending on the
size of the pump room. The air extracted from any
electrical switch gear rooms should be included in
the air supply calculations.
Each split AC unit should be rated at 50% above the

required capacity (i.e. 150% total), so that should
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Drainage Affairs
Exhaust air should be removed by either two or

three duty fans and one standby fan, depending on
the size of the pump room.
the generator must be capable of accepting the

largest starting load last with all other loads
connected.
The exhaust fans should have approximately 5%

less flow capacity than the supply fans to keep the
building at a slight positive air pressure. This is to
avoid drawing unfiltered dust laden air into the pump
and MCC rooms. This reduces the amount of dust
in the rooms, which can enter electric motors and
switchgear, drastically shortening the equipment life.
Standby generators should have a fuel header tank

sized for a minimum of 24 hours running at full load.
Pump rooms should have 10 air changes an hour.

The cable basement should also be ventilated as
part of the pump room ventilation system.
2.8.12
Standby Generation
Before selecting a generator, a list should be

compiled of all electrical loads which the generator
will be required to support. There should be no
diversity factor on the generator loads. Each load
should have its maximum starting load calculated to
determine the largest starting load.
Standby generating sets with varying loads due to
changes in pump numbers or speeds etc. should be
rated for Prime Power (PRP) duty in accordance
with BS 7698/ISO852816, taking into account the
running and starting loads.
Where there is a requirement for continuous running
at high load for extended periods, Continuous
Output (COP) duty rating should be considered.
Limited time running power (LTP) generating sets
should be avoided. LTP generators are unlikely to
have sufficient reserve power to handle the largest
starting load with all other loads connected.
Standby generators should be sized to carry the full
load of all electrical equipment connected to it plus
the largest starting load. Generators for high
starting load installations should be generously
sized.
Electrical loads connected to a standby generator
should include all pumps, compressors, ACUs and
controls essential for the operation of the pumping
station. All other loads should be disconnected and
inhibited.
When loading a generator, it is preferable to connect
the largest load first and the smallest load last, but
Volume 4
TSE System Design
A bulk fuel tank with a further 7 days fuel at full load

should also be provided on site.
The header tank size could be reduced if an
automatic replenishment system from the bulk tank
is provided. The replenishment system should
maintain the header tank contents at a level
providing sufficient time for someone to attend the
site in the event of failure.
2.8.13
Maintenance Access and

Lifting Gear
Safe access should be provided to all equipment

and local control panels at all times.
Access walkways, platforms and stairs should be
designed so that no dismantling is required for
normal routine maintenance. Vertical access should
be by staircase so that tools and equipment can be
carried in and out safely. Ladder access should be
restricted to infrequent visual inspection points.
Access around equipment for operation should be
installed at a level where all the controls can be
reached and operated easily without excessive
stretching or bending and where all indicators can
be seen.
Access around equipment for maintenance and
repair should be installed at a level where all the
maintenance points can be reached, dismantled and
removed without excessive stretching or bending.
Particular attention should be paid to lifting gear
access and operation where heavy equipment is
involved.
Access below ground to dry wells should be by
staircase so that tools and equipment can be carried
in and out safely.
Permanent access to wet wells and screen
chambers should be provided, using stainless steel
or GRP to just above TWL to allow for cleaning. The
access arrangements should be designed such that
an operator could be rescued from the sump with a
safety harness and man-winch.
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Drainage Affairs
When designing access to equipment, careful

thought should be given to shipping routes for
removing equipment to a suitable position for further
work, or for removing from the pumping station
completely. Exit routes for equipment should not be
the same as for personnel access unless there is an
alternative escape route.
Suitable for single heavy loads outdoors which must

be moved in all directions i.e. large submersible
pumps.
Location of lifting equipment
Lifting equipment should be provided

adjacent to all heavy items that require
lifting;
Lifting equipment should be positioned to

provide a straight lift of the load and also be
able to lower the load directly to a suitable
setting down position;
Permanent or temporary lifting facilities should be

provided for equipment that can not be easily lifted.
Consideration should be given to the weight, shape
and position of the item to be lifted. As a guide lifting
facilities should be provided for anything over 25kg.
Where lifting through openings in floors, the

lifting gear should be positioned to allow a
direct single lift up through all floors without
moving the lifting point or rearranging the
load.
For long or heavy lifts, gantry cranes should be

powered in all motions. Trolley cranes should
generally be power lift with manual motion, but small
units should be manual on all motions.
Controls for Lifting Equipment
When the lifting gear has taken the weight of

equipment and the equipment is released from its
position, the clearance in the shipping route should
be large enough for the equipment to pass through
without rearrangement.
Overhead electric cranes and chain blocks

should be provided with a low voltage
pendant control suspended from a glide
track, independent of the lifting block. The
pendant control should extend to within
500mm of the operating floor, but not touch
the floor;
Electric chain blocks should be provided with

a low voltage pendant control suspended
from the block. The pendant control should
extend to within 500mm of the operating
floor but not touch the floor;
Hand operating chains should extend to

within 500mm of the operating floor but not
touch the floor;
Long travel drive chains should be located to

avoid snagging, and allow the operator safe
passage;
With the load hook in its highest position, if a

load chain touches the operating floor or any
item of plant, a chain collection box should
be fitted.
The following types of lifting equipment are

available:
Lifting Eye and Chain Block
Suitable for single straight lifts only inside a building

or dry well. Not suitable for side forces, but may be
used in conjunction with other suitable lifting eyes to
swing a load sideways.
Davit, Socket and Chain Block
Suitable for most small single lifts i.e. submersible

pumps up to 250kg. Above this, the davit becomes
too heavy to be manhandled.
Runway Beam, Trolley and Chain Block
Suitable when there are a number of loads in a

straight line, or where a single load must be moved
sideways. For heavy loads or long lifts, the chain
block and trolley should be electrically powered.
Overhead Gantry Crane
Suitable for installations where there are dispersed

or heavy loads that must be moved in all directions.
Mobile Crane
Page 44
2.8.14
Geotechnical Information
Geotechnical investigation must be completed

before any structural design can be undertaken. A
specialised geotechnical engineering firm shall be
employed to design, procure, and supervise the


