Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

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Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

Review

Protection of series compensated transmission line: Issues

and state of art
Bhargav Vyas a, , Rudra Prakash Maheshwari b , Biswarup Das b
a
b

Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 7 May 2013
Received in revised form
15 September 2013
Accepted 24 September 2013
Keywords:
Series compensated line protection
TCSC
Fault location
Fault classication

a b s t r a c t
In the present-day scenario, per-capita power consumption symbolizes the development of any society.
This has resulted in a multifold increase in power demand. This drives power engineers to generate and
transfer maximum possible power through transmission line, i.e. up to thermal limits, which leads toward
installation of compensating devices. However, this inclusion of compensation introduces changes in system parameters, i.e. in its impedance seen from relay point, voltage and current inversion, introduction of
sub-harmonic frequency components, etc. This requires changes in existing protection concepts. Therefore, there is a need to track all experiences, developments and research in the eld of protection of
series compensated transmission line and look for the gaps in it. This paper gives bibliographical survey
and general backgrounds of research and development in the eld of series compensated lines (xed
capacitor and TCSC) since the application of series compensation. This article also compares and evaluates different techniques with their relative advantages and disadvantages to lead toward optimum
technique for application. More emphasis is given to modern techniques. The literature is divided into
parts to reduce the difculty for new researchers to evaluate different techniques with a set of references
of all concerned contributions.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents
1.
2.

3.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Series compensation impact on transmission line protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
2.1.
Change in line impedance seen by relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.2.
Over voltage protection of series capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.3.
Voltage and current inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.4.
Series compensator generated transient issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.5.
Unbalanced line impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.6.
Parallel lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.7.
Faults in capacitor bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.8.
Problems with controlled series compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
2.8.1.
Capacitive boost mode without MOV conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
2.8.2.
Capacitive boost mode with MOV conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.8.3.
Blocking mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.8.4.
TCSC bypass operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.8.5.
Circuit breaker bypass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Series compensated transmission line protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.1.
Multiple relay characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
3.2.
Compensator modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9012243090.

E-mail address: bhargavonline@gmail.com (B. Vyas).
0378-7796/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2013.09.017

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B. Vyas et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

3.3.
3.4.

4.
5.
6.

Traveling wave based approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Signal processing tool and articial intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1.
Advancement in ltering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2.
Higher order statistic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3.
Wavelet transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.
Articial intelligence techniques with/without digital signal processing tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.
Neural network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2.
Support vector machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.3.
Fuzzy logic based schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fault location and fault distance calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Series compensated transmission line protection trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction
To switch from protection of an uncompensated transmission line to a transmission line with series compensation is
considered to be a difcult task for protection engineers, as it
needs to be adapted to the changes introduced by compensation
devices.
With sustainable growth in power demand, the size of the power
system is continuously increasing; it has become the most complex
system ever built. A large amount of money is spent for development of the power system right from generation of power to
transmission and distribution; thus proper protection system is a
must for every power apparatus [1,2].
Continuous increase in power demand leads fast development
in transmission system, and requirement of power transfer up to
the thermal limit of the transmission line. This will lead to installation of series compensation on long Extra-High Voltage (EHV)
transmission lines. The series compensation not only increases
power transferring capacity, but also improves system transient
stability, voltage control, power ow control and will reduce losses.
Two main types of series compensation used are xed capacitor
series compensation and controllable capacitor series compensation, each with their own advantages [3]. Two different line
congurations are used in practice according to position of the
compensating device on the circuit; end-line compensation and
mid-line compensation.
To take full advantage of the series capacitor installation in
a utility network, it is necessary to understand the impact of
series compensation on protection to design appropriate schemes
with necessary changes. As mentioned earlier compensation in a
transmission system is normally introduced for high-power EHV
transmission line, which usually employs distance relay for protection purpose. A distance relay works on real time impedance
calculation of the line with real time measurements aided with
fault type information. In case of series compensated transmission
line, inclusion of compensating device affects the line impedance.
Therefore, the position of fault with respect to the compensator
(fault zone) is required for a distance relay to accomplish its overall decision. Faulted phase selection also increases system stability
and availability by allowing single pole tripping. This will improve
transient stability and reduces switching overvoltage in the system
[4].
Therefore, the fault type classication and fault zone identication are very important aspects for protection of series
compensated transmission line. Research efforts toward fault
analysis have been evaluated in Section 3. With the help of
this information, contributions toward fault location are analyzed in Section 4. Moreover, Section 2 investigates briey,
the effect of series compensation on transmission line protection.

100
100
101
101
101
102
102
103
103
103
105
106
107

2. Series compensation impact on transmission line

protection
Integration of the series compensation in transmission line
makes the protection complex due to the abrupt changes in line
parameters at the point of series compensation. This will lead to
change in apparent impedance measured by the relays. In this section, the impact of series compensation on the impedance based
transmission line relay is briey discussed.
2.1. Change in line impedance seen by relay
The distance relay resolves the impedance calculations from just
nished measurements of voltages and currents. The impedance
calculation gets effected due to inclusion of the series compensation, and leads the impedance relay for exaggerate conclusion. In
ideal conditions, the apparent impedance seen by a distance relay
for an uncompensated line at the relaying end can be seen by a
dashed line in Fig. 1(a) and on RX plane in Fig. 1(b). With inclusion of series compensation, the characteristic got modied at the
point of compensation, as seen by solid lines in Fig. 1(a) and (b). It
is clear from Fig. 1(b) that the distance relay overreaches if Series
Capacitor (SC) is included in the fault circuit [4,5]. The directional
integrity of the distance relay can be lost in the case of a fault just
after compensator for end line compensation as seen in Fig. 2.
2.2. Over voltage protection of series capacitor
It is advisable to make a modication in the relay settings to
accommodate the series compensation, only when it is established
that the capacitor is invariably going to be part of the fault circuit for
a fault after compensator [6]. However, over-voltage protection of
the series capacitor could bypass the capacitor from the faulted circuit. As a normal practice, a Spark Gap (SG) or Metal Oxide Varistor
(MOV) or both with a bypass circuit breaker protects the capacitor
against over-voltage as shown in Fig. 3. This leads to two different
impedance conditions during fault:
(i) In high-current fault condition, voltage across the capacitor
increases to a truly high value, which triggers MOV conduction to bypass the capacitor. In this case, SCMOV combination
impedance will be reduced to the impedance of MOV only.
(ii) During low-current fault condition; the MOV remained in
its high impedance state. The SCMOV combination offers
impedance equal to parallel combination of the pair.
Two impedance conditions increases difculty in relay setting. A
relay setting without consideration of MOV conduction could overreach and easily lost its directional integrity. If the settings are made

B. Vyas et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

95

(a)

Fig. 2. Loss of directional integrity in case of end line compensation.

