Bioremediation & Biodegradation

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Jaiswal, J Bioremed Biodegrad 2011, S11

http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2155-6199.S11-001

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An Emphasis on Xenobiotic Degradation in Environmental Clean up

Y.M.Varsha1*, Naga Deepthi CH2 and Sameera Chenna3
School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA University, India
Department of Microbiology, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India
3
Department of Biotechnology, SVKP & Dr. K.S.Raju Arts and Science College, India
1
2

Abstract
Setting up of new industries or expansion of existing industrial establishments resulted in the disposal of industrial
effluents, which discharge untreated effluents causing air, water, soil and soil solid waste pollution. These disposed
materials have high persistence capacities and also can change in to toxic recalcitrant up on combining with other
eco-materials or manmade products. Remediation is the only way to tackle these so called xenobiotic compounds
and to reduce the hazards caused by them. Even though, several practices have been implemented for degrading
these recalcitrants, bioremediation step is proved to show the significant impact on them. Giving a brief note on
types of xenobionts and their impact on the environment, this study attempts to highlight on different xenobiotic
degradation methods like bacterial bioremediation, phycoremediation, phytoremediation, photoremediation etc.

Keywords: Remediation; Industrial effluents; Xenobiotics; Biosorption; Photoremediation; Eco-industrial parks

Introduction
Pollution consequence on environ
In early times, we had an unlimited abundance of land and
resources; today, due to our carelessness and negligence in using them
however, the resources in the world show, in lesser degree [1]. The
quick growth of various industries in the past century has extremely
increased the release of toxic waste effluents in to water bodies along
with ground water [2]. Environmental pollution caused by the release
of a these wide range of compounds (i.e. persistent organic pollutants,
POPs) from industries are creating disturbance to the ecosystem [3],
causing climatic changes, reduction of water levels in the ground as well
as oceans, melting of icecaps, global warming, ozone layer depletion
due to photochemical oxidation etc. [4,5] and this made ecologists to
focus more on impacts of pollution and its reduction.
In some cases, industrial effluent releases are well regulated
(e.g., industrial emissions) while in other they are accidental (e.g.,
chemical or oil spills) which may be lethal and persistent in terrestrial
and aquatic environments. Substances in the environment are
derived either by biogenic or anthropogenic sources. Anthropogenic
compounds (synthetic) plays a major role in polluting the environment
[6]. Xenobiotics are anthropogenic compounds found in living systems
or in the environment which are not natural and are unusually present
in high concentrations. The potential health hazard of a xenobiotic
compound is a function of its persistence in the environment as well as
the toxicity of the chemical class [7]. The issue of xenobiotics (and their
metabolites) in the environment, has been a growth area for research in
environmental chemistry for several years.

Sources of xenobiotics
Direct sources: The prime direct source of xenobiotics is
wastewater and solid residual releases from the industries like chemical
and pharma, plastics, paper and pulp mills, textile mills, agricultural
(enhancement products like pesticides, herbicides etc.) (Figure 1).
Some of the common residual compounds in the wastewater and
other effluents are Phenol, hydrocarbons, different dyes, paint effluents,
Pesticides and Insecticides etc.
1. Phenol: The natural water sources from the effluents of various
J Bioremed Biodegrad
ISSN: 2155-6199 JBRBD, an open access journal

chemical and pharma industries like coal refineries, phenol

manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, dying, petrochemical, pulp
mill etc., include wide variety of organic chemicals like phenol
and various substituted phenol. Phenol is the simplest aromatic
compound with hydroxyl group attached to the benzene [8]. Phenol
is one among the most prevalent chemical and pharma pollutants,
due to its toxicity even at lower concentrations and formation
of substituted compounds during oxidation and disinfection
processes. Its direct effects on the environment include depletion of
ozone layer, effect on the earths heat balance, reduced visibility and
adding acidic air pollutants to the atmosphere [9]. Phenol removal
from the industrial wastewaters is very much necessary, prior to
the wastewater discharge, so as to decrease all these effects. Phenol
being a carcinogenic compound requires biodegradation method
which results in minimum secondary metabolites and harmless
end products [10]. Several studies and extensive investigation on
biodegradation of phenol and its derivative compounds have shown
that phenol can be aerobically degraded by a wide variety of pure
cultures of microorganisms [11].
2. Plastics: Derek Pullen, a conservator at the Tate Gallery, explains,
Plastics are giant molecules held together by forces which can
be broken by attacking energy forces such as light [12]. Plastics
are durable and degrade very slowly due to the molecular bonds
and interactions. Plastics are made of polystyrene and polyvinyl
chloride, polyethylene and its derivatives. Nowadays plastics (from
crude oil) are used as fuels in industries since it breaks down in to
liquid hydrocarbons [13]. Microbial degradation of plastics gained
importance in the last few years, but the fragmented compounds
released by these also lead to further environmental issues. Hence

*Corresponding author: Y.M.Varsha, School of Chemical and Biotechnology,

SASTRA University, India, E-mail: varsha_ym@yahoo.com
Received September 02, 2011; Accepted October 03, 2011; Published October
05, 2011
Citation: Varsha YM, Naga Deepthi CH, Chenna S (2011) An Emphasis on
Xenobiotic Degradation in Environmental Clean up. J Bioremed Biodegrad
S11:001. doi:10.4172/2155-6199.S11-001
Copyright: 2011 Varsha YM, et al. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original author and source are credited.

