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analyze them easily. In the previous chapters, we have mastered the ability to solve networks
containing independent and dependent sources making use of either mesh or nodal analysis. In
this chapter, we will introduce new techniques to strengthen our armoury to solve complicated
networks. Also, these new techniques in many cases do provide insight into the circuits operation
that cannot be obtained from mesh or nodal analysis. Most often, we are interested only in the
detailed performance of an isolated portion of a complex circuit. If we can model the remainder
of the circuit with a simple equivalent network, then our task of analysis gets greatly reduced and
simplified. For example, the function of many circuits is to deliver maximum power to load such
as an audio speaker in a stereo system. Here, we develop the required relationship betweeen a
load resistor and a fixed series resistor which can represent the remaining portion of the circuit.
Two of the theorems that we present in this chapter will permit us to do just that.
3.1
Superposition theorem
The principle of superposition is applicable only for linear systems. The concept of superposition
can be explained mathematically by the following response and excitation principle :
i1
i2
then;
i1
+ i2
!
!
!
v1
v2
v1
+ v2
The quantity to the left of the arrow indicates the excitation and to the right, the system
response. Thus, we can state that a device, if excited by a current i1 will produce a response
v1 . Similarly, an excitation i2 will cause a response v2 . Then if we use an excitation i1 + i2 , we
will find a response v1 + v2 .
The principle of superposition has the ability to reduce a complicated problem to several easier
problems each containing only a single independent source.
160
Network Theory
3.1
Find the current in the 6 resistor using the principle of superposition for the circuit of Fig. 3.1.
Figure 3.1
SOLUTION
As a first step, set the current source to zero. That is, the current source appears as an open circuit
as shown in Fig. 3.2.
6
6
= A
i1 =
3+6
9
Circuit Theorems
161
As a next step, set the voltage to zero by replacing it with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 3.3.
2 3
6
i2 =
= A
3+6
9
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
EXAMPLE
= i1 + i2 =
12
A
9
3.2
Figure 3.4
SOLUTION
As a first step, set the current source to zero. That is, the current source appears as an open circuit
as shown in Fig. 3.5.
Figure 3.5
162
Network Theory
6
= 0:3 mA
(8 + 12) 103
As a second step, set the voltage source to zero. This means the voltage source in Fig. 3.4 is
replaced by a short circuit as shown in Figs. 3.6 and 3.6(a). Using current division principle,
0
iA
io
where
R1
iR2
R1
+ R2
jj
= (12 k 12 k) + 12 k
= 6 k + 12 k
= 18 k
and
= 12 k
4 10 3 12 103
iA =
(12 + 18) 103
= 1:6 mA
Again applying the current division principle,
12
iA
00
io =
= 0:8 mA
12 + 12
R2
Thus;
io
= io 0 + io 00 =
Figure 3.6(a)
Figure 3.6
Circuit Theorems
EXAMPLE
163
3.3
Figure 3.7
SOLUTION
As a first step, keep only the 12 V source active and rest of the sources are deactivated. That is,
2 mA current source is opened and 6 V voltage source is shorted as shown in Fig. 3.8.
io
12
(2 + 2) 103
= 3 mA
=
Figure 3.8
As a second step, keep only 6 V source active. Deactivate rest of the sources, resulting in a
circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.9.
164
Network Theory
10
io
00
10
io
00
io
00
6=0
6
= 1:5 mA
103
Figure 3.9
As a final step, deactivate all the independent voltage sources and keep only 2 mA current
source active as shown in Fig. 3.10.
Figure 3.10
io
000
= 1mA
= io 0 + io 00 + io 000
=3
1:5 + 1
= 2:5 mA
Circuit Theorems
EXAMPLE
165
3.4
Figure 3.11
SOLUTION
5i1 + 3i1
24 = 0
24
i1 =
= 3A
8
As a second step, we set the voltage source to zero and determine the current
current source. For this condition, refer to Fig. 3.13 for analysis.
Figure 3.12
i2
due to the
Figure 3.13
+7=
Noting that
i2
we get,
v1
3i2
v1
2
v1
3
3i2
(3.1)
0
(3.2)
166
Network Theory
EXAMPLE
= i1 + i2
7
5
=3
A= A
4
4
3.5
For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.14, find the terminal voltage Vab using superposition principle.
Figure 3.14
SOLUTION
As a first step in the analysis, deactivate the independent current source. This results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.15.
Applying KVL clockwise gives
4 + 10
0+3
)
)
Vab1
+ Vab1 = 0
4Vab1 = 4
Vab1
= 1V
2+3
)
)
Vab2
Figure 3.15
+ Vab2 = 0
4Vab2 = 20
Vab2
= 5V
Figure 3.16
Circuit Theorems
167
= Vab1 + Vab2
= 1 + 5 = 6V
EXAMPLE
3.6
Use the principle of superposition to solve for vx in the circuit of Fig. 3.17.
Figure 3.17
SOLUTION
= vx 1 + vx 2
where vx1 is produced by 6A source alone in the circuit and vx2 is produced solely by 4A current
source.
To find vx1 , deactivate the 4A current source. This results in a circuit diagram as shown in
Fig. 3.18.
KCL at node x1 :
vx 1
4ix1
vx 1
But
Hence;
)
)
)
ix1
vx 1
2
vx 1
+
+
v
4 x21
vx 1
8
2vx1
vx 1
4vx1 + vx1
vx 1
=6
=
vx 1
=6
=6
2vx1 = 48
=
48
= 16V
3
Figure 3.18
168
Network Theory
To find vx2 , deactivate the 6A current source, resulting in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig.
3.19.
KCL at node x2 :
( 4ix2 )
=4
8
2
vx 2
vx + 4ix2
+ 2
=4
8
2
vx 2
v x2
(3.3)
vx 2
+ 4ix2
2ix2
or
2ix2 = 0
ix2
vx 2
(3.4)
vx 2
)
)
)
)
vx 2
+4
vx 2
=4
2
vx 2
2vx2
vx 2
vx 2
8
vx 2
vx 2
=4
=4
4vx2 = 32
32
vx 2 =
V
3
EXAMPLE
= vx 1 + vx 2
32
= 16
= 5:33V
2
Figure 3.19
3.7
Which of the source in Fig. 3.20 contributes most of the power dissipated in the 2 resistor ?
The least ? What is the power dissipated in 2 resistor ?
Figure 3.20
Circuit Theorems
169
SOLUTION
The Superposition theorem cannot be used to identify the individual contribution of each source
to the power dissipated in the resistor. However, the superposition theorem can be used to find the
total power dissipated in the 2 resistor.
Figure 3.21
= i01 + i02
i1
i2
Figure 3.22
2 2:1
=
2 + 2:1
1:024 A
Figure 3.23
170
Network Theory
Total current,
i1
= i01 + i02
= 1:22
1:024
= 0:196 A
Thus;
P2
= (0:196)2
2
= 0:0768 Watts
= 76:8 mW
EXAMPLE
3.8
Find the voltage V1 using the superposition principle. Refer the circuit shown in Fig.3.24.
Figure 3.24
SOLUTION
= V10 + V100
where V10 is the contribution from 60V source alone and V100 is the contribution from 4A current
source alone.
To find V10 , the 4A current source is opened, resulting in a circuit as shown in Fig. 3.25.
Figure 3.25
Circuit Theorems
171
60 + 30 (ia
ib )
Also
ib
=0
(3.5)
0:4iA
0:4 (
ia )
= 0:4ia
(3.6)
60 + 30ia
30 0:4ia = 0
60
ia =
= 1:25A
48
1:25
ib = 0:4ia = 0:4
30ia
= 0:5A
0
Hence;
V1
= (ia
ib )
30
= 22:5 V
To find, V100 , the 60V source is shorted as shown in Fig. 3.26.
Figure 3.26
Va
20
30Va
00
V1
=4
10
20V100 = 800
(3.7)
V1
30
Also;
Va
= 20ia
V1
Va
V1
10
ib
= 0:4ib
=
Va
20
0:4Va
+
=
30
10
20
7:2Va + 8V100 = 0
00
Hence;
00
00
V1
Va
(3.8)
172
Network Theory
V1
Hence
V1
= 60V
= V10 + V100
= 22:5 + 60 = 82:5V
EXAMPLE
3.9
(a) Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.27. Before the 10 mA current source is attached to
terminals x y , the current ia is found to be 1.5 mA. Use the superposition theorem to find
the value of ia after the current source is connected.
(b) Verify your solution by finding ia , when all the three sources are acting simultaneously.
Figure 3.27
SOLUTION
where ia1 , ia2 and ia3 are the contributions to ia from 20V source, 5 mA source and 10 mA source
respectively.
As per the statement of the problem,
ia1
+ ia2 = 1:5 mA
To find ia3 , deactivate 20V source and the 5 mA source. The resulting circuit diagram is
shown in Fig 3.28.
