Construction and Building Materials 38 (2013) 524529

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Developing maturity methods for the assessment of cold-mix bituminous materials

Thomas A. Doyle, Ciaran McNally , Amanda Gibney, Amir Tabakovic
UCD School of Civil, Structural & Environmental Engineering, University College Dublin, Ireland

h i g h l i g h t s
" A maturity function was developed for conditioning effects on cold-mix materials.
" A correlation between maturity and stiffness was identied.
" Method was applied to assess climatic effects on cold-mix pavements in service.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 15 May 2012
Received in revised form 9 August 2012
Accepted 20 September 2012
Available online 12 October 2012
Keywords:
Asphalt materials
Cold-mix
Emulsion
Maturity methods
Curing
Conditioning
Stiffness modulus

a b s t r a c t
Cold-mix bituminous materials offer a sustainable, cost effective alternative to traditional hot-mixes. Difculties however can be encountered when specifying cold-mix materials due to the strong inuence of
time and temperature on material performance. In the eld of concrete technology maturity methods are
routinely used for assessing materials of known curing history. This research presents the development of
a maturity approach for the assessment of cold-mix bituminous materials and its application for predicting the effect of climatic variations on in situ mixture performance. A strong correlation was observed
between the calculated maturity and the measured stiffness for a range of conditioning temperatures
and durations thus enabling the prediction of long and short-term material performance in situ where
ambient conditions are known.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Cold-mix pavement materials are dened as bituminous materials mixed using cold aggregates and binder [1]. By eliminating
the need to heat the large volumes of aggregate substantial savings, both nancial and environmental, can be achieved in comparison with traditional hot-mix materials. Furthermore, because the
compactability of the material is not related to the mix temperature, cold-mixtures are portable and are therefore ideally suited
for use in the construction and maintenance of rural roads as they
remove the need for portable hot-mix asphalt plants [2].
Despite the potential environmental and cost benets associated with cold-mixes, there are a number of factors hindering their
wider use. These include an inconsistent approach internationally
to specifying this material and an incomplete understanding of
the strength development of cold-mixes when in service. Foremost
however is the lack of suitable assessment criteria for cold-mixes.
Corresponding author. Address: UCD School of Civil, Structural & Environmental
Engineering, University College Dublin, Newstead, Beleld, Dublin 4, Ireland. Tel.:
+353 1 716 3202; fax: +353 1 716 3297.
E-mail address: ciaran.mcnally@ucd.ie (C. McNally).
0950-0618/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.008

Serfass et al. [3] describe cold-mixes as evolutive materials. They

gain strength slowly as the material dries, developing strength
over time in a manner more akin to a cementitious material [4].
This is in contrast to hot-mix materials which gain strength quickly
as the material cools. Consequently traditional assessment methodologies developed for hot-mixes are often not best suited to
cold-mixes. In this context, the objective of this research was to
facilitate the use of cold-mix bituminous materials in Ireland by
providing a maturity-based prediction method for long-term and
short-term performance.

2. Conditioning regimes
Accelerated curing is required for cold-mix materials prior to
laboratory testing due to its low initial strength to simulate the
medium to long-term performance of the material in situ [1]. The
long-term stiffness of the material will not be achieved until a substantial reduction of the moisture content has occurred. The principal difculty involved in the testing of cold-mixes is combining a
test of short duration with the requirement to simulate the
working environment of the material. Leech [5] reported that the

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T.A. Doyle et al. / Construction and Building Materials 38 (2013) 524529

Table 1
Summary of conditioning regimes recommended for cold-mixes.
Oven conditioning