Special Issue 11 2011

Citation: Varsha YM, Naga Deepthi CH, Chenna S (2011) An Emphasis on Xenobiotic Degradation in Environmental Clean up. J Bioremed Biodegrad
S11:001. doi:10.4172/2155-6199.S11-001

Page 2 of 10

Paper and pulp residues

Chemical and pharma wastes

Industrial residual
wastes

Solid waste residues (dumps)

Plastic wastes
Paint and dye euents
Figure 1: Different sources of Industrial Residual Wastes.

there was a need of bioplastics, a form of plastics derived from

renewable biomass sources, such as vegetable fats and oils, corn
starch, pea starch or micro biota, so that to degrade easily [14].

Types of bioplastics include Starch-based plastics, Cellulose-based

plastics, Polylactic acid (PLA) plastics, Bio-derived polyethylene.
Biodegradation can be achieved by microbial treatment, oxidation
disintegration process, using UV rays or by Phytoremediation.
Many combinations and trails in making these bioplastics have been
tried recently for fast degradation of these, one such implemented
is Oxo-biodegradable plastic. OBD plastic is polyolefin plastic
to which has been added very small (catalytic) amounts of metal
salts. Polyolefins is relatively inert due to its hydrophobic chain
and high molecular weight, so its degradation is quite very
difficult [15]. As long as the polyolefins are attached oxygen (as in
a littered state), they catalyze the natural degradation process to
speed it up so that the OBD plastic will degrade when subject to
environmental conditions. Once degraded, they can interact with
biological processes to produce water, carbon dioxide and biomass.
The process is shortened from hundreds of years to months for
degradation and thereafter biodegradation depends on the microorganisms in the environment.

3. Hydrocarbons: Petroleum effluents mainly contain polycyclic

(polynuclear) aromatic hydrocarbons, saturated hydrocarbons
and nitrogen-sulphur-oxygen compounds. Degradation of such
compounds using physico-chemical treatments is cost effective and
may lead to further disturbances in the environment, thus giving
importance to biotreatments, which had an impact on reduction
of these recalcitrants. Microorganisms that biodegrade these
J Bioremed Biodegrad
ISSN: 2155-6199 JBRBD, an open access journal

components are isolated from various environments, particularly

from petroleum-contaminated sites [16]. Saturated hydrocarbons
having the straight-chain (n-alkanes) are most susceptible to
microbial attack than branched alkanes. The aromatic fraction
is more difficult to degrade and susceptibility of biodegradation
decreases as the aromacity increases in the compound [17].
4. Paints: Volatile organic compounds and additives like emulsifiers,
texturizers in paint are considered harmful which can be degraded
by different means like chemicals (water as solvent), hygroscopic
stresses and microbial sources [18].
5. Dyes: Dye agglomeration is the major cause for the persistence
of xenobiotics and their presence in aquatic bodies will affect
photosynthetic activity in aquatic life due to reduced light
penetration even at low concentrations [19,20]. Number of
industrial processes, such as textile industries, paper printing and
photography uses synthetic dyes extensively, which usually have
complex aromatic molecular structures. Azodyes (Black B, Turq
Blue GN, Yellow HEM, Red HEFB and Navy HER), anthraquinone
and phthalocyanine dyes are commonly used dyes in these industries
[21]. The degradation of these dyes produces aromatic amines,
which may be carcinogenic, and mutagenic. Microorganism (living
or dead biomass) has ability, not only to decolorize dyes but also
detoxify it [22,23], by adsorption of dyes on microbial surfaces
because of the presence of negatively charged ligands in cell wall
components. Microbial degradation and decolorization of dyes is an
environment friendly and cost-competitive alternative to chemical
decomposition processes [24].
6. Pesticides and Insecticides: A large number of pesticides and

Special Issue 11 2011

Citation: Varsha YM, Naga Deepthi CH, Chenna S (2011) An Emphasis on Xenobiotic Degradation in Environmental Clean up. J Bioremed Biodegrad
S11:001. doi:10.4172/2155-6199.S11-001