Drainage Affairs
necessary field works, in-situ and laboratory testing

works.
Atterberg limits on fine grained fraction (less

than 425 microns);
For storage reservoirs at ground level or overhead

(water towers), bearing capacity and settlement are
prime foundation considerations. For pumping
stations or underground storage reservoirs, bearing
capacity and settlement are of less concern, but
flotation, stability and methods of excavation for
temporary works are major considerations.
Bulk density;
Chemical analysis to determine total

sulphate, water soluble chloride and pH (BS
137717, 1990 part 3);
Uniaxial compressive stress.
The design of geotechnical investigations should

therefore be tailored to suit the type of structures to
be constructed, taking account of the expected
geology in the area concerned. Descriptions of the
regional geology of Qatar are given in Volume 1,
Section 4.2 and Volume 5, Section 1.2.1.
As part of the investigation stage it may be
necessary to drill boreholes and excavate test pits to
determine the nature of the subsurface. Site
investigation (SI) information is essential for the
structural design and to reduce the tender risks.
Prior to deciding what SI is required, an examination
should be made of all existing SI information
available for the site, as well as an understanding of
the general geology of the site. The DA holds a
library of documents on previous projects and this
should be the first source of information.
The number of boreholes to be sunk will be
dependent on the size of the site. A minimum of two
is recommended for a single structure. For large
sites where there are numerous structures,
boreholes at between 50m to 100m centres are
recommended. In cases where existing information
is available, additional boreholes are still likely to be
required in order to provide supplementary
information and confirmation of existing information.
Trial pits should be dug adjacent to any structure
that needs the foundations investigated and at one
or two miscellaneous locations to enable a visual
examination of the subsoil.
All boreholes and trial pits should be logged by a
competent person. The groundwater level should
be recorded. Falling head permeability tests should
be carried out on at least two boreholes.
The following basic tests on the samples should be
carried out in the laboratory:
Particle size distribution;
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Additional laboratory tests are often required to

provide geotechnical design parameters for bearing
capacity, settlement, and stability assessment as
appropriate to the structures.
The field and laboratory works should be undertaken
by an approved site investigation contractor. All
subsurface investigation, sampling, testing and
reporting shall be as required by BS 5930 - Code of
practice for site investigation18 and BS 1377 - Soils
for engineering purposesError! Bookmark not defined..
Reporting requirements are described in Volume 1,
Section 3.1.
2.8.15
Sub- and Superstructure

Design
General
The site for the future pumping station should be
carefully considered, bearing in mind the following:
(1)
Sufficient area to construct and maintain

the facility, as well as allowing for future
expansion;
(2)
Distance to the existing distribution and

transmission system;
(3)
Need for new distribution and transmission

pipelines to meet pressure standards;
(4)
Existing ground surface elevation and site

drainage;
(5)
Site access;
(6)
Geotechnical investigations;
(7)
Availability of power.
A pumping station usually consists of two main

parts, a substructure below the ground level, on top
of which is a superstructure consisting of a building.
The primary consideration while designing a
pumping station is to accommodate the plant
needed to meet the required duty. This would
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Drainage Affairs
include: the type and number of pump sets; their

drives, valves and pipework; power supplies;
method of starting and control; access for
maintenance; and surge protection, if needed. Once
the plant detailed requirements are decided, design
of the pumping station building can proceed.
Substructure
In the case of an irrigation pumping station, the
substructure will usually consist of an underground
compartment to house pumping plant, pipework and
control valves. The size of the superstructure should
be sufficient to house the plant and pipework with an
adequate allowance of free floor space for
maintenance and running repairs. Allowance may
also be required for the installation of future plant. In
general, a cramped layout of plant and pipework is
to be avoided. The floor should fall to a drainage
sump, drained by a dedicated pump or to an
adjacent drainage system, if feasible. Access to the
substructure floor should be in the form of steel or
concrete stairways with landings, if the depth
requires it.
Superstructure
The design and construction of the pumping station
is mainly related to engineering considerations,
however in the case of the building forming the
superstructure, the surrounding amenity has often to
be considered and attention to appearance may
therefore be important. Once the functional
requirements, including the leading dimensions have
been established, the design should become the
responsibility of an architect.
Structural Design
Reinforced concrete shall be used in the
construction of the substructure and is preferred in
the construction of the superstructure. However, if
the pumping station is to be located in an industrial
area, where the surrounding amenity is not so
important, a steel clad structure may be considered
for the superstructure.
The Codes of Practice listed in Table 2.8.4 below
shall be used while preparing structural designs.
Table 2.8.4 - Codes of Practice for use in Structural Designs

Item
Standard/Code
Description
1
BS 8110
Structural use of Concrete
Parts 1, 2 & 3
2
BS 5950
Part 1
Structural use of steel work in building - code of practice for

simple & continuous construction : hot rolled sections
BS 5628
Part 1
Code of practice for use of Masonry

Part 1 Structural use of unreinforced masonry
4
5
BS 8004
BS 6399
Part 1
Part 2
Part 3
Foundations
Design loading for buildings
Code of practice for dead & imposed loads
Code of practice for wind loads
Code of practice for imposed roof loads
BS 4449
Specification for carbon steel bars for reinforcement of concrete
BS 2573:
Part 1: 1983
Rules for the design of Cranes