10mA 2k
= 1 mA
ia3 =
18k + 2k
Hence, total current
ia
Circuit Theorems
173
Figure 3.28
18
103
Vy
20
= (10+5) 10
103
Solving, we get
Hence;
ia
= 45V:
45
=
3
10
18 103
= 2:5 mA
Vy
Vy
18
Figure 3.29
3.2
Thevenins theorem
In section 3.1, we saw that the analysis of a circuit may be greatly reduced by the use of superposition principle. The main objective of Thevenins theorem is to reduce some portion of a
circuit to an equivalent source and a single element. This reduced equivalent circuit connected to
the remaining part of the circuit will allow us to find the desired current or voltage. Thevenins
theorem is based on circuit equivalence. A circuit equivalent to another circuit exhibits identical
characteristics at identical terminals.
According to Thevenins theorem, the linear circuit of Fig. 3.30 can be replaced by the one
shown in Fig. 3.31 (The load resistor may be a single resistor or another circuit). The circuit to
the left of the terminals x y in Fig. 3.31 is known as the Thevenins equivalent circuit.
174
Network Theory
In general, circuit B is the load which may be linear or non-linear. Circuit A is the balance of
the original network exclusive of load and must be linear. In general, circuit A may contain
independent sources, dependent sources and resistors or other linear elements.
Circuit Theorems
175
(ii) If the circuit contains resistors, dependent and independent sources, follow the instructions
described below:
(a) Determine the open circuit voltage voc with the sources activated.
(b) Find the short circuit current isc when a short circuit is applied to the terminals a
(c)
Rt
voc
isc
(iii) If the circuit contains resistors and only dependent sources, then
(a)
voc
Rt
vab
Figure 3.32
For all the cases discussed above, the Thevenins equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.32.
EXAMPLE
3.10
Using the Thevenins theorem, find the current i through R = 2 . Refer Fig. 3.33.
Figure 3.33
SOLUTION
Figure 3.34
176
Network Theory
Since we are interested in the current i through R, the resistor R is identified as circuit B and
the remainder as circuit A. After removing the circuit B, circuit A is as shown in Fig. 3.35.
Figure 3.35
To find Rt , we have to deactivate the independent voltage source. Accordingly, we get the
circuit in Fig. 3.36.
Rt
jj
= (5 20 ) + 4
=
5 20
+4=8
5 + 20
Rt
Vab
= 2A
Figure 3.36
Figure 3.37
Figure 3.38
Reconnecting the circuit B to the Thevenins equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.38, we get
i
40
= 4A
2+8
Circuit Theorems
EXAMPLE
177
3.11
(a) Find the Thevenins equivalent circuit with respect to terminals a b for the circuit shown
in Fig. 3.39 by finding the open-circuit voltage and the shortcircuit current.
(b) Solve the Thevenin resistance by removing the independent sources. Compare your result
with the Thevenin resistance found in part (a).
Figure 3.39
SOLUTION
Figure 3.40
)
Hence;
30
40
V2 = 60 Volts
60 + 20
Voc
V2
V 60 0
=I
1:5 = 0
60
60 + 20
60
= 60
= 45 V
80
178
Network Theory
To find isc :
)
Therefore;
V2
20
30
V2
1:5 = 0
40
V2 = 30V
isc
Rt
V2
20
Voc
isc
= 1:5A
=
45
1:5
= 30
Figure 3.40 (a)
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with respect to the terminals a b is as shown in Fig. 3.40(a).
(b) Let us now find Thevenin resistance Rt by deactivating all the independent sources,
Rt
Rt
Rt
jj
= 60 (40 + 20)
60
=
= 30 (veried)
2
It is seen that, if only independent sources are present, it is easy to find Rt by deactivating all
the independent sources.
Circuit Theorems
EXAMPLE
3.12
Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.41 with respect to terminals a
Figure 3.41
SOLUTION
20 + 6i
2i + 6i = 0
i
= 2A
Figure 3.42
Rt
voc
isc
2i + 6 (i1
12i1
Since i = i1
i2 ,
i2 )
=0
6i2 = 20 + 2i
we get
12i1
6i2 = 20 + 2 (i1
10i1
4i2 = 20
i2 )
10i2 + 6 (i2
i1 )
=0
6i1 + 16i2 = 0
Figure 3.43
b.
179
180
Network Theory
EXAMPLE
i2
Rt
120
A
136
voc
isc
isc
= i2 =
120
A
136
12
= 13:6
120
136
3.13
Figure 3.44
SOLUTION
To find Voc :
Since we are interested in the voltage across 2 k resistor, it is removed from the circuit of
Fig. 3.44 and so the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 3.45.
Figure 3.45
By inspection,
Applying KVL to mesh 2 :
i1
= 4 mA
12 + 6
12 + 6
10
10
i2
(i2
10
+ 3 103 i2 = 0
3
3
i1 )
+3
10
i2
=0
Circuit Theorems
Solving, we get
i2
181
= 4 mA
! a b ! 3 k, we get
+
3 10 = 0
= 4 10 + 3 10
= 4 10 4 10 + 3 10 4 10
10
i1
Voc
Voc
i2
i1
i2
= 28V
To find Rt :
Deactivating all the independent sources, we get the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.46.
Figure 3.46
jj
= Rab = 4 k + (6 k 3 k) = 6 k
Rt
Figure 3.47
Figure 3.48
If we connect the 2 k resistor to this equivalent network, we obtain the circuit of Fig. 3.48.
Vo
10
28
2 10
=
(6 + 2) 10
=i 2
EXAMPLE
= 7V
3.14
The wheatstone bridge in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.49 (a) is balanced when R2 = 1200 . If the
galvanometer has a resistance of 30 , how much current will be detected by it when the bridge
is unbalanced by setting R2 to 1204 ?
182
Network Theory
Figure 3.49(a)
SOLUTION
To find Voc :
We are interested in the galavanometer current. Hence, it is removed from the circuit of Fig.
3.49 (a) to find Voc and we get the circuit shown in Fig. 3.49 (b).
120
120
=
A
i1 =
900 + 600
1500
120
120
i2 =
=
A
1204 + 800
2004
Applying KVL clockwise along the path
1204
b
a
900 , we get
1204i2
Vt
900i1 = 0
900i1
120
900
= 1204
2004
= 95:8 mV
Vt
= 1204i2
120
1500
Figure 3.49(b)
To find Rt :
Deactivate all the independent sources and look into the terminals
Thevenins resistance.
Figure 3.49(c)
Figure 3.49(d)
to determine the
Circuit Theorems
Rt
jj
iG
jj
95:8 10 3
840:64 + 30
Figure 3.50
= 110:03 A
3.15
For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.51, find the Thevenins equivalent circuit between terminals
Figure 3.51
SOLUTION
At a :
0:2Va
At c :
0:1Va + 0:3 Vc
At b :
183
EXAMPLE
0:1 Vb = 4
0:1Vc + 0:2 Vb
=1
Vb
Figure 3.52
a and b.
184
Network Theory
0:2Va
0:1 Vc + I = 3
0:2Va + 0:3 Vc = 4
0:2Va
0:1 Vc
1=1
Solving the above equations, we get the short circuit current, I = Isc = 1 A.
Next let us open circuit the terminals a and b and this makes I = 0. And the node equations
written earlier are modified to
0:2Va
0:1 Vc = 3
0:1Va + 0:3 Vc
0:1 Vb = 4
0:1Vc + 0:2 Vb = 1
Solving the above equations, we get
Va
Hence, Vab = 30
20 = 10 V = Voc = Vt
10
Therefore Rt =
=
= 10
Isc
1
The Thevenins equivalent is as shown in Fig 3.53
Voc
Figure 3.53
EXAMPLE
3.16
Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.54. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit at the terminals a
b.
Figure 3.54
SOLUTION
To begin with let us transform 3 A current source and 10 V voltage source. This results in a
network as shown in Fig. 3.55 (a) and further reduced to Fig. 3.55 (b).
Circuit Theorems
185
Figure 3.55(a)
Again transform the 30 V source and following the reduction procedure step by step from
Fig. 3.55 (b) to 3.55 (d), we get the Thevenins equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.56.
Figure 3.55(b)
Figure 3.55(d)
Figure 3.55(c)
EXAMPLE
3.17
b.
186
Network Theory
Figure 3.57
SOLUTION
Since the circuit has no independent sources, i = 0 when the terminals a b are open. Therefore, Voc = 0.
The onus is now to find Rt . Since Voc = 0 and isc = 0, Rt cannot be determined from
Rt
Voc
isc
as shown in Fig.
KCL at node a :
2i
Va
5
Also;
Va
Hence;
2
5
Va
10
+
=
+
Vab
Va
1=0
10
Va
10
Va
10
50
Va =
V
13
1=0
50
1
13
Alternatively one could find Rt by connecting a 1V source at the terminals a b and then find
1
. The concept of finding Rt by connecting a 1A source
the current from b to a. Then Rt =
Hence;
Rt
Va
iba
between the terminals a b may also be used for circuits containing independent sources. Then
set all the independent sources to zero and use 1A source at the terminals a b to find Vab and
Vab
.
hence, Rt =
1
For the present problem, the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen between the terminals a
is shown in Fig. 3.58 (a).