(b)
Fig. 1. Change in impedance as seen from relay.

with sustained consideration of MOV, the relay may underreach in

low fault conditions.
2.3. Voltage and current inversion
Due to the presence of the series compensation in the fault circuit, different electrical quantities like fault current, phase currents,
sequence currents and voltages (phase, sequence) may exhibit signicant phase shifts as compared with their natural positions. A

change of 90 or more in voltage phase angle is known as voltage

inversion. This type of condition occurs in a fault that occurs after
the series compensator for which, the total source impedance (ZS )
is much higher than the fault line impedance (ZF ) (Fig. 4). Any fault
on line CD with inclusion of SC in the fault circuit will create angular difference to the line current on bus C and D. This difference is
approximately equal to the load angle of the line. This will force the
relay on bus C to see the fault in reverse direction [5,7,8].
Current inversion is a phenomenon in which the current phase
angle is changed by more than 90 . A condition of current inversion
occurs on a series-compensated line when, for an internal fault just
after the compensating device, the equivalent system on one side
of the fault is capacitive, and another side of the fault is inductive
as shown in Fig. 5.
It is worth noticing here that, as current inversion and voltage
inversion occurs at total distinct system conditions, therefore, the

Fig. 3. Over voltage protection of series compensator and MOV characteristic.

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B. Vyas et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

400
Left side of Compensator

Right Side of Compensator

300

Voltage (kV)

200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
3,500

0.2

0.25

0.3

Time (Sec)
Fig. 4. Circuit condition and waveforms for a case of voltage inversion.

voltage and current inversion cannot occur simultaneously. Hence,

in case of any one of these inversions, the protective relay gets
affected [5,7,9,10].
2.4. Series compensator generated transient issues
Addition of series compensation in the transmission line adds
up several transients in the faulted system. These transients affect
estimation of the voltage and current phasors. A transient on a noncompensated transmission line has a major portion of the decaying
DC. However, on lines with series compensation, the primary transient is an AC signal with a frequency determined by the series
capacitance and the system inductance [11] and can be given by
(neglecting resistance)
fe =

1
=f

2 LC

XC
XL

spirally oscillation of impedance characteristic, when it shifts from

load impedance to fault impedance during fault as shown in Fig. 6
[6].
Assuming the transient frequency lesser than the fundamental, the voltage drop across the line inductor is much less for the
transient current compared to the fundamental frequency current.
Conversely, the transient voltage drop across the capacitor is considerably larger due to the lower frequency of the transient current.
Thus, during low frequency transient condition, the line appears to
have much higher percentage compensation.
2.5. Unbalanced line impedance
A non-transposed or partially transposed transmission line
offers unbalanced impedance. This unbalance is signicantly magnied with inclusion of series compensation in terms of percentage

where XC represents reactance of SC, XL is the line reactance up

to fault point and f indicates the power frequency. It is evident
from the equation that a high-frequency component is introduced
into the system when a fault occurs just after the capacitor or in
other words, XC > XL . However, all the modern relays are equipped
with digital lters; this makes effect of high frequency negligible
in relays. For the fault at the remote end of the line (XC < XL ), a lowfrequency transient will be introduced into the system. Due to low
fault current, MOV offers high impedance and this frequency will
prevail in the system for long time. This frequency will lead to a

Fig. 5. The case of current inversion.

Fig. 6. Impedance oscillation due to sub-harmonic frequency [6].

B. Vyas et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

97

Table 1
Summary of series compensation effects on distance relay.
Effect of series compensation

Consequences

Problem with distance relay

Relay overreach
In a close in fault after compensation, relay can
see fault in reverse direction

Abrupt change in line impedance at the point

of series compensation
Capacitor bypassed by gap for overvoltage
protection

Produces low frequency transients

Capacitor will bypassed before its voltage limit

Relay overreach

Capacitor is bypassed by series reactor for

overvoltage protection of capacitor

Will produce high frequency transients

Relay underreach

MOV is used for overvoltage protection of

capacitor [13]

Low fault current: impedance = capacitive reactance

High fault current: impedance = Parallel of capacitive
reactant and MOV resistance

Change of impedance with MOV conduction

Overreach of relay

Voltage inversion

Voltage phase angle shifts more than 90

Overreach if fault include capacitor

A potential underreach if fault occurs just after
capacitor (reverse direction)

Current inversion

Current phase angle shifts more than 90

Relay fails to operate for some portion of line

Sub harmonic frequency

Produced due to combination of SC and line inductive

reactance

Can conduct MOV at low fault currents

Unbalanced line impedance

Increase in already available unbalance due unbalanced

loading or lack of transposition

Affect the ground relay

Faults in capacitor bank

Will produce imbalance in the system

Affect the ground relay

Relay overreach

of total line impedance. That means, increases in zero and negative sequence components of the currents and needs change in
protection algorithms, especially for earth sensing relays.
2.6. Parallel lines
Problems with protection of the series compensated lines
amplify with a parallel line conguration. The series compensator
gets rid of a portion of the self-reactance of the transmission line.
However, its effect is negligible on the mutual impedance of the
parallel lines. Moreover, the outage of any line and grounding on
either end changes the impedance equation. Therefore, all these
conditions should also be considered during the protection design
of parallel series compensated transmission line protection.
2.7. Faults in capacitor bank
The series compensators are normally installed as a capacitor
bank on a platform. An internal over-voltage protection is always
necessary for this capacitor bank. The compensator necessitates
shorting the whole capacitor platform in case of any over-voltage
(for example, group over-voltage because of fuse blowing). For
a single-phase fault, capacitor bank protection system needs to
bypass other two phase capacitor platforms also. A delay in bypass
of other two platforms provides a window of opportunity for a high
speed sensitive ground and direction detection schemes to operate. This is due to the fact that this capacitor unbalance appears as
internal fault of the protected system [12].
Table 1 gives a summary of the problems faced by a distance
protection scheme, when subjected to protect a transmission line
with series compensation.

most preferred controllable series compensator and covering all

possible conditions for other controllable devices, Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator (TCSC) has been chosen in this review
to identify effects of controllable compensation on the transmission
line protection.
Fig. 7 shows a typical TCSC module with different protective elements. It comprises a series capacitor, in parallel with a thyristor
controlled reactor (TCR) with a reactor (Ls) and a MOV [13]. The
MOV will help the ideal tripping characteristic to be nearer to its
original then the non MOV operation as shown in [14]. The circuit
breaker bypasses the TCSC module in case of a severe fault or equipment malfunction. A current limiting inductor, (Ld), is incorporated
into the circuit to restrain both the magnitude and the frequency
of the capacitor current during the capacitor bypass operation.
During the fault, TCSCs control system would react swiftly to
take some protective measures. TCSC control circuit changes thyristor ring angles to take it in inductive mode, which reduces the

BI-DIRECTIONAL
THYRISTORS

jXL
ITCR
ILINE

-jXC
IC
+ VC -

2.8. Problems with controlled series compensation

Ld
Electronically Controlled Series Compensation (CSC) provides
better control over power ow of a transmission line than xed
series compensation. The CSC increases transient stability of the
system as well. However, it introduces additional harmonics,
rapid changes associated to its control actions in primary system
parameters such as line impedances and load currents. Being the

INDUCTOR
LS

MOV
AIR GAP
CIRCUIT BREAKER

Fig. 7. A practical TCSC arrangement.

