Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
LLOYD
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rnWIT^ST^1
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HISjfpTRY
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The need for new avenues of trade and the extension of man's
knowledge of his world were as important as the search for power
the qualities of explorers and merchantmen as vital as those of
commanders in war. Maritime history is compounded of these: as the
world grew smaller the competition grew fiercer, the proud maritime
empires rose and fell as new products were needed, new routes
discovered, faster and more powerful ships developed; as one country's
navy proved more powerful than another's the pattern changed. The
rivalry of Rome and Carthage in the Mediterranean is reflected in the
positions of the United States and Russia today - but the question of
supremacy
is
All the seas have now been explored and the use made of them by any
one nation is a matter that concerns all. Climatic conditions can be
defied by nuclear-powered submarines and icebreakers jealously
guarded routes can be ignored by giant ships built to carry huge
cargoes and sail vast distances oil is being extracted from the sea
floor and the need for more food makes the fishing grounds especially
valuable. This atlas looks forward to the new phase in maritime
history - perhaps the most crucial of all - when boundaries may be
drawn on the oceans themselves.
:
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ATLAS OF
MARITIME
HISTORY
f*^-
J^\
.\
mm
9P
m^i^m
CONTENTS
Page
Maps
Preface
Roman Empire ad
4/The First Punic War
3/The
U
12
14
15
16
18
19
20
lO/The Portuguese route to the East, and Portuguese
possessions
24
25
fleets
26
13/The Northwest Passage and
New
France
Conflict
1689-1713
2d
Armada
30
influence
16/The East Indies, and the area of Dutch
34
35
states
18/The Anglo-French Wars and the Barbary
36
37
42
21/The Battle of Quiberon Bay
J3
44
1975 by
Copyright
Christopher Lloyd
(
Library of Congress
Catalog Card No. 74-32634
ISBN 0-66&
03779-2
1740 1802:
52
54
5G
58
61
61
62
66
Hamlyn
(C) Copyright The
Publishing Group Ltd 1975
Designed and drawn by
Alastair Campbell,
Edward Kinsey, David Worth,
Neil Littman, Paul Buckle
War
The^pening
in
Western Germany
1839^0
J67
68
72
QED:
Mohn Gordon
46
48
34/The Anglo-American
Printed by
Zealand
New
Inc.
27
28
14/The Spanish
22
10
180
TheWorld in 1600
The Anglo-Dutch
73
74
75
Maps
The American
Civil
War,
1861-65
Page
War
76
1898
and
Panama Canal
41/The
40/The Spanish-American
1914
1914-18,
War
Panama Canal
42/The Russo-Japanese
War
84
43/Tsushima
85
86
92
94
95
48/The Dardanelles
96
98
99
100
1917-18
102
51/The Zeebrugge Raid
105
105
merchant ships
January 1918
53/ Allied
80
82
and
78
lost,
War
November 1917-
105
:
106
110
Theatre
HI
111
112
114
59/The Battle of the Atlantic
115
60/Western Approaches
116
116
117
63/The
120
120
121
War
in the Pacific
122
67/The Baltic
JL23
124
127
128
130
71/American bases overseas
Index to maps
Index to text
131
134
72/The Korean
The Antarctic
The Arctic Ocean
Acknowledgments
118
War
135
73/The Antarctic
136
138
140
140
143
PREFACE
The importance
time.
atlas
is
who
are interested
in
delineated.
*"
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his
army
oared ships.
For many centuries the galleys of the Phoenicians
dominated the Mediterranean or were hired as warships
by other nations. Thus when Solomon wanted to build a
warships seem to have differed from those of the Phoenicians in three respects: the use of the ram, and the fact
that they lay lower in the water and were narrower in the
hull. Arguments about the build of the later quinquiremes
whether five-banked or, as is more likely, with five
men to an oar continue, as do those about the monster
galleys of the Hellenistic period, when Ptolemy IV is
supposed to have built a ship 420 feet long with 4,000
rowers manning 57-foot oars. Since she only drew 6 feet
it is difficult to see how this was possible.
