What is Personality?

The study of personality has been approached by theorists in a variety of ways.

Some have emphasized the dual influence of heredity and early childhood
experiences on personality development while others have stressed broad social
and environmental influence and the fact that personalities continuously
develop over time. However, Personality can be defined as those inner
psychological characteristics that both determine and reflect how a person
responds to his or her environment.

The Nature of Personality:

In the study of personality, three distinct properties are of central importance:
(1).Personality reflects individual differences:
Because the inner characteristics that constitute an individuals personality are a
unique combination of factors, no two individuals are exactly alike.
Nevertheless, many individuals may be similar in terms of single personality
characteristics but not in terms of others. For instance, Some people can be
described as high ethnocentrism (willingness to accept foreign made product),
whereas others can be described as Low in ethnocentrism (afraid or reluctant to
buy a foreign made product).Personality is a useful concept because it enables
us to categorize consumers into different groups on the basis of one or even
several traits in order to create market segmentation.
(2).Personality is Consistent and Enduring:
An Individuals personality tends to be both consistent and enduring. Indeed, the
sibling who comments that her sister has always cared a great deal about her
clothes from the time she was a toddler is supporting the contention that
personality has both consistency and endurance. Both qualities are essential if
marketers are to explain or predict consumer behavior in terms of personality.
Although marketers cannot change consumers personalities to conform to their
products, if they know which personality characteristics influence specific
consumer responses, they can attempt to appeal to the relevant traits inherent in
their target group of consumers.
(3).Personality can change:

Under certain circumstances personality can change. For Instance, an

individuals personality may be altered by major life events, such as marriage,
the birth of child, the death of patient or a change of job and profession. An
individual personality changes not only in response to abrupt events but also as
a part of a gradual maturing process- She is more mature and now she is
willing to listen to points of view other than those she agrees with, says an aunt
after not seeing her niece for several years.

Consumer Innovativeness and Related Personality Traits:

Consumer Innovators means those who are open to new ideas and to be among
the first to try new product, services or practices. Personality traits that have
been useful in differentiating between consumer innovators and non-innovators
include:
(1).Consumer Innovativeness:
Consumer researchers have endeavored to develop measurement instruments to
gauge the level of consumers innovativeness because such measure of
personality traits provide important insights into the nature or boundaries of
consumers willingness to innovate .While previous studies of consumer
innovativeness have treated this construct as single personality trait, a recent
research effort examining high technology products, developed a hierarchical
model consisting of three levels of personality that is,
Global Innovativeness-a personal trait that exist independent of any context;
one that represents the very nature of consumer innovativeness. Domain
specific innovativeness-a more narrowly defined activity within a specific
domain or product category. Innovative Behavior-a pattern of actions and
responses that indicate early acceptance of change and adoption of innovations
e.g.(being among the first to purchase new and different products or services). It
enables marketers to identify and target innovators who are receptive to new
product categories.
(2).Consumer Dogmatism:
Consumer dogmatism is a personality trait that measures the degree of rigidity
toward the unfamiliar and toward information that is contrary to their own
beliefs. A person who is highly dogmatic approaches the unfamiliar defensively
and with discomfort and uncertainty. On the other hand, a person who is low