Part 1: Specification for classification, stress calculations and
design criteria for structure
BS 8007
Design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids
BS 648
Schedule of weights of building materials
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Drainage Affairs
2.9
2.10
TSE Towers
Water towers are necessary in areas of flat

topography in order to provide sufficient pressure for
delivery into the distribution system. Because of
construction constraints, they provide limited water
storage and do not provide an economical solution.
The designer should aim to produce a structure that
is aesthetically acceptable to the DA and the
planning authorities, bearing in mind that it will
become a landmark in the area it serves. Ancillary
equipment
including
pipework,
ladders,
instrumentation and booster pumps, if required,
should be hidden in the shaft. The accepted
construction materials are concrete and steel. The
optimum depth/diameter ratios should be
determined for each location having regard to the
pumping economy and a need to avoid large
pressure fluctuations in distribution that may be
caused by drawdown or filling in excessively deep
tanks. Typical dimensions adopted for design are
shown in Table 2.9.1. As for any other TSE tank, a
TSE tower should be equipped with inlet, outlet,
overflow/drain pipes, ventilation. There should also
be proper access for maintenance and repair. In
addition, there should be a lightening arrester and
aircraft warning lights in accordance with the civil
aviation authoritys requirements.
Table 2.9.1 - Typical Depth/Diameter Ratios of
Water Towers
Nominal
Depth of
Internal
3
Size (m )
Water (m)
Diameter (m)
1200
7.5
17
2000
9.1
19.4
3000
10.2
22.6
In general, the Doha irrigation system is moving

away from water towers in favour of a pressurised
network fed directly from a central pumping station.
Therefore, it is unlikely that further water towers will
be required.
Volume 4
TSE System Design
TSE Ground Tanks

General
Ground tanks are either elevated reservoirs (located

on a high ground) or low level reservoirs with a
pumping system. Depending on the requirements,
low level reservoirs can be buried, partially buried or
above ground. Reservoirs should mainly be
constructed from reinforced or pre-stressed
concrete. In some circumstances, they may also be
constructed using steel or glass reinforced plastics.
Regardless of the type of construction and materials
used for construction, an irrigation water reservoir
has the following functions:
To equalise the difference between water

intake and output, and to cover peaks in
demand;
To maintain the required pressure in the

water distribution system;
To keep stocks in reserve in case of plant

malfunctions and interruptions in the water
distribution system.
Unlike a potable water service reservoir, an irrigation

water reservoir is not to provide water for fire
fighting, unless specifically required.
The main design criteria are:
Security of supply and water quality;
Overall cost of construction, operation and

maintenance;
Integration into the TSE supply system;
Town and landscape planning.
Reservoir Shape and Depth

Reservoirs should generally be built with two
compartments so that one can be drained for
maintenance without having to put the whole
reservoir out of service. A reservoir can either be
circular or rectangular in plan. For a twocompartment rectangular reservoir the most
economical plan shape is when its length (measured
perpendicular to the division wall is) is 1.5 times its
breadth (measured parallel to the division wall).
These proportions may require alteration due to
actual site conditions.
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Drainage Affairs
The economic depths for rectangular concrete

reservoirs are listed in Table 2.10.1.
Table 2.10.1 - Economic Depths for Rectangular
Concrete Reservoirs
3
Size (m )
Depth of Water (m)
Up to 3500
2.5-3.5
3500-15000
3.5-5.0
Over 15000
5.0-7.0
Reservoir Size
In the case of balancing storage, the required size
should be calculated based on peak diurnal
variations in the distribution system, source
production capacity, and the mode of operation
(either continuous pumping for a selected period of
time or by call-on-demand through use of reservoir
level control switches). In case of uniform supply the
capacity of a balancing tank should be 25-35% of
the average daily demand.
In order to meet contingencies as well as hourly and
daily variations the recommended volume of storage
is two times the systems average day demand. If
space is not available this volume can be reduced to
a days demand.
Functional Requirements
The following requirements shall be taken into
consideration while designing a reservoir:
Ventilation facilities are required to permit air

movement caused by changing water levels. It is
preferred that this is achieved by natural ventilation.
Reservoirs shall be designed to prevent the ingress
of external water and other contaminants.
Although the temperature effect is not as critical as
for potable water storage, thermal insulation
measures may need to be taken for above-ground
reservoirs.
Reservoirs shall be provided with access for routine
visits and repair work. Facilities shall be provided to
permit cleaning of each compartment independently.
Access to the water compartments, control buildings
and all functional equipment shall be designed for
safety, including that of personnel, and for ease of
operation. Openings shall be dimensioned so as to
permit entry for materials and equipment for
cleaning, maintenance and repair.
Inlet, outlet, overflow and washout pipework, the
necessary valves, flow meters and level-measuring
devices shall all be provided for each compartment.
The overflow from each compartment shall be of
adequate dimensions to permit the free escape of
excess water and shall normally allow for discharge
of the maximum inflow capable of being delivered to
the service reservoir. There shall be no isolation
valves on the overflow system. The overflow
arrangements shall not permit the contamination of
the stored water.
Design Life
Water circulation;
Ventilation;
Prevention of contamination;
Temperature effects;
Access and security;
The design life for properly maintained concrete and

steel storage tanks is typically assumed to be about
50 years. Any other type of storage tank that does
not have the historical longevity of these tanks
needs to be evaluated on a life cycle cost basis
before being considered for use.
Inlet and outlet arrangements;
Structural Design
Overflow;
Washout.
Current British practice with regard to concrete

tanks is to follow the procedures set out in BS
800719 for the design of liquid retaining structures by
a method based on limit state philosophy. For steel
tanks BS 2654 - Manufacture of vertical steel welded
storage tanks20, shall be followed.
Stagnant zones shall be minimised. Inlet/outlet

arrangements and baffle walls or curtains shall be
used to achieve proper water circulation.
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Drainage Affairs
2.11
Site Facilities
Fencing
Pumping station sites should be fenced off using
either a chain link fence or a boundary wall,
depending on the requirements. Locks should be
provided on all access entries to prevent
unauthorised entry and vandalism. Separate
personnel access should be provided.
Auxiliary Buildings
Auxiliary buildings may include a transformer room,
chlorination room (if required), stores, workshops
and offices. Some of these facilities may be
combined with the main pumping station structure,
depending on circumstances and available space.
Drainage, Sewerage and Water Systems
Each pumping station site should be provided with
separate drainage and sewerage systems. The site
drainage and foul sewage systems should
preferably be connected to external drainage and
sewerage systems, but if those are not available
then consideration should be given to constructing
soakaways and septic tanks. A suitable service
water connection to cater for the staff and other
requirements should also be provided.
External Fire Fighting System
Provision should be made to suit the requirements
stipulated by respective authorities. It is expected
that for the external fire fighting system, potable
water from the mains will be used, therefore suitable
extensions to the mains should be made on which
above ground fire hydrants of DN 100 would be
provided.
Access
Roads
Treatments
and
Landscape
Pumping station sites should be hard landscaped.