Page 3 of 10

insecticides like organophosphorous compounds, benzimidazoles,

methyl parathion and morpholine are widely used and has
contributed to the pollution load due to its slow degradation [25].
Although a slow process, microbial degradation is considered a
boon in this case, since these halogenated aromatic compounds
adversely affect the environment and ecosystem both directly and
indirectly.
7. Paper and Pulp effluents: Effluent release from paper mill industries
also contributes environmental pollution and cannot be neglected.
Many of the chlorinated organic compounds randomly synthesized
during pulp bleaching are reason for this. The situation can often
be made worse if pulp mill effluents are released to oxygen-limited
or depleted (anaerobic) waters. The increased public awareness and
more restrictive laws against polluting processes has forced paper
industries to minimize release of adsorbable organic halides and to
search technologies for cleaner productions [26]. Certain species of
anaerobic bacteria can methylate chlorinated organic compounds
which increases both the toxicity and lipophilicity of the compound
to higher animals [27]. The toxic compounds from pulp and
paper mill effluent are di-, tri-, tetra-, and pentachlorophenols,
tetrachloroguaiacols and tetrachlorocatechols [28].
Indirect sources: Indirect sources of xenobiotics include NSAIDs,
pharmaceutical compounds, pesticide residues etc.
Pharmaceutically active compounds, being an indirect source
of xenobiotics are discharged directly by manufacturers of the
pharmaceuticals or effluents from hospitals which have performed
their biologically intended effect and are passed onto the environment
in either their complete or a fragmented state. These mainly include
hormones, anesthetics and antibiotics which bioaccumulate in an
organism and passed on the other through the common food chain
[29]. Biomaterials developed from the synthetic polymers have the
biocompatibility but their degradation into toxic substances in the
body is a cause for concern [30]. Even though they are the indirect
sources, they cause adverse effect on the ecological cycle.
Pollution of aquatic and soil is a worldwide problem that can
result in uptake and accumulation of toxic chemicals in food chains
and also harm to the flora and fauna of affected habitats [31]. Studies
of bioaccumulation characteristics of various ecosystem is essential
for long term planning of industrial waste disposal in ecosystem [32].
Bioaccumulation of pesticides and biomagnification processes lead to
toxic behavioral effect on animals and mankind. DDT, having a half life
of 10 years and BHC are chemicals used in pesticides accumulate in the
plant or in plant parts like fruits and vegetables [33].
Non Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) are a large
diverse chemical group of drugs used in humans and animals for the
treatment of inflammation, pain and fever (analgesic) [34]. Diclofenac
use in animals has been reported to have led to a sharp decline in the
vulture population, 95% decline in 2003, 99.9% decline as of 2008 [35].
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is in action to reduce the
bioaccumulation and biomagnifications of various such xenobiotics by
some genetic modifications and biodegradation strategies.
The current study deals with importance of xenobiotic degradation
giving preference to different types of remediation process like

Microbial Remediation
Phytoremediation
Photoremediation
Other techniques

J Bioremed Biodegrad
ISSN: 2155-6199 JBRBD, an open access journal

Xenobiotic Degradation
Several methods like physico-chemical and biological methods
have been employed in the treatment or removal of xenobiotics. The
physico-chemical methods are costly and often produce undesirable
products which are toxic, requiring further treatment steps [11].
Such type of techniques often add fragmented elements which cannot
be degraded easily and will make the environment still worse. To
overcome these problems, many other eco-friendly techniques have
been reported such as Bioremediation, phytoremediation etc. (Figure 2).

Bioremediation
Microbial degradation of xenobiotics is one of the important way
to remove the environmentally harmful compounds. The potential
of microorganisms to metabolize xenobiotic compounds has been
recognized as an effective means of toxic and hazardous waste removal
[11,36].
Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses
microorganisms or their enzymes to return the environment altered
by contaminants to its original condition [37]. It can also be described
as a treatability technology that uses biological activity to reduce the
concentration or toxicity of a pollutant [38]. Bioremediation process
involves detoxification and mineralization, where the waste is converted
into inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide, water and methane
[39]. When compounds are persistent in the environment, their
biodegradation often proceeds through multiple steps utilizing different
enzyme systems or different microbial populations. Contaminated
wastewater, ground or surface waters, soils, sediments and air where
there has been either accidental or intentional release of pollutants or
chemicals are the sites where bioremediation are employed [40,41].
Microbial bioremediation: Taking the waste product of one process
and using it as fuel or food for another process is one way to get done
biodegradation; it makes intelligent use of resources decreasing
the pollution and microbes does the same. They use these residual
compounds as one of their substrate and grow on them, degrading or
fragmenting them, which is highly valuable in case of bioremediation
[42,43].
Effective Microorganism (EM) is the consortia of valuable and
naturally occurring microorganisms which secretes organic acids and
enzymes for utilization and degradation of anthropogenic compounds
[44]. These days, microbes are collected from the waste water, residual
sites and distillery sludges which are believed to have the resistance
against the hazardous compounds. This is particularly due to their
tolerance capacity even at the higher concentrations of xenobionts
[45]. Heavy metals and toxic organic pollutants which are believed to
have resistance towards some of the microbes can be degraded using
these tolerant microbes [46]. Microbial consortium used in activated
sludges and aerated lagoons are used recently for solid waste effluent
removal [47]. Biofilter technology is used to remove the hazardous
chemicals and heavy metals from the effluents which contain these
microbes capable of utilizing the substrates rapidly due to its high
surface to volume ratio and fixed cell nature [48,49].
Microbial biodegradation is carried out by different organisms like
Bacteria, Fungus, and Algae (Figure 3).
1. Bacteria-Biotic actors in Xenobiotic degradation: The basic
sequence followed by bacteria for biodegradation of xenobiotics
compounds are (Figure 4).