Figure 3.58
Circuit Theorems
EXAMPLE
187
3.18
Figure 3.59
SOLUTION
Rt =
I
Figure 3.60(a)
Since;
Vx
we get,
Hence;
= 0:5Vx +
Vx
= 1V
= 0:5 +
1
= 0:75 A
4
Figure 3.60(b)
1
Rt =
= 1:33
0:75
Vab
= Vab :
188
Network Theory
0:5Vx +
Hence
Rt
Vx
4
Vab
=1
=
Vx
Vx
= 1:33V
= 1:33
3.3
Figure 3.60(c)
Nortons theorem
An American engineer, E.L. Norton at Bell Telephone Laboratories, proposed a theorem similar
to Thevenins theorem.
Nortons theorem states that a linear two-terminal network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source iN in parallel with resistor RN , where iN
is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. If one does not wish to turn off
the independent sources, then RN is the ratio of open circuit voltage to shortcircuit current
at the terminal pair.
Figure 3.61(b) shows Nortons equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a b of the
original circuit shown in Fig. 3.61(a). Since this is the dual of the Thevenin circuit, it is clear that
voc
. In fact, source transformation of Thevenin equivalent circuit leads to
RN = Rt and iN =
Rt
Circuit Theorems
189
Rt
= RN =
voc
iN
(3) If the network contains only resistors and dependent sources, follow the procedure
described below:
(a) Note that iN = 0.
(b) Connect 1A current source to the terminals a
(c)
Rt
vab
voc
isc
= RN
The opencircuit and shortcircuit test are sufficient to find any Thevenin or Norton equivalent.
3.3.1 PROOF OF THEVENINS AND NORTONS THEOREMS
The principle of superposition is employed to provide the proof of Thevenins and Nortons
theorems.
Derivation of Thevenins theorem:
Let us consider a linear circuit having two accessible terminals x y and excited by an external
current source i. The linear circuit is made up of resistors, dependent and independent sources. For
the sake of simplified analysis, let us assume that the linear circuit contains only two independent
voltage sources v1 and v2 and two independent current sources i1 and i2 . The terminal voltage v
may be obtained, by applying the principle of superposition. That is, v is made up of contributions
due to the external source and independent sources within the linear network.
Hence;
= a0 i + a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 i1 + a4 i2
(3.9)
= a0 i + b0
where
b0
(3.10)
= a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 i1 + a4 i2
= contribution to the terminal voltage v by
independent sources within the linear network.
= 0 and
voc
vt .
Making use of
190
Network Theory
b0
a0
= Rt
Rt
Vt
Figure 3.62
Current-driven circuit
where Rt is the equivalent resistance of the linear network as viewed from the terminals x y .
Also, a0 must be Rt in order to obey the ohms law. Substuting the values of a0 and b0 in equation
3.10, we find that
v = Rt i + v1
which expresses the voltage-current relationship at terminals
Thus, the two circuits of Fig. 3.62 and 3.63 are equivalent.
Let us now assume that the linear circuit described earlier is driven by a voltage source v as shown
in Fig. 3.64.
The current flowing into the circuit can be obtained by superposition as
i
= c0 v + d 0
(3.11)
where c0 v is the contribution to i due to the external voltage source v and d0 contains the contributions to i due to all independent sources within the linear circuit. The constants c0 and d0 are
determined as follows :
(i) When terminals x y are short-circuited, v =
0 and i = isc . Hence from equation (3.11),
we find that i = d0 = isc , where isc is the
short-circuit current flowing out of terminal x,
which is same as Norton current iN
Thus,
d0
iN
Figure 3.64
Voltage-driven circuit
(ii) Let all the independent sources within the linear network be turned off, that is d0 = 0. Then,
equation (3.11) becomes
i = c0 v
Circuit Theorems
191
=
=
1
Rt
1
Rt
isc
iN
y.
This expresses the voltage-current relationship at the terminals x y of the circuit in Fig.
(3.65), validating that the two circuits of Figs. 3.64 and 3.65 are equivalents.
EXAMPLE
3.19
Figure 3.66
SOLUTION
24
4
3 + isc = 0
isc
= 9A
Figure 3.67
192
Network Theory
Figure 3.68(a)
Figure 3.68(b)
3.20
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.69. Find the value of ib using Norton equivalent circuit. Take
R = 667 .
Figure 3.69
SOLUTION
Figure 3.70
Figure 3.70(a)
Circuit Theorems
To find RN :
The procedure for finding RN is same that of Rt
in the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Rt
= RN =
voc
isc
)
)
Therefore;
Figure 3.71
isc
2mA
= 1mA
2
EXAMPLE
3.21
Figure 3.72
193
194
Network Theory
SOLUTION
We are interested in Io , hence the 2 k resistor is removed from the circuit diagram of Fig. 3.72.
The resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.73(a).
Figure 3.73(a)
Figure 3.73(b)
To find iN or isc :
Refer Fig. 3.73(b). By inspection, V1 = 12 V
Applying KCL at node V2 :
V2
V1
6 k
V2
2 k
V2
V1
3 k
=0
= 6V
isc
V1
V2
3 k
V1
4 k
= 5 mA
To find RN :
Deactivate all the independent sources (refer Fig. 3.73(c)).
Figure 3.73(c)
Figure 3.73(d)
Circuit Theorems
195
jj
jj
EXAMPLE
isc
R
RN
+ RN
= 2:57mA
Figure 3.73(e)
3.22
Figure 3.74
SOLUTION
Since we are interested in Vo , the voltage across 4 k resistor, remove this resistance from the
circuit. This results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.75.
Figure 3.75
196
Network Theory
Circuit Theorems
Constraint equation :
i2
i1
10 (
3
i3
= 4mA
10
i2 )
+2
i1
197
(3.12)
10
+4
i2
=0
i3
i1 )
=0
isc
i1 )
=0
10 (
3
(3.13)
10 (
3
isc
i2 )
+2
10 (
3
(3.14)
Solving equations (3.12), (3.13) and (3.14) simultaneously, we get isc = 0:1333 mA.
To find RN :
Deactivate all the sources in Fig. 3.75. This yields a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.76.
Figure 3.76
RN
jj
= 6 k 10 k
6 10
=
= 3:75 k
6 + 10
Figure 3.76(a)
198
Network Theory
Vo
= isc (RN
= isc
jj
R)
RN R
RN
+R
= 258 mV
EXAMPLE
3.23
Figure 3.77
SOLUTION
To find isc :
are short-circuited.
5
= 10 mA
500
Therefore, for the righthand portion of the circuit, isc =
Then
10i =
100 mA.
Circuit Theorems
199
To find RN or Rt :
(3.15)
Therefore
=
=
25(10i) =
250i
vab
250
Substituting i into the mesh equation (3.15), we get
)
RN
5 + 500
vab
+ vab = 0
250
= 5V
5
= 50
0:1
vab
= Rt
voc
isc
vab
isc
EXAMPLE
3.24
Figure 3.78
200
Network Theory
SOLUTION
Since there are no independent sources present in the network of Fig. 3.78, iN = isc = 0.
To find RN , we inject a current of 1A between the terminals a b. This is illustrated in
Fig. 3.79.
Figure 3.79
Figure 3.79(a)
Norton
equivalent circuit
KCL at node 1:
1=
v1
100
0:03v1
KCL at node 2:
v2
200
v2
v1
v2
50
0:02v2 = 1
v1
+ 0:1v1 = 0
50
0:08v1 + 0:025v2 = 0
voc
EXAMPLE
3.25
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the network shown in Fig. 3.80 (a).
Figure 3.80(a)
Circuit Theorems
201
SOLUTION
To find Voc :
Performing source transformation on 5A current source, we get the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.80 (b).
Applying KVL around Left mesh :
50 + 2ia
20 + 4ia = 0
70
ia =
A
6
4ia = 0
Voc
90 V
Figure 3.80(b)
20 + 4 (ia
isc )
=0
6ia 4isc = 70
KVL around right mesh :
4 (isc
ia )
+ 20 + 10ia = 0
6ia + 4isc =
20
Figure 3.80(c)
202
Network Theory
EXAMPLE
3.26
Figure 3.81
RL
= 2 k;
If
RL
= 10 k;
)
= 6 mA )
= 10 mA
I
Voc
= 20 + 0:01Rt
Voc
= 60 + 0:006Rt
3.4
RL
= 20 k;
Voc
(RL + Rt )
(20
120
+ 10
103
10 ) = 4 mA
3
=i
RL
Vt
Rt
+ RL
2
RL
(3.16)
Circuit Theorems
203
Assuming that Vt and Rt are fixed for a given source, the maximum power is a function of
In order to determine the value of RL that maximizes p, we differentiate p with respect to
RL and equate the derivative to zero.
RL .
"
dp
= Vt2
dRL
which yields
RL
(Rt + RL )2 2 (Rt + RL )
=0
(RL + Rt )2
= Rt
(3.17)
d p
2
dRL
<
0. Hence, maxi-
Pmax
Vt R L
(2RL )2
Vt
4RL
The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power delivered by a source
represented by its Thevenin equivalent circuit is attained when the load RL is equal to the
Thevenin resistance Rt .
EXAMPLE
3.27
Find the load RL that will result in maximum power delivered to the load for the circuit of Fig.