Access roads may be paved with asphalt and/or
concrete block paving and footpaths with concrete
pavers. Open areas should be covered with pea
gravel or other suitable material. Trees and other
vegetation should be provided according to the
needs of the pumping station location. All areas
should be sufficiently lit by perimeter lighting and
floodlights.
Volume 4
TSE System Design
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Drainage Affairs
3.0
Design of Irrigation
Systems
3.1
Definition and Scope
Within the context of this manual, irrigation systems

comprise the arrangement of pipe-work, valves and
application devices having the function of supplying
the plants irrigation needs, and usually includes
automatic means of control. The intention of a wellengineered irrigation system is to ensure optimal
plant growth by applying the correct quantity of
water at the right time, and in the right place. The
scope of the irrigation system as discussed herein
includes all pipe-work and components downstream
of the point of connection at the main distribution
chamber.
3.1.1
System Layouts
Layouts for the downstream systems are to be

designed in accordance with recognised best
practice for irrigation system engineering. Principle
design considerations include operational flexibility,
ease of maintenance, and minimising head loss.
Avoiding head loss is especially critical in the case
where the irrigation systems are fed directly from a
pressurised TSE distribution network (refer section
to 2.3 above). An important objective is to ensure
that the best possible pressure is available at the
solenoid valve for the secondary system.
upstream of the solenoid valves) should be arranged

to give optimal short and direct routings to the
solenoid valves from the point of connection at the
TSE distribution chamber. For typical irrigation
system arrangements refer to Figures 3.1.1 and
3.1.2.
Solenoid valves will, wherever possible, be arranged
in small groups for ease of operation and
maintenance. Solenoid valve assemblies will be
installed complete with a Y-strainer and an isolating
valve upstream, in the same valve box if space
permits.
The number of tappings from the main TSE
distribution network should be kept to a minimum,
consistent with efficient irrigation system pipework
layouts. Each point of connection needs to be
provided with an isolation valve located in the main
distribution chamber, and a flow meter and pressure
sensor to permit remote monitoring. Distribution
chambers are typically spaced at 200m intervals
along highways.
See also section 3.1.8 below for further issues
relating to system layout.
The division of planted areas into irrigation zones

should be logical and balance the needs of
operational flexibility against simplicity and ease of
maintenance, together with hydraulic considerations
of the irrigation mains and sub-mains. Too many
small zones will create additional maintenance with
many solenoid valve installations and electrical
circuits to be maintained. Too few large zones can
reduce operational flexibility and may result in
substantial variations in system flows in the irrigation
mains and sub-mains.
Pipework layouts need to be closely co-ordinated
with the landscape layouts and with other
underground utilities, and as far as possible
positioned clear of obstructions, trees etc. in case
future access to the pipe is required. The irrigation
mains and sub-mains (i.e. the system pipework
Page 50


Drainage Affairs
Figure 3.1.1 Typical Irrigation Arrangements along Main Highways
Figure 3.1.2 Typical Irrigation Arrangements for Extensive Landscape Areas
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Page 51

Drainage Affairs
3.1.2
Pipework Materials
Irrigation systems have conventionally used plastic

pipework of PVC-U (unplasticised PVC) to BS 3505
Class 5 (or equivalent) for the irrigation mains and
sub-mains, and either Class 4 or Class 5 for the
lateral pipework (i.e. downstream of the solenoid
valves). Class 4 PVC-U piping is thinner walled and
therefore more liable to cracking or fracture during
construction or after installation, but has a lower
initial cost. BS 3505 has been superseded by BS
EN 1452-2:2000 and the closest equivalents to
Class 5 (or E) and Class 4 (or D) in the new series
are S 6.3 and S 8 respectively.
As an alternative to PVC-U, HDPE (high density
polyethylene) piping is also eminently suitable for
the irrigation mains and sub-mains, having flexibility
and greater physical toughness compared to PVCU. LDPE (low density polyethylene) is used for
irrigation drip-lines and the spaghetti tubing.
Plastic pipework of either PVC-U or polyethylene
material has excellent resistance to the chemical
effects of TSE irrigation water, which would be
corrosive to galvanised iron or other metallic piping.
Selection of pipework materials will depend upon
project budget and the design life of the irrigation
system. Therefore in Table 3.1.1 shown below,
alternative recommendations are provided.
Table 3.1.1 - Recommended Pipework Material
Selection for Irrigation
Usage
Irrigation mains
and sub mains
(upstream of
solenoid valve)
to
6.9
bar
for
Material
HDPE or
S6.3 PVCU
the
Hunter
Standard
ISO 4427
BS EN
1452
2:2000
I-90
3.1.3
S6.3 PVCu or S8
PVC-U
BS EN
1452
2:2000
LDPE
ISO 4427
Pipework Sizing
Irrigation designs are to be submitted with

supporting calculations giving the basis for sizing of
the irrigation pipework. Consideration will be given
to flow, head loss and other relevant considerations.
It is also recommended to take into account possible
or likely future landscape developments within the
area and make appropriate allowance within the
calculations of flow for the irrigation mains in
particular.
Sizing of the irrigation mains and sub-mains should
take account of worst case operational flow
conditions where a number of solenoid valves are
open simultaneously, even though this may not be
the intended operating regime. This is not an issue
with the lateral pipework, where the operational flow
will be consistent and dependent upon the number
and type of irrigation application devices. In either
case, maximum flow velocity of 1.5m/sec should not
normally be exceeded, and loss of head should be
kept to a minimum.
3.1.4
Minimum and Maximum