Special Issue 11 2011

Citation: Varsha YM, Naga Deepthi CH, Chenna S (2011) An Emphasis on Xenobiotic Degradation in Environmental Clean up. J Bioremed Biodegrad
S11:001. doi:10.4172/2155-6199.S11-001

Page 4 of 10

Microbial
remediation

Xenobiotic
techniques

Bacteria

Bioremediation

Microbial
remediation

Photoremediation

Phycoremediation

Figure 3: Classification showing organisms involved in microbial remediation.

Cellular uptake of
compounds

Phytoremediation

Figure 2: Classification showing different Xenobiotic techniques.

Mycoremediation

Bacteria which endure bio-fix, a wide range of xenobiotic chemicals

include aerobic, anaerobic, Methanotrophic, methanogenic bacteria,
cyanobacteria and Sphingomonads [50] (Figure 5).

Manipulation of
substrate by ring
ssion

Ring cleavage
formation

Utilization of
metabolites

Conversion of
cleaved product into
standard
metabolites

Figure 4: Figure showing steps followed by bacterial for biodegradation.

a) Aerobic bacteria: Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Sphingobium, Pandoraea, Rhodococcus, Gordonia, Bacillus, Moraxella, Micrococcus.
Aerobic

b) Anaerobic bacteria: Pelatomaculum, Desulfotomaculum, Syntrophobacter, Syntrophus, Desulphovibrio, Methanospirillum, Methanosaeta [51].
c) Methanogenic bacteria and Methanotrophic bacteria: The
process of degrading hydrocarbons resulting methane gas and
carbon dioxide as end product is called Methanogenesis [52].
Methanotrophs use oxygen to oxidize methane into carbon
dioxide. Methane monooxygenase, enzyme generated by
methanotrophs to react with methane can degrade a wide variety
of chlorinated hydrocarbons.
d) Cyanobacteria: Cyanobacterial consortia are generally used for
degradation of oil derivatives. The use of cyanobacterial mats for
bioremediation will avoid the costly use of organic and inorganic
fertilizers and their maintenance at large scale can take an
advantage [53].
e) Sphingomonads: Sphingomonads have a high capacity
to degrade wide range of xenobiotics, including synthetic
polymers, aromatic compounds etc and due to its plasmidborne mechanism. Many Sphingomonads contain large plasmids
responsible for xenobiotics degradation which also help them to
adapt to new environment quickly. Sphingomonads show adverse
effect on polyethylene glycol (PEG) and polyvinyl-alcohol (PVA)
degradation [54].
f) New Technologies: Identification of gene responsible for specific
compound degradation would be beneficial to develop the
recombinant Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) for the
bioremediation of complex waste. Such advancements will always
be a helping hand to already existing techniques. Sequential
aerobic - anaerobic treatments are implied to degrade some of
compounds, which are now replaced by these biochemical and
J Bioremed Biodegrad
ISSN: 2155-6199 JBRBD, an open access journal

Other techniques

Anaerobic

Sphingomonads

Methanogenic

Cynobacteria

Figure 5: Figure showing different Microbial species involved in biodegradation.

genetic engineering approaches specially for dehalogenation.

These are termed as Super Bugs which contain special genes
residing on their plasmids [55]. Many such efficient strategies
are evolved to replace the less eco-friendly physicochemical
approaches.