TCR

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B. Vyas et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

fault current. If the short circuit current were large enough, MOV
would be in reduces resistance mode, and will produce equivalent
impedance of TCSC in bypassed mode (inductive). Therefore, TCSCs
capacitive reactance would decrease and gradually change into
inductive reactance. This affects adversely to the transmission line
protection settings [15,16]. If the fault current is not large enough,
TCSCs control system will not send its commands to bypass the
thyristor, in this case TCSCs impedance characteristic becomes
complicated. Moreover, with a fault where transient voltage and
currents waveforms are not symmetrical, the TCSC ring becomes
confusing. In this condition, TCSCs harmonics become very complicated [17]. Ghassemi and Johns [18] investigated the effect on
distance protection measurement due to the residual compensation when an earth fault occurs on a series compensated line. The
directional integrity of the normal impedance relay will be compromised with TCSC installation as investigated in [14].
To understand the TCSC operation during a fault period, let we
understand the normal operating conditions of TCSC. The TCSC normally operates with anyone out of following operating modes [3]:

Capacitive boost mode (Lim < < /2).

Inductive boost mode (0 < < Lim ).
Bypass mode ( = 0).
Blocking mode ( = /2).

During fault, TCSC gives different operations depending upon

the type of fault. Let we check various conditions of TCSC under
faulty condition.
2.8.1. Capacitive boost mode without MOV conduction
In a high impedance fault condition, a low fault current exists in
the system. The lower fault current exerts less voltage across the
compensator than the protective voltage level of TCSC (Fig. 8(a)).
Therefore, the MOV remains in high impedance mode, and fault

will persist through TCSC continuously. Due to existence of compensation, the relay can overreach considerably, and also can lose
its directional integrity.
2.8.2. Capacitive boost mode with MOV conduction
For a high-current fault case, the MOV conducts to decrease the
voltage across the SC (Fig. 8(b)). However, the MOV is fast enough to
conduct and reset within a half-cycle. In this case, neither the MOV
nor the circuit breaker would be short out the capacitor continuously. This short-duration condition usually repeated several times
during the fault period. During this condition, the TCSC impedance
would be the parallel combination of the capacitor and the MOV in
a lower resistance mode. The relay would overreach but differently
from the previous case without MOV operation.
2.8.3. Blocking mode
During fault transient time, phase angle of the voltage across
capacitor changes swiftly, which changes the ring angle of the
TCSC rapidly in some cases. To avoid overcurrent situation for this
case, the thyristors are blocked by ring mechanism. In this condition, the TCSC acts like a xed series capacitor only (Fig. 8(c)). The
relay would overreach as in case of xed SC with MOV. However,
this overreach is less than the case, when the TCSC is in capacitive
boost mode.
2.8.4. TCSC bypass operation
For a very heavy fault current condition, the MOV operation is
not enough to decrease the capacitor voltage. This leads toward
total thyristor conduction (bypass mode Fig. 8(d)). In this case, the
distance relay would underreach due to the presence of the reactor
in circuit.
2.8.5. Circuit breaker bypass
If the fault is not cleared within a pre-specied time period, the
TCSC transits to circuit breaker bypass mode (Fig. 8 (e)). Since the

Fig. 8. TCSC operating modes during condition of fault.

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Table 2
Effect of different modes of TCSC operations on distance protection.
Mode of operation of TCSC in faulty
condition

Effect on protection system

Capacitive boost mode without MOV

conduction

(i) Overreach of relay

(ii) Directional integrity will be
lost

Capacitive boost mode with MOV

(iii) Relay will overreach, but

less than the case without
MOV operation

CT

99

SC

G1 PT
RELAY
(a)

CT

SC
PT

G1
RELAY
(b)

Fig. 9. (a) Bus-side measurement. (b) Line-side measurement.

Blocking mode

(iv) TCSC will work like SC

(v) Relay will overreach as in
SCMOV

TCSC bypass operation

(vi) Distance relay will

underreach

Circuit breaker bypass

(vii) Normal operation of relay

(viii) Used only as backup
protection

series reactor in the circuit breaker circuit is very small, the relay
experiences the normal situation. This condition is used only for
back-up protection.
Table 2 summarized these operating conditions and its effect on
distance protection.
3. Series compensated transmission line protection
Addition of series compensation force changes into design of
the transmission line protection system. These changes are according to alteration in system parameters as per size, location and
over voltage protection of the compensator as discussed earlier.
Besides the detection of faulty condition, fault type classication is
an essential protective relaying aspect for transmission line protection. In a series compensated transmission line, the end line
fault currents may be of the order of the load currents. Moreover,
identical impedance conditions exist on either side of the series
compensation (Fig. 1). This necessitates information about location
of fault with respect to the compensator (fault zone). Therefore, the
nal impedance calculations of the distance relay always use fault
type and zone information. Reviews for fault analysis (fault zone
and type identication) methods with fault location methods have
been presented throughout this section.
In recent times, considerable development efforts have been
registered for development of protective relaying schemes for
series compensated transmission lines. The available approaches
can broadly be classied in following categories:
(1) Application of multiple/dynamic impedance characteristics
according to the presence of the series compensator in the fault
circuit [19], or to use memory polarization to eliminate voltage
alteration across compensation [20,21].
(2) Development of a mathematical model of the compensation
device to estimate the impedance level during a course of fault.
The voltage across the compensator can be estimated to correct
the measured voltage [2224].
(3) Protection of the series compensated line with a digital protection system that employs an advanced digital signal processing
tool and/or articial intelligence technique. Normally, these
schemes operate into two stages:
(i) Signal pre-processing and feature extraction
In this stage, features of the measured electrical quantities are
extracted and enhanced for further analysis. Signal processing
tools like Fourier Transform (FT), Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT), Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), Wavelet Transform (WT),

and Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) are normally used for

this purpose.
(ii) Articial intelligence
In second stage; the extracted features are used with articial intelligence techniques for decision making. Normally used
classiers are Articial Neural Network (ANN), Fuzzy Set Theory, Support Vector Machine (SVM), Extreme Learning Machine
(ELM), etc.
In recent times, researchers made efforts for direct implementation of the AI techniques as pattern recognition tools for fault
analysis also [2527].
In elementary implementation of the distance relay for series
compensated transmission line protection; the reach settings have
been reduced to accommodate effects of series compensation. The
rst zone used to be set far below its factual reach; around 30% of the
line length instead of 8090%. This cautious approach takes care of
disproportionally between actual and measured fault impedances.
However, it will make relay underreach during MOV operation. One
more solution to avoid relay over reaching is to use line side voltage
measurement with respect to the compensator (Fig. 9(a)) instead
of normally used bus side voltage (Fig. 9(b)). However, this solution
can be applied easily in case of end line compensation, where the
compensator is available inside the sub-station only [21,28]. This
solution is impracticable for a mid-line compensation scheme.
3.1. Multiple relay characteristics
A fault zone detector sub-algorithm is a prime requirement in
this type of relaying, which investigate the presence and percentage reactance of series compensation in the fault circuit. The relay
alters the impedance characteristic according to the size, shape and
reactance of the compensator. In an initial approach for adaption of
distance relay characteristic to series compensation, Mandour and
El-Alaily [6] utilizes the existence of sub-harmonics in fault current
to investigate participation of the compensator in the fault circuit.
According to the fault zone, appropriate impedance characteristic
has been chosen for the relaying task. However, the compensator
model employed in this work, utilizes spark-gap for capacitor overvoltage protection. With introduction of the MOV, the proposed
scheme in this work became erstwhile and necessitates changes in
computation. In an effort, Srivani and Vittal [19] presented an algorithm for generation of varying impedance characteristic according
to the level of xed compensation (Fig. 10). The dynamic characteristic has been developed using ofine network details and Full
Cycle Fourier Algorithm (FCF). However, the scheme developed for
this work has been authenticated for three xed levels of compensations only. Moreover, a requirement of more than one cycle post
fault data proves it slow compare to recent requirements. A protective algorithm in [29] divides the transmission line into two
sub-systems of linear and nonlinear components to modify the
characteristic according to compensation level.
The prime advantage gained through this type of schemes is that
the relay characteristic gets modied/selected adaptively according

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with real-time measurements in case of mid-line compensation.

Usage of interpolation during calculation in this model reduces the
prediction accuracy. Moreover, increased computational complexity encourages the researchers to use the previous linear models.
Saha et al. [31] presented a SCMOV impedance prevision algorithm by calculating two different impedances across compensator.
The rst realized with measured voltage and current and the other
with measured current and calculated compensation voltage with
help of 2nd order gear differentiation rule. In this method, the nal
impedance has been estimated by checking position of these two
calculated impedances on three specially shaped regions on the
impedance plane.
The compensator modeling provides a great advantage in
compensated line protection, as voltage alteration by the compensator can be estimated. However, it is difcult to replicate
exact non-linearity of the compensator in mathematical modeling
and these models marginally differ to the actual measured values. This indicates requirement of more considerable efforts in its
developments.
3.3. Traveling wave based approaches

Fig. 10. Relay multiple characteristics [21].

to the level of the compensation. However, these algorithms usually

proved slower as modication/adoption necessitates knowledge of
the fault zone before proceed to the nal characteristic.
3.2. Compensator modeling
As already mentioned, the distance protection scheme for
transmission line protection might calculate the fault impedance
fallaciously due to compensator voltage drop. This problem can
be eliminated by calculating this voltage drop with real-time
measured quantities. One of the methods is to develop a compensator equivalent impedance model for calculations. Goldsworthy
[22] presented an applicable linearize SCMOV model for system
parameter calculation in fault conditions as shown in Fig. 11. This
model provides an approximation of the actual value only. However, this model has been preferred by many researchers as fairly
simple in application. Based on Goldsworthy [22], Coursol et al.
[24] reported a quasi-linear model of SCMOV combination for
use in simulation studies. These models are used by numbers of
the researchers for series compensated line protection applications. These models are found fairly useful in SCMOV impedance
calculations and hence for voltage estimation across compensator
[5,11,19,23,2934].
A more recent non-linear model of parallel combination of
SC and MOV has been developed by Rosolowski and Saha [23].
The model utilizes compensator current measurement as an input
parameter. This necessitates a dedicated communication channel

Traveling wave is multi-frequency transient wave generated

from the fault point due to sudden change in system parameters
with the inception of fault. These traveling waves propagate on
either side of line and reected back continuously until dies down
as shown in Fig. 12. Traveling wave equations are sufcient for
development of a transmission line protection system. However,
with inclusion of the non-linear component of the series compensator, these equations need modication to adopt changes. A
modied traveling wave equation, including non-linearity because
of compensation has been developed by Thomas et al. [35]. This
equation was enhanced by Sadeh and Adinehzadeh [33]. The algorithm estimates voltage on either side of the compensator instead
of modeling the compensator device. This makes the algorithm
independent of compensator type, mode of operation and its
parameters. However, this two-ended scheme requires a dedicated
communication channel and a high amount of calculations, to sum
up the nal result that makes it slow.
It is worth to note that traveling wave is almost absent when the
voltage fault inception angle is near to zero. Moreover, involvement
of the series compensator can produce frequencies of a very high
range. These frequencies can be too high for a Capacitive Voltage
Transformer (CVT) for a close fault after compensating device, as it
can be out of its measurable bandwidth.
3.4. Signal processing tool and articial intelligence
Digital Signal Processing (DSP) is the method to describe a signal
into another form that makes certain features of the original signal more amenable for study. DSP is able to describe the electrical
signal more completely for power system stability and protection
analysis.

MOV
Fig. 11. Compensator modeling [24].

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101

Fourier lter based series compensated transmission line protection scheme for simultaneously removal of the sub synchronous
frequency components to develop a clear fundamental frequency
component in a quick time. With series compensation, this process
can take a long time to extract features due to long time decaying
sub-harmonic resonance.
The DFT is one of the most preferred tools for protection industry. The computational cost of the recursive DFT lter is lower.
Moreover, a very good harmonic immunity can be achieved by
DFT ltration, which improves the fault information. However,
during approximation of a discontinuous function (fault induces
current/voltage); the function is dened in the whole interval
of interest by a global basis set. Therefore, Gibbs phenomenon
will restrict the nal resolution. With exploration of recent signal
processing tools like Gabor Transform (GT) and Wavelet Transforms (WT); the implementation of DFT has reduced drastically,
as they can provide more meaningful information for protective
requirements.

Fig. 12. Traveling wave (BawleyLattice diagram).