Pressures
The designed operating pressure in any irrigation

system will be determined to suit the working
pressure required by the selected application
devices. Modern, heavy-duty, large radius, rotor
sprinklers as used for irrigating large turf areas
would require a pressure of, for example, 3.5 to 6.9
bar for the Rain Bird 8005 model, or 4.1
model.
However, the irrigation requirements of large turf

areas cannot realistically be met from a pressurised
effluent distribution main, and such areas would
need the installation of a local booster pumping
station.
For reliable irrigation system operation, it is essential
that the design working pressure at the application
device should be well within the recommended
range for each device, i.e. in the range of 2.5 to 3.0
bar in order to accommodate normal fluctuations in
the incoming pressure. Pressure losses in the
Page 52
Laterals
(downstream of
solenoid valve)
Drip-lines,
spaghetti tubing
solenoid valve, other valves, irrigation mains and

sub-mains, Y-strainer and flow meter will be
minimised by careful sizing of components, but will
still amount to 1.0 to 1.5 bar.
It is therefore recommended that the pressure
available at any connection point (tapping) to the
main effluent distribution network should preferably
not be less than 4.0 to 4.5 bar. In case this is not
attainable for particular sections of the network, then
it may be necessary to provide booster pumping
stations for the downstream irrigation systems,


Drainage Affairs
should the proposed irrigation devices required a

greater pressure.
It should be remembered, however, that most of the
town landscape will be watered using direct feeds
from the TSE transmission and distribution system
(via main distribution chambers) and the available
pressure may vary from place to place. The
landscape and irrigation system designers should
take this into consideration while preparing their
designs.
In general, the minimum available
pressure in the TSE transmission and distribution

network will be not less than 3 bar (30m water head)
and the maximum available pressure will not exceed
6 bar (60m water head). The DA, or their appointed
consultants, will provide the necessary design
guidance regarding the irrigation water budgets and
available pressure in the network.
Some further examples of typical working pressures
of some common irrigation application devices are
given in Table 3.1.2 below.
Table 3.1.2 - Typical Pressure Requirements for Particular Irrigation Devices

Device
Usage
Large radius rotor

sprinkler
Spray sprinkler
Extensive turf areas
Bubbler
Trees, individual shrubs

etc.
Drip emitter
Trees, shrubs, groundcovers etc.

Ground-covers, hedges,
shrubs
Integrated drip-line
Volume 4
Small turf areas, groundcovers
TSE System Design
Model
Pressure (bar)
Rain Bird 8005

Hunter I-90
Hunter SRS
Rain Bird 1800
Rain Bird 1800-SAM
Rain Bird 1400
Rain Bird Xeri-Bubbler
Fitco NCB
Fitco PCM-6
Rain Bird Xeri-Bug
Rain Bird ADI Dripline
Rhein PC Dripper
3.5 to 6.9
4.1 to 6.9
1.0 to 4.8
1.0 to 4.8
1.7 to 4.8
1.4 to 6.2
1.0 to 2.0
1.7 to 4.0
1.0 to 3.4
1.0 to 3.5
0.6 to 4.0
1.0 to 3.5
Page 53

Drainage Affairs
3.1.5
Irrigation Rates
The water demand of plants is governed by a number

of variable factors, including the climate, soil mix
properties, exposure/shelter, shade, the presence of
other vegetation, reflected heat, and factors particular
to each individual plant species. For the purposes of
this manual, which defines the general parameters
for irrigation system engineering for Qatar, the figures
given in Table 3.1.3 shown below can be used as the
basis for design and system specification, but are not
intended for horticulture reference.
resistance, and metallic parts should be of

high-grade stainless steel and bronze.
A summary of some key advantages and
disadvantages of different irrigation
application devices is provided in Table
3.1.4 below.
Table 3.1.3 - Guideline Peak Daily Water Demand

for Different Vegetation
Planting Type
Water Demand
Date palms
150 litres/tree/day
Ornamental and
100-120
shade trees
litres/tree/day
Drought-tolerant trees 60-80 litres/tree/day
Shrubs (continuous)
20 litres/m/day
(individual)
12 litres/shrub/day
Flower beds
25-30 litres/m/day
Ground-cover
10-15 litres/m/day
Lawn grass
15 litres/m/day
The irrigation demand of plants in the cooler seasons
is significantly lower. For most types of vegetation,
the winter irrigation regime can be changed to
alternate days, or twice-weekly, to the benefit of the
plants.
3.1.6
Irrigation Equipment
Fitness for purpose will be the basis for selection of

components and materials for the irrigation systems.
The solutions adopted must be properly tailored to
the irrigation needs of Qatar.
The primary
requirement is that the irrigation systems should
deliver the plants irrigation needs with minimal
wastage and maximum efficiency. Components will
be specified only after making detailed study of all
relevant considerations, which include horticultural
requirements, soil type, water conservation issues,
cost considerations, maintenance and reliability, and
the properties of the irrigation water, including its
degree of filtration, salinity and biological purity.
TSE has usually a larger degree of salinity than
drinking water, and therefore all components of the
irrigation systems need to have excellent corrosion
Page 54


