ABSTRACT

This project is designed so that students can understand the technology used in the now a
day’s driver less metro train which is used in most of the developed countries like
Germany, France, and Japan etc. These trains are equipped with the CPU, which control the
train. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined;
stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is predefined.

In this Project
In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using
microcontroller ATMEGA 8L as CPU. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper
Motor, for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two
lines. The train is designed for three stations, named as Aligarh, Ghaziabad & New Delhi.
The Stoppage time is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 sec. There is
a LCD display for showing various messages in the train for passengers. There are
indicators, which are used to show the train direction i.e. Up path and Down path. Before
stopping at station the train blows the buzzer. It also includes an emergency brake system
due to which the train stops as soon as the brakes are applied and resumes journey when the
emergency situation is over.
This paper describes a prototype that has been developed to demonstrate the concept of
integrated gaming and simulation for incident management. Architecture for the purpose
was developed and presented at the last conference. A hypothetical emergency incident
scenario has been developed for demonstrating the applicability of integrated simulation
and gaming. A number of simulation and gaming modules have been utilized to model the
major aspects of the hypothetical scenario. The modules demonstrate the value of utilizing
simulation for incident management applications. They can be used to highlight the value
of simulation and gaming for training applications in particular. Two of the simulation
modules have been integrated using a modified implementation of the high level
architecture to give an idea of the advantages. Technical issues in integration are identified.
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1.1 List of Components 4

1.2 Maximum Rating of ULN 14

4.1 Cost Analysis 45

 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1.1 Pin Diagram of MEGA8L 5

1.2 Reset Diagram 7
1.3 Block Diagram of 8L 10
1.4 ULN 2003 13
1.5 Voltage Regulator 7805 15
1.6 12V 75~ Unipolar Stepper Motor 16
1.7 Basic Stepper Motor 18
1.8 Schematic Diagram of LCD 19
1.9 LCD Display 20
1.10 Power Supply 20
1.11 Bridge Rectifier 21
1.12 Basic Transformer 22
1.13 Diode 22
1.14 Symbol of Resistance 23
1.15 Carbon Film Resistance 24
1.16 Capacitor 26
1.17 Symbol of Capacitor 26
1.18 Capacitor & Battery Connection 27
1.19 LED & LED Symbol 27
1.20 Detailed Diagram of LED 28
1.21 Buzzer 28
3.1 Block Diagram 43
3.2 Circuit Diagram 44
 CONTENTS

CONTENTS
Certificate
Acknowledgement
Abstract
List of Tables

List of Figures

Chapter 1
• Introduction 1-29
Chapter 2
• Literature Review 30-37
Chapter 3
• PCB Designing 3 8-40
•
Working 41-42
•
Block Diagram 43
•
Circuit Diagram 44
Chapter 4
• Cost Analysis 45
•
Problem Faced & Troubleshooting 46
Chapter 5
• Conclusion 47
• Future Scope 47

REFERENCES 48-49
APPENDIX
•
Program Coding 50-58
• Datasheets 59-77
 MAJOR PROJECT: METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE 1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION & COMPONENTS

INTRODUCTION

This project is designed so that students can understand the technology used in the now
a day’s driver less metro train which is used in most of the developed countries like
Germany, France, and Japan etc. These trains are equipped with the CPU, which control
the train. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is
defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is
predefined. This is very wonderful project to control the working of the train without
driver. These train are equipped with the CPU which control the train.

1. ATMEGA 8L Microcontroller
2. ULN 2003
3. Stepper motor
4. LCD

In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using ATMEL
microcontroller ATMEGA 8L to control all the function as CPU. Microcontroller controls the
rotation of motor. First the motor is controlled and name of each station is displayed over LCD
and accordingly the different delay for each station is provided. So this project works for metro
train without driver. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying
message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines. The train is designed for
three stations, named as New Delhi, Noida, and Greater Noida. The Stoppage time is of 3 Sec and
time between two consecutive stations is 6 sec. There is a LCD display for showing various
messages in the train for passengers. There are indicators, which are used to show the train
direction i.e. UP path and down path. Before stopping at station the train blows the buzzer. It also
includes an emergency brake system due to which the train stops as soon as the brakes are applied
and resumes journey when the emergency situation is over.

APPLICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION EXAMPLES AND CONCEPTS

In this section are some examples of implementations discussed with some details. The
basic system is invariant, the different application variants.
COLLISION AND FLANK PROTECTION

The basic concept is the collision detection of two trains: both trains determine their position
and movement vector using GNSS. This information is transmitted together with some other
information like type of mission and train number by mobile radio to the trains in the area
around.

Each receiver compares his own position and vector with all received vectors. As soon as a
collision in the four-dimensional space (time and three space dimensions) has been
identified a specific reaction is triggered. Depending of the parameters like remaining
distance, time to collision and the speed the reaction is selected beginning from different
types of warning up to an automatic braking.

TRACK WORK PROTECTION

Track work protection can be performed in several aspects by RCAS: the construction track
itself can be transmitted as blocked track and – using the same telegram – the neighbouring
track can be transmitted as area with reduced allowed speed. In the opposite direction the
working gang can be warned against an approaching train.
LEVEL CROSSINGS (LX)
A significant number of collisions are happening with road vehicles on level crossings with
half-barriers. One application of RCAS is the supervision of the danger zone of the level
crossing with magnetic detection, RADAR, Video or similar technologies. Instead of the
movement vector is he occupation status of the danger zone the criterion which is
transmitted.