Kekwick [7]
Bowering [4]
Bowering and Martin [10]
Acott (1980); cited Jenkins [1]
Muthen [6]
Maccarrone [11]
Ramanujam and Jones [12]
Sabita [13]
Kishore Kumar et al. [14]
Yan et al. [15]
NRA [17]
Thanaya et al. [2]
OPrey [8]
Ruckel et al. [9]
Jenkins [1]
Asphalt Academy (2002); cited [7]
Kim and Lee [16]
Sabita [13]
Ruckel et al. [9]
Asphalt Institute; cited Ruckel et al. [9]
Brown and Needham [19]
NRA [17]
Sabita [13]
Sabita [13]
Ruckel et al. [9]

In situ equivalent

T (C)

t (days)

60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
38
20
20
Ambient
Ambient
Ambient

1,3,7
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
28
1821
7
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
100 + 1 @60 C
28
28
7
1

laboratory simulation of in situ curing was the most unsatisfactory

part of cold-mix emulsion mixture design. Later Muthen [6]
attributed the limited application of Foamix technology in South
Africa to the lack of a well-documented standardised mix-design
procedure.
2.1. Existing laboratory conditioning regimes
A number of commentators have investigated the multitude of
laboratory conditioning regimes in use for the accelerated curing of
cold-mixtures [1,7,8]. A review of the literature was conducted and
a summary of conditioning regimes used and recommended for
cold-mixtures is presented in Table 1. It can be seen that a number
of the references specify multiple different oven conditioning regimes, designed to simulate different periods of in situ conditioning. Three distinct temperature ranges are identied in the table;
ambient 20 C, 3840 C, and 60 C. With the exception of Ruckel
et al. [9] a conditioning temperature of 60 C dominated for almost
30 years [4,6,1015]. A conditioning temperature of 40 C gained
wider use in the late 1990s. Typically conditioning at 40 C was
undertaken for a period of 3 days [1,6,8,9,16]; however other durations also appear in the literature [9,13,17]. Curing regimes at
ambient temperature have more recently been used to overcome
the difculty correlating accelerated laboratory testing to in situ
conditions. SABITA [13] included two ambient temperature conditioning regimes of 7 and 28 days in its recommended curing protocols for emulsion mixtures.
2.2. In situ conditioning simulation
The proposed equivalent in situ conditioning duration simulated in the laboratory is included for a number of the regimes in
Table 1. There is a clear trend evident in the table with the increase
in both duration and temperature of conditioning in the laboratory
correlating to an extended duration of in situ conditioning. On the
other hand there is considerable variation in the particular values
from different researchers and little has changed since Ruckel et
al. [9] reported that correlation between laboratory and eld data

Early eld life

23200 days
1 year

28 days
1 year

30 days
6 months

714 days
1 week
1 year
1 month

1 day

Foam (F) or emulsion (E)

F, E
F
F
F
F
F, E
F
E
E
F, E
F, E
E
F
F
F, E
F
F
F
F
E
E
F, E
F
F
F

from different locations was problematic with Thanaya et al. [2]

reporting a similar difculty in 2009.
Ruckel et al. suggested that curing the specimens for 3 days at
40 C simulates 1 month of conditioning in the eld. This contrasts
with the recommendations of the Asphalt Academy (2002; cited
[7]) who suggest that this conditioning regime simulates 6 months
of conditioning in situ. A similar range of equivalent in situ conditioning times is apparent for 3 days of conditioning at 60 C. Acott
(1980; cited [1]) equated this laboratory regime to a very broad
time span of 23200 days of eld curing whereas Maccarrone
[11] estimated that this simulates an equivalent of 1 year of eld
curing.
2.3. Correlating conditioning regimes
Previous research by Doyle et al. [18] outlined a study to enable
the correlation of different laboratory conditioning methods in
which cold-mix bitumen emulsion material was tested for strength
gain for a range of conditioning temperatures and conditioning
durations. They identied a logarithmic increase for the stiffness
of the material over time. They found that by varying time and
temperature it is possible to achieve a signicant range of performance values. However, they note that the objective is not to maximise the stiffness but rather to best represent what the material
can achieve in the eld. In situ cold mix materials gain strength
over time and consequently each of the values of strength and stiffness achieved in the course of testing has relevance to a particular
age of that material in situ. Brown and Needham [19] and Ozsahin
and Oruc [20] reported a similar prole of stiffness gain for a number of cold-mix materials including a number of mix additives such
as Portland cement, hydrated lime and calcium chloride also incorporating variation in the bituminous binder content.
2.4. Maturity methods
The maturity method is commonly used in the concrete industry to determine the strength of the material after cycles of curing
at varying temperatures [21,22]. There are a number of approaches