3.84. Also determine the maximum power Pmax .
Figure 3.84
SOLUTION
Disconnect the load resistor RL . This results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.85(a).
Next let us determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from a b.
204
Network Theory
180
= 1A
150 + 30
i = 150 V
Voc = Vt = 150
i
jj
= Rab = 30 150
30 150
=
= 25
30 + 150
Figure 3.85(a)
Pmax
Pt
Vt
Figure 3.85(b)
150
= 150
25 + 25
= 150
= 450 Watts
Thus, we note that one-half the power is dissipated in RL .
EXAMPLE
Figure 3.86
3.28
Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.87. Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer. Also
find the maximum power transferred to RL .
Figure 3.87
Circuit Theorems
SOLUTION
Figure 3.88(a)
Figure 3.88(b)
Rt
Figure 3.88(c)
jj
jj
= Rab = 6 k 6 k 6 k
= 2 k
To find Vt :
Refer the Fig. 3.88(d).
Constraint equation :
V3
V1
By inspection,
KCL at supernode :
= 12 V
V2
=3V
V2
V3
6k
V3
6k
12
V3
6k
V1
6k
V3
V1
V2
=0
6k
12 3
=0
6k
Figure 3.88(d)
205
206
Network Theory
)
)
)
)
V3
3 + V3
12 + V3
15 = 0
3V3 = 30
= 10
V3
= Vab = V3 = 10 V
Vt
Figure 3.88(e)
The Thevenin equivalent circuit connected to the load resistor RL is shown in Fig. 3.88(e).
Pmax
= i2 RL
Vt
2
RL
2RL
= 12:5 mW
Alternate method :
It is possible to find Pmax , without finding the Thevenin equivalent circuit. However, we have to
find Rt . For maximum power transfer, RL = Rt = 2 k. Insert the value of RL in the original
circuit given in Fig. 3.87. Then use any circuit reduction technique of your choice to find power
dissipated in RL .
Refer Fig. 3.88(f). By inspection we find that, V2 = 3 V.
Constraint equation :
V3
V1
= 12
V1
= V3
V1
V2
12
KCL at supernode :
V2
V3
6k
)
)
)
)
V3
6k
V3
V3
12
6k
3 + V3
6k
3
V3
V3
2k
V3
6k
12
=0
+
=0
2k
6k
15 + 3V3 + V3 12 = 0
6V3 = 30
V3
Hence;
V1
Pmax
V3
RL
=5 V
25
= 12:5 mW
2k
Figure 3.88(f)
Circuit Theorems
EXAMPLE
207
3.29
Find RL for maximum power transfer and the maximum power that can be transferred in the
network shown in Fig. 3.89.
Figure 3.89
SOLUTION
Disconnect the load resistor RL . This results in a circuit as shown in Fig. 3.89(a).
Figure 3.89(a)
To find Rt , let us deactivate all the independent sources, which results the circuit as shown in
Fig. 3.89(b).
Rt = Rab = 2 k + 3 k + 5 k = 10 k
For maximum power transfer RL = Rt = 10 k.
Let us next find Voc or Vt .
Refer Fig. 3.89 (c). By inspection, i1 = 2 mA & i2 = 1 mA.
208
Network Theory
Figure 3.89(b)
! 3 k ! 2 k ! , we get
) + 2k + = 0
5k + 3k (
1 10
2 10
+3 10
2 10
+2 10
) 5 10 1 10
)
)
3
i1
i2
i2
i1
Vt
4 + Vt = 0
Vt
= 18 V:
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with load resistor RL is as shown in Fig. 3.89 (d).
18
= 0:9 mA
i =
(10 + 10) 103
Then,
Pmax
= PL = (0:9 mA)2
10 k
= 8:1 mW
Figure 3.89(c)
EXAMPLE
Figure 3.89(d)
3.30
Find the maximum power dissipated in RL . Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.90.
Figure 3.90
+ Vt = 0
Circuit Theorems
209
SOLUTION
Disconnecting the load resistor RL from the original circuit results in a circuit diagram as shown
in Fig. 3.91.
Figure 3.91
As a first step in the analysis, let us find Rt . While finding Rt , we have to deactivate all the
independent sources. This results in a network as shown in Fig 3.91 (a) :
Figure 3.91(a)
Rt
jj
= Rab = [140 60 ] + 8
140 60
=
+ 8 = 50 :
140 + 60
i2
+
20 170
=
= 17 A
170 + 30
= 20 30
=
=
R1
R2
R2
R1
R1
+ R2
600
= 3A
200
170 + 30
Figure 3.91(a)
210
Network Theory
10i1 + 8
) 50(3)
)
0+
Vt
EXAMPLE
b,
we get
10 (17) + Vt = 0
Vt
= 20 V
20
= 0:2A
50 + 50
2
Pmax = iT
50 = 0:04 50 = 2 W
=
=0
! 10 ! 8 !
RL
is
Figure 3.91(c)
3.31
RL
for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.92. Also
Figure 3.92
SOLUTION
Disconnecting RL from the original circuit, we get the network shown in Fig. 3.93.
Figure 3.93
Circuit Theorems
211
Let us draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a b and then insert
the value of RL = Rt between the terminals a b. To find Rt , let us deactivate all independent
sources which results in the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.94.
Figure 3.94
Rt
= Rab
jj
=8 2
8 2
=
= 1:6
8+2
Next step is to find Voc or Vt .
By performing source transformation on the circuit shown in Fig. 3.93, we obtain the circuit
shown in Fig. 3.95.
Figure 3.95
20 + 10i
! 3 ! 2 ! 10 V ! 5 ! 30 V, we get
10
30 = 0
60
i =
= 6A
10
212
Network Theory
Vt
= 2(6)
= 2i
! 10 V !
b,
we get
10
10 = 2 V
= i2T RL
2
=
EXAMPLE
Vt
4Rt
= 625 mW
3.32
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer. Hence find Pmax .
Figure 3.96
SOLUTION
Removing RL from the original circuit gives us the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.97.
Figure 3.97
To find Voc :
KCL at node A :
)
Hence;
ia
0:9 + 10i0a = 0
0
ia
Voc
= 0:1 A
= 3 10i0a
=3
10 0 1 = 3 V
:
Circuit Theorems
213
)
Hence
isc
ia
00
0:9 + 10ia 00 = 0
ia
= 10ia = 10
=
= 0:1 A
01=1A
00
Rt
00
Voc
isc
3
=3
1
3
= 0:5 A
3+3
= i2T RL
= (0:5)2
3
= 0.75 W
EXAMPLE
Figure 3.97(a)
3.33
Find the value of RL in the network shown that will achieve maximum power transfer, and determine the value of the maximum power.
Figure 3.98(a)
SOLUTION
Also
Hence;
Vx
10
10
12
=
4 10
12 + 2
i
=1
3i
+2 1
10
= 3 mA
3i
=0
Figure 3.98(b)
214
Network Theory
!2 !
1 10
Vx
Vt
a,
b
i
we get
+ 2Vx0
Vt
=0
10 + 2 1 10
= 1 10 + 2 10
= 3 10 3 10
3
=1
=9V
To find Rt , we need to find isc . While finding isc ,
none of the independent sources must be deactivated.
Applying KVL to mesh 1:
12 + Vx 00 + 0 = 0
)
)
00
= 12
i1
= 12
Vx
10
i1
= 12 mA
10
i2
+ 2Vx 00 = 0
10
i2
24
i2
24 mA
= i1
i2
= 12 + 24 = 36 mA
Hence;
Rt
Vt
isc
Voc
isc
9
=
36 10
= 250
9 2
500
= 81 mW
=
250
Circuit Theorems
EXAMPLE
215
3.34
The variable resistor RL in the circuit of Fig. 3.99 is adjusted untill it absorbs maximum power
from the circuit.
(a) Find the value of RL .
(b) Find the maximum power.
Figure 3.99
SOLUTION
RL
Figure 3.99(a)
KCL at node v1 :
100
v1
v1
13i0a
+
5
v2
v1
=0
(3.18)
Constraint equations :
0
ia
v1
v2
4
0
va
100
v1
= va0
= v1
(3.19)
v2
(applying K C L at v2 )
(3.20)
(potential across 4 )
(3.21)
216
Network Theory
)
)
)
v1
4
v2
v1
5v1
= v1
v2
= 4v1
4v2
5v2 = 0
v1
(3.22)
= v2
v1
)
)
)
)
13
v2
v1 )
(100
2
100) + 2
5 (v1
13
v1
500 + 2v1
5v1
13
(100
v1
v1
4
v1 )
=0
=0
2
100 + 13v1 = 0
20v1 = 1800
Hence;
We know that,
v1
= 90 Volts
vt
= v2 = v1 = 90 Volts
Rt
voc
isc
vt
isc
The short circuit current is calculated using the circuit shown below:
00
Here
Applying KCL at node v1 :
ia
100
v1
100
v1
v1
100
v1
2
13ia
0
v1
+
=0
5
4
(100 v1 )
13
v1
2
+
=0
5
4
v1
Circuit Theorems
v1
+ isc = va00
v1
+ va00
4
80
=
+ 80 = 100 A
4
voc
vt
=
Rt =
isc
Hence;
isc
isc
90
= 0:9
=
100
Hence for maximum power transfer,
RL
= Rt = 0:9
EXAMPLE
90 2
1:8
0 9 = 2250 W
:
3.35
Figure 3.100
217
218
Network Theory
SOLUTION
Removing the load resistor RL , we get the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.100(a). Let us proceed
to find Vt .