• LX secured and danger zone free => proceed

• LX secured and danger zone occupied by moving object => Warning

• LX secured and standing object in the danger zone => Danger

• LX not correctly secured

The application of RCAS for level crossings uses the detected status of the road vehicle
passing the rails and informs the driver of the train. The detected and transmitted obstacle
information triggers a warning or removers the warning if the road vehicle leaves the danger
zone.
WHAT IS EMBEDDED TECHNOLOGY

Embedded technology is software or hardware that is hidden embedded in a large

device or system. It typically refers to a fixed function device, as compared with a PC,
which runs general purpose application. Embedded technology is nothing new. It all
around us and has been for years. An early example of embedded technology is the
engine control unit in a car, which measures what setting to give the engine. Your
coffee maker has embedded technology in the form of a microcontroller, which is what
tells it to make the coffee at 6 a.m. the vending machine has it too. Overall, billions of
devices woven into everyday life use embedded technology.
In the past embedded technology existed in standalone device vending machines and
copiers that did their jobs with little regard for what went on around them,. But as
technology has learned to connect device to the internet and to each other, embedded
technology potential has grown. Suddenly it is and what actions those connections let
them perform. Cell phone companies figured that out a long time ago, which is why
cell phones are cheap and the service, plans are expensive. It is not the phone itself that
matters, but the connectivity to a vast network of other phones, other people and the
internet. Until you download software that lets you find a local restaurant or mange
your finances. Let say you make freezers the big, expensive kind that grocery stores
buy. You sell ne and you are done with that customer. When it brakes the customer
calls a service person, who probably comes from somewhere other than your company.
But let us say that freezer knows that it is about to go on the fritz. Let say three
refrigerator alerts the customer before it breaks. Better yet, let us say the freezer alerts
the manufacturer and you are able to send a service person to do preventative work and
save a lot of haagen- dazs from melting. Embedded technology allows all of that to
happen. You, the freezer company have transformed yourself from a product company
to product and services company. The possibilities go beyond that programming device
to communicate with businesses can eliminate the need for costly call centers. Copy
machines that can order their own replacement cartridges will save businesses time and
money. Remember, the fact the technology is embedded is not what important, and
neither is the device.
Telecom
Mobile phone systems (handsets and base stations), modems, routers

Automotive application
Braking system, Traction control, Airbag release system, Management units, and
Steer-by-wire systems.

Domestic application
Dishwasher, television, washing machines, microwave ovens, Video recorders,
Security system, Garage door controllers, Calculators, Digital watches, VCRs, Digital
cameras, Remote Controls, Treadmills

Robotic
Fire fighting robot, Automatic floor cleaner, robotic arm

Aerospace application
Flight control system, Engine controllers, Autopilots, Passenger entertainment system

Medical equipment
Anesthesia monitoring system, ECG monitors, Pacemakers, Drug delivery systems,
MRI scanners

Defense system
Radar systems, Fighter aircraft flight control system, Radio system, Missile guidance
systems

Office automation
Laser printers, Fax machines, Pagers, Cash registers, Gas pumps, Credit /Debit card
readers, Thermostats, Grain analyzers
LIST OF COMPONENTS USED

Table No. 1.1 List of components

Sr. no Equipment Quantity

1 IC ATMEGA8L 1

2 IC ULN 2003 1

3 Transformer 1

4 Voltage Regulator 7805 1

5 2 line LCD display 1

6 Stepper Motor 1

7 Crystal Oscillator 1

8 Switch 2

9 LED 2

10 Resistors(220~, 4. 7 k ~, 1 0 k ~) 10

11 Capacitors(33pf,ceramic disk) 2

12 Diode 2

13 Buzzer 1
1) MICRO-CONTROLLER 8051

DESCRIPTION

The IC ATMEGA 8L is a low-power; high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer

with 8K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The
device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and
is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-5 1 instruction set and pin out. The on-
chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a
conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU
with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel IC ATMEGA 8L is a powerful
microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many
embedded control applications. The IC ATMEGA 8L provides the following standard
features: 4K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters,
a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator
and clock circuitry. In addition, the IC 8051 is designed with static logic for operation
down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The
Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and
interrupt system to continue functioning.

Figure No. 1.1: Pin Diagram of 8051

A processor is an electronic device capable of manipulating data in a way specified by a
sequence of instructions.

INSTRUCTIONS

Instructions in a computer are binary numbers just like data. Different numbers, when
read and executed by a processor, cause different things to happen. The instructions
are also called opcodes or machine codes.
Different bit patterns activate or deactivate different parts of the processing core. Every
processor has its own instruction set varying in number, bit pattern and functionality.

PROGRAM

The sequence of instructions is what constitutes a program. The sequence of

instructions may be altered to suit the application.

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Writing and understanding such programs in binary or hexadecimal form is very

difficult ,so each instructions is given a symbolic notation in English language called as
mnemonics. A program written in mnemonics Form is called an assembly language
program. But it must be converted into machine language for execution by processor.

ASSEMBLER

An assembly language program should be converted to machine language for execution

by processor. Special software called ASSEMBLER converts a program written in
mnemonics to its equivalent machine opcodes.
A high level language like C may be used to write programs for processors. Software
called compiler converts this high level language program down to machine code. Ease
of programming and portability.