dogmatic will readily considers the unfamiliar or opposing belief. For example,
McDonalds asks potential consumers to Be open to new possibilities a
concept that should be appealing to low dogmatic consumers. Consumers who
are low in dogmatism are more likely to prefer innovative products to
established or traditional alternatives. In contrast highly dogmatic consumers
are more likely to choose established rather than rather than innovative product
alternatives. Highly dogmatic consumers are more receptive to adds while low
dogmatic consumers seems to be more receptive to messages that stress factual
differences, product benefits and other form of product usage information.
(3).Social Character:
The personality trait known as social character has its origins in sociological
research which focuses on the classification of individuals into distinct sociocultural types. As used in consumer psychology, social character is a personality
trait that ranges on a continuum from inner directedness to other-directedness.
Inner directed consumers tend to rely on their own inner values or standards in
evaluating new products and are likely to be consumer innovators. Conversely,
other directed consumers tend to look to others for guidance as to what is
appropriate and inappropriate, thus they are less likely to be consumer
innovators. For example, the Van Heusen ad appeals to the other directed
consumers need to be associated with a certain class or groups of people (like
successful people in business and etc) and to be perceived as such themselves.
In this category Peter England, by projecting itself as the honest shirt appeals
to the inner directed consumers. To sum up, Inner directed consumers seem to
prefer ads that stress product features and personal benefits where other directed
people prefer ads that feature an approving social environment or social
acceptance.
(4).Need for Uniqueness:
Some people seek to be unique. For these people, conformity to others
expectations or standards, either in appearance or in their possessions, is
something to be avoided. Moreover, we would expect that it is easier to express
or act uniquely if one does not have to pay a price in the form of others
criticism. In the support of this perspective, research indicates that when
consumer with high need for uniqueness are asked to explain their choices and
are not concerned about being criticized by others, they are more receptive to
making unique choices( demonstrating their high NFU).

(5) Optimum Stimulation Level:

Some people seem to prefer a simple, uncluttered and calm existence whereas
others prefer an environment crammed with novel, complex and unusual
experiences. Researchers has found that high optimum stimulation levels are
linked with greater willingness to take risks, to try new products, to be
innovative, to seek purchase information and to accept new retail facilities than
low OSLs. Individuals with high level of stimulation are likely to be engaged in
exploratory behaviors like mixing and matching of Items. For example,a college
student willingness to select mass customization of fashion items( a pair of
jeans that are especially measured, cut and sewn so they offer better fit or
appearance),the OSL predicted two factors in this example student openness to
experimentation with appearance (trying some of the newest clothes in different
seasons for new style) and enhancement of individuality(try to buy clothes that
are unusual).OSL also reflects persons desired level of lifestyle stimulation. For
Instance, consumers whose lifestyle is equivalent to OSLs scores are seem to be
quite satisfied. Consumers whose lifestyle is under stimulated are likely to be
bore while consumers whose lifestyle is over stimulated are likely to seek rest
or relief. Under stimulated consumers will prefer vacations seek a quiet, isolated
and relaxing place.
(6) Sensation Seeking:
It is a trait characterized by the need for varied, novel, complex sensation and
experience and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of
such experience. Research evidence indicates that teenage males with higher SS
scores are more likely than other teenagers to prefer listening to heavy metal
music and to engage in dangerous behavior.
(7) Variety or Novelty Seeking:
There appear to be many different types of consumer variety seeking:
exploratory purchase behavior(switching brands to experience new, different
and better alternative).Vicarious exploration(securing information about new or
different alternatives and then contemplating or even daydreaming) and use
innovativeness(using an already adopted product in a new or novel way).An
example of Vicarious exploration may be kinetic Honda, the gearless scooter
launched several years back, which came out with a Himalaya Rally campaign
that emphasized the durability of the product. Using washing machines for
making lassi and paints to dye cows during festivals are examples of use

innovativeness. Recent research has shown that variety seeking consumers are
domain specific like fitness group participants chooses a variety of fruit juice
drinks.

Cognitive personality Factors:

There are two cognitive personality traits that have been useful in understanding
selected aspects of consumer behavior.
(1).Need for Cognition:
A promising personality characteristic is need for cognition. It measures
indicates that consumers who are high in NFC are more likely to be responsive
to the part of an ad that is rich in product related information or description;
whereas consumers who are relatively low in NFC are more likely to be
attracted to the background aspects of an ad such as an attractive model or well
known celebrity. Doing research on consumer need for cognition is useful for
marketers as the insight gained will help formulate communication strategies.
For example; In the category of washing machines, a semi automatic machine is
likely to attract a target segment that is not interested in the upper end fuzzy
logic washing machine.NFC also played a role in an individuals use of the
internet.NFC is positively related to use of internet because it provides
information about product, news and education.
(2).Visualizers versus Verbalizers:
It is fairly well established that some people seem to be more open to and prefer
a writing word as a way of securing information, whereas others are more likely
to respond to prefer visual images or messages as a source of information. There
are two groups of consumers Visualizers (consumers who prefer visual
information and product that stress the visual) Verbalizers (consumers who
prefer written or verbal information and products).For example , Dalda
launched Dalda Light Vanaspati detailing that the new brand has attributes that
do not raise cholesterol level but after few years sub brand was renamed as
Dalda Active with advertisement built around visuals rather than attributes.
Object visualizers encode and process images as single perceptual unit while
Spatial Visualizers process images piece by piece.