3.4.1. Advancement in ltering

The basic signal processing tool of Discrete Fourier Transform
(DFT) decomposes the continuous time signal into an innite sum
of sinusoids. The FT, in other words, is based on the principle of dilation of the subjected waveform in to reference sinusoidal waves.
The DFT separates out all spectral details of the subjected time
domain signal in the frequency domain as shown in Fig. 13(a). In
research articles by Yang and Liu [36] and Gu and Yu [37], DFT
based algorithms have been proposed with completely removal
of decaying DC component of fault currents for non-compensated
transmission line. Based on these works, Yu and Gu [38] presented

3.4.2. Higher order statistic

Spectral analysis is a good measure for judgment concerning
the predictability of the signal. Second order measures like DFT
generate non-zero values in its output due to Gaussian noise.
Higher-Order Statistic (HOS) eliminates this Gaussian noise and
can produce more accurate trispectrum of higher frequency, which
is advantageous for fault analysis with series compensation. The
use of HOS with fuzzy classier was investigated by Pradhan et al.
[39] for fault classication. However, this method requires a heavy
computation that makes the system sluggish.
3.4.3. Wavelet transform
Both time and frequency resolution of a given signal is achieved
by time localization of different frequency components using
Wavelet Transform (WT) [40]. In WT, the inputs are manipulated
through a process of translation (i.e. movements along the time
axis) and dilation (i.e. spreading out of the wavelet) to transform the signal into another form which unfolds it in time and
scale (Fig. 13(b)). The wavelet transform measures the correlation
between the input signal and scaled and translated version of the
mother wavelet which is of limited duration and has zero average

Current (kA)

2
1
0
-1
-2

Time (Sec)

Current (kA)

2
1
0
-1
-2

Time (Sec)

Fig. 13. Fourier and wavelet transform comparison.

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B. Vyas et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

value. Application of WT for series compensated line protection

for fault-zone identication using db4 mother wavelet and fault
classication with Haar as mother wavelet was proposed by Megahed et al. [41]. In this article, the use of sampling frequency of
240 kHz proved high for practical implementation and enforces a
large amount of calculations. Dash and Samantray [42] presented
an algorithm for fault type and zone classication using WT analysis
for a controllable compensated transmission line. The same authors
proposed fault type and zone identication scheme [43] with an
improved signal processing method of wavelet packet transform
(WPT).
The entropy dened in terms of its probability distribution can
be a good measure of randomness or uncertainty. The entropy provides improved information about the system condition in a state
of fault. Wavelet entropy based fault classication, zone identication and location scheme has been proposed by El-Zonkoly and
Desouki [44]. Samantaray and Dash [45] presented an approach
based on s-transform and Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN) for
fault analysis. The s-transform is an extension of Gabor transform
and wavelet transform, and is based on moving and scalable localizing Gaussian window. However, application of the PNN requires
an extensive training and memory as PNN stores all the training
information with its network. Another application of s-transform
in unit type TCSC compensated transmission line protection can be
seen in [46]. The scheme in this article works on s-transform separated differential energies between sending and receiving end. The
scheme necessitates synchronization of measurement with data
from the remote end. Therefore, it costs dedicated communication
channel between line ends. Moreover, necessity of two-cycle post
fault data proves it slow in view of recent available literature. An
advancement in s-transform, hyperbolic s-transform is applied for
fault classication, zone identication and fault location estimation with SVMs, SVCs, and SVRs, respectively, in [47]. Choice of the
support vector parameters is a major concern for the scheme. Moreover, requirement and selection of a large input vector make it slow
in implementation.
In recent developments the ability of wavelet transform has
been widely appreciated for transmission line protection. Being
a non-stationary phenomenon, fault analysis information about
particular spectral components occurring at the time of fault occurrence is very important. As WT expands a signal in terms of a
wavelet, generated using translation and dilation of a xed wavelet
function, it extracts time and frequency features simultaneously
(Fig. 13). By the help of WT, the changes introduced by the compensating device can be identied clearly to enhance fault information.
However, most of the wavelet based techniques uses multi-level
decomposition that requires multi-level ltering and a higher
amount of calculations. Researchers are expected to work for reduction in ltering requirement and calculations by improvisation of
the methodology.

non-linear SCMOV model [22,24], it is found that the performance

of ANN is superior than DDA and LM.
Xuan et al. [50] applied ANN for pattern recognition based
adaptive relaying for a series compensated transmission line.
The delta-bar-delta (DBD) training algorithm used in this effort
improves time response by accelerating the convergence. However, authors investigated rst zone performance for the approach
only with xed series end-line conguration. Radial Base Function
based Neural Network (RBFNN) is a three-layer NN with the middle
layer carries radial basis as activation function. An approach for protection of a controllable compensated transmission line has been
developed with use of RBFNN by Song et al. [51]. However, to t in
todays protection requirement, the system should not be accurate
only, but fast also. RBFN requires comparatively large processing
time, as its activation function is non-monotonic compare to BPNN.
Limitations of ANN or any AI technique as pattern recognition
classier can be overcome by inclusion of a pre-processing signal analysis tool. Different protection schemes with two stages
(i) signal processing and (ii) classication are available in the literature. A combination of DFT as a signal-processing tool with
ANN has been proposed by Song et al. [52], with special emphasis on the zone-1 performance. However, a two-cycle window
after fault inception required in this scheme is a rare possibility
in todays fast protection environment. Moreover, scheme claims
to produce improvement in results with data of two consecutive
windows. In the rst stage of a two-stage algorithm presented by
Ibrahim et al. [53], the model information from the measured signal
has been extracted by the Total Least Square Estimation of Signal Parameters via Rotational Invariance Technique (TLS-ESPRIT)
with non-fundamental portion of the measured transient signal.
This model information is used for high-resolution signal parameter estimation. In the second stage, an articial neural network
(ANN) is designed to estimate the faulted phase based upon the
features extracted from the rst stage. The TLS-ESPRIT deals with
a very high amount of calculations. Testing of the algorithm under
system parameter variation could authenticate the presented algorithm in this work. In an approach, Abdelaziz et al. [54] examined
a use of a model transform techniques of Wedepohl transformation for fault detection and Karrenbauer transformation for fault
classication with ANN. Extreme Learning Machine (ELM) is a
learning algorithm for ANN proposed by Huang et al. in 2005
[55]. The ELM provides faster training speed by eliminating issues
like local minima, improper learning rate and over-tting. The
ELM trained ANN has been used with DWT in [56] for fault
analysis.
The ANN proved to be a simple, robust and efcient classier for
protection applications. The efforts also can be seen toward making the ANN scheme more practicable by increasing its training
speed and accuracy with various training methods. From this discussion, following advantages of ANN can be separated out over
other classiers:

3.5. Articial intelligence techniques with/without digital signal

processing tools
3.5.1. Neural network
An Articial Neural Network (ANN) is a computational model
based on the structure and functions of biological neurons. The
ANN helps to estimate the computing function or distributions
in the most efcient way. In a way, ANN is a better random
function approximation tool. Many contributions are registered
in the literature for series compensated line with ANN for fault
analysis with or without help of a signal-processing tool. The
ANN is considered as one of the better methods for voltage and
current pattern classication [48,49]. By investigation of its performance with Deterministic Differential Approach (DDA) and Linear
Model (LM) methods for online calculation of the voltage across a

(i) It is able to acquire complex, non-linear relationships.