PIN DESCRIPTION

VCC (Pin 40)

Provides voltage to the chip . +5V

GND (Pin 20)

Ground

XTAL1 (Pin 19) and XTAL2 (Pin 18)

Crystal Oscillator connected to pins 18, 1 9.Two capacitors of 30pF value. Time for
one machine cycle:11.0592/12=1.085 µ secs

Fig No. 1.2: Reset

RST (Pin 9)
RESET pin
1. Active high. On applying a high pulse to this pin, microcontroller will reset and
terminate all activities.
2. INPUT pin
3. Minimum 2 machine cycles required to make RESET
4. Value of registers after RESET
 8

External Access: EA 31
• Connected to VCC for on chip ROM

• Connected to Ground for external ROM containing the code Input Pin

Program Store Enable: PSEN 29

• Output Pin

• In case of external ROM with code it is connected to the OE pin of the

ROM

Address Latch Enable: ALE 30

• Output Pin. Active high

• In case of external ROM ,ALE is used to de multiplex (PORT 0) the

address and data bus by connecting to the G pin of 74LS373 chip

I/O Port Pins and their Functions:

• Four ports P0,P1,P2,P3 with 8 pins each, making a total of 32
input/output pins

• On RESET all ports are configured as output. They need to be

programmed to make them function as inputs

PORT 0
• Pins 32-39

• Can be used as both Input or Output

• External pull up resistors of 10K need to be connected

• Dual role: 8051 multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save pins
.AD0-AD7

• ALE is used to de multiplex data and address bus

 9

PORT 1
• Pins 1 through 8

• Both input or output

• No dual function

• Internal pull up registers

• On RESET configured as output

PORT 2
• Pins 21 through 28

• No external pull up resistor required

• Both input or output

• Dual Function: Along with Port 0 used to provide the 16-Bit address for
external memory. It provides higher address A8-A16

PORT 3
• Pins 10 through 17

• No external pull up resistors required

Figure No. 1.3: Block Diagram of Microcontroller
 11

ALU

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs the internal arithmetic manipulation of
data line processor. The instructions read and executed by the processor decide the
operations performed by the ALU and also control the flow of data between registers
and ALU.
Operations performed by the ALU are Addition , Subtraction , Not , AND , NAND ,
OR , NOR , XOR , Shift Left/Right , Rotate Left/right , Compare etc. Some ALU
supports Multiplication and Division. Operands are generally transferred from two
registers or from one register and memory location to ALU data inputs. The result of
the operation is the placed back into a given destination register or memory location
from ALU output.

REGISTERS

Registers are the internal storage for the processor. The number of registers varies
significantly between processor architectures.

• WORKING REGISTERS Temporary storage during

ALU Operations and data transfers.

• INDEX REGISTERS
Points to memory addresses.

• STATUS REGISTERS
Stores the current status of various flags denoting conditions resulting from
various operations.

• CONTROL REGISTERS
Contains configuration bits that affect processor operation and the operating
modes of various internal subsystems.
Memory is used to hold data and program for the processor.

• SRAM
Volatile, fast, low capacity, expensive, requires lesser external support
circuitry.

• DRAM
Volatile, relatively slow, highest capacity needs continuous refreshing. Hence
require external circuitry.

• O T P R O M One time programmable, used for shipping in

final products.

• E P R O M Erasable programmable, UV Erasing, Used for system

development and
debugging.

• EEPROM
Electrically erasable and programmable, can be erased programmed in- circuit,
Used for storing system parameters.

• F L A S H Electrically programmable & erasable, large capacity, organized

as sectors.

BUSES

A bus is a physical group of signal lines that have a related function. Buses allow for
the transfer of electrical signals between different parts of the processor.
 • Data bus
• Address bus
• Control bus

CONTROLLER LOGIC

Processor brain decodes instructions and generate control signal for various sub units. It
has full control over the clock distribution unit of processor.

I/O Peripherals

The I/O devices are used by the processor to communicate with the external world
• Parallel Ports.
• Serial Ports.
• ADC/DAC.

2) ULN 2003

Figure No. 1.4: ULN 2003

 14

FEATURES

- Output current 500mA per driver (600mA peak) -

Output voltage 50V
- Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads -
Outputs can be paralleled for higher current -
TTL/CMOS/PMOS/DTL Compatible inputs
- Inputs pinned opposite outputs to simplify Layout

DESCRIPTION

The ULN2001, ULN2002, ULN2003 and ULN2004 are high voltage, high current
Darlington Arrays each contain seven open collector Darlington pairs with common
emitters. Each Channel rated at 500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA.
Suppression diodes are Included for inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned
opposite the outputs to simplify board

MAXIMUM RATING
Table No. 1.2: Maximum Rating of ULN
WHY WE USE ULN 2003?

Digital system and microcontroller pins lack sufficient current to drive the relay. While
the stepper motor’s coil needs around 1 0ma to be energized, the microcontroller’s pin
can provide a maximum of 1-2 mA current. For this reason, we place a driver.

3) VOLAGE REGULATOR

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable
output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage
regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some
automatic protection from excessive current (over load protection) and overheating
(thermal protection). Many of fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads. They include a
hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary.