Drainage Affairs
Table 3.1.4 - Comparison of Common Irrigation Devices

Device
Type
Drip
Irrigation
Emitters
Integrated
Drip-Line
(built-in
emitters)
Bubblers
Spray
Sprinklers
Rotary
Sprinklers
Advantages
Allow the quantity of irrigation water to be accurately

applied where needed, according to the plants
needs
Wastage from leaching down is minimal
Losses by evaporation are kept to a minimum
Subject to clogging and thus requiring very

clean irrigation water for reliable operation
Tendency to encourage build-up of salts in the

soil especially if the soil is not very freedraining
Reduced likelihood of human exposure when used

with treated effluent water
Overall, requiring high maintenance and close

regular inspection
Easy to install and remove
Pressure-compensating and multi-outlet models are

available, giving flexibility
The devices are quite susceptible to damage

or disturbance
Relatively costly
Low flows = smaller pipe sizes
Allows the quantity of irrigation water to be applied

accurately and uniformly, according to the plants
needs
Less suitable where plant spacing is not

regular and predictable
Wastage from leaching down is minimal
Does not have the inherent flexibility of

separate emitters
Losses by evaporation are kept to a minimum
Reduced likelihood of human exposure when used

with treated effluent water
Tendency to encourage build-up of salts in the

soil, especially if the soil is not very freedraining
Resistant to accidental damage or disturbance
Monitoring requires close inspection
Pressure-compensating versions are available
Low maintenance
Low flows = smaller pipe sizes
Simple robust devices giving trouble-free lowmaintenance operation
More wastage of water, less efficient than drip

systems
Higher water flow prevents salt build-up
Gives deep watering that encourages deep rooting
Difficult to ensure that the water is delivered

just where it is needed at the root system
Operation is very easy to monitor
Higher flows = larger pipe sizes
Models are available for mounting on pop-ups
Flexible means for irrigating smaller and awkwardlyshaped areas
Fine spray results in considerable wastage in

hot conditions by evaporation
Spray cools the air and benefits the surrounding

planted areas
Needs to be scheduled to operate in early

mornings or late evenings
Washing of foliage improves growth and retains a

fresh appearance
Moderately high maintenance requirements
Higher flows = larger pipe sizes
Cost-effective irrigation for larger areas
Modern models are robust, compact and resistant to

damage
Significant wastage in hot conditions by

evaporation
A large area can be covered by fewer sprinklers,

reducing maintenance requirements
Needs to be scheduled to operate in early

mornings or late evenings
Large nozzles are less affected by dirty irrigation

water
Large radius makes them unsuitable for

smaller and awkwardly-shaped areas
Higher operating pressure requirement
High flows = large pipe sizes
Volume 4
Disadvantages
TSE System Design
Page 55

Drainage Affairs
3.1.7
Control Systems
The available options for irrigation control systems

range from older electro-mechanical controllers and
compact modern solid-state controllers, to
sophisticated and feature-packed centralised
computer-based control systems sold by several of
the leading irrigation equipment companies and
other specialists in the field.
Since the landscape areas will be supplied directly
from a pressurised effluent distribution network and
not from stand-alone local pumping stations and
reservoirs, considerable areas of landscaping will be
effectively served by a single very extensive
irrigation system. It is essential that a means be
provided for centralised monitoring and control of
the usage of irrigation water and the status of all the
various local irrigation systems.
It is necessary that the chosen control system
should have excellent communications features,
able to collect in real time the flow and pressure
data from the meters and sensors installed around
the network, and at the points of connection of the
local systems. At the same time it needs to have
flexible irrigation features, especially for water
conservation, and must be able to permit local
control over operation and scheduling at the
individual irrigation systems.
Since the central irrigation control system will be an
off-the-shelf proprietary system such as Rain Bird,
Motorola, or Toro, the features and system
components will be defined by the selected systems
specification.
3.1.8
Co-ordination of Irrigation
and Landscape Design
Irrigation layouts and the landscape design are

clearly intimately related with one another, and the
best results will only be achieved if the concerned
disciplines are working in close co-ordination with
one another as part of one design team.
For example, the irrigation engineer should ensure
that valve boxes and other irrigation equipment such
as controller pedestals and electrical boxes are
located inconspicuously but sited for convenient
access. Valve boxes and the like should not
normally be placed in grass areas or pavements.
Similarly, the landscape architect should heed the
Page 58
requirements of efficient irrigation in designing the

planting layouts, for example by ensuring that the
outline of grass areas is not creating problems for
obtaining good coverage or avoiding over-spray.
Both disciplines should co-ordinate carefully the
location of irrigation sleeves (for present and future
needs) beneath hard surfaces and structures such
as walls, at the design stage.
It is also important that irrigation and landscape
projects are co-ordinated with TSE transmission and
distribution projects, road projects and building
projects. The concerned parties are the Gardens
Division, Drainage Division, Roads Department,
Building Engineering and their consultants.
The irrigation systems are the responsibility of the
Gardens Division, whilst the TSE transmission and
distribution system up to the main distribution
chamber are the responsibility of the DA.
The works downstream of the main distribution
chambers should be undertaken by specialist
irrigation and landscape consultants/contractors.
3.1.9
Under-Drainage
As a general rule, under-drainage should be

provided beneath all trees and planted areas unless
the natural ground conditions are free draining and
the water table is deep. Although many landscape
plantings appear to thrive without under-drainage,
waterlogged conditions beneath the surface
discourage deep rooting and lead to an increase in
soil salinity.
It is therefore recommended that under-drainage
should be included wherever possible in all new
landscape projects. The main prerequisite is that
there should be a suitable outfall for the underdrainage network, either into a storm drain or
otherwise by free discharge to the natural
topography.
Under-drains beneath planted areas simply
comprise a rock drainage layer overlaid with
geotextile filter membrane. The water from the
drainage layer is collected by a series of slotted
plastic pipes.