T.A. Doyle et al. / Construction and Building Materials 38 (2013) 524529

of varying complexity available and can be also used to reliably

estimate the in situ strength of concrete. The procedure originated
with the use of increased temperatures to accelerate the curing of
concrete and the consequent need for a method to describe the
combined effects of time and temperature. The use of maturity
methods stemmed from the fact that the hydration of cement
accelerates with increased temperature and that concrete gains
strength with the progress of hydration. Therefore the strength
can be expressed as a function of the timetemperature combination. Furthermore the effect of seasonal temperature on the
strength gain of concrete is also well documented [23].

Stiffness modulus (x103 MPa)

526

20C
40C
60C

R = 0.999

4
R = 0.987
3
R = 0.994
2
1
0

2.4.1. Concrete maturity functions

A number of different maturity functions have been proposed
for the prediction of concrete strength. Neville [23] reports that a
number of researchers have sought to improve on existing maturity methods due to the original methods not being applicable to
a wide range of conditions. He noted that where improvements
were recorded they were typically at the expense of introducing
complications. Carino and Lew [21] traced the development of
maturity methods for concrete back to McIntosh, Nurse, and Saul
in the 1950s. The product of time and temperature was proposed
to describe the maturity resulting in the NurseSaul maturity function, Eq. (1).

t
X

T  T 0 Dt

where M is the maturity index, C h (C days); T is the average concrete temperature (C) during the time interval Dt; T0 is the datum
temperature (usually taken to be 10 C [6]), t is the elapsed time
and Dt is the time interval (hours or days).
In 1954 Rastrup (cited [24]) introduced the equivalent time as
an alternative method dened as the time required at the reference
temperature to achieve the same maturity as the actual cured
material. Neville [23] maintains that despite the development of
increasingly complex maturity methods, the original maturity
function remains a useful tool in practice.
3. Experimental testing
For the purpose of this study a cold-mix emulsion mixture was produced using
a limestone aggregate, a moisture content of 4% and a binder content of 3.3%. The
binder used was a cationic emulsion containing 64% bitumen. The aggregate used
was selected to conform with the clause 800 series of unbound materials for road
pavements [25]. This mix design was based on previous work conducted by Doyle
et al. [18] which found the mix to produce a compacted density of 2172 kg/m3 and a
compactability of 84.8%. Three sets of eight 150 mm diameter specimens were produced by gyratory compaction. Mechanical performance was assessed using the
ITSM test in accordance with IS EN 12697-26 [26] using a test temperature of
20 C. Specimens were conditioned in a thermostatically controlled air chamber
with uncontrolled humidity at temperatures of 20 C, 40 C, and 60 C. Repeated
testing of the specimens was carried out after intervals of accelerated curing of
increasing duration.
Three phases of accelerated conditioning were used to investigate the strength
development of the material. The initial period of conditioning was of 12 and
15 months duration for the specimens conditioned at 40 C and 20 C respectively.
The second phase of conditioning was at ambient room temperature of approximately 18 C for a period of 6 months. Finally the specimens were subjected to a
conditioning temperature of 60 C. The set of specimens initially conditioned at
60 C was not suitable for further testing due to the elevated stiffness already
achieved and the likelihood that further conditioning at a reduced temperature
would have little or no effect on the specimens.