Figure No. 1.5: 7805 Voltage Regulator

DESCRIPTION

These voltage regulators are monolithic circuit integrated circuit designed as fixed
voltage regulators for a wide variety of applications including local, on card regulation.
These regulators employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown, and
 16

safe-area compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output current in
excess of 1.0 A. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage regulator, these
devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and current.

FEATURES

• Output current in Excess of 1.0 A

• No external component required
• Internal thermal overload protection
• Internal short circuit current limiting
• Output transistor safe-area compensation
• Output voltage offered in 2% and 4% tolerance
• Available I n surface mount D2PAK and standard 3-lead transistor packages
• Previous commercial temperature range has been extended to a junction
temperature range of -40 degree C to +125 degree C.

4) STEPPER MOTOR

Figure No. 1.6: 12-Volt 75 Ohm Unipolar Stepper Motor

A stepper motor system is an electro-mechanical rotary actuator that converts electrical
pulses into unique shaft rotations. This rotation is directly related to the number of
pulses.

Motion Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the movement of an

object based on speed, distance, load, inertia or a combination of all these factors.
There are numerous types of motion control systems, including; Stepper Motor, Linear
Step Motor, DC Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more.
Stepper motors are ideally suited for precision control. This motor can be operated in
forward/reverse with controllable speed from a BASIC Stamp or any other
microcontroller through a transistor driver circuit. Some of the applications for this
motor include educational experimentation, robotics and precision mechanical control
the #27964 is a Unipolar (4 phase) 12 VDC, 150 mA motor that takes 3.6 degrees per
step.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

• Phase resistance (Ohms): 75

• Current (mA): 150
• Phase Inductance (mH): 39
• Detent torque (g-cm): 80
• Holding Torque (g-cm): 600
• Mounting hole space diagonal (in.): 1.73
• Mounting hole (in.) 0.11
• Shaft diameter (in.): 0.197
• Shaft length (in.): 0.43
• Motor Diameter (in.): 1.66
• Motor height (in.): 1.35
• Weight: 0.55 lbs.

18
 Figure No. 1.7: Basic Stepper Motor

5) LCD DISPLAY

DESCRIPTION OF LCD DISPLAY

This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will start with something
simple. This example doesn't use the Bi-directional feature found on newer ports, thus it
should work with most, if not all Parallel Ports. It however doesn't show the use of the
Status Port as an input. These LCD Modules are very common these days, and are quite
simple to work with, as all the logic required to run them is on board.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Figure No. 1.8: Schematic Diagram of LCD Display

 19

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and Register Select is
connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open collector / open drain
output. While most Parallel Ports have internal pull-up resistors, there is a few which
don't. Therefore by incorporating the two 10K external pull up resistors, the circuit is
more portable for a wider range of computers, some of which may have no internal pull
up resistors.
We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we hard wire
the R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the
data lines. As a result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us if
the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last instruction. This problem is
overcome by inserting known delays into our program.

The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing fancy here. As
with all the examples, I've left the power supply out. You can use a bench power
supply set to 5v or use an onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling
capacitors, especially if you have trouble with the circuit working properly.

The 2 line x 16 character LCD modules are available from a wide range of
manufacturers and should all be compatible with the HD44780. The diagram to the
right shows the pin numbers for these devices. When viewed from the front, the left pin
is pin 16 and the right pin is pin 1.

Figure No. 1.9: LCD Display

 20

6) POWER SUPPLY

AC
Suppl

Figure No. 1.10: Power Supply

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Bridge rectifier circuit consists of four diodes arranged in the form of a bridge as
shown in figure.

AC
Supply

Figure No. 1.11: Bridge Rectifier

OPERATION

During the positive half cycle of the input supply, the upper end A of the
transformer secondary becomes positive with respect to its lower point B. This
makes Point1 of bridge
Positive with respect to point 2. The diode D1 & D2 become forward biased &
D3 & D4 become reverse biased. As a result a current starts flowing from
point1, through D1 the load & D2 to the negative end.
During negative half cycle, the point2 becomes positive with respect to point 1.
Diodes D1 & D2 now become reverse biased. Thus a current flow from point 2
to point1.

7) TRANSFORMER

Transformer is a major class of coils having two or more windings usually

wrapped around a common core made from laminated iron sheets. It has two
cols named primary and secondary. If the current flowing through primary is
fluctuating, then a current will be inducted into the secondary winding. A steady
current will not be transferred from one coil to other coil.

Figure No. 1.12: Basic Transformer

Transformers are of two types:

1. Step up transformer
2. Step down transformer
Key Benefits
• Structured BASIC with labels.
Structured programming with IF-THEN-ELSE-END IF, DO-LOOP, WHILE-
WEND, SELECT- CASE.
• Fast machine code instead of interpreted code.
• Variables and labels can be as long as 32 characters.
Bit, Byte, Integer, Word, Long, Single and String variables.
• Compiled programs work with all AVR microprocessors that have internal
memory.
Statements are highly compatible with Microsoft’s VB/QB.
Special commands for LCD-displays , I2C, 1WIRE , PC keyboard, matrix
keyboard, RC5 reception, RS232 communication.
• Local variables, user functions, library support, mixed ASM and
BASIC programming.
• Integrated terminal emulator with download option..
• Integrated simulator for testing.
Integrated ISP programmer (application note AVR910.ASM).
Integrated Kanda STK200+ programmer and STK300 programmer.

Editor with statement highlighting.