IMPERSONAL INFLUENCE
Besides personality and cognitive traits, outside influence are also important in
consumers choosing certain products over others. Marketers should take note of
three kinds of impersonal influence:
Information influence is the tendency of a consumer to accept information
from others about reality. This aspect is may be useful in developing WORD OF
MOUTH strategies.
Value-expressive influence is the tendency of consumers to enhance their
social standing by attempting to be similar to those with whom they compare
themselves. Reference group appeals in several categories are examples.
Utilitarian influence is the tendency of consumers to conform to the wishes of
others in order to obtain rewards. This aspect may be indirectly reflected in the
behavior of consumers. The peer pressure to buy a car within a price range is an
example of such influence.

FORM
CONSUMER
MATERIALISM
COMPULSIVE CONSUMPTION

TO

Consumer researchers have become increasingly interested in exploring various

consumption and possession traits. These traits range from consumer
materialism to fixated consumption behavior to compulsive behavior.
CONSUMER MATERIALISM
Materialism is a topic frequently discussed in newspapers, in magazines, and on
TV and in everyday conversations between friends. Materialism as a personality
like trait, distinguish between individuals who regard possessions as essentials
to their identities and their lives those for whom possessions are secondary.
Researchers have found some general support for the following characteristics
of materialistic people:
(1)They especially value acquiring and showing of possession; (2) they are
particularly self-centered and selfish; (3) they seek lifestyles full of possessions
(desire to have lot of things rather than a simple. uncluttered lifestyle); (4) their
many possessions do not give them greater personal satisfaction (their
possessions do not lead to greater happiness)

Materialism has often been linked to advertising, and researchers have

suggested that in the United States there has been an increasing emphasis on
materialism in the print media. It is important to remember, though, that the
extent of consumer materialism can vary from country to country (consumer
materialism is less developed in Mexico than in the United States), thats why
marketers must be trying to export a successful U.S marketing mix to another
country.
Related to the topic of materialism is consumption dreaming, during which time
the consumer dreams about material objects and experiences.
A research
study involving 195canadian consumers found that most did indulge in
consumption dreaming, with about 25 percent these dreams involving a house
and 20 percent dealing with travel. Such dreams are often related to consumer
behavior, under one of the following five categories: (1) consumption
(purchasing a product related to dreams), (2) information (searching information
related to dream), (3) planning (plans to realize dreams), (4) communication
(taking about dream),(5) visualization (envisioning the dream in the conscious
mind).

FIXATED CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR

Fixated consumption behavior is in the realm of normal and socially acceptable
behavior. Fixated consumers do not keep their objects or purchases of interest a
secret; rather, they frequently display them, and their involvement is openly
shared with others who have similar interest. In the word of serious collectors
(Barbie dolls, late 1940s art deco neckties, carnival glass, rare antique teddy
bears, or anything else that has drawn collectors, there are countless millions of
fixated consumers pursuing their interests and trying to add to their collections.
Fixated consumers typically possess the following characteristics: (1) a deep
interest in a particular product category, (2) a willingness to go to considerable
lengths to secure additional examples of the object or product category of
interest, and (3) dedication of considerable amount of discretionary time and
money to search out the object or product.

COMPULSIVE CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR

Compulsive consumption is in the realm of abnormal behavior an example of
the dark side of consumption. Consumers who are compulsive have an addition;
in some respects they are out of control and their action may have damaging

consequences to them and to those around them. Examples of compulsive

consumptions problems are uncontrollable shopping, gambling, drug addiction,
alcoholism, and various food and eating disorders for instance there are many
women and small number of men who are chocoholics they have an intense
craving for chocolate.
For a marketing and consumer behavior prospective, compulsive buying can
also be included in any list of compulsive activities. To control or possible
eliminate such compulsive problems generally requires some type of
intervention therapy and clinical treatment.