Drainage Affairs
3.2
Landscape and
Irrigation Management
3.2.1
Irrigation Management
This process will also have an effect upon the

irrigation requirements that may be impossible to
foresee accurately, but implies that flexibility should
be built into the original system designs.
Irrigation management is concerned with the

effective and sustainable use of available irrigation
resources, for the long-term well-being of the
landscape. It involves planning and monitoring the
usage of irrigation water at a strategic level. The
irrigation budgets and Irrigation Master Plan
discussed in sections 1.3.2 and 1.3.3 are essential
tools for implementing this essential role. The
function of irrigation management will be undertaken
by the Qatari authorities at a departmental level, to
ensure co-ordination between all concerned parties.
3.2.2
Maintenance of Irrigation
Systems
Obtaining the best performance from irrigation

systems is essential if efficient use of water is to be
achieved. The effort and funds put into wellengineered systems, sound specifications and
proper installation will largely be wasted if the
necessary maintenance is not carried out.
Even high quality modern irrigation systems require
constant monitoring and adjustment to give the
optimal performance. Adjustment of drip-lines,
emitters and sprinklers is a day-to-day task
alongside daily landscape maintenance. Servicing
of solenoid valves and other components, and
cleaning of Y-strainers should be carried out as
scheduled maintenance tasks.
A professional and organised approach to system
maintenance is essential for protecting the
substantial initial investments as well as ensuring
trouble-free operation.
3.2.3
Planting Management
Unlike other disciplines, the landscape is dynamic

and in a continuous state of development and
change. This is particularly noticeable in warm
climates such as the Gulf States where irrigated
areas achieve rapid rates of growth and come to
maturity quickly. Although planting management
aims to respect the intended design effect, the
natural result of this process is that the balance of
planting types can change considerably as for
example, trees mature and shade out other planting.
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Page 59

Drainage Affairs
4.0
Health & Safety
4.1
General Guidelines
Under current (2003) legislation, TSE application for

food for human consumption (e.g. salad crops) is
not permitted in Qatar.
Routine Health and Safety considerations for TSE
systems design bear many similarities with foul
sewerage design. There is, however, one major
difference in that the points of application of TSE for
irrigation purposes will be in public areas not under
the control of the DA. TSE is used for landscaping
enhancement in amenity areas, many of which will
be accessible to members of the public.
Exposure to TSE is therefore more likely in such
areas, by a wide cross-section of people. The
general public is less likely to be aware of the health
risks associated with treated effluent than operatives
at sewerage treatment plants. Likewise, the
operational staff that install and maintain the
irrigation systems may also be less likely to be
familiar with the health risks, being remote from the
treatment plant, and more associated with gardening
and landscaping.
For these reasons, it is important that designers give
due consideration to the health of such third parties
when designing TSE systems. It is not possible to
control the ultimate operation of the system at
design stage, however the designer can incorporate
measures to reduce risks. Such measures should
include the following as a minimum:
Always provide a risk assessment for new

designs, and incorporate Control of
Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
information for TSE into the pre-tender
health and safety plan;
Provide recommendations for positioning of

irrigation equipment;
Make recommendations for appropriate

training and certification of all operational
personnel;
Design appropriate warning signs for public

areas.
Page 60
The designer should be aware of the more obvious

public health concerns associated with use of TSE.
Untreated sewage can contain many different
pathogenic organisms such as helminths,
nematodes (e.g. ascaris and hookworm), viruses
and bacteria.
It is the policy in Qatar that all sewage is fully treated
and disinfected (generally by chlorination), prior to
discharge. Chlorination will eliminate most of the
pathogens, but some may remain viable. The WHO
publishes guidelines for the safe use of sewage
effluent in agriculture. As stated, Qatari policy is not
to use effluent on food crops; however, the
guidelines would still remain appropriate.
Guidelines for TSE chemical and biological
standards are given in Table 1.4.2 in Section 1.4.
The chlorination dosage is also critical for TSE.
Subsequent to disinfection, the chlorine residual
needs to be maintained in order to prevent
excessive growth of bacteria and other organisms in
the distribution system. This is due to the presence
of nutrients in the effluent being available as growth
factors. Hence, residuals need to be higher than in
potable water systems. However, residuals >5mg/l
will cause plant damage when sprayed direct onto
foliage21.
4.2
Reference Documents
The following is a list of documents that may be of

use to designers when considering health aspects of
TSE systems design.
1. World Health Organisation, 2000, WHO EHC 216
Environmental Health Criteria Disinfectants and
Disinfectant
By
products,
World
Health
Organisation.
This is of relevance where greater detail may be
required in relation to formation of chlorinated
organics and their associated health effects.
2. World Health Organisation, WHO Guidelines for
the Safe Use of Wastewater and Excreta in
Agriculture and Aquaculture, World Health
Organisation.


Drainage Affairs
This gives advice for use relating not only to the

pathogenic content but also a more in depth
discussion on other wastewater content.
3. Blumenthal et al, 2000, Guidelines for the
Microbiological Quality of Treated Wastewater Used
in Agriculture: Recommendations for Revising WHO
Guidelines, World Health Organisation.
This document covers more recent research and
recent literature relating to microbial content.
4. Construction Industry Research and Information
Association, 1997, Special Publication 137: Site
Safety for the Water Industry, London, CIRIA.
This document covers health and safety from a
more general practical aspect.
5. There is also published literature arising from time
to time from the Regional Centre for Environmental
Health Activities (CEHA), a subgroup of WHO,
dealing specifically with issues relating to the
Eastern Mediterranean Countries, having a similar
climate to the Gulf Region. Notes on these
programmes are published on the internet.
Volume 4
TSE System Design
Page 61

Drainage Affairs
5.0
References
British Standards Institution, 1999, BS EN 604391: Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear
Assemblies. Type-tested and PartiallyType-Tested
Assemblies, London, BSI.
13
State of Qatar, 2002, Law No. 30: Environmental

Protection, Qatar, State of Qatar.
1
British Standards Institution, 1991, BS EN ISO