Context sensitive help.
DEMO version compiles 2KB of code. Well suited for a AT90S231 3.

The following statements are supported (actually there are more look for
them in the help file):

Decision and structures

IF, THEN, ELSE, ELSEIF, END IF, DO, LOOP, WHILE, WEND, UNTIL, EXIT DO, EXIT
WHILE, FOR, NEXT, TO, DOWNTO, STEP, EXIT FOR, ON .. GOTO/GOSUB,
SELECT, CASE.

Input and output

PRINT, INPUT, INKEY, WAITKEY, PRINT, INPUTHEX, LCD, UPPERLINE,
LOWERLINE,DISPLAY ON/OFF, CURSOR ON/OFF/BLI NK/NOBLI NK, HOME,
LOCATE, SHI FTLCD LEFT/RIGHT, SHIFTCURSOR LEFT/RIGHT, CLS,
DEFLCDCHAR, WAITKEY, I NPUTBI N, PRI NTBI N, OPEN, CLOSE, DEBOUNCE,
SHIFTIN, SHIFTOUT, GETATKBD, GETKBD, GETRC5
Numeric functions
AND, OR, XOR, INC, DEC, MOD, NOT, ABS, BCD.

I2C
I2CSTART, I2CSTOP, I2CWBYTE, I2CRBYTE, I2CSEND and I2CRECEIVE.

1WIRE
1WWRITE, 1WREAD, 1WRESET, 1WIRECOUNT, 1WSEARCHFIRST,
1WSEARCHNEXT.

SPI
SPIINIT, SPIIN, SPIOUT.

Interrupt programming
ON INT0/INT1/TIMER0/TIMER1/SERIAL, RETURN, ENABLE, DISABLE,
COUNTERx, CAPTUREx, INTERRUPTS, CONFIG, START, LOAD.

Bit manipulation
SET, RESET, ROTATE, SHIFT, BITWAIT, TOGGLE.

Variables
DIM, BIT , BYTE , INTEGER , WORD, LONG, SINGLE, STRING , DEFBIT,
DEFBYTE, DEFINT, DEFWORD.

Miscellaneous
REM, ' , SWAP, END, STOP, CONST, DELAY, WAIT, WAITMS, GOTO, GOSUB,
POWERDOWN, IDLE, DECLARE, CALL, SUB, END SUB, FUNCTION, END
FUNCTION, MAKEDEC, MAKEBCD, INP,OUT, ALIAS, DIM , ERASE, DATA,
READ, RESTORE, INCR, DECR, PEEK, POKE, CPEEK, FUNCTION,
READMAGCARD.

Compiler directives
$INCLUDE, $BAUD and $CRYSTAL, $SERIALINPUT,
$SERIALOUTPUT, $RAMSIZE, $RAMSTART, $DEFAULT XRAM, $ASM-
$END ASM, $LCD, $EXTERNAL, $LIB.

String manipulation
STRING, SPACE, LEFT, RIGHT, MID, VAL, HEXVAL, LEN, STR, HEX, LTRIM,
RTRIM, TRIM, LCASE, UCASE.

To make a program takes just a few steps :

Write the program in BASIC
Compile it to fast machine binary code
Test the result with the integrated simulator(with additional
hardware you can simulate the hardware too).
Program the chip with one of the integrated programmers like the
STK200+.

The program can be written in a comfortable MDI color coded editor.

Besides the normal editing features, the editor supports Undo, Redo,
Bookmarks and block indention.
The simulator let you test your program before writing it to the
microprocessor.
You can watch variables, step through the program one line at the time or run to a
specific line,
or you can alter variables.
To watch a variables value you can also point the mouse cursor over it.
uP TAB of simulator
A powerful feature is the hardware emulator, to emulate the LCD display, and the ports.
The LCD emulator also emulates custom build LCD characters!

You can even simulate the hardware ports with the special bascom monitor
program!

When you are done with the simulator it is time to program the chip using one of the
supported programmer like the STK200+ or STK300.

SK U
Description
#Pr ic e
BASCOM-AVR BSCAVR $69
BASCOM-AVR cross upgrade for BASCOM users. Serial
BSCAVRB $49
number required.

Availability
BASCOM-AVR is available NOW.
BASCOM-LT and BASCOM-8051 users can order the cross upgrade BSCABRB.
Your serial number is required for this.

What should be mentioned

BASCOM-AVR is a conversion from BASCOM-8051. Although it works pretty good

now there are a few things that needs work:

Not all code is optimized yet. There is no ASM output yet. ASM outputs needs lots of
documentation to be useful for the end user. A high priority is given to finish these
features.
In the power supply we use step down transformer. We apply 220V AC on the primary
of step down transformer. This transformer step down this voltages to 6V AC. We Give
6V AC to rectifier circuit, which convert it to 5V DC.

8) DIODE

The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the component used to control the flow of
the current in any one direction. The diode widely works in forward bias.

Figure No. 1.13: Diode

When the current flows from the P to N direction. Then it is in forward bias. The Zener
diode is used in reverse bias function i.e. N to P direction. Visually the identification of
the diode`s terminal can be done by identifying he silver/black line. The silver/black
line is the negative terminal (cathode) and the other terminal is the positive terminal
(cathode).

APPLICATION

• Diodes: Rectification, free-wheeling, etc

• Zener diode: Voltage control, regulator etc.