(ii) Its generalization capabilities are good so can be used for different applications.
(iii) It is quick in response.
(iv) It is very easy to implement in a digital system.

However, it requires an extensive training that necessitates a

large training data set and time. This leads to generation of a large
number of example simulations. A new ANN training is required
for every line where the relay is used. ANN is sensitive to system
parameter variation also, like frequency.

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103

Fig. 14. Basic structure of DSP and AI based protection schemes.

3.5.2. Support vector machine

Support vector machine is a computational learning method
based on statistical learning theory. In recent years, SVM has
emerged as a powerful tool for classication and regression
problems. In SVM, the input features are mapped into higher
dimensional dot product space for better classication. This highdimensional space is called the feature space. In this feature space,
the SVM nds out separating hyperplane according to the training
data that contains target value (class type) and attributes (features). The training is made to nd out support vectors on, and
around this hyper plane in a way that the separation between the
classes is maximum. This optimal hyper plane is found by utilizing
the optimization theory with application of the statistical learning
theory.
An algorithm developed by Parikh et al. [57] utilizes Radial Base
Function (RBF) kernel based SVM for fault zone identication. The
DWT has been implemented as pre-signal processing tool in this
method. After successful development of fault zone detection algorithm, Parikh et al. [25] uses SVMs for fault type classication using
non-linear SVMs. An application of the SVM as a classier to classify fault type and fault section for controllable series compensation
was derived by Dash et al. [27]. In a fault classication scheme by
Bhalja et al. [58], db1 has been implemented as mother wavelet
for rst level of decomposition to generate a feature vector to be
further classied by SVMs.
In all these applications, SVMs emerged as a potential tool for
protective classication. The SVM has a capability to handle very
large feature spaces, so it is very efcient to handle large classication problems. Moreover, by dening the support vectors it
can classify classes very close to each other. However, SVMs are
very sensitive to their classication parameters. In the absence of
this parameter selection mechanism, the SVM parameters of cost
(C), gamma () and kernel function are chosen by trial-and-error
methods in all these schemes.
A step forward for SVM parameter selection, application of
Genetic Algorithm (GA) for SVM parameter approximation for TCSC
compensated transmission line protection can be seen in [59]. However, the choice of the Kernel function is still an issue and 5-fold
cross-validation based GA parameter estimation exhibits higher
computation burden.
Moreover, requirement of a new set of classication parameters for SVM for each new line and change in system parameters is
a major concern for researchers. A comprehensive parameter identication methodology with protection requirement is due from
researchers.
3.5.3. Fuzzy logic based schemes
A fuzzy logic system represents the nonlinear data mapping of
input into a scalar value with degrees of truthfulness (1) and falsehood (0). Pradhan et al. [60] proposed a fuzzy logic based system
aided with DWT signal processing for fault analysis. The scheme
applies fourteen rules based minmax type fuzzy system for fault
classication. The fault zone identication is presented with a nine
rule based fuzzy system with two separate ratios generated from
DWT. The approach cannot guarantee same accuracy with fuzzy
systems as not tested with variety of fault resistances and fault
inception angles.

The application of fuzzy logic for series compensated line protection is limited due to large variation in system parameters. The
formation of fuzzy rules under such variation makes it difcult and
slow in nature. However, other classier with a help of a fuzzy
system can make the system more accurate and easy.
A basic scheme with signal processing tool aiding articial intelligence tool is shown in Fig. 14.
4. Fault location and fault distance calculation
Introduction of series compensation makes fault location estimation difcult due to change in system parameters as discussed in
previous section. Moreover, the fault location algorithm normally
developed under an assumption of a properly transposed system.
The unbalance or non-symmetry in line parameters and measurements get amplied with inclusion of series compensation and
introduces error in fault distance calculations. Furthermore, most
of the fault locator algorithm utilizes a lumped parameter model
for system parameter calculations. The series compensation also
amplies line charging due to shunt capacitance, which is neglected
during uncompensated relaying and affects the fault distance calculation. Fault location techniques in the literature can broadly be
classied as per measurement for analysis as:
single-end measurement algorithms (Fig. 15),
two-ends measurement algorithms (Fig. 16), and
multi-ends measurement algorithms.
The single end algorithm poses an advantage as derives the
nal fault distance estimation on relaying end measurements only.
Two end and multi end algorithms need measurements from each
end of line. Moreover, data transmission requires a communication channel. These data can be used either in synchronized or
unsynchronized mode of calculations. In a way, the single end measurement algorithms are the easiest and yield fewer computational
bourdon, however, lacks in accuracy. The two and multi end algorithms gain an advantage that measurements from either side of
fault eliminate the effect of fault impedance and compensation
voltage drop on distance calculations.
Fault location techniques with series compensated transmission
line in the literature can also be categorized on their working as:

Phasor based approaches.

Time domain analysis or differential equation based models.
Traveling wave based method to solve faulted network equations.
Signal processing on a basis of the high-frequency transients generated by the faults.
Other specially developed methods.

Fig. 15. Single-end fault location approach.

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B. Vyas et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

Fig. 16. Synchro-phasor approach for fault location.

Phasor based approach is the most fundamental for a transmission line [32,61]. This method can have different variations
as per system parameter measurement location as described earlier. However, during a fault period, the voltage and current signal
are not purely sinusoidal; therefore, the phasor based approach
carries error-prone information and nal fault location accuracy
gets affected. This problem amplies with introduction of nonlinear series compensating devices. Time-domain algorithms have
been developed with single-circuit networks to overcome this
problem [7,31,32,36]. A high-frequency transient traveling waves
based fault locator estimates the fault distance by reection of the
high frequencies in transients. This method provided better fault
location accuracy with series compensated devices also. However,
accurate and faithful measurement of data is prime requirement
for this method. Use of modern analysis and classication tool can
also be reported by researchers.
In an initial approach for fault location estimation, Girgis at el.
[62] applied Carsons developed method for fault impedance calculations with additional estimation of the compensator equivalent
impedance. The SCMOV combination voltage has been predicted
with curve tting application of the Kalman lter. The SCMOV
combined impedance has been predicted with method suggested
by Goldsworthy [22], in a fault location approach by Ghassemi
et al. [63]. These schemes show encouraging results for series
compensated transmission line fault location according to their
time; however, wide authentication has not been provided by the
authors.
A single ended fault location algorithm using phasor coordinates
has been proposed in [61]. The method calculates two different
synchronized voltages from either side of the line with help of a
distributed time model. An approach to estimate voltage across
compensation devices to help estimating fault location has been
developed by Al-Dabbagh et al. [32]. However, in these methods
[32,61], the procedure ignores shunt and mutual capacitance of the
line that restricts accuracy of nal distance calculations. In [64] a
high speed numerical method is proposed on the directional comparison principle. The method uses a communication channel and
measurement from either side of the line, to sum up fault location.
A Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) based two-ended fault location estimation algorithm has been demonstrated by Chi-Shan et al.
[65]. The algorithm is unaffected by position and type of the compensator. Another PMU based fault location estimation on series
compensated line has been developed in [66]. The scheme claims
application for uncompensated transmission line also. However,
application of GPS for synchronization and requirement of a dedicated communication channel makes it complex and expensive for

