Structural analysis and design

of pipelines

different loadings
internal pressure (operating pressure)
external pressure (hydrostatic pressure of sea)
temperature changes (operating)
bending (construction, spans, upheaval)
concentrated loads (construction, accidents)
impact (accidents)

15 MPa

0.75 m

vertical equilibrium of half pipe and half contents

resultant force must be zero
wall tension
15 MPa

=
= (pressure)(area)
= (15 MN/m2)(0.75 m2 )
0.75 m

= 11.25 MN

1 m long

= 1100 tonnes

po
pi

Di
Do

po
pi

Di
Do

sH

sH
p
i

p
o
Di

Do

po D o +2 sH t= pi Di
vertical equilibrium of unit length

po Do + 2 s H t

pi Di

rearrange
pi Di p o D o
sH =
2t
exact for m ean value of s H

p i Di p o D o
sH =
2t
exact for mean value of s H
variants
sH

pi D

(Barlow)

2t
( p i p o )( Do t )
(DnV 1996)
sH =
2t
difference s are small for typica l values of D/t

design
most codes require that the hoop stress is less than a
prescribed fraction f1 of the yield stress Y
stress

U
Y
f1Y

0.005

sH f1Y

strain

f1

is called the design factor (usage factor)

historically f1 was taken as 0.72 for pipelines, 0.60 or less for

risers
those factors date back 70 years, to a time when standards of
design, pipe manufacture, welding and construction were
far inferior to today
recent thinking is that higher factors to and above 0.8 can be
applied (provided that the governing code allows that
change)

pi Di po Do
2t
( pi p0 )D0
2 ( f 1Y + p i )

f 1Y s H =
rearrange

example

pi ( D 0 2t ) po D o
2t

Do is 762 mm (30 inches),

pi is 20 MPa (200 bars, 2900 psi)
po is 2 MPa (20 bars, 290.1 psi)
Y is 413.7 MPa (N/mm2) (60000 psi,
X60),
f1 is 0.83,
t > 18.87 mm (0.743 inches)

DnV 1996 formula

rearrange

D
pi
po
Y
f1

( p i p o )( D t )
f 1Y s H =
2t
D
t
2 f 1Y
+1
pi po

is 762 mm (30 inches),

is 20 MPa (200 bars, 2900 psi)
is 2 MPa (20 bars, 290.1 psi)
is 413.7 MPa (N/mm2) (60000 psi,
X60),
is 0.83,
t > 19.46 mm (0.766 inches)

exact for linear elastic material, even for

thick-walled tube
Lam formula
allowed by some codes

sH

Do2 + Di2
= ( pi po ) 2
po
2
Do Di

Lam formula
design

t
where

1
4
Do 1 1

= 2 1 +

f1Y + po

pi po

with the same values as in the previous example

t = 19.37 mm (0.763 inches)
(compare with 18.87 mm from exact equation for
mean stress, and 19.46 mm from DnV 1996)

DnV 2000 and 2007 rules adopt a limit state approach

allowable pressure difference (inside outside) is the burst
pressure divided by two factors

pli pe

pb (t1 )

SC m

SC is a safety class reduction factor, listed

in table 5-5 of the rules
m is a material resistance factor, listed in
table 5-4

where pb is the burst pressure

the burst pressure is

2t
2 2t U 2
pb = Min
Y ,

Dt 3 Dt 1.15 3
where
Y

is the characteristic yield stress (fy in DNV 2007)

is the characteristic ultimate tensile strength

(ft in DNV 2007); Y governs if U > 1.15Y
stress

U
Y

0.005

strain

(rearrange)

t =

D
2
2
U
1+
Min Y,

SC m ( pli pe ) 3
1.15

continuing the example, and taking

sc
m
Y
U

1.138 (safety class normal)

1.15
413.7 MPa (60000 psi)
>1.15Y (so that Y governs)

minimum wall thickness is 18.34 mm (0.722 inch)

high-strength steels
TransCanada (TCPL) started using grade 483 (X70) 30 years ago,
now has 6300 km
started using grade 550 (X80) in 1991, now has 400 km
now introducing grade 690 (X100), 1 km installed in 2002

% cost (referred to grade

483 base case)

project cost reduction by higher grades and higher operating

pressure
106
104
102
100
98
96
94
92
90

120 bars
80 bars

400 450 500 550 600

SMYS (MPa)

external pressure

complex interaction between elastic

circumferential bending, plastic
circumferential bending and initial out-ofroundness

DnV 2007 clause 5D 401

( pecr p)( p p ) = 2 pecr pY g ( R / t ) p

2
Y

pecr
pY
g

fab
p

= 2E/(D/t)3(1-2) is the pressure at which the pipe would collapse if

it remained elastic and yield did not occur
= 2Yfab /(D/t) is the pressure at which the hoop stress would reach
fabY in compression if the pipe remained round and elastic
instability did not occur
is the out of roundness (max-min)/mean diameter, and >0.005
is a fabrication factor, 1 for seamless, 0.85 for UOE
is the collapse pressure (and must be smaller than the smaller of pecr
and pY)