Many different types of bacteria are used now a days for common
effluent treatment which is tabulated as below (Table 1).
Pseudomonas sp. has been characterized for complete and partial
mineralization of organophosphorous pesticides and fungicides,
morpholine and methyl parathion. Pseudomonas sp. also
involved in characteristic aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbon
degradation of oils [25]. Pseudomonas pseudomallei is used for

Special Issue 11 2011

Citation: Varsha YM, Naga Deepthi CH, Chenna S (2011) An Emphasis on Xenobiotic Degradation in Environmental Clean up. J Bioremed Biodegrad
S11:001. doi:10.4172/2155-6199.S11-001

Page 5 of 10

water-sediment interface, which contains microbial consortium.

Evidences have been presented that these mats mainly contain
phototrophic Cynobacteria which have capability to actively
degrade petroleum derivatives [64].

efficient removal of phenols from aqueous solutions. Hexavalent

Chromium which is water soluable and toxic is converted in
to trivalent Chromium (less toxic) by Pseudomonas sp. [56].
Pseudomonas fluorescens SM1 strain is reported to be a good
candidate for remediation of some heavy metals and phenolics
in heavily polluted sites [57]. P. aeruginosa is used for the
reclamation of oil/metal contaminated soils by producing
surfactants and tolerate to certain heavy metals [58] and this
strain is also used in decolorization and degradation of reactive
dye Remazol Black B (RBB) [59].

Staphylococcus can form biofilms, a self produced polymer

matrix. This property makes the organism unique, helping in
fragmenting the compounds [65].
It has been reported that urease producing bacteria like Proteus
mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Micrococcus luteus
produces Microbial Concrete, novel metabolic byproduct of
biomineralization which can remediate and restore the building
structures [66].

Bacillus sp. have been characterized and documented for their

ability to degrade benzimidazole compounds [25].
Azotobacter sp. as the biomatrix is used to remove the less toxic
trivalent Cr through biosorption.
Thermophilic bacteria Anoxybacillus rupiensis isolated from
the hot water springs of Unhavre situated in the western coast
of Maharashtra for its ability to degrade a local textile effluent
containing dyes [3]. Synthetic dye Reactive Black 5, from
the wastewater was degraded upto 80% by a thermophilic
Anoxybacillus pushchinoensis, Anoxibacillus kamchatkensis and
Anoxibacillus flavithermus [3]. Azo dyes degradation generally
needs microbial consortia or combinations of anaerobic and
aerobic steps. This time consuming process is now replaced by
using lactic acid bacteria which is efficient under both anaerobic
and aerobic conditions [60].
Polyethylene used for manufacturing plastics are degraded
by Brevibaccillus borstelensis and Rhodococcus ruber which
can degrade the CH2 backbone and use polyethylene as its
sole carbon source due to the hydrophobic nature of the cell
membranes [61].
Microbial enhancing oil recovery processes (MEOR), uses
biosurfactants which reduces the interfacial tension between
oil and water interfaces. Some gram positive, spore forming
bacteria like Bacillus subtilis releases surfactin, a biosurfactant
which acts up on oil spills and degrade them easily [62,63].
Microbial mats develop on the accidental oil spillages at the
Xenobiotic compound

Phenol

Dyes (textile effluent)

Pesticides and Fungicides

Plastics

Bacteria involved in Degradation

Cryptococcus elinovic
Bacillus sterothermophilus
Burkholderia cepacia G4
Pseudomonas putida
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Acinetobacter sp. Strain W-17 [11]
Serratia marinorubra
Bacillus sp. YW and YDLK consortia
Acinetobacter sp
Thermophilic Anoxybacillus pushchinoensis
Anoxibacillus kamchatkensis
Anoxibacillus flavithermus
Pseudomonas A3
Pseudomonas putida
P. aeruginosa
Serratia marinorubra
Brevibaccillus borstelensis
Rhodococcus ruber
Pseudomonas aeroginosa

Table 1: Table showing different types of bacteria involved in xenobiotic degradation.

J Bioremed Biodegrad
ISSN: 2155-6199 JBRBD, an open access journal

Rhodococcus erythropolis in vertical rotating immobilized cell

reactor is used as biocatalyst to carry out biodesulfurization of
crude oil [67].
1. Mycoremediation: The process of using fungi for bioremediation of
contaminated soils (usually) is termed as mycoremediation, coined
by Paul Stamets. Mycoremediation plays a pivotal role in breaking
down numerous toxic substances like petroleum hydrocarbons,
polychlorinated biphenyls, heavy metals (by biosorption), phenolic
derivatives, persistent pesticides etc. Fungi utilize some of these
hazardious compounds as the nutrient source and convert them to
simpler fragmented forms. Microalgae have a potential to be used
as a substrate for the bioenergy production on a commercial scale.
Different classifications can be explained under this like
Ligninolytic fungal degradation
Fungal biosorption
Mycorrhizal fungal degradation
a) Ligninolytic fungal degradation: Many fungal species like
basidiomycetes, ascomycetes have the potential to degrade
lignocelluloses materials present in dead wood, paper and pulp
effluents [68].