application. A typical two-ended synchro-phasor approach can be

seen in Fig. 16.
Fault location algorithm for series compensated parallel transmission line with synchro-phasor can be seen in [67]. Two separate
model sequence matrices are formulated for fault location estimation according to fault position with respect to the compensator.
The scheme exhibits a heavier computational burden. However, an
effort has been made to reduce this burden by utilizing relay end
voltage phasors only with current phasors from either end. The
knowledge of the fault zone is a pre-requisite for implementation
of the algorithm.
The two-ended method proposed by Ahsaee et al. [68] calculates
two fault location vis--vis to the series compensator. The objective
function values derived for either case help to choose nal fault
location.
Application of modern single processing techniques and articial intelligence for fault location can be learned from the literature.
An application of ANN for fault location has been explored for
xed capacitor compensated line by Novosel et al. [48] and for
controllable compensated line by Hosny et al. [69]. Yusuff et al.
[70] presented a wavelet packet decomposition and Support Vector Regression (SVR) based fault location algorithm using half cycle
post fault data. However, the use of sampling frequency of 12.8 kHz
in this method proved higher for implementation. Moreover, it
should be noted that training and testing are provided from same
fault data set. Sadeh and Adinehzadeh [33] developed a fault locator
algorithm by dividing the transmission line in three separate circuits. The authors presented the fault resistance calculation by least
square estimation as indicated in the previous section. This scheme
works on data measurements from both ends of the line. This makes
algorithm independent of compensator type and its mode of operation. However, it requires a dedicated communication channel and
applies a heavy computational bourdon.
Traveling-wave differential equation based relaying algorithm
is one of the widely preferred approaches for fault location estimation. However, the algorithm developed for uncompensated
transmission line [71] fails with introduction of series compensation. Modied traveling-wave differential equations for series
compensated transmission line have been developed successfully
in many articles like [33,72].
The concept of time reversal for electromagnetic waves for
change in circuit impedance [73] can effectively be applied for fault
location estimation by traveling wave measurements. Competent
utilization of this principle for advanced fault location estimation
can be seen in [74,75]. However, these methods are directly not
suitable for series compensated transmission lines. Advancement

B. Vyas et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

105

Table 3
Comparison of few fault location estimation algorithms for series compensated transmission lines.
Article

Type of algorithm
reported

Data requirement

Number of
considered test
cases

Input quantities to the algorithm

How SC taken in to account

Novosel et al. [48]

One-end algorithm
Phasor approach

1 cycle

12

Three phase currents

Gap ash current
MOV protective level current
Protective peak of MOV voltage

Linearized SCMOV model from

Goldsworthy [22] has been used

One-end algorithm
Deterministic
Differential Approach
(DDA)

1 cycle

12

Line currents

DDA based time domain

compensator voltage estimation

One-end algorithm
ANN approach

1 cycle or more

12

Normalized line current

samples
Difference of the line currents

ANN based compensator

voltage estimation

Girgis et al. [62]

One-end algorithm

1 cycle or more

Few

Three phase currents and

voltages

Kalman lter based

compensator voltage estimation

Ghassemi et al. [63]

One-end algorithm

1 cycle

Few

Voltage and currents

SCMOV model from

Goldsworthy [22] has been used

Saha et al. [61]

One-end algorithm

1.25 cycles

1944

Type of Fault
FIA
Three phase current
measurements
Three phase local pre-fault
current values
There phase voltages

Two separate algorithms are

used to predict fault impedance
on either side of the compensator

Sadeh et al. [91]

Two-end algorithm

1 cycle

08

Three phase voltages and

currents

Two separate algorithms are

used to predict fault impedance
for fault on either side of the
compensator

Chi-Shan et al. [65]

Two-end algorithm

1 cycle

500

Three phase currents and

voltages from both ends

No calculations required for

series compensator
Independent of compensator
position

Cheong et al. [77]

One-end algorithm

5 cycle post fault

data

600

Three phase voltages and

currents

NA

Al-Dabbagh [32]

Two-end algorithm

Pre and post fault

data

90

Three phase voltages and

currents

A model of the series

compensation has been
developed
Capacitor protection level
current based MOV conduction
prediction has been applied

Sadeh et al. [33]

Two-end algorithm

One cycle

108

Three phase voltages and

currents

NA

Yusuff et al. [70]

One-end algorithm

cycle post fault

signal

60

Three phase voltages

NA

Ahsaee et al. [68]

Two-end algorithm

One cycle

66

Three phase voltages and

currents

NA

Apostolopoulos et al. [67]

Two-end algorithm

One cycle

200

Three phase current form both

end
Three phase voltage from
relaying end

Fault location is expressed with

two model sequence matrices

Abdelaziz et al. [66]

Two-end algorithm

One cycle

Few

Three phase voltages and

currents from both line ends

Least square tting based

SCMOV model

Moravej et al. [47]

One-end algorithm

One cycle

6280

Three phase voltages and

currents

Support vector regression based

approach

in the method to accommodate the effect of the series compensation has been provided by same authors [76].
The method presented by Cheong et al. [77] presented two-stage
methodology for fault location estimation with help of wavelet
transform and self-organizing map neural networks. The method
requires ve cycle post fault data to estimate fault location. Five
cycle post fault data is a rare possibility in todays digital protection
environment. The method proposed in [78] also applies wavelet

transform for traveling waves for fault location. A brief comparison

of few cited methods is presented in Table 3.
5. Series compensated transmission line protection trends
It is clear from the discussion that the choice and application of
protective relay for a series compensated transmission line needs
a very careful evaluation. A detailed and generalized guideline for