Consumer Ethnocentrism:
Consumer ethnocentrism is a psychological concept that refers to individuals
who believe that their country's products are superior to those of other countries.
This concept also describes consumers in one country thinking that purchasing
products in other countries is immoral or inappropriate because doing so is
unpatriotic. It is a common belief amongst groups showing signs of consumer
ethnocentrism that purchasing foreign-made products means not supporting the
economy and the job market of the home country.
We have developed an instrument, termed the CETSCALE, to measure
consumers' ethnocentric Tendencies related to purchasing foreign- versus
American-made products. We characterize the scale as a measure of "tendency"
rather than "attitude," because the latter term suggests a greater degree of object
specificity than the CETSCALE is intended to capture.

Country by Country Ethnocentrism:

Available evidence suggests that ethnocentrism has been found to vary by
country and product. Mexican consumers, for example are more ethnocentrism
than their French and American counterparts and Malaysian consumers, while
preferring to purchase slacks, shirts, undergarments and belts that are locally
manufactured want to buy imported sunglasses and watches.

Targeting the Ethnocentrism Consumer:

Marketers successfully target ethnocentrism consumers in any national market
by stressing a nationalistic theme in their promotional appeals. To illustrate the
ethnocentrism appeals, Honda, the Japanese automaker in an indirect appeal to

ethnocentric Americans, had advertised that its Accord wagon is exported from
America to other markets (reinforcing that some of its automobiles are made in
the United States).
If marketers determine that the potential customers in a particular country
possess a positive image of products made in the country in which their
products originate the marketers may be able to create a marketing mix strategy
that follows options in the positive column.
In contrast, if marketers assess that the potential customers in a particular
country possess a negative image of products made in the country in which their
products originate, the marketers might be wise to elect a marketing mix
strategy that follows options in the negative column.
As an additional consideration in the marketing of products, a recent study of
Chinese consumers found that individuals exhibiting high consumer
ethnocentrism had less favorable attitudes and buying intentions toward signs
and messages that were bilingual. In India Ruf and Tuf jeans is a good case of a
brand attempting ethnocentrism. Consumers have been used to a number of
foreign jeans brands. Arvind Mills, which launched Ruf and Tuf found that the
aspirational levels of consumer groups in semi urban areas were high but they
could afford to buy only cheap clones/duplicates of well known brands. There
was a need for a good quality brand at affordable prices .Ruf and Tuf was
launched with a celebrity endorsing it and the brand followed this up with a
campaign that emphasized its ethnicity. The campaign was effective in ending
the perception that only foreign brands have quality in the category of jeans.
The brand was given penetration pricing, tailors were trained and roped in to
sew the jeans and the product itself was presented in a unique manner.
In this era of multinational marketing ,it may be unclear to many consumers as
to whether a particular product is domestic or imported. Consider Toyota, for
example some of the models it sells in the United States are manufactured in
Japan some are manufactured in the United States,and some are manufactured
in both nations.

Cosmopolitanism:
The consumer trait of cosmopolitanism in a sense quite the opposite of an
ethnocentrism view that is a consumer with a cosmopolitan orientation would
consider the world to be his or her marketplace and would consciously be

attracted to products , experiences and places from other cultures. Recent

qualitative research conducted in Australia suggest that the increase in
multiculturalism found in many countries can allow an individual to develop a
cosmopolitan outlook within his or her home country and culture.

Brand Personality
Brand personality is defined as an emotional
identity for a brand, and encourages consumers to respond with feelings and
emotions towards the brand. For example, with the help of frequent advertising,
consumers tend to see, Nike as the athlete in all of us and BMW as performance
driven.
As these examples reveal, a brands personality can either be functional
(dependable and rugged) or symbolic (the athlete in all of us). A strong,
positive brand personality leads to more favorable attitude towards the brand,
Brand preference, hire purchase intentions and brand loyalty, and is a way for
consumers to differentiate among competing brands. Brand personality may
also play a important role in the consumable product category then in the
durable product category.
Also, consider that coke-cola Zero is marketed without any particular reference
to it being a diet beverage. It appears that Coke-cola in marketing Zero to young
people, epically young men, who may see a stigma attached to the word DIET.
A stream of research on product on brand personality has found that of all the
marketing mix elements, marketing communication most often has the greatest
influence in creating a brand personality. Examples of brand personality in the
Indian context for example Raymonds complete man image suggest a well
dressed successful male who also values his relationships and the people in his
life.
Vespa created a lifestyle positioning in scooters through a suave, sophisticated,
standing apart from the crowd type personality association to break the value
based, middle class personality association of its rival.