Basidiomycetes species are considered to be a very interesting group

of fungi, considered as natural lignocellulose destroyers and include
very different ecological groups such as white rot, brown rot, and
leaf litter fungi. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from natural
oil deposits are degraded by laccases, a copper containing enzyme
found in these basidiomycetes [69]. White-rot fungi degrades PVC
under aerobic conditions secreting extracellular enzymes which act
on the polymers. An edible rot fungus, Pleurotus pulmonarius is
known for its ability to degrade crude oil [70]. Ligninolytic fungi
show higher potentials to degrade organ pollutants including
synthetic dyes. Nowadays immobilized fungal cultures in semisolid
state-, trickling-bed- and rotating disk reactors are used for efficient
biodegradation of textile dyes, because of the advantages which
include long retention time of biomass in the system, ease of use
in a continuous reactor and their ability for scale up [3]. Mascoma
demonstrated that Saccharomyces cerevisiae can convert 85%
of paper sludge to ethanol without the addition of commercial
enzymes. Trichoderma harzianum (also a fungicide) is well known
producer of cellulolytic enzymes that extensively used for the
degradation of cellulose in textile and paper industries [71].

b) Biosorption by Fungi: Biosorption is a physiochemical process

that occurs naturally in certain biomass (abundant (seaweed) or
wastes from other industrial operations) which allows it to passively

Special Issue 11 2011

Citation: Varsha YM, Naga Deepthi CH, Chenna S (2011) An Emphasis on Xenobiotic Degradation in Environmental Clean up. J Bioremed Biodegrad
S11:001. doi:10.4172/2155-6199.S11-001

Page 6 of 10

concentrate and bind contaminants onto its cellular structure [72].

Biosorption have an upper hand over bioaccumulation process
since accumulated metal or waste can be desorbed easily by simple
physical methods without damaging the biosorbents structural
integrity [73].

Fungus is considered as most promising adsorbant, whose cell walls

and their components have a major role in biosorption. It has been
reported that fungal biomass can also take up considerable quantities
of organic pollutants from aqueous solution by adsorption or a
related process, even in the absence of physiological activity [74].

Many fungal species such as Mucor sp, Aspergillus carbonaruius,

Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus sp, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Botrytis
cinerea, Neurospora crossa, Phanerochaete chrysosporium and
Lentinus sajor-caju have been extensively studied for heavy metal
biosorption [75]. Saccharomyces cerevisiae was found to be the
efficient biosorber of heavy metals like Pb, Au, Co, Cu [76].

Along with fungus, plant and its parts like solid residues of oil mill
products, sawdust, straw xanthate, aquatic plants and seaweeds also
plays a pivotal role in adsorbing waste compounds. New techniques
have been evolved which implement the fungal symbiont residing
in the plants where both fungal and plant part help in bioadsorption
[77].

c) Mycorrhizal fungal degradation: Mycorrhiza, a symbiotic

association of fungi and actinomycetes with the root zone of the
vascular plant which increases soil organic carbon. Mycorrhizal
fungi, growing as a symbiont encourage degradation of organic
contaminants in soil. The typical mycorrhizons which naturally
biodegrade the organic pollutants are Morchella conica and
Tylospcno fibrilnsa [78].
d) Phycoremediation: Phycoremediation is defined as the use of
macroalgae or microalgae to remove or biodegrade pollutants from
the environment. Algae possess the ability to take up toxic heavy
metals from the environment, resulting in higher concentrations
than those in the surrounding water [79]. Special polysaccharides
are present in the algae cell wall contained potential metal ion
binding sites.

Commonly used algal groups for degradation are Chlorococcum sp,

Chroococcus sp, Desmococcus sp, Dactylococcopsis sp, Chlamydomonas sp [80]. Blue Green Algae is extensively used for wastewater
treatment. Recent studies have quoted that, Spirulina platensis, a
photosynthethis blue-green algae is used as biosensor to detect the
mercury concentration accumulated in the solids waste residues
and soil. Biosorption using Blue Green Algae has distinct advantages over the conventional methods because of reasons like

easy to operate
cost effective for the treatment of large volumes of waste waters
it could be selective
More efficient [81].