• Tunnel diode: Control the current flow, snobbier circuit, etc

The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force similar in many respects
to mechanical friction .this opposing force is called resistance of the material .in some electric
circuit resistance is deliberately introduced in form of resistor. Resistor used fall in three
categories , only two of which are color coded which are metal film and carbon film resistor .the
third category is the wire wound type ,where value are generally printed on the vitreous paint
finish of the component. Resistors are in ohms and are represented in Greek letter omega, looks
as an upturned horseshoe. Most electronic circuit require resistors to make them work properly
and it is obliviously important to find out something about the different types of resistors
available. Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega ohm.
1 ohm is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in kohm and Mohm.
Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 ohm or as high as 10 Mohm.

Figure No. 1.14: Symbol of Resistance

FUNCTION

Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series
with a light-emitting diode(LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.

TYPES OF RESISTORS

FIXED VALUE RESISTORS

It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and metal film .These two types are
explained under
During manufacture, at in film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive
coating is spiraled away in an automatic machine until the resistance between there two ends of
the rods is as close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are added, the
resistors is covered with an insulating coating and finally painted with colored bands to indicate
the resistor value

Figure No. 1.15: Carbon Film Resistors

Another example for a

Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22
Kilo-Ohms also known as
22K at 5% tolerance:

Band 1 = Red, 1st digit

Band 2 = Red, 2nd digit
Band 3 =
Orange, 3rd
digit, multiply
with zeros, in this case 3 zero's Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5%

3. METAL FILM RESISTORS

Metal film and metal oxides resistors are made in a similar way, but can be made more
accurately to within ±2% or ±1% of their nominal vale there are some difference in
performance between these resistor types, but none which affects their use in simple circuit.
A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this, they can be
manufactured to precise values. Also, high wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire
material. Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high frequency circuits. Coils are used in high
frequency circuit. Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case, strengthened with special cement.
They have very high power rating, from 1 or 2 watts to dozens of watts. These resistors can
become extremely hot when used for high power application, and this must be taken into
account when designing the circuit.

TESTING

Resistors are checked with an ohm meter/millimeter. For a defective resistor the ohm-meter
shows infinite high reading.

10) CAPACITORS

In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely

different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy. If you have read
How Batteries Work, then you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the
battery, chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons at
the other terminal.

Figure No. 1.16: Capacitor

Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals. Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect
to two metal plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or
anything else that does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each
other. You can easily make a capacitor from two pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of
paper. It won't be a particularly good capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it
will work. In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:

Figure No. 1.17: Symbol of Capacitor

When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here’s what happens:

• The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the
battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing.

• The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the
battery loses electrons to the battery.

Figure No. 1.18: Capacitor & Battery Connection

 To test the capacitors, either analog meters or special digital meters with the specified function
are used. The non-electrolyte capacitor can be tested by using the digital meter.

Multi – meter mode Positive probe Continuity One end

Negative probe Display : Second end
Result `0`(beep sound occur) `OL` Faulty OK

11) LED

LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting diode (LED) is a diode that
will give off visible light when it is energized. In any forward biased P-N junction there is, with in
the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of hole and electrons. This
recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to
another state. The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source is called
electroluminescence.

Figure No. 1.19: LED & LED Symbol

LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being carried out are
displayed by led .The LED is diode which glows when the current is being flown
through it in forward bias condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and
also in the flat shells. The positive leg is longer than negative leg.
 28

Figure No. 1.20: Detailed Diagram of LED

BUZZER

Buzzer is a device used for beep signal. This will help us to make understand
information or message. A buzzer is usually electronic device used in automobiles,
household applications etc.

Figure No. 1.21: Buzzer

It mostly consists of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that determines if

and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a
light on appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a
continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on
an electromechanical system which was identical to an electrical bell without the
 metal gong. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used
the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another implementation with some
AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC current
into a noise loud enough to derive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit to a
cheap 8-ohm speaker.
These buzzers do not make a sound or turn on a light, they stop a nearby digital clock,
briefly fire two smoke cannons on each side of the stage exit and open the exit. However,
at the end of the Heartbreaker in Viking, the buzzer is replaced with a sword that, when
removed, causes two contacts to touch, closing the circuit and causing the latter two
actions above to occu

EMBEDDED IN EMBEDDED

Intel and the licensees soon realized that 8051 is a nice core that can be
embedded in various ASIC chips to perform setup and control tasks.
Typically, the resources of the ASIC are mapped as external data memory,
as if the ASIC would be connected to a conventional 8051 chip. This
approach allows to use an unmodified core, which speeds up the chip
development and decreases the chance for error; also the ASIC could be
breadboard-prototyped in this form easily.

As an example, Intel produced 80C5 1 SL, a descendant of 8042. Philips

has a line of 8051-based teletext controllers. In a particular USB
webcamera, the chip interfacing the CCD and USB was controlled by an
embedded 8051. There are probably much more examples around, but most
of them never get public. In spite of this, the 8051 in this form is produced
probably in much higher volumes than as general-purpose
microcontrollers.

EXTRAS
Besides application-specific, also general purpose derivatives have been
introduced by Intel and the licensees, with enhanced features and increased
code and data memories. In contrast with the ASICs mentioned above,
these chips tend to implement the extra features in the core itself, accessed
usually via extra SFRs. This

allows faster code as SFRs are accessed by all the instructions using direct
addressing (mov, logic), and some of them by the bit-manipulation
instructions, too.