Product Anthropomorphism
It is defined as attributing human characteristics to something that is not human.

For Example a recent study focusing on Anthromorphized products found that

the ease with witch consumers Anthromorphize an offering was a function of
how the people was presented to the public and the inclusion or absence of
human like product features. Product presented as Human but witch lack human
features tend to be evaluated less favorably by consumers then products that are
presented as human and have human like attributes. Still further, you may know
people who name their cars and argue with their PCs when they are
experiencing computer problems.

Brand Personification
Brand Personification tries to recast consumers perception of the attributes of
a product or service into a human like characteristics.
For many people a brand is such an ethereal concept it can be hard to pin down
the defining make-up of the brand. The most common technique for eliciting the
composition of the brand is personification. "If the brand were a person, what
type of person would it be...?"
This is known as a projection. It is often far easier to talk about something we
have words and images for, such as people or cars, so by describing the brand as
a person, it is easier to articulate what the brand is about..
In USA, MR. Coffee, a popular brand of automatic drip coffee makers,
unexpectedly found in its focus research that consumers were referring to MR.
Coffee as if the product were a person. E.g., He makes good Coffee and Hes
got a lot of different models and prices.

Here are five dimensions of a Brands Personality

Some Examples regarding Nature of Brand Personality are given:

1) Sincerity: Coke

2) Excitement: Pepsi

3) Competence: Hewlett Packard (HP)

BMW

4) Sophistication:

5) Ruggedness: NIKE

Product personality and gender

A product personality, or persona, frequently endows the product or
brand with the gender.
For instance, cleaning, home care products, and food items are most
often given a feminine personality in India, whereas Gadgets
especially high end gadgets like computers, music systems, etc.
Armed with knowledge of perceived gender of a product or a specific
brand, marketers are in a better position to select visuals and text copy
for various marketing messages.

Product personality and geography

Marketers learned long ago that certain products, in the minds of
consumers, posses a strong geographical association. Consequently,
by employing geography in the products name, the products
manufacturers create geographical personality for the product. Still
further although Arizona is state in USA, Arizona iced tea is brewed
and bottled in the state of New York. Although Texas best barbecue
sauce maybe made in New Jersey, many Americas associate barbecue
with Texas.

Personality and color

Consumers not only ascribe personality traits to product and services,
but they also tend to associate personality factors with specific colors
for instance Coke-Cola is associated with Red, which connotes
excitement.
A combination of black and white communicates that a product is
carefully engineered, high tech, and sophisticated in design the Think
pad has consistently been an all black case and red button to house a
very successful line of laptops. Nike has used black, white and a
touch of red for its selected models of sports shoes.
Many fast food restaurants use combination of bright colors, like red,
yellow and blue, for their roadside signs and interior designs colors
have come to associated with fast service and inexpensive food.

Self and Self Image

Consumers have a variety of enduring images of themselves. These self images
or perceptions of self, very closely associated with personality in that
individuals tend to buy product and services. Consumer tends to approach

products with image that could enhance their self concept and avoid those
products that do not. In this section we examine the issues of
One or multiple selves
Makeup of self image
The Extended self
Altering the self

One or Multiple Selves

Historically, individuals have been thought to have a single self image and to be
interested, as consumer, in product and services that satisfy that single self.
However, it is more accurate to think of consumers as having multiple selves.
This thinking reflects the understanding that a single consumer is likely to act
quite differently with different people and in different situations.
For Example: A Person is likely to behave in different ways with parents, at
school, at work, at a museum opening, or with friends at a night club. The
healthy or normal person is likely to display a somewhat different personality in
each of these different situations or social roles.
In term of Consumer behavior, the idea that an individual embodies a number of
different selves suggests that marketers should target their products and
services within the context of a particular self, and in certain cases, a choice
of different products for different selves.