Figure 3.100(a)
Constraint equation :
0
ia
= i1
i3
200 + 1 (i1
i2 )
+ 20 (i1
25i1
i3 )
+ 4i1 = 0
i2
20i3 =
200
)
)
14i0a + 2 (i2
14 (i1
i3 )
+ 2 (i2
i3 )
+ 1 (i2
i1 )
=0
i3 )
+ 1 (i2
i1 )
=0
13i1 + 3i2
16i3 = 0
2 (i3
i2 )
i1 )
=0
2:5A; i3 = 5A
Vt
20i0a = 0
Vt
= 20i0a
= 20 (i1
i3 )
= 20 ( 2:5
=
150 V
5)
! 20 , we get
Circuit Theorems
When terminals a
Voc
isc
Vt
isc
200 + 1 (i1
i2 )
+ 4i1 = 0
5i1
i2
200
2 (i2
i3 )
+ 1 (i2
i1
+ 3i2
i1 )
=0
2i3 = 0
i2 )
=0
219
220
Network Theory
40A;
i3
= 20A;
= i1
i3 = 60A
150
Rt =
=
= 2:5
isc
60
For maximum power transfer, RL = Rt = 2:5 . The Thevenin equivalent circuit with RL is
as shown below :
isc
Vt
Pmax
= i21 RL
150
=
2:5 + 2:5
= 2250 W
EXAMPLE
2
25
:
3.36
10
250
=r
200 mA
20
20W to 80 corresponds to iL =
80
= 500 mA
Using the formula for division of current between two parallel branches :
10W to 250 corresponds to iL =
i2
0:2 =
and
0:5 =
R1
R1
+ R2
IN R N
RN
+ 250
IN R N
RN
+ 80
(3.23)
(3.24)
Circuit Theorems
221
= 1:7 A
= 33:33
(a) If vL iL is maximum,
= RN = 33:33
33:33
iL = 1:7
33:33 + 33:33
= 850 mA
RL
vL
(b) vL = IN (RN
.
RL =
Then, iL = 0 and
jj
= iL RL = 850
10 33 33
3
= 28:33 V
RL )
is a maximum when
vL
jj
RN RL
= 1 7 33 33
= 1:7
RN
= 56:66 V
(c)
3.5
iL
IN R N
RN
+ RL
is maxmimum when RL = 0
iL
= 1:7A and vL = 0 V
Circuits in the frequency domain with phasor currents and voltages and impedances are analogous
to resistive circuits.
To begin with, let us consider the principle of superposition, which may be restated as follows :
For a linear circuit containing two or more independent sources, any circuit voltage or
current may be calculated as the algebraic sum of all the individual currents or voltages caused
by each independent source acting alone.
Figure 3.102
222
Network Theory
The superposition principle is particularly useful if a circuit has two or more sources acting
at different frequencies. The circuit will have one set of impedance values at one frequency and a
different set of impedance values at another frequency. Phasor responses corresponding to different frequencies cannot be superposed; only their corresponding sinusoids can be superposed. That
is, when frequencies differ, the principle of superposition applies to the summing of time domain
components, not phasors. Within a component, problem corresponding to a single frequency,
however phasors may be superposed.
Thevenin and Norton equivalents in phasor circuits are found exactly in the same manner
as described earlier for resistive circuits, except for the subtitution of impedance Z in place of
resistance R and subsequent use of complex arithmetic. The Thevenin and Norton equivalent
circuits are shown in Fig. 3.101 and 3.102.
The Thevenin and Norton forms are equivalent if the relations
(a) Zt = ZN
(b) Vt = ZN IN
(a) If the circuit contains only impedances and independent sources, then deactivate all the
independent sources and then find Zt by using circuit reduction techniques.
(b) If the circuit contains impedances, independent sources and dependent sources, then
either shortcircuit the terminals and determine Isc from which
Zt =
Voc
Isc
or deactivate the independent sources, connect a voltage or current source at the terminals, and
determine both V and I at the terminals from which
Zt =
V
I
(a) If the circuit contains only impedances and independent sources, then deactivate all the
independent sources and then find ZN = Zt by using circuit reduction techniques.
(b) If the circuit contains impedances, independent sources and one or more dependent
Voc
sources, find the opencircuit voltage at the terminals, Voc , so that ZN = Zt =
:
Isc
Circuit Theorems
EXAMPLE
223
3.37
Figure 3.103
SOLUTION
To find Zt , deactivate all the independent sources. This results in a circuit diagram as shown
in Fig. 3.103 (a).
Figure 3.103(a)
224
Network Theory
jj
Zt = j 10 (8 j 5)
(j 10)(8 j 5)
=
j 10 + 8
j5
= 10 /26
The Thevenin equivalent circuit as
viewed from the terminals a
b is
as shown in Fig 3.103(b). Performing
source transformation on the Thevenin
equivalent circuit, we get the Norton
equivalent circuit.
Vt
33:92 /58
=
Zt
10 /26
= 3:392 /32 A
IN =
ZN = Zt = 10 /26
EXAMPLE
3.38
Find vo using Thevenins theorem. Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.104.
Figure 3.104
SOLUTION
Let us convert the circuit given in Fig. 3.104 into a frequency domain equiavalent or phasor circuit
(shown in Fig. 3.105(a)). ! = 1
10 cos (t
45 )
60 )
L
C
!
= 1F !
= 1H
j !L
1
j !C
!
!
=j
=
10 / 45 V
5 / 60 V
11= 1
1
11 = 1
Circuit Theorems
225
Figure 3.105(a)
Disconnecting the capicator from the original circuit, we get the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.105(b). This circuit is used for finding Vt .
Figure 3.105(b)
KCL at node a :
Vt
10 / 45
Vt 5 / 60
+
=0
3
j1
Vt = 4:97 / 40:54
Solving;
Figure 3.105(c)
jj
Vo =
Hence;
vo
j 1)
226
Network Theory
EXAMPLE
3.39
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.106.
Figure 3.106
SOLUTION
Since terminals a
are open,
Va = Is
10
= 20 /0 V
Applying KVL clockwise for the mesh on the right hand side of the circuit, we get
3Va + 0 (j 10) + Voc
Va = 0
Voc = 4Va
= 80 /0 V
Let us transform the current source with 10 parallel resistance to a voltage source with 10
series resistance as shown in figure below :
Circuit Theorems
3V0a
0
4Va
j 10I
+ Vo = 0
j 10I
+ Vo = 0
V0a = 10I
Since
= Vo
Vo
= 40 + j 10
Zt =
I
we get
40I
Hence;
j 10I
EXAMPLE
Figure 3.106(a)
3.40
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.107.
Figure 3.107
SOLUTION
2Voc
j 10
Voc =
Voc
=0
j5
100 100
j
=
/ 90 V
3
3
10 +
227
228
Network Theory
Figure 3.108
Since Voc = 0, the above circuit takes the form shown in Fig 3.108 (b).
Isc = 10 /0 A
100
/ 90
Voc
10
3
Hence;
Zt =
=
=
/ 90
Isc
10 /0
3
The Thevenin equivalent and the Norton equivalent circuits are as shown below.
EXAMPLE
Figure
Norton equivalent
3.41
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits in frequency domain for the network shown in
Fig. 3.109.
Circuit Theorems
Figure 3.109
SOLUTION
100 /0
100
=
A
j 300 + j 100
j 200
= I1 (j 100)
100
(j 100) = 50 /0 Volts
=
j 200
I1 =
Vab1
229
230
Network Theory
100 /90
j 100
j 300
Vab2 = I2 ( j 300)
100 /90
=
(
j 100
j 300
Vt = Vab1 + Vab2
I2 =
Hence;
j 300)
= j 150 V
50 + j 150
= 158:11 /108:43 V
To find Zt , deactivate all the independent sources.
jj
Zt = j 100
j 300
j 100( j 300)
=
= j 150
j 100
j 300
Hence the Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.109(a). Performing source transformation on the Thevenin equivalent circuit, we get the Norton equivalent circuit.
158:11 /108:43
Vt
=
= 1:054 /18:43 A
Zt
150 /90
ZN = Zt = j 150
IN =
Figure 3.109(a)
Figure 3.109(b)
Circuit Theorems
3.6
231
We have earlier shown that for a resistive network, maximum power is transferred from a source to
the load, when the load resistance is set equal to the Thevenin resistance with Thevenin equivalent
source. Now we extend this result to the ac circuits.
Figure 3.111
In Fig. 3.110, the linear circuit is made up of impedances, independent and dependent sources.