3.1. Results of specimen conditioning

The conditioning study carried out in the course of this study identied a significant range of stiffness modulus values for materials of identical composition as a
result of variation in the conditioning regime. The results from the initial phase
of specimen conditioning are presented in Fig. 1. The stiffness values achieved for

50

100

150

200

Conditioning time (days)

Fig. 1. Results for stiffness tests at different conditioning temperatures.

conditioning at 40 C were approximately double the values achieved at 20 C for

the same duration. The 60 C conditioning regime resulted in further elevated stiffness values and bears no relation to the expected curing rate in situ.

4. Developing a maturity function

4.1. Maturity methods for cold-mix bituminous materials
Cold bituminous mixtures gain strength with the expulsion of
moisture from the mix [1,4] and the reduction of moisture content
is accelerated with increased temperature. Therefore a function of
time and temperature was considered an appropriate method for
describing cold-mix bituminous materials. Previous work by Doyle
et al. [18] considered the use of a maturity approach as a means to
correlate various conditioning regimes for cold-mix materials and
to overcome the lack of consensus on conditioning methods. A
modied version of the NurseSaul maturity function was used
and a strong correlation between the stiffness modulus and specimen maturity was observed. There were however some signicant
shortcomings, most notably with the inability of the method to
deal with changes in temperature for specied discrete time intervals. This was due to the use of a logarithmic function to characterise maturity; when applied over intervals the nature of the
logarithmic function was to over-estimate maturity by repeatedly
measuring the initial higher rate of maturity gain. Consequently
the function was unsuitable for assessing the effect of conditioning
intervals at different temperatures. This represented a major challenge as it meant that the function could not be used for assessing
performance when in service.
One of the features of the NurseSaul Maturity Function is that
it allows for the summation of discrete intervals of material curing
thus allowing it to account for the natural uctuations in temperature. The objective of this research was to develop a robust maturity function suitable for the assessment of in situ performance of
cold-mix materials and is therefore required to account for the effects of temperature uctuations.
4.2. Inuence of time intervals
As explained above, logarithmic based maturity functions were
found to be unsuitable for assessing the inuence of a varying temperature on strength development of cold-mix materials. An alternative approach that accounted for the diminishing effect of time
was required. To achieve this, the stiffness modulus results presented in Fig. 1 were used to develop a maturity function for
cold-mix materials. The revised equation is presented in Eq. (2).
A datum temperature of 0 C was adopted due to the inuence of
moisture evaporation on the strength development of the material.

527

T.A. Doyle et al. / Construction and Building Materials 38 (2013) 524529

t
X
T  T 0 Dte

where te is the equivalent age (days) and other symbols are as described earlier. The introduction of the equivalent age term to the
maturity function signicantly improves the sensitivity to temperature uctuations. The equivalent age, dened in Eq. (3), is based
on time at a reference temperature and is used to translate the
maturity acquired for any given time and temperature combination.
BTT r

te t  e

where te is the equivalent age (days); Tr is the reference temperature (20 C) and B is a material dependent temperature sensitivity
parameter. This was determined by performing a regression analysis of the expected logarithmic relation between stiffness and maturity index. For this particular mix, B was found to take a value of
0.08. The equivalent age was determined using the method described by Carino and Lew [21] for determining a maturity index
for concrete materials. It can be seen that the equivalent age will
be less than the real time for conditioning periods at temperatures
below the reference temperature, and vice versa.
The correlation between maturity calculated using Eq. (2) and
the stiffness of the material tested in the laboratory is illustrated
in Fig. 2. There is clearly a strong correlation between the two,
but with the advantage that the maturity function can allow for
temperature uctuations.
4.3. Testing the maturity hypothesis
The second and third phases of laboratory conditioning were
used to assess the suitability of the maturity function presented
in Eq. (2) to describe the effect of varying conditioning temperatures. Samples were initially conditioned at 20 C and 40 C before
being moved to an environment at 60 C. The samples were tested
periodically using the ITSM and the results are illustrated in Fig. 3.
These are accompanied by predicted values for the stiffness modulus that are calculated using the correlation identied in Fig. 2.
As expected, the results clearly illustrate an increase in the rate
of stiffness gain when the conditioning temperature is increased
to 60 C. The correlation between the test data and the predicted
values suggest that the maturity approach provides a good basis
for determining the stiffness of the material. While there is some
underestimation of stiffness acquired when the temperature is increased to 60 C, this would also be in agreement with concerns
raised [6,19] over the use of specimen conditioning at 60 C due
to the proximity to the softening point of the binder, the loss of
volatile components and the oxidation of the binder. Consequently