The DNV 2007 notation is slightly different

 3( D / t ) 5 ( D / t ) 3 ( + g )( D / t ) 2 + 1 = 0

where
=

p
2Y

Y (1 2 )
=
E

which is a quintic in D/t

35
30
25
g=0.01
20

g=0.02

D/t 15

g=0.03

10
5
0
0

0.01

0.02

0.03

p/2Y

0.04

0.05

number of tests

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

5
calculated

3
1

0 to 5 to 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
5 10 to to to to to to to to to to to
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
collapse pressure (MPa)

alternatively
API RP1111

p =

pecr pY
2
pecr
+ pY2

which does not include out-of-roundness, but for

reasonable values of g gives about the same collapse
pressure as DnV 2000

sH
sL

hoop stress sH is statically determinate

longitudinal stress sL is not statically
determinate, and depends on whether the
pipeline moves longitudinally

quantify
idealise pipeline as thin-walled
tube, radius R, wall thickness t
elastic modulus E
Poissons ratio
thermal expansion coefficient
operating temperature rise
(operating - installation)
operating pressure p

material elastic, isotropic;

stress and strain tensile positive
general relationship for longitudinal strain

sL
sH
L =

E
E
longitudinal hoop

+
thermal

sL
sH
L =

E
E
longitudinal hoop

+
thermal

if L = 0
and

s H = pD / 2t = pR / t (thin wall idealisati on)

then

pR

sL =

hoop s

von Mises yield

condition for biaxial
combined stress

H
Y

s L longitudinal

hoop s

von Mises yield

condition for biaxial
combined stress

H
Y
pressure

temperature

s L longitudinal

hoop s

von Mises yield

condition for biaxial
combined stress

H
Y
pressure +
temperature
Y

s L longitudinal

sH
sL
some older codes impose a second limit on a von Mises
equivalent stress that includes both sH and sL
(sH2 - sHsL + sL2)1/2 = seqvM < f3Y

example
OD 323.85 mm (nominal 12 inch), operating pressure 20 MPa (200
bars, 2900 psi), X60, no temperature derating of yield stress

required wall thickness (mm)

25
20
15

equivalent stress
condition

10

hoop stress
condition

5
0
0

50

100

temperature rise (deg C)

150

the equivalent stress condition governs the design

of constrained high-temperature pipelines, and
leads to a big increase in wall thickness
recent thinking is that this condition is not
necessary
some plastic strain occurs, but it is limited in
magnitude and does not lead to instability or
rupture
wall thickness can then be reduced

allowable-strain design permitted by ANSI B31.4,

DnV 1996, DnV 2000, DnV 2007, BS 8010 Part 3,
NEN3650, CSA Z662
safeguards:
limit magnitude of plastic strain
do not apply to large D/t (< 60 for BS8010, <45
for DnV 2007)
make sure welds have adequate ductility
take account of reduced flexural rigidity

bending
moment

buckling

first
yield

curvature
localises

curvature

2
1

comparison between data and DNV formula (DNV 2007 5D 608)

for buckling strain
bending buckling

0.040
tests

b u ck lin g strain

0.030
DNV (no pressure, alpha
factors 1)

0.020
0.010
0.000

10

20

30
D/t

40

50

60

external pressure reduces the critical curvature at which

pipe buckles
internal pressure increases the critical curvature at which
pipe buckles
if bending and large external pressure occur together,
another phenomenon becomes important

propagation is initiated by a combination of bending and

pressure
once started, the buckle can propagate at a lower pressure
propagation pressure is minimum pressure at which a
buckle can continue to propagate
5/ 2

pprop

t
= 6Y
R

proportional to t5/2

comparison between data and DNV formula (DNV 2007 5D 501)

for propagation pressure

0.014
0.012

p /Y

0.01
data

0.008

DNV formula (afab = 1)

0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0

10

20

30

D/t

40

50

alternative strategies to deal with buckle propagation

one
increase wall thickness so that
propagation pressure > maximum external pressure
two
accept possibility of propagation over short distances, but
incorporate buckle arresters, so that buckle runs to
arresters on either side and then stops

Integral arrester

Ring arrester

Sleeve arrester

Wierzbicki analysis

indentation force (MN)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8

theory
measured

812.8 mm (32-inch),
19.05 mm wall, X65

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

10

20

30

deflection (mm)

40

50

impact
need to know when a missile will rupture a pipe
tests by Neilsen (AEA Winfrith)

t
d

D
U

for flat-ended missiles, the missile kinetic energy at which the

pipe is just perforated is

E = cYt1.75d 1.75 D 0.5

cY = 0.0056 kJ/mm3

for schedule 40
pointed missiles perforate at lower energies
liquid-filled pipes perforate at lower energies

reduction in ID (mm)

100
6

80
5

60

on sand
on steel

40
20

3
2

0
0

50

100

150

impact energy (kJ)

200