This linear circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.111. The load
impedance could be a model of an antenna, a TV, and so forth. In rectangular form, the Thevenin
impedance Zt and the load impedance ZL are
Zt = Rt + jXt
ZL = RL + jXL
and
The current through the load is
I=
Vt
Vt
=
Zt + ZL
(Rt + jXt ) + (RL + jXL )
The phasors I and Vt are the maximum values. The corresponding RM S values are obtained
by dividing the maximum values by 2. Also, the RM S value of phasor current flowing in the
load must be taken for computing the average power delivered to the load. The average power
delivered to the load is given by
P
=
=
jj
1 2
I RL
2
jV j
t
2
2 RL
2
(Rt + RL ) (Xt + XL )2
(3.25)
Our idea is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is maximum. To do this, we
get
@P
@RL
and
@P
@XL
equal to zero.
232
Network Theory
@P
@XL
@P
@RL
j j
Vt
RL (Xt
+ XL )
(Rt + RL )2 + (Xt + XL )2
j j
Vt
i2
(Rt + RL )2 + (Xt + XL )2
2 (Rt + RL )2 + (Xt + XL )2
@P
Setting
@XL
XL
@P
and Setting
@RL
RL
2RL (Rt + RL )
i2
= 0 gives
=
(3.26)
Xt
= 0 gives
Rt2
+ (Xt + XL )2
(3.27)
Combining equations (3.26) and (3.27), we can conclude that for maximum average power
transfer, ZL must be selected such that XL = Xt and RL = Rt . That is the maximum average power of a circuit with an impedance Zt that is obtained when ZL is set equal to complex
conjugate of Zt .
Setting RL = Rt and XL = Xt in equation (3.25), we get the maximum average power as
P
j j
=
Vt
8Rt
In a situation where the load is purely real, the condition for maximum power transfer is
obtained by putting XL = 0 in equation (3.27). That is,
RL
Rt2
j j
+ Xt2 = Zt
Hence for maximum average power transfer to a purely resistive load, the load resistance is
equal to the magnitude of Thevenin impedance.
3.6.1 Maximum Power Transfer When Z is Restricted
Maximum average power can be delivered to ZL only if ZL = Zt . There are few situations in
which this is not possible. These situations are described below :
(i)
+ (XL + Xt )2 :
(ii) Magnitude of ZL can be varied but its phase angle cannot be. Under this restriction,
greatest amount of power is transferred to the load when [ZL ] = Zt .
j j
Circuit Theorems
EXAMPLE
233
3.42
Find the load impedance that transfers the maximum power to the load and determine the maximum power quantity obtained for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.112.
Figure 3.112
SOLUTION
Hence
EXAMPLE
jj
1 2
I RL
2
1
= (1)2 5 = 2:5 W
2
=
3.43
Find the load impedance that transfers the maximum average power to the load and determine the
maximum average power transferred to the load ZL shown in Fig. 3.113.
Figure 3.113
234
Network Theory
SOLUTION
The first step in the analysis is to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit by disconnecting the load
ZL . This leads to a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.114.
Figure 3.114
Vt = Voc = 4 /0
Hence
3
= 12 /0 Volts(RMS)
To find Zt , let us deactivate all the independent sources of Fig. 3.114. This leads to a circuit
diagram as shown in Fig 3.114 (a):
Zt = 3 + j 4
Figure 3.115
12 /0
3 + j4 + 3
j4
= 2 /0 A(RMS)
jj
It
RL
= 4(3) = 12 W
1
It may be noted that the scaling factor
is not taken since the phase current is already
2
expressed by its RM S value.
Circuit Theorems
EXAMPLE
235
3.44
Refer the circuit given in Fig. 3.116. Find the value of RL that will absorb the maximum average
power.
Figure 3.116
SOLUTION
Disconnecting the load resistor RL from the original circuit diagram leads to a circuit diagram as
shown in Fig. 3.117.
Figure 3.117
Vt = Voc = I1 (j 20)
150 /30
j 20
=
(40 j 30 + j 20)
= 72:76 /134 Volts:
To find Zt , let us deactivate all the independent sources present in Fig. 3.117 as shown in
Fig 3.117 (a).
jj
Zt = (40 j 30) j 20
j 20 (40
j 30)
=
= (9:412 + j 22:35)
j 20 + 40
j 30
236
Network Theory
j j
= Zt =
(9:412)2 + (22:35)2
= 24:25
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with RL inserted
is as shown in Fig 3.117 (b).
Maximum average power absorbed by RL is
Pmax
where
1
2
jj
It
RL
72:76 /134
(9:412 + j 22:35 + 24:25)
= 1:8 /100:2 A
1
2
Pmax = (1:8)
24:25
2
= 39:29 W
It =
EXAMPLE
3.45
For the circuit of Fig. 3.118: (a) what is the value of ZL that will absorb the maximum average
power? (b) what is the value of maximum power?
Figure 3.118
SOLUTION
Disconnecting ZL from the original circuit we get the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.119. The first
step is to find Vt .
Circuit Theorems
Vt = Voc = I1 (
j 10)
120 /0
(
10 + j 15 j 10
j 10)
= 107:33 / 116:57 V
The next step is to find Zt . This requires deactivating the independent
voltage source of Fig. 3.119.
jj
Zt = (10 + j 15) (
=
=8
Figure 3.119
j 10)
j 10 (10
j 10
+ j 15)
+ 10 + j 15
j 14
107:33 / 116:57
8 j 14 + 8 + j 14
107:33
=
/ 116:57 A
16
1
2
Pmax =
It R L
2
1 107:33 2
8
=
2
16
= 180 Walts
It =
Hence;
jj
237
238
Network Theory
EXAMPLE
3.46
(a) For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.120, what is the value of ZL that results in maximum average
power that will be transferred to ZL ? What is the maximum power ?
(b) Assume that the load resistance can be varied between 0 and 4000 and the capacitive
reactance of the load can be varied between 0 and 2000 . What settings of RL and XC
transfer the most average power to the load ? What is the maximum average power that can
be transferred under these conditions?
Figure 3.120
SOLUTION
(a) If there are no constraints on RL and XL , the load indepedance ZL = Zt = (3000 j 4000) .
Since the voltage source is given in terms of its RM S value, the average maximum power
delivered to the load is
Pmax
RL
10 /0
3000 + j 4000 + 3000
10
=
A
2 3000
2
Pmax = It RL
100
=
3000
4 (3000)2
= 8:33 mW
jj
)
(b) Since
=
It =
where
XC
jj
= It
RL
and
XC
Thus,
RL
j 4000
Rt2
XC
as close to
+ (XC + XL ) as possible.
RL
to 3605:55 . Hence ZL is
Circuit Theorems
10 /0
3000 + j 4000 + 3605:55
= 1:4489 / 16:85 mA
It =
239
j 2000
jj
= It
RL
= 1:4489
10
3 2
= 7:57 mW
3605 55
:
Note that this is less than the power that can be delivered if there are no constraints on
and XL .
EXAMPLE
RL
3.47
A load impedance having a constant phase angle of 45 is connected across the load terminals
a and b in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.121. The magnitude of ZL is varied until the average power
delivered, which is the maximum possible under the given restriction.
(a) Specify ZL in rectangular form.
(b) Calculate the maximum average power delivered under this condition.
Figure 3.121
SOLUTION
jZ j = pjZ j
t
(3000)2 + (4000)2
= 5000 :
Hence;
j j
p
ZL = ZL / 45
5000
5000
j
=
2
2
240
Network Theory
It =
10 /0
(3000 + 3535:53) + j (4000
3535:53)
= 1:526 / 4:07 mA
Pmax
jj
= It
RL
= 1:526
10
3 2
3535 53
:
= 8:23 mW
This power is the maximum average power that can be delivered by this circuit to a load
impedance whose angle is constant at 45 . Again this quantity is less than the maximum
power that could have been delivered if there is no restriction on ZL . In example 3.46 part (a),
we have shown that the maximum power that can be delivered without any restrictions on ZL
is 8.33 mW.
3.7
Reciprocity theorem
The reciprocity theorem states that in a linear bilateral single source circuit, the ratio of excitation to response is constant when the positions of excitation and response are interchanged.
Conditions to be met for the application of reciprocity theorem :
3.48
Figure 3.122
Circuit Theorems
241
SOLUTION
Then;
+2
R1
= (8
R2
= 1:6 + 4 = 5:6
= 1:6
= (5:6 1 + 4 1 ) 1 = 2:3333
20
= 3:16 A
Current supplied by the source =
4 + 2:3333
4
= 1:32 A
Current in branch ab = Iab = 3:16
4 + 4 + 1: 6
8
= 1:05 A
Current in 2; I1 = 1:32
10
R3
= 2;
R5
= 6;
R6
= 3:4286
20
= 3:6842A
3:4286 + 2
242
Network Theory
Therefore,
Icd
= 3:6842
8 +8 6 = 2 1053A
:
I2
2:1053
= 1:05A
2
3.49
In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.124, find the current through 1:375 resistor and hence verify
reciprocity theorem.
Figure 3.124
SOLUTION
Figure 3.125
2I2
3I3 = 0
10I3 = 0
10I2 + 14I3 =
10
Circuit Theorems
2
4
6:375
2
3
2
14
10
32
54
3
10
14
I1
I2
3 2
5=4
I3
0
0
10
243
3
5
2A
Negative sign indicates that the assumed direction of current flow should have been the other way.