One of the first such derivative by Intel was the 80C51FA, which
introduced the programmable counter array (PCA) (and was a 8052
otherwise). It was intended for automotive applications (brake control).
Soon, FB and FC continued, with more and more code memory.
80C51RA/RB/RC followed, with added "internal external" data memory.
These were the basis for the today's 89C51RD2 "sub-family", produced by
Philips, Atmel (as ex-Temic), SST and Winbond.

FAT BOYS: 16-BIT EXTENSIONS

When the 8051 was accepted widely enough, some of the applications
started to grow and soon required more power than the 8051 even with
enhancements could provide. There were 16-bit microcontrollers around
(e.g. Intel had it's 80C 196 line), but it seemed a good idea to provide a
more natural migration path by creating a 16-bit version of 8051.

Intel addressed the problem by introducing 80C25 1. It went all the way to
achieve compatibility - it was able to run 8051 binary code (being able to
switch to native 16-bit 251-mode) and had a package pin-compatible with
8051. It was not a big success, most probably for bad market timing
(although it is second sourced by Temic/Atmel).
Philips on the other hand employed source-compatibility for its XA family,
which seems to be adequate for most of the applications, where legacy
code has to be maintained or parallel development with 8051 is needed; and
poses little constraint on the chip design itself.

All in all, the 16-bit versions of 8051 gained far less popularity than the
8051 and are less widespread.

In the 90s, Atmel introduced a derivative of 8051 with Flash code memory,
enabling fast erasure and reprogramming. It enabled to use the production-
grade chip in development, and enabled the chips used in the product to be
reprogrammed when upgrade or a bugfix was needed, cutting down costs.
It brought down the 8051 to the masses - the small "garage" companies and
hobbyists. Besides that, Atmel introduced also 89C2051 with decreased pin
count (and price).This was a smart move, the chip proved to be extremely
popular in many small applications.

Today, virtually all manufacturers produce 8051 derivatives with Flash, most
of them able to be programmed via some few-pin serial interface (called in-
situ programming (ISP), SPI-style or UART-style) and the higher-end
versions also able to reprogram themselves (in-application programming,
IAP). MaskROM and EPROM - windowed or OTP - seems to become
extinct, at least in the mainstream applications.

NEED FOR SPEED

The need for higher processing power, addressed unsuccessfully by the 16-
bit versions, has been solved by introducing the high speed derivatives of
8051. The original 12-clock instruction cycle scheme is obviously
inefficient and also the technology progressed enough to achieve higher
clock rates than the original 12MHz.

The first derivative addressing this in a radical way is the now legendary
Dallas DS80C320. It featured a 4-clocker core with incompatible timing,
and could be clocked as high as 33MHz. Unfortunately, it was produced as
ROMless only.

The following step was taken by Cygnal, where a single-clock core has
been developed. In the top-range models, the clocking is as high as
100MHz, being the fastest 805 1s around.

Today, there are many 8051 derivatives with sped-up cores available. They
can be divided into two groups: the 6-clockers (e.g. the 8xC51RD2) and 2-
clockers (Philips LPC9xx) have the same number of instruction cycle per
instruction as the original; while the 4-clockers and singleclockers are
incompatible in this way, requiring recalculation of timing loops if used.

WHERE IS IT GOING?

The 8051 is a sound mcu core with rich history. However, it seems that it is
already over its peak, although it might take quite a lot of time until it will
be completely replaced by most modern microcontrollers.

So we now have superfast 8051 derivatives with loads of internal FLASH

and RAM. ISP and IAP seems to be the standard these days. There are the
805 1s built around advanced analog circuits, mainly high resolution ADC.
 There are derivatives suitable for extreme applications – high temperature,
radiation hardened. There are softcores around, tuned up, and even open
source.
There is a wealth of knowledge and experience, however, it is scattered around and the
newbies tend to get the easier path - competing 8-bit microcontrollers usually do have a
single-stop information resource site, so this knowledge and experience seems to die out
as the "old boys" retire gradually. The price difference between the high-end 8-bitters and
the much more powerful low-end 32-bit RISCs (such as the ARMs) seems to decrease
rapidly and will change eventually, as the 32-bitters are becoming the standard in all but
the least demanding applications. So there is perhaps still a need for the 805 1s, but this
need is decreasing and 805 1s life cycle is slowly approaching its end
P.C.B. DESIGNING & WORKING

1) P.C.B. DESIGNING
P.C.B. LAYOUT

The entire circuit can be easily assembled on a general purpose P.C.B.

board respectively. Layout of desired diagram and preparation is first and
most important operation in any printed circuit board manufacturing
process. First of all layout of component side is to be made in accordance
with available components dimensions.

The following points are to be observed while forming the layout of P.C.B.

1. Between two components, sufficient space should be maintained.

2. High voltage/max dissipated components should be mounted at

sufficient distance from semiconductor and electrolytic capacitors.

3. The most important points are that the components layout is making
proper compromise with copper side circuit layout.

Printed circuit board (P.C.B.s) is used to avoid most of all the

disadvantages of conventional breadboard. These also avoid the use of thin
wires for connecting the components; they are small in size and efficient in
performance.