6817: 1997: Measurement of conductive liquid flow
in closed conduits. London, BSI.
14
World Health Organisation, WHO Guidelines for

the Safe Use of Wastewater and Excreta in
Agriculture and Aquaculture, World Health
Organisation.
2
Qatar DD, Rationalisation of the TSE system

report, Qatar.
3
British Standards Institution, 1989, BS EN

545:2002 Ductile Iron Pipes, Accessories, Fittings
and their joints for Water Pipelines, UK, BSI.
4
British Standards Institution, 1989, BS 80101:1989 - Code of practice for Pipelines, Part 1:
Pipelines on land: general, London BSI.
5

12201:2002 Plastic Piping Systems for Water
Supply Polyethylene(PE), UK, BSI.
6
WIS 4-37-17.
Water Research Centre and British Plastics

Federations Pipes Group, 2002, Manual for PE Pipe
Systems, by Water Research Centre and British
Plastics Federations Pipes Group.
British Standards Institution, 1991, BS 7405:

1991: Guide to selection and application of flow
meters for the measurement of fluid flow in closed
conduits. London, BSI.
15
CIRIA & BHRA (Construction Industry Research

and
Information
Association,
British
Hydromechanics Research Association). 1977. The
hydraulic design of pump sumps and intakes. CIRIA
& BHRA. ISBN: 0-86017-027-6.
16
British Standards Institution, 1993-1999, BS

7698 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine
Driven Alternating Current Generator Sets, UK, BSI.
17
British Standards Institution, 1990, BS1377:

1990 - Methods of test for soils for civil engineering
purposes. London, BSI.
18
Water Research Centre, year, Network analysis A code of practice, UK, Water Research Centre.
British Standards Institution, 2000, European

Standard BS EN 805:2000, Water supply Requirements for systems and components outside
buildings, London, British Standard Institution.
10

124:1994 Gully tops and manhole tops for
vehicular and pedestrian areas design
requirements, type testing, marking, quality control
(AMD 8587), London, BSI.
11
British Standards Institution, 1999, BS 5930 Code of practice for site investigations, UK BSI.
20
BSI. 1987. BS8007: 1987. Design of concrete

structures for retaining aqueous liquids. London.
British Standards Institution.
21
British Standards Institution, 1989, BS 2654 manufacture of vertical steel welded nonrefrigerated storage tanks, UK, BSI.
22
Metcalf and Eddy Inc. (1991). Wastewater

Engineering Treatment, Disposal and Reuse, 4th
edition, UK, Irwin McGraw-Hill.
23
IEC 60947-1,Ed 3.2:1999 Low Voltage

Switchgear and ControlGear. General Rules.
12
Page 62


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State of Qatar - Public Works Authority

Master Planning of Landscape and TSE Irrigation Systems ..................................................... 1

Landscape Development Master Plan ....................................................................................... 1

Irrigation Budgets ....................................................................................................................... 1

Irrigation Master Plan ................................................................................................................. 2

Irrigation Water Quality.............................................................................................................. 2

Public Health Factors in Effluent Use ......................................................................................... 2

Quality of TSE for Landscape Irrigation ..................................................................................... 3

Recommended TSE Quality for Landscape Irrigation ................................................................ 4

Environmental Impact Assessment ........................................................................................... 4

Building Permit .......................................................................................................................... 4

Design of TSE Transmission and Distribution System ..................................................... 7

Standards and Sources of Information ...................................................................................... 7

Sizing and Flow Estimation ....................................................................................................... 8

Pipeline Materials .................................................................................................................... 14

Ductile Iron Pipes ..................................................................................................................... 14

Polyethylene Pipes ................................................................................................................... 14

GRP Pipes ................................................................................................................................ 15

Asbestos Cement Pipes (Safety Note) ..................................................................................... 15

Hydraulic Analysis ................................................................................................................... 15

General Design Considerations .............................................................................................. 20

Pipeline Horizontal Alignment .................................................................................................. 20

Pipeline Vertical Alignment ....................................................................................................... 21

Internal Pipe Pressures and Restraint of Thrust ...................................................................... 21

Air Release ............................................................................................................................... 22

Pipeline Maintenance Draining.............................................................................................. 22

Isolation Valves ........................................................................................................................ 22

Flow Metering and Remote Sensing ........................................................................................ 23

Pumping Installations .............................................................................................................. 25

Pumping Plant .......................................................................................................................... 25

Primary Movers ........................................................................................................................ 29

Variable Speed Drives (VSD) ................................................................................................... 30

Motor Control Centre (MCC) .................................................................................................... 31

Instrumentation and Control ..................................................................................................... 33

TSE System Design

1st Edition June 2005 - Copyright Ashghal

State of Qatar - Public Works Authority

Surge Protection ...................................................................................................................... 38

Air Valves ................................................................................................................................. 40

Ventilation and Air Conditioning ............................................................................................... 41

Standby Generation ................................................................................................................. 43

Maintenance Access and Lifting Gear ..................................................................................... 43

Geotechnical Information ......................................................................................................... 44

Sub- and Superstructure Design.............................................................................................. 45

TSE Towers ............................................................................................................................ 47

TSE Ground Tanks ................................................................................................................. 47

Site Facilities ........................................................................................................................... 49

Design of Irrigation Systems ..............................................................................................50

Pump Suction and Delivery Design ......................................................................................... 37

Definition and Scope ............................................................................................................... 50

System Layouts ....................................................................................................................... 50

Pipework Materials ................................................................................................................... 52

Pipework Sizing ....................................................................................................................... 52

Minimum and Maximum Pressures.......................................................................................... 52

Irrigation Rates ......................................................................................................................... 54

Irrigation Equipment ................................................................................................................. 54

Control Systems ....................................................................................................................... 58

Co-ordination of Irrigation and Landscape Design .................................................................. 58

Landscape and Irrigation Management ................................................................................... 59

Irrigation Management ............................................................................................................. 59

Maintenance of Irrigation Systems........................................................................................... 59

Planting Management .............................................................................................................. 59

Health & Safety ....................................................................................................................60