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B. Vyas et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

these issues is still due from industries; however, few practical solutions are available in implementation manuals of the relays and are
based on eld experiences.
In normal approach with impedance relay for series compensated transmission line, numerical relays are equipped with
adaptive impedance characteristic. Each phase and ground zone
element can be set to the quadrilateral or mho characteristic, with
exibility of adopting appropriate characteristic shapes that suit
availability of the compensator in the circuit. The exemplary implementation and performance of the numerical relay can be seen in
[79].
With addition of series compensation, the accuracy and reliability of distance relay are in question. Therefore, phasor comparison
based approaches were common in initial series compensated
transmission line protection schemes. However, phasor based twoended relaying approaches found operational difculties during
implementation [9]. Recent advancements in signal conditioning
improve phasor base unit protection scheme. Moreover, the segregated phase-comparators remove mixing of signals and can be able
to provide fault type information as well [80].
With introduction of series compensation in a 400 kV transmission system of the Central Western Network in Venezuela [81], the
existing protection scheme has been replaced with newly designed
numerical protection relay. The newly applied numerical relays
are capable to operate in series compensated environment. The
reach of rst zone, second zone and third zone of these relays are
reduced considerably to overcome the problem of overreaching in
its study [81]. However, relay settings remain unaltered for the lines
that have feasibility to have line side voltage measurements. As
mentioned earlier, use of the bus-side voltage measurement signicantly improves reliability of the distance protection scheme.
However, application of bus-side voltage for protection application is more feasible and practical option for end-line compensation
(Fig. 9). Basic possible practical approach for Series Compensated
Transmission line Cameroon-Southern Interconnected System has
been shown in [82]. The suggested scheme in this work uses nonunit protection type distance relay with modications to negate
effects of series compensation.
The current only schemes are normally simpler and easy compared to those schemes utilizing potential measurement also.
As the series compensation largely affects potential drop across
faulted circuit, application of the current only scheme provides an
advantage over other schemes [83].
Current based unit protection scheme were reported in [84] for
a series compensated transmission line in Dai-kurobe, Japan and
ve-end series compensated transmission line in Moscow [85]. For
the lone series compensated transmission line in Japan [84], primary protection has been provided by a phase-comparison scheme,
whereas, the FM based current differential protection has been utilized for nal tripping. The FM based current differential protection
is the same as used before integration of the series compensation.
With an implementation experiences [85], it has been shown
that the current based line differential protection provides a better solution for protection of long series compensated, high-voltage
transmission lines with more than two ends. The proposed charging
current compensation method is independent of voltage measurements, proved to work very well for such long overhead
line congurations. Combination of multi-terminal line differential
protection with a distance protection scheme provides a better protection solution for multi-end lines. However, impedance schemes
with line-side potential are found more advantageous than the current only scheme in recent studies [86].
Application of memory polarization for the relay is another preferred solution for series compensated transmission line protection
[80]. However, the under voltage control used for normal memory

polarization in uncompensated line faces a problem due to voltage reversal in series compensated environment. Therefore, the
memory control is normally applied in series compensated line for
retaining the voltage value until the impedance fault criterion is
reset, and positive sequence voltage exceeds a specic rated value
[83]. However, the sequence network outcome must be analyzed
with due consideration for the operating conditions of the SCMOV
network [5].
Few of high-speed numerical distance relays REL-531 (ABB)
[87], SEL-421 (SEL) [88], SIPROTEC (Siemense) [89], D90+ (GE) [90],
IEDREL-670-ANSI [80] (ABB) are available in the market, which are
designed with series compensating capacitors in transmission lines
in mind. All these relays are designed with hybrid distance protection schemes with adaptive distance characteristics. Therefore,
these relays can provide effective protection to uncompensated,
series compensated and adjacent line that can have exposure to
series compensation. A special directional functional is necessary
for all these relay to cope with capacitive reactance of the compensator.
Field implementations of these specially designed protective
numerical relays [8790] for series compensated transmission lines
involve some additional considerations compared to the protection functions of the normal uncompensated transmission lines.
Few of these additional important considerations necessary as suggested by the instructional manuals of these relays [8790] can be
summarized as:
The sub-synchronous oscillations in the system due to the series
capacitor should be considered during impedance settings; as it
affects nal impedance measurement.
The relay parameter settings should consider an effect of the
series capacitor bank on fault clearance time.
A correct capacitor bank equivalent impedance calculation for
the actual fault current is important for all range of the protected
zone. Iterative calculations are necessary for many critical points
along the line.
For directional integrity the many relays use memory voltage
polarization when applied to series compensated transmission
lines. A multi-input comparator is commonly used to deal with
current inversion issues in series compensated lines.
A comprehensive study report should be prepared for each series
compensated transmission line to improve the required settings.
With all of these drawbacks of the distance protection schemes,
application of traveling wave based protection schemes are also
considered as interesting options by protection industries [5].
Traveling-wave differential equation based relaying algorithm for
series compensated transmission line has been developed in [72].
The developed methodology modies the traveling wave equations
to include effects of series compensation.
6. Conclusion
An overview of work in the eld of series compensated transmission line protection is presented in this paper. This work presents a
bibliographical survey of relevant background, effect of series compensation on transmission line protection and protection efforts for
series compensated line. An effort is made to present all the techniques and algorithms presented till the date. Each technique is
evaluated separately to identify the optimum techniques for application. The article leads the researchers toward use of modern-day
processing and classication techniques to improve performance
of the protective relays.
Based on the literature available the following gaps are identied in the protection of series compensated transmission lines:

B. Vyas et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 107 (2014) 93108

1. Many compensator equivalent impedance models have been

proposed in the literature. The equivalent impedance calculation
leads to estimate voltage across the series compensation device.
However, neither of them replicates non-linearity of the compensator in mathematical modeling. An accurate compensator
model that takes care of entire non-linearity of the compensator
is still due from researchers.
2. The AI techniques, like ANN are fast but lack in accuracy and take
more efforts for training. On the other side, the Fuzzy systems
are difcult to design to accommodate variations. Moreover,
their size increases exponentially with an increase in input feature space. Their ability to separate two classes very close is
limited. SVMs can overcome these problems; however, SVMs are
sensitive to their classication parameter. Therefore, it requires
experimental investigation for proper values in the absence of
proper parameter adjustment mechanism. This indicates need
to identication of a faster and accurate articial intelligence
technique that can handle more nonlinearity and a large feature
space with reduced mathematical bourdon.
3. A comprehensive and fast algorithm to provide all required subroutines for the distance protection scheme is still due from
researchers for series compensated line.
4. With digitization of the protection schemes, the speed of operation of a protective scheme becomes an important aspect.
This indicates requirement to explore the newly developed data
processing tools to provide fast and accurate fault information.
5. A comprehensive protection algorithm is due from researchers,
which can work with non-compensated and series compensated
transmission line without any functional modication.
This paper is based on many research articles published during recent years; the presence of omission is bound to be there.
Periodic bibliographic updates on this topic will be useful with continuous evolution in the eld of series compensated transmission
line protection.

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