Verification using reciprocity theorem :
The circuit is redrawn by interchanging the positions of excitation and response. The new circuit
is shown in Fig. 3.126.
Figure 3.126
The mesh equations in matrix form for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.126 is
2
4
6:375
2
3
2 3
14 10
10 14
32
54
I1
0
I2
3 2
5=4
I3
10
0
0
3
5
I3
Since I1 = I30 =
EXAMPLE
2A
3.50
Find the current Ix in the j 2 impedance and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
Figure 3.127
244
Network Theory
SOLUTION
With reference to the Fig. 3.127, the current through j 2 impepance is found using series parallel
reduction techniques.
Total impedance of the circuit is
jj
ZT = (2 + j 3) + ( j 5) (3 + j 2)
( j 5)(3 + j 2)
= 2 + j3 +
j5 + 3 + j2
= 6:537 /19:36
The total current in the network is
36 /0
6:537 /19:36
= 5:507 / 19:36 A
IT =
Ix =
jj
Z0T = (3 + j 2) + (2 + j 3) ( j 5)
(2 + j 3) ( j 5)
= (3 + j 2) +
2 + j3 j5
= 9:804 /19:36
The total current in the circuit is
I0T =
36 /0
0
ZT
= 3:672 / 19:36 A
Figure 3.128
EXAMPLE
3.51
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.129. Find current through the ammeter, and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
Circuit Theorems
Figure 3.129
SOLUTION
2
4
16
1
10
1
26
20
10
20
30
32
54
I1
I2
3 2
5=4
I3
0
0
50
3
5
= 4:6 A
I2
= 5:4 A
I1
Figure 3.130
2
4
15
0
10
0
25
20
10
20
31
32
54
I1
0
I2
0
I3
3 2
5=4
50
50
0
3
5
I3
= 0:8 A
Figure 3.131
245
246
Network Theory
3.52
Find current through 5 ohm resistor shown in Fig. 3.132 and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
Figure 3.132
SOLUTION
2
4
12
0
0 2 + j 10
2
2
2
2
9
32
54
I1
I2
I3
3 2
5=4
20
20
0
3
5
Figure 3.133
Circuit Theorems
2
4
12
0
0 2 + j 10
2
2
2
2
9
32
5 64
I01
I02
I03
3 2
75 = 4
0
0
20
247
3
5
Hence;
I01 =
0:3179
j 0:4335
= 0:5376 / 126:25 A
The response in both cases remains the same. Thus verifying reciprocity theorem.
3.8
Millmans theorem
It is possible to combine number of voltage sources or current sources into a single equivalent voltage or current source using Millmans theorem. Hence, this theorem is quite useful in
calculating the total current supplied to the load in a generating station by a number of generators
connected in parallel across a busbar.
En
Millmans theorem states that if n number of generators having generated emfs E1 , E2 ;
and internal impedances Z1 ; Z2 ;
Zn are connected in parallel, then the emfs and impedances
can be combined to give a single equivalent emf of E with an internal impedance of equivalent
value Z.
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + : : : + En Yn
Y1 + Y2 + : : : + Yn
1
Z=
Y1 + Y2 + : : : + Yn
E=
where
and
where Y1 ; Y2
Yn are the admittances corresponding to the internal impedances Z1 ; Z2
and are given by
1
Z1
1
Y2 =
Z2
..
.
1
Yn =
Zn
Z
Y1 =
248
Network Theory
Figure 3.134
The Thevenin equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.134 using Millmans theorem is shown in Fig. 3.135.
The nodal equation at x gives
)
)
E1 E E2 E
En E
+
+
+
=0
Z1
Z2
Zn
1 1
E E
En
1
1
2
=E
+
+
+
+
+
+
Z1
Z2
Zn
Zn
Z1 1 Z2
+ En Yn = E
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 +
Z
Figure 3.135
+ E Y ] = EY
E Y + E Y + + E Y
E=
Y
Y = Y + Y + + Y
1
1
Z=
=
Y
Y + Y + + Y
[E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 +
or
where
and
EXAMPLE
3.53
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.136. Find the current through 10 resistor using Millmans
theorem.
Figure 3.136
Circuit Theorems
249
SOLUTION
Using Millmans theorem, the circuit shown in Fig. 3.136 is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent
circuit across the terminals P Q as shown in Fig. 3.137.
E=
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 E3 Y3
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
22
1
1
12
1
1
1
+
+
5 12 4
= 10:13 Volts
1
R=
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
1
=
0:2 + 0:083 + 0:25
= 1:88
=
+ 48
12
Hence;
EXAMPLE
1
4
Figure 3.137
IL
E
R
+ 10
= 0:853 A
3.54
j 3)
Figure 3.138
SOLUTION
The circuit shown in Fig. 3.138 is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the
terminals, A and B using Millmans theorem. Fig. 3.139 shows the Thevenin equivalent circuit
along with ZL = 10 j 3 :
250
Network Theory
Figure 3.139
E=
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 E3 Y3
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
1
100 /0
+ 90 /45
1
10
+ 80 /30
1
20
1
1
1
+
+
5 10 20
= 88:49 /15:66 V
Z=R=
1
=
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
1
1
5
1
10
1
20
= 2:86
I=
88:49 /15:66
E
=
= 6:7 /28:79 A
Z + ZL
2:86 + 10 j 3
E=
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + E3 Y3 + E4 Y4
Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4
Alternately,
100
5
+ 90 45 10 1 + 80 30
5 1 + 10 1 + 20 1 + (10 j 3)
20
= 70 /12 V
Therefore;
70 /12
10 j 3
= 6:7 /28:8 A
EXAMPLE
3.55
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.140. Use Millmans theorem to find the current through (5+j 5)
impedance.
Circuit Theorems
251
Figure 3.140
SOLUTION
The original circuit is redrawn after performing source transformation of 5 A in parallel with 4
resistor into an equivalent voltage source and is shown in Fig. 3.141.
Figure 3.141
Therefore current in (5 + j 5) is
I=
8:14 /4:83
= 1:15 / 40:2 A
5 + j5
Alternately
EP Q with (5 + j 5) open
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + E3 Y3
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
4 2 1 + 8 3 1 + 20
=
2 1+3 1+4 1
= 8:9231V
EP Q =
4
252
Network Theory
Equivalent resistance R = (2 1 + 3
Therefore current in (5 + j 5) is
I
EXAMPLE
+4
1) 1
= 0:9231
8:9231
= 1:15 / 40:2 A
0:9231 + 5 + j 5
3.56
Figure 3.142
SOLUTION
The Thevenin equivalent circuit using Millmans theorem for the given problem is as shown in
Fig. 3.142(a).
E=
where
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2
Y1 + Y2
10 /10
=
1
+ 25 /90
3 + j4
1
1
+
3 + j4 5
1
5
= 10:06 /97:12 V
1
1
Z=
=
1
1
Y1 + Y2
+
3 + j4 5
= 2:8 /26:56
Hence;
IL =
E
10:06 /97:12
=
Z + 2 2:8 /26:56 + 2
= 2:15 /81:63 A
Figure 3.142(a)
Circuit Theorems
Reinforcement problems
R.P
3.1
Find the current in 2 resistor connected between A and B by using superposition theorem.
SOLUTION
Fig. R.P. 3.1(a), shows the circuit with 2V-source acting alone (4V-source is shorted).
Resistance as viewed from 2V-source is 2 + R1 ,
where
Hence;
Then;
R1
3 2
+1
12
5
(1:2 + 1) 12
= 1:8592
=
14:2
2
Ia =
= 0:5182 A
2 + 1:8592
12
Ib = Ia
= 0:438 A
12 + 1 + 1:2
3
I1 = 0:438
= 0:2628 A
5
With 4V-source acting alone, the circuit is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.1(b).
Figure R.P.3.1(b)
253
254
Network Theory
2 12
+1
2
14
2:7143 2
= 1:1551
=
4:7143
4
Hence;
Ib =
= 0:9635 A
3 + 1:1551
Ib 2:7143
= 0:555 A
Thus;
I2 =
4:7143
Finally, applying the principle of superposition,
we get,
IAB = I1 + I2
= 0:2628 + 0:555
= 0:818 A
R.P
3.2
For the network shown in Fig. R.P. 3.2, apply superposition theorem and find the current I.
Open the 5A-current source and retain the voltage source. The resulting network is as shown in
Fig. R.P. 3.2(a).
Circuit Theorems
255
j 2)
(8 + j 10) (
8 + j8
j 2)
Ia =
= 6:01 / 45
j 20
= 3:328 /135 A
Z
Next, short the voltage source and retain the current source. The resulting network is as shown
in Fig. R.P. 3.2 (b).
