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Note: Italicized words other than publications or scientific nomenclature are defined in the glossary.
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Other pesticides capable of hydrolytic degradation The hyphae release extracellular enzymes, which
are: carbamate pesticides, urea derivatives, break down the pesticide and allow it to pass into
pyrethroids, diazinon, dicamba, dichloropicolinic the cells. This allows the production of additional
acid, dimethoate, phenylalkanoic ester, hyphae and/or energy. Although fungi are present
dimethoate, phenylalkanoic pyrazon, atrazine, in compost feedstock, they contribute more to
linuron, propanil, chlorpyrifos, and 2,4-D.Two other composting in its later stages. As bacteria exhaust
classes of enzymes, mono- and di-oxygenases, the easily degraded organic matter from the
are also commonly associated with pesticide feedstock, fungi then begin to degrade the more
degradation. These enzymes introduce one or two recalcitrant polymeric organic matter.
oxygen atoms, respectively, into the structure of a
Intracellular Decomposition
pesticide. This oxidation process often makes the
After extracellular enzymes begin breaking down a
pesticide more amenable to further degradation by
pesticide or if it is otherwise bioavailable, a
increasing its water solubility, thereby increasing
pesticide may enter the cell of a microorganism.
its bioavailability. Degradation may begin at the
To pass into a cell efficiently, the pesticide must
extracellular level and then proceed further at the
be dissolved in water. Generally pesticides
intracellular level.
containing more oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur tend
Extracellular Decomposition to be more water soluble due to hydrogen
Many of the same enzymes microorganisms use bonding.
to break down cellulose, hemicellulose, and
Once inside a cell, a pesticide may undergo
lignin—the primary natural compounds in most
varying degrees of degradation. Mineralization
plant material—may also degrade pesticides
reduces the pesticide to carbon dioxide, water,
during composting. The large polymeric structure
and other inorganic components. Typically, it
of these natural compounds prevents their
accounts for only a small portion of the
passage into the microorganism for consumption.
“disappearance” of a pesticide through
To deal with this problem, microorganisms begin composting.
breaking down chemicals outside their “body,” or
Adsorption
extracellularly. They excrete enzymes out of their
Water-insoluble pesticides tend to adsorb onto
cells that react with the bonds in cellulose,
and within organic matter, making them even less
hemicellulose, and/or lignin, breaking them down
bioavailable. The chemistry of the functional
into smaller components. The shortened polymers
groups in the pesticide and the organic matter
can then be subjected to further degradation.
dictates the strength of this pesticide-organic
Extracellular enzymes can have very low matter interaction.
“specificity,” working like a key that fits different
Adsorbed pesticides are generally much more
locks. They can, therefore, react with many
resistant to breakdown than water-soluble
different chemicals. If the enzyme finds a pesticide
pesticides. This is because the latter have a much
before reaching its “intended” substrate (for
greater chance of contact with pesticide-degrading
example, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin), it may
microorganisms as described above.
react with it, changing the pesticide into a possibly
Consequently, highly adsorbed pesticides are not
less toxic and less hazardous form. Such co-
considered bioavailable, enabling them to persist
metabolism appears to play a significant role in
for months or even years. However, when a
degrading pesticides found in compost and soil.
pesticide is adsorbed to organic matter that
Fungi are the source of most extracellular eventually decomposes, it may once again
enzymes. Some fungi often associated with become bioavailable.
compost and soil organic matter are in the genera
Additional factors can make adsorption a likely
Trichoderma, Gliocladium, Penicillium, and
outcome for even water-soluble pesticides. For
Phanerochaete. Fungi grow through the
example, many pesticides contain acidic and
development of hyphae (long strings of cells) that
nitrogen-containing functional groups that can
extend throughout compost or soil organic matter.
adsorb due to the presence of a negative or
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mineralization. Racke and Frink ended their occasions. In particular, after the inadvertent
experiment after a short time (20 days), also composting of contaminated grassy material or
drawing criticism. But both studies suggest that manure at two separate Washington composting
appreciable mineralization of a pesticide during facilities, routine laboratory tests on the resulting
composting may take more processing time. compost by the commercial composting facility did
not indicate the presence of pesticides.
Other studies focused on volatilization and
Subsequent tomato damage first surfaced during
mineralization in pesticide degradation. Petruska
2000 and prompted more sensitive laboratory
et al. (1985) showed the importance of
analysis of the compost that indicated 31–75 parts
volatilization in the remediation of pesticide-
per billion of clopyralid. Extensive testing of
contaminated compost. Losses due to
materials used to make the compost identified
volatilization reached 22 percent for diazinon and
clopyralid contaminated lawn clippings from
50 percent for chlordane after three weeks of cow
Spokane. Later that year another herbicide-laced
manure and sawdust composting. Chlordane was
compost was attributed to picloram contaminated
not substantially mineralized, and diazinon was
bedding and manure in Pullman. At the same
considerably transformed, but again with a low
location clopyralid contaminated hay and straw
rate of mineralization.
purchased for animal feed, and the resulting
Rao et al. (1995) also found minimal manure was also composted during 2001.
mineralization of the herbicide atrazine during
Clopyralid is apparently more problematic than
composting with several different wood-derived
picloram since the different registered uses of the
substrates. After 160 days of composting, there
two pesticides suggest that materials typically
was no detectable atrazine, yet a maximum of 7
coming into a composting facility are less likely to
percent had been mineralized. The unmineralized
be contaminated with picloram. As a minimum
atrazine apparently leached or complexed with the
precaution, operators should become familiar with
humic components, preventing further
the supplier and source of each material and
transformation.
inquire regarding persistent herbicide usage.
While many of the studies have shown significant
Bioassays by facility operators or highly sensitive
decreases in detectable pesticides after
analytical tests may be advisable on incoming
composting, some of the pesticides were not
materials and outgoing products. Washington
completely degraded or mineralized. Instead,
State University staff offers bioassay guidelines
some were transformed to other chemical
and color images of clopyralid-damaged plants at
compounds, volatilized, adsorbed to the humic
http://css.wsu.edu/compost/bioassay.htm.
fraction, or leached out of the compost. The issue
of pesticide toxicity after these types of changes is Growers and landscapers concerned about
complex and varies significantly among pesticides. pesticide or herbicide residues may also wish to
Some pesticides may increase in toxicity once take one or more precautionary measures before
changed, while others may be inactivated. applying compost. A few herbicides are phytotoxic
Additional studies are necessary to better below detectable analytical levels, so the above
understand the fate of pesticides during bioassay guidelines may help assess the safety of
composting. a compost pile.
A simple seed germination test will ensure that a
Possible Precautionary Measures split-sample of compost is mature and any salts
Consumers and composters should note the present are not phytotoxic. The following Florida
possibility that persistent pesticides can endure Web site includes guidelines for conducting seed
the composting process at damaging levels. For germination tests: www.compostinfo.com/
example, as little as 10 parts per billion of tutorial/MaturityTests.htm. If either bioassay
clopyralid can be toxic to legumes, potatoes, results in no germination or the young plants show
sunflowers and tomatoes. symptoms of herbicide damage, it is advisable to
Clopyralid and picloram are of concern because perform analytical tests on the remainder of the
they have shown up in compost on at least two sample that include tests for suspected herbicides
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(parts per billion sensitivity), salinity, and compost Vandervoort, C., et al. “Fate of Selected Pesticides
maturity. Users also can apply the compost in a Applied to Turfgrass: Effects of Composting on
small test plot before covering an entire garden or Residues.” Bulletin of Environmental
farm. Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 58, No. 1,
January 1997, pp. 38–45.
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