Stiffness modulus (x103 Mpa)

4
y = 0.1812x0.294
R = 0.97
3

0
1

10

100

1000

10000

Maturity (C.day)
Fig. 2. Relationship between maturity and stiffness.

100000

Stiffness modulus (x103 MPa)

40C - storage - 60C

20C - storage - 60C
Maturity prediction

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

200

400

600

800

Time (days)
Fig. 3. Inuence of temperature change on stiffness experimental and calculated.

it is expected that the prolonged exposure of the specimens to the

elevated temperature may contribute to the test results deviation
from the predicted values.
5. Practical applications
The use of a maturity approach presents an opportunity to better characterise the strength development of cold-mix materials. In
particular, where in situ temperature data is available the maturity
method can be employed to predict the stiffness gain of the material in service. Consequently, the effect of using cold-mix materials
at different times in the laying season can be assessed.
The maturity function demonstrates the signicance of the
ambient temperature on the rate of stiffness gain for cold-mix
materials. In Ireland a distinct laying season is enforced by wet
winters; this has the practical effect of restricting the use of
cold-mix materials from late spring to autumn. However, the risk
of rainfall is not the only seasonal climatic pattern affecting the
use of cold-mix materials. The reduced temperatures at the end
of the laying season can potentially lead to a signicant reduction
in the rate of stiffness gain. Assessment of the effect of seasonal
temperature on early age performance of cold-mixes is a useful
analytical tool due to the heightened risk of failure in early life.
5.1. Seasonal effects
Ambient temperature data can be used to analyse the typical effect of in situ conditioning on cold-mix materials. Temperature
data is readily available across Europe and one such source is the
European Climate Assessment project [27]. This provides a highquality dataset containing summaries of temporal variations in
precipitation and daily mean, minimum and maximum temperatures for several hundred sites across Europe. To assess the inuence of ambient temperature on cold-mix development, mean
daily temperature data was taken for a site in the Dublin region
for the years 2009, 1999 and 1990. Using Eq. (3) the equivalent
time associated with each day of ambient conditioning was determined; Eq. (2) was then used to determine the cumulative maturity developed on a monthly basis. The correlation determined in
Fig. 2 was then used to calculate the stiffness developed after
1 month and this data is presented in Fig. 4.
The gure highlights the inuence of ambient temperature and
it can be seen that material laid during the warmest summer
months can result in a 1 month stiffness modulus that is almost
double that obtained for material laid in winter months. Using this
maturity approach it is possible to scientically identify appropriate times of the year for using cold-mix materials. Fig. 4 suggests

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T.A. Doyle et al. / Construction and Building Materials 38 (2013) 524529

2.5

1.0

0.8
2009
1999
1990

0.6
0.4
0.2

Stiffness modulus (x 103 MPa)

Stiffness modulus (x103 MPa)

1.2

Dublin
London
Pretoria
Melbourne
San Francisco

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
1

10

100

1000

Time (days)

0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Jul

Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 5. Predicted stiffness development for cold-mix materials in various locations.

Fig. 4. Stiffness modulus after 1 month as a function of construction time.

8000

Maturity (C.day)

that for this particular location, cold-mix materials should ideally

be used between May and October. This approach can equally be
applied to other sites around the world.
Finally, it is of interest to note that while there is an obvious
variation in the mean daily temperature for the years selected,
the stiffness developed after each month is relatively consistent.
The implications of climate change have been highlighted internationally by the scientic community, but in this particular case the
data in Fig. 4 suggests that any global warming that occurred between 1990 and 2009 has had a negligible effect on the stiffness
development of cold-mix materials.