The Makeup of the Self Image

Consistent with the idea of multiple self images, each individual has an image
of himself or herself as a certain kind of person, with certain traits, skills, habits,
possessions, relationships and ways of behaving. As with other types of images
and personality, the individual`s self image is unique, the outgrowth of that
person`s background and experience. Individuals develop their self images
through interactions with other people initially their parents, and then other
individuals or groups with whom they relate over the years.
The product is a part of the consumers' "self-defining" process and consumers
are likely to select a brand that is in congruence with their personality.

Consumers tend to acquire products that enhance their self-image. These

possessions may be bought for functional or symbolic purposes (status) or both.
There are "self-altering" products, which consumers seek whenever it is
appropriate for them.
For Example
A young executive about to begin his career in the corporate world may choose
Van Heusen if he believes that the brand is likely to enhance his self image.
Middle-level manager promoted to a senior position may acquire a specific
brand of cell phone if he believes that it draws "respect." apart from serving
functional purposes.
Cosmetics, apparel, watches, cars, and jewelry are categories in which
consumers seek to modify or alter their self-image.
Products and brands have symbolic value for individuals, who evaluate them on
the basis of their consistency (congruence) with their personal pictures or
images of themselves. It generally believed that consumers attempt to preserve
or enhance their self-images by severing products and brands with "images" or
"personalities" that they believe are congruent with their own self-images and
avoiding products that are not indeed.
For example, the TV commercial for Doro, the newly introduced two-wheeler
from Mahindra, shows a young. Urban couple picking up a empty plastic bottle
from the road, and chasing the car from which someone bas thrown the bottle.
The brand is therefore likely to appeal to people (both men and women) who are
modern, like speed and quality, and are socially responsible adults.
A variety of different self-images have been recognized in the consumer
behavior literature for a long time. In particular, many researchers have depicted
some or all other following kinds of self-image:
Actual Self-Image (how consumers in fact see themselves).
Ideal Self- Image (how consumers would like to see themselves)

Social Self-Image (how consumers feel others see them)

Ideal Social Self-Image (how consumers would like others to see them).

It also seems useful to think in terms of two other types of self-images-expected

self and the "ought-to" self.
The expected self-image (how consumers expect to see themselves at some
specified future time) is somewhere between the actual and ideal self-images.
Another type is the ought-to self consists of characteristics that an individual
believes it is his or her duty or obligation to possess.
For example: To achieve a deeper religious understanding or the seeking of a
fair and just solution to a challenging ethical problem.

THE EXTENDED SELF

The inter relationship between consumers' self-images and their Possessions.
Specifically Consumers possessions can be seen to extend their self-images. For
instance, acquiring a desired or sought-after pair of vintage Levi jeans might
serve to expand or enrich a Brazilian teenager's image of self. The teenager
might now see herself as being more desirable, more fashionable, and more
successful because she has a pair of the sought-after "vintage jeans."

Altering the Self

Sometimes consumers wish to change themselves to become a different or
improved self. Clothing, grooming aids or cosmetics, and all kinds of
accessories (such as sunglasses, jewelry, tattoos, or even colored contact lenses)
offer consumers the opportunity to modify their appearances (to create a
"makeover") and thereby to alter their "selves,"

Virtual Personality or Self

With 'the widespread interest in using the Internet as a form of entertainment
and as a vehicle to meet new people with similar interests, there has been a
tremendous growth in the use of online chat rooms. . People who visit chat
rooms are able to carry on real-time cancelations about themselves and topics of
mutual interest with people from all over the globe. Because at this present time
most of the chats are actually text conversations rather than live conversations.
Broadcasts, the participants usually never get to see each other. This creates

opportune chat room participants to try out new identities or to change their
identities while online.
For instance, one can change from male to female (known as "gender
swapping"), from old to young, from married to single, from white-collar
professional to blue-collar worker.