Phytoremediation: Phytoremediation (also called as green

remediation, botano-remediation, agro remediation, and vegetative
remediation) is method that use green or higher terrestrial plants
for treating chemically polluted soils [82], reducing the amount of
hazardous compounds [83]. USEPA (2000) defines phytoremediation
as the use of plants for containment, degradation or extraction of
xenobiotics from water or soil substrates [84]. Using green plants as
weapons, phytoremediation is one of most eco-friendly technique to
J Bioremed Biodegrad
ISSN: 2155-6199 JBRBD, an open access journal

target the organic and inorganic pollutants in the water, soil and air
simultaneously.
Plants have exposed the capacity to withstand relatively high
concentrations of organic xenobiotic chemicals without toxic effects
[85] and also have capacity to take up and convert chemicals quickly
to less toxic metabolites [86]. Deep roots, luxuriant leaves have special
sorptive properties and the associated bacteria in root zones allow
plants to absorb, take-up, accumulate, metabolize and/or degrade the
pollutants from water, soil and air.
Phytoremediation can be classified in to subcategories depending
up on the type of remediation (Figure 6).
1. Rhizodegradation: Rhizodegradation is the enhancement of
naturally-occurring biodegradation in soil through the influence of
plant roots, and ideally will lead to destruction or detoxification of
an organic contaminant. A wide range of organic contaminants are
candidates for rhizodegradation, such as petroleum hydrocarbons,
PAHs, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), surfactants
and chlorinated solvents.
2. Phytodegradation: Phytodegradation, also called as phytotransformation, is the uptake, metabolizing, and degradation of contaminants within the plant, or the degradation of contaminants in the
soil, sediments, sludges, ground water, or surface water by enzymes
produced and released by the plant. The term Green Liver Model
is used to describe phytotransformation, as plants behave analogously to the human liver when dealing with these xenobiotic compounds (foreign compound/pollutant). Chlorinated solvents like
TCE, some organic herbicides and trinitrotoluene can be degraded
using this method [87].
3. Phytoextraction: Phytoextraction (also known as phytoaccumulation, phytoabsorption, and phytosequestration) is contaminant
uptake by roots with subsequent accumulation in the aboveground
portion of a plant, generally to be followed by harvest and ultimate disposal of the plant biomass. Phytoextraction has also been
referred to as phytomining or biomining. Phytomining is the use
of plants to obtain a gain from hyperaccumulated metals extracted
by a plant, whether from contaminated soils or from soils having
naturally high concentrations of metals. This is particularly useful
for removing metals from soil and, in some cases; incorporation
of plant incinerations will help metal reuse [87]. These processes
extract both metallic and organic constituents from soil by direct
uptake into plants and translocation to aboveground biomass using
metal- (hyper) accumulating plants. Brassica juncea, Berkeya coddii, Allysum bertolonii, Thlaspi caerulescens and Thlaspi goesingense
are some of the plants involved in phytoextraction [88]. The main
advantage of phytoextraction is the process is eco- friendly but will
take more time than anthropogenic soil clean-up methods.
4. Rhizofiltration: Rhizofiltration (also known as phytofiltration)
is the removal by plant roots of contaminants in surface water,
waste water, or extracted ground water, through adsorption or
precipitation onto the roots, or absorption into the roots. Here
accumulation can occur in root or can be retained in any portion
of the plant. Plants used for rhizofiltration are not planted directly
in situ but are acclimated to the pollutant first, which makes the
process little tedious and time consuming. Sunflowers grown in
radioactively contaminated pools exemplify this process.
5. Phytovolatilization: Phytovolatilization is the uptake of a water
soluble contaminant by a plant, and the subsequent release of a vol-

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Citation: Varsha YM, Naga Deepthi CH, Chenna S (2011) An Emphasis on Xenobiotic Degradation in Environmental Clean up. J Bioremed Biodegrad
S11:001. doi:10.4172/2155-6199.S11-001

Page 7 of 10

Phytoremediation
methods

Degradation

Accumulation

Rhizodegradation

Phytoextraction

Phytodegradation

Rhizoltration

Dissipation

Phytovolatilization

Imobilization

Phytohydraulics

Phytostabilization

Figure 6: Phytoremediation techniques for xenobiotic degradation.

atile contaminant, a volatile degradation product of a contaminant,

or a volatile form of an initially non-volatile contaminant. Plants as
phytovolatilizers have to be studied still for better utilization.
6. Phytohydraulics (hydraulic plume control): Phytohydraulics is the
use of deep-rooted plants to degrade ground water contaminants
that come into contact with their roots. Ground water plume of
methyl-tert-butyl-ether (MTBE) has been recovered using this
technique [89].
7. Phytostabilization: Phytostabilization (also called as phytoimmobilization) is the use of plants to immobilize soil and water contaminants. Some organic contaminants or metabolic byproducts of
these contaminants can be attached or incorporated into plant components such as lignin and such type of phytostabilization is called
phytolignification [90]. Indian mustard appeared to have potential
for phytostabilization.
8. Recent trends used in phytoremediation: A recent strategy to
improve phytoremediation and detoxification of contaminants is
the use of endophytic bacteria which are often found genera in soil
like Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Bacillus, and Azospirillum [91].