PREPARING CIRCUIT LAYOUT

First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the copper side of
the copper clad board. Then enamel paint is applied on the tracks of
connection with the help of a shade brush. We have to apply the paints
surrounding the point at which the connection is to be made. It avoids the
disconnection between the leg of the component and circuit track. After
completion of painting work, it is allowed to dry.

After completion of painting work, holes 1/23inch(1mm) diameter are

drilled at desired points where we have to fix the components.

ETCHING

The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the printed circuit
is known as etching. From this process the copper clad board wit printed
circuit is placed in the solution of FeCl with 3-4 drops of HCL in it and is
kept so for about 10 to 15 minutes and is taken out when all the excess
copper is removed from the P.C.B.
After etching, the P.C.B. is kept in clean water for about half an hour in
order to get P.C.B. away from acidic, field, which may cause poor
performance of the circuit. After the P.C.B. has been thoroughly washed,
paint is removed by soft piece of cloth dipped I thinner or turbine. Then
P.C.B. is checked as per the layout, now the P.C.B. is ready for use.

SOLDERING

Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductor the joint where
two metal conductors are to be join or fused is heated with a device called
soldering iron and then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied
which melts and converse the joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly
to ensure is good and durable connection between the jointed metal
converting the joint solder also present oxidation.

SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING TECHIQUES:

These are basically two soldering techniques.

• Manual soldering with iron.

• Mass soldering.

The surface to be soldered must be cleaned & fluxed. The soldering iron
switched on and bellowed to attain soldering temperature. The solder in
form of wire is allied hear the component to be soldered and heated with
iron. The surface to be soldered is filled, iron is removed and joint is cold
without disturbing.

SOLDER JOINT ARE SUPPOSED TO

1. Provide permanent low resistance path.

2. Make a robust mechanical link between P.C.B. and leads of components.

3. Allow heat flow between component, joining elements and P.C.B.

4. Retain adequate strength with temperature variation.

The following precaution should be taken while soldering:

1. Use always an iron plated copper core tip for soldering iron.

2. Slightly for the tip with a cut file when it is cold.

3. Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering instead of
asking the iron.

4. Tighten the tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to power supply.

5. Clean component lead and copper pad before soldering.

6. Apply solder between component leads, P.C.B. pattern and tip of soldering iron.

7. Iron should be kept in contact with the joint for 2-3 seconds only
instead of keeping for very long or very small time.
Use optimum quantity of solder

WORKING
METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE is a microcontroller based device.
It is used in driverless metro train, which is used in most of
developed countries. These trains are equipped with CPU, which
control the chain. The train is programmed for the specific path.
Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train
and distance between the two stations is predefined.

Basically it has four parts

1. POWER SUPPLY
2. ATMEGA 8L IC
3. DISPLAY UNIT
4. STEPPER MOTOR

The 230 AC supply is converted into 9 volts by the power

supply section in which 4 . Elements are used.

1. TRANSFORMER
2. 7805 REGULATOR
3. DIODES 4007 (in bridge shape)
 4. CAPACITOR OF 100 MICRO FARADS & 470 MICRO FARAD

The 230 volts is attenuated by 9 volts by transformer. Then it is

rectified by the bridge rectifier made up of diodes. Then the 9 v is
regulated by 7805. 1000 micro farad capacitor is used to filter the
DC voltage. The LED attaches to check the correctness of power
supply. In this project we try to give the same prototype for this
type of trains. We are using microcontroller ATMEGA 8L as
CPU. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor,
for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD
Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations,
named as Aligarh, Ghaziabad and New Delhi. The stoppage time
is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 Sec.
There is a LCD display for showing
PROBLEM FACED

• First problem that was in making the circuit of METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE
that,
it is difficult to match time with rotation of stepper motor & LCD.
• Second problem is faced due to redundancy in handling the rotation of
STEPPER MOTOR
• We have to take extra care while soldering 2 line LCD
• During soldering, many of the connection become short cktd. So we desolder
 the connection and did soldering again.
• A leg of the crystal oscillator was broken during mounting. So it has to be
replaced.
• LED`s get damaged when we switched ON the supply so we replace it by the
new one.

TROUBLESHOOT

• Care should be taken while soldering. There should be no shorting of joints.

• Proper power supply should maintain.
• Project should be handled with care since IC are delicate
• Component change and check again circuit

CONCULSION

AREA OF APPLICATIONS

The theme of the project when merged with certain established

technologies can be quite effective in number of countries like Germany,
France & Japan etc. which control the train . The project when used with
an improved sensitivity. The train is programmed for the specific path.
Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train & distance
between the two stations is predefined.

The circuit diagram is shown in the figure. Here LCD display is connected
with the P1 of the MC. Control lines are connected with port 3 of the
microcontroller. The contrast of the LCD is controlled by 10K variable
resistor.

Unipolar Stepper motor is used for running of the train. This motor has 5
wires, which are named as A1, B1, B2, and COM. Common line is given at
+5V. The other lines can be connected with port 2 of microcontroller. The
stepper motor is derived by the ULN 2003 chip. This Chip includes
Darlington pairs, so that motor can get enough current to for its running.
This chip required pull ups at inputs.

FUTURE SCOPE

This Project is useful in dveloping conturies & this project has a bright

future as it is being used in countries like Germany, France & Japan. This

project helps us to control train without a driver and the stations are shown

on the LCD so the passenger doesn’t has any difficulty. This project will

lead to increase in technological trends & this will help the people in many

ways.