Dublin
Pretoria
San Francisco
Asphalt Academy [7]
Maccarone [11]
NRA [17]

6000

London
Melbourne
Ruckel et al [9]
Acott [1]
Brown & Needham [19]
Asphalt Institute [9]

4000

2000

0
0

100

5.2. Climatic effects

200

300

400

Time (days)

It is reasonable to expect that for different climates, laboratory

conditioning regimes will relate to different periods in situ, i.e.,
cold-mix materials in warm climates will gain strength at a faster
rate than in cooler climates. The locations where the conditioning
regimes included in Table 1 were developed are tabulated in Table
2. A quick study of the locations shows that the comparisons between laboratory and in situ strength gain primarily took place
in countries with a relatively warm climate.
To assess the effect of climatic variation, the average monthly
temperatures for the various locations were taken from worldclimate.com [28]. As expected, there was a signicant difference in
ambient temperatures for the ve locations with Dublin being
the coldest and Pretoria the warmest. Due to the selected locations
being in both hemispheres, it is not reasonable to compare maturity development for any given month. Instead, the coldest month
of the year was identied for each location and the third month
after this was taken as the time of road construction. The maturity
approach as outlined in Eqs. (2) and (3) were then applied for each
location and the resultant stiffness development calculated.
The results of these calculations are presented in Fig. 5 and once
more highlight the effect of climatic conditions on the development of cold-mix materials. As expected, higher temperatures

Table 2
Summary of cold-mix research locations.
Source

Location

Maccarone [11]
Acott (1980); cited Jenkins [1]
Brown and Needham [19]
Asphalt Academy (2002); cited Kekwick [7]
Ruckel et al. [9]
Asphalt Institute; cited Ruckel et al. [9]

Australia
South Africa
United Kingdom
South Africa
USA
USA

Fig. 6. Correlation between maturity development and conditioning regimes.

result in higher material stiffness. However, the maturity approach

again allows this to be quantied. For example, one can see that in
Dublin the stiffness after 10 days is predicted to be 431 MPa, significantly lower than in Pretoria where a stiffness modulus of
676 MPa is expected.
5.3. Conditioning regimes
Table 1 outlined a summary of the conditioning methods found
in the literature. Many of these describe specic curing conditions
which are ascribed an equivalent in situ period of ambient curing.
The maturity approach described above was applied to these conditioning periods and the maturity development with time was
calculated. This was then plotted with the eld values based on record temperature data and the results are presented in Fig. 6.
The gure suggests that in some cases long term predictions can
be made reasonably well, but that there are some signicant differences between calculated and ascribed maturity values. Fig. 6
however emphasises the variety in ambient conditions and its
inuence on maturity development. In this context it is clear that
one cannot expect a single conditioning method to be applicable
to all climates. Instead, the approach above highlights the need
to correlate national conditioning regimes for cold-mix materials
with the likely material development expected in local conditions.
6. Conclusions
The work described above represents a framework by which
maturity can be used as a parameter for assessing strength

T.A. Doyle et al. / Construction and Building Materials 38 (2013) 524529

development in cold-mix materials. The introduction of an equivalent time function has resulted in a strong correlation between
maturity and stiffness of laboratory-tested specimens for time
intervals with differing conditioning temperatures.
The application of the maturity method to the assessment of
cold-mix pavements in service identied the signicant impact of
ambient conditions. This also allowed for this impact to be quantied, offering a more scientic basis for engineers to decide on the
use of cold-mix materials.

[11]

[12]
[13]
[14]

[15]

Acknowledgements
[16]

The authors would like to acknowledge the National Roads

Authority of Ireland for their nancial support, and the assistance
of Tom Webster in the UCD Transport Laboratory.

[17]
[18]

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