Genetic modification offers a new hope for phytoremediation

as they can be used to over express the enzymes involved in the
existing plant metabolic pathways or to introduce new pathways
into plants [91,92]. With increased understanding of the enzymatic
processes involved in plant tolerance and metabolism of xenobiotic
chemicals, there is new potential for engineering plants with
increased phytoremediation capabilities [93,94]. Transgenic plants
that over express mercury-resistance genes have been reported to be
highly resistant to organic mercury and are effective for degradation,
thus bringing a new advancement in the phytodegradation process
[95].

Richard Meagher introduced a new pathway into Arabidopsis to

J Bioremed Biodegrad
ISSN: 2155-6199 JBRBD, an open access journal

detoxify methyl mercury, a bioaccumulative organometalic cation,

to the elemental mercury which can be volatilized by the plant [92].
9. Pros and cons of phytoremediation: Phytoremediation is considered
a clean, cost-effective and non-environmentally disruptive technology,
as opposed to mechanical cleanup methods such as soil excavation
or pumping polluted groundwater [96]. Over the past 20 years, this
technology progressed and has been employed at sites with soils
contaminated with arsenic, lead and uranium. On the other hand,
one major disadvantage of phytoremediation is that it requires
a long-term commitment, as the process is dependent on plant
growth, bioaccumulation capacity and tolerance to toxicity.

Although phytoremediation is a promising technique to remove

pollutants, it is still an immature and developing technology to deal
with pollution problems. However, it is clear that phytoremediation
already plays an important role in removing pollutants from
the environment we just need to find the right plant for the right
pollutant [97].

Photodegradation
Photodegradation is degradation of a molecule which has capability
to absorb photons, particularly those wavelengths found in sunlight,
such as infrared radiation, visible light, and ultraviolet light. The
solution of plastic ecological problem is achieved by this particularly,
due to the development of photodegradable and biodegradable polymer
with controlled lifetime. Many new strategies have been introduced in
order to make this technique applicable for wide range of xenobiotic
degradation. Transition metals like Cr, Mn, Fe, Co act as antioxidant
or bioactive elements in photodegradation of polymer degradation
[98]. Congo red dye used in the cellulose industries (cotton textile,
wood pulp & paper) has long been abandoned, primarily because of its
tendency to change color and its toxicity. Recent advances to degrade
this Congo red include photocatalytic degradation using ZnO/ UV-A
[99,100].

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Citation: Varsha YM, Naga Deepthi CH, Chenna S (2011) An Emphasis on Xenobiotic Degradation in Environmental Clean up. J Bioremed Biodegrad
S11:001. doi:10.4172/2155-6199.S11-001

Page 8 of 10

Initiators like Ketones, quinones and peroxides are added in

some cases to carry out photo-degradation reactions. Nowadays
photodegraded films are used to evaluate biodegradation using
microorganisms such as Aspergillus niger and Pencillium funculosum
for degradation of both natural and synthetic plastics. Heterotrophic
microorganisms uses polymers especially plastics are potential
substrates and degrade them first converting them to simpler
monomeric forms [101].
Although many such techniques are implied to reduce these
xenobiont in the environment, each one have their own drawback.
Biodegradation actually means complete elimination, but this is not the
case in most of the above process. Fragmental release due to these steps
also effect the environ in the long run. Eco-Industrial Parks (EIP) have
been built which is actually an association between local community
and business corporate to solve the environmental problems. The
benefits Eco-Industrial Parks may serve as incentives for companies to
improve their environmental performance in terms of management of
hazardous waste, raw materials, conservation of energy use. The EIP
prevent further degradation of our environment and remediate damage
caused by increasingly industrialized society via phytotechnologies.
Such EIP offer efficient and environmentally friendly solutions to clean
up contaminated soils, sediments, brown fields and wastewater, to
enhance food chain safety and to develop renewable energy sources [102].

Conclusion
Environmental problems caused by the industrial effluents is mainly
due to accumulation of pollutants and other fragmented compounds,
which in turn form into other substitutes (natural or manmade),
finally forming a xenobiont. There is a quick need to degrade these
xenobiotic compounds in an eco-friendly way. Various techniques
like microbial remediation, phytoremediation and photoremediation
and their subtypes have been discussed. Each having their own ways
of degrading these xenobionts, also have negative impact on the
environ (side effects due to fragmentations and bioaccumulations).
Photoremediation, a novel equipment based technique which is rapid
but also have a negative impact on the environment. Being a solar driven
technique, phytoremediation is restricted to particular sites containing
contaminants. Although slow, on the whole microbial bioremediation
was found to cover wide range of recalcitrant degradation and is known
to be a better choice because of its nature of degradation.
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