Here, I3 = 5A. Applying KVL for mesh 1 and mesh 2, we
get
Hence;
8I1 + (I1
and
(I2
I1 ) (
I2 ) (
5) j 10 + (I1
j 2)
+ (I2
5) (
j 2)
j 2)
=0
+ 4I2 = 0
Simplifying, we get
(8 + j 8)I1 + j 2I2 = j 50
and
j 2I1
+ (4
j 4)I2
j 10
Solving, we get
8 + j 8
j2
Ib = I2 =
8 + j 8
j 50
j 10
j2
4 j4
= 2:897 / 23:96 A
j2
3.3
Apply superposition theorem and find the voltage across 1 resistor. Refer the circuit shown in
Fig. R.P. 3.3. Take v1 (t) = 5 cos (t + 10 ) and i2 (t) = 3 sin 2t A.
256
Network Theory
SOLUTION
To begin with let us assume v1 (t) alone is acting. Accordingly, short 10V - source and open i2 (t).
The resulting phasor network is shown in Fig. R.P. 3.3(a).
!
= 1rad=sec
! 5 /10
= 1H !
1
= 1F !
1
= H!
2
1
1
= F!
2
5 cos (t + 10 )
L1
C1
L2
C2
V
= j1
j !L1
j !C1
j !L2
j !C2
j1
=j
j2
va (t)
i2 (t)
C2
L2
= 5 cos [t + 10 ]
alone is acting.
= 2 rad=sec
! 3 /0
1
= 1F !
= 1H !
1
1
= F!
2
1
= H!
2
3 sin 2t
L1
Va = 5 /10 V
C1
j !C1
2
j !L1 = j 2
j !C2
j !L2
j1
= j1
Vb = 3 /0
vb (t)
1 +1 51 5 = 2 5 /33 7
j :
j :
Finally with 10V-source acting alone, the network is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.3(c). Since
= 0, inductors are shorted and capacitors are opened.
Hence, Vc = 10 V
Applying principle of superposition, we
get.
!
v2 (t)
= va (t) = vb (t) + Vc
= 5 cos (t + 10 ) + 2:5 sin (2t + 33:7 ) + 10Volts
Figure R.P. 3.3(c)
Circuit Theorems
R.P
257
3.4
Calculate the current through the galvanometer for the Kelvin double bridge shown in Fig. R.P.
3.4. Use Thevenins theorem. Take the resistance of the galvanometer as 30 .
SOLUTION
With G being open, the resulting network is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.4(a).
Figure 3.4(a)
VA
I2
10
100 = 450
100 = 209 V
5 =01
10
=
=
= 1 66
45 5
45 + 5
15+
50
= 05+
10
= I1
IB
I2
Hence;
VB
I2
IB
= 2:5 V
Thus;
VAB
= Vt = VA
VB
20
9
2:5 =
5
Volts
18
: I2
258
Network Theory
To find Rt , short circuit the voltage source. The resulting network is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.4(b).
35
10 = 7
50
RE
35 5
= 3:5 ;
50
RF
10 = 1
50
Hence;
RAB
3.5
Find Is and R so that the networks N1 and N2 shown in Fig. R.P. 3.5 are equivalent.
Circuit Theorems
259
Transforming the current source in N1 into an equivalent voltage source, we get N3 as shown in
Fig. R.P. 3.5(a).
V
I R = IS R
(3.28)
From N3 , we can write,
From N2 we can write,
Also from N2 ,
I
V
)
)
)
V
V
10Ia
3=
2Ia
3=
3=
I
10
=3
(3.29)
R.P
= 0:2
and
and
IS R
IS
=3
=
3
= 15A
0:2
3.6
Obtain the Nortons equivalent of the network shown in Fig. R.P. 3.6.
260
Network Theory
SOLUTION
Terminals a and b are shorted. This results in a network as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.6(a)
6I3 = 30
(3.30)
(ii)
(3.31)
(iii)
(i)
6I1
25I2 + 23I3 = 0
= Isc = I3 = 1:4706A
Hence;
Then;
Hence;
9I1 = 30
30
A
I1 =
9
25I2 = 50
30
and I2 =
A
25
30
VX = 10I2 = 10
= 12 V
25
6I1 4VX
Vt = Voc = 15I2
=
Thus;
Rt
and
50 V
Voc
Isc
50
=
1:4706
34
(3.32)
Circuit Theorems
R.P
261
3.7
For the network shown in Fig. R.P. 3.7, find the Thevenins equivalent to show that
and
Vt
Zt
V1
2
3
(1 + a + b
ab)
With xy open, I1 =
Hence,
Voc
aV1
V1
= Vt = aV1 + I1 + bI1
= aV1 +
=
V1
aV1
V1
[1 + a + b
+b
V
aV1
ab]
)
)
I1
+ (I1
2I1
(I2
I1 )
I2 )
= V1
aV1
I2
= V1
aV1
(3.33)
+ I2 = aV1 + bI1
(3.34)
(1 + b) I1 + 2I2 = aV1
= I2 =
V1
(1 + a + b
3 b
ab)
262
Network Theory
Hence;
Zt
=
=
R.P
Voc
Isc
(1 + a + b
2 V1 (1 + a + b
V1
ab)
ab)
(3
b)
3.8
SOLUTION
Let IAE = x and IEF = y . Then by applying KCL at various junctions, the branch currents are
marked as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.8(a). Isc = 125 x = IAB on shorting A and B .
Applying KVL to the loop ABC F EA, we get
0:04x + 0:01y + 0:02 (y
20) + 0:03 (x
105) = 0
(3.35)
30) 0:03 + (x
55) 0:02
(y
20) 0:02
0:05x
0:01y = 0
0:08y = 1:6
(3.36)
Circuit Theorems
263
Hence;
Isc
= 46:76 A
= IN = 120
= 78:24 A
The circuit to calculate
opened.
Rt
Rt
= 0:03 + 0:04 +
0:03 0:05
0:08
= 0:08875
264
Network Theory
= 78:24
0 08875
0 08875
+ 0 04
:
= 53:9A
R.P
3.9
For the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 3.9, find R such that the maximum power delivered to the load
is 3 mW.
SOLUTION
Pmax
Vt
4Rt
Vt
R
Vt
R
Simplifying we get
Vt = 2 Volts
With all voltage sources shorted, the resistance,
found as follows:
1
Rt
Rt
=
=
1
R
R
1
R
Vt
R
Rt
=0
1
R
3
R
and b is
Circuit Theorems
22
3
=
= 3 103
R
R
4 3
R = 1 k
Hence,
Pmax =
R.P
| 265
3.10
Refer Fig. R.P. 3.10, find X1 and X2 interms of R1 and R2 to give maximum power dissipation
in R2 .
R1 (jX1 )
R1 + jX1
R1 X12 + jR12 X1
R12 + X12
Figure R.P. 3.10(a)
Hence,
R2 + jX2 =
R2 =
R1 X12
R12 X1
j
R12 + X12
R12 + X12
R1 X12
R12 + X12
X1 = R1
X2 =
R2
R1 R2
R12 X1
R12 + X12
(3.37)
(3.38)
266
Network Theory
Exercise Problems
E.P
3.1
Find ix for the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.1 by using principle of superposition.
Ans : ix =
E.P
1
A
4
3.2
Ans :
E.P
1.0625 A
3.3
Ans :
0.3826 A
Circuit Theorems
E.P
3.4
Ans :
E.P
8.3 /85.3 A
3.5
Ans :
E.P
3.07 / 163.12 A
3.6
Ans :
0.406 A
267
268
E.P
Network Theory
3.7
Ans :
E.P
Vt = 6.29 V, Rt = 9.43
3.8
Ans :
E.P
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.9.
Ans :
Vt = 17.14 volts, Rt = 4
Circuit Theorems
E.P
3.10
b.
Ans :
E.P
Vt =
30 V, Rt = 10 k
3.11
Ans :
E.P
Ans :
269
270
E.P
Network Theory
3.13
Ans :
E.P
IN =
4 A, Rt = RN
100
=
, IL =
7
0.5 A
3.14
Ans :
E.P
IN
3.15
Ans :
IN = 5 A, RN = Rt = 6
Circuit Theorems
E.P
271
3.16
Find the Norton equivalent of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.16.
Ans :
E.P
IN = 8.87 A, RN = Rt = 43.89
3.17
Determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer and also find the maximum power transferred.
Ans :
E.P
Calculate the value of ZL for maximum power transfer and also calculate the maximum power.
Ans :
272
E.P
Network Theory
3.19
Determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer and also calculate the value of maximum
power.
Ans :
E.P
Determine the value of ZL for maximum power transfer. What is the value of maximum power?
Ans :
E.P
y.
Ans :
E.P
Circuit Theorems
273
Ans :
E.P
Ans :
E.P
Ans :
0.15A
274
E.P
Network Theory
3.25
Ans :
E.P
Find Vx in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.26 and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
Ans :
E.P
Vx = 9.28 /21.81 V
3.27
Find Vx in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.27 and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
Ans :
Vx = 10.23 Volts
Circuit Theorems
E.P
3.28
Find the current ix in the bridge circuit and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
Ans :
E.P
ix = 0.031 A
3.29
Ans :
E.P
I = 2.05 A
3.30
Find the current through the impedance of (10 + j 10) using Millmans theorem.
Ans :
3.384 /12.6 A
275
276
E.P
Network Theory
3.31
Using Millmans theorem, find the current flowing through the impedance of (4 + j 3) .
Ans :
3.64 / 15.23 A