Greek trading vessels were deeper and broader than the
war galleys and depended more on sail power. The
trading centre of the Athenian empire was the port of
Piraeus, with its complex of warehouses called the
emporium. It was near Piraeus that the most famous sea
battle in ancient times was fought, off the island of
Salamis in 480 bc. Faced by the Persian invasion of
Xerxes, the Athenian admiral Themistocles was told by
the oracle at Delphi to trust to 'wooden walls'. An allied
Greek fleet of 310 galleys (according to Aeschylus, who
served as a soldier on board one of them) faced a Persian
fleet of 1,000 ships, 207 of them Phoenician, in the milewide strait between Salamis and the mainland, from
which Xerxes watched the battle. The Greek position
could not be outflanked, so that the superior numbers of
the Persians could not be deployed in the narrow channel.
Themistocles was able to ram the attacking ships, thus
of water,
periplus,
Come, my friends,
newer world.
Far
left
Egyptians
Island of Salamis
lonians
Phoenicians
Psydalea
Course
of Persian Fleet
Below
Greek vase of the fifth century
BC showing Odysseus and the
Sirens. Note the magic
oculus on the bows and the
steering oars at the stern.
10
islands,
"Tirst to
the Rhodians.
The Romans never loved the sea, but they were forced
navy by their rivalry with Carthage. Even
then they used it to fight land battles by sea. Once
Carthage was destroyed, they left the manning of their
ships to such peoples as the Rhodians, who were not
Roman citizens. The Roman empire was a land empire,
with the navy playing a subservient role to the army;
to create a
Opposite, top
Roman trireme, with detail of
an example showing the
fortified
Bottom
Line drawing of a Roman
grain ship. That in which St
Paul was wrecked off the
island of Malta would have
looked like this.
The
First Punic
War
(264-241 bc)
was
critical in the
other passengers.
how
to reach the
Rome was
11
APUUTT
Misenum
* Neapolis
Aegusa
LUCANIA
r^'
Panormus
Rhegium
Liiybaeum
I
Heraclea
Messina
fi^Agrigentum
Ecnomus]||
Cossyra
'
Malta (Melita)
12
Opposite
Right
The Oseberg
ship, clinker
built with a single mast
Below
Figurehead of the Gokstad
ship, CAD 900. She is 78 feet
long, with 16 oar ports on
either side.
states.
The
first
790; Lindisfarne in
in 911.
Area
Areas
of
Voyages
Settlement
of tlie
Norsemen
4
A/
St.
Lawrence
NOVA SCOTIA
MAINE
MARKLAND?
Newfoundland
which
is
-^
VINLAND?
done.
In 872 the Vikings spread north-west to Iceland,
Belle Isle
/?.
LABRADOR
^ape Cod
HELLOLAND-'
fearsome
13
14
A
"%
\'
.,
^^
A hove
Seals of Hythe, Winchelsea
and Dover (1305) showing the
evolution of fore and after
castles. The steering oar is
still
in use.
Right
War
(1337-1453).
Such
fleets
men
armed merchant
soldiers
to carry guns.
15
was occa-
when
It
this.
Left
Right
'Jason's ship', actually a
i^
*XSt
">^(>
.\>M*v.4i<U
^vlitit
<.vn W/<.t><>M>tt-lAiv>A.
|A*W
"*^^lf
fi--u
16
*~riorth
Opposite
A carrack of 1500 by
Breughel. Carvel built, with
'wales' to strengthen the hull,
four masted with a deep
waist, she was a capacious
cargo carrier.
Below
Building Noah's Ark, from
the Niirnberg Chronicle of
1493.
German
Chief
Member Towns
Chief
Agency Counters
Bergen
Oslo
Stockholm
Novgorod
The
Sound,
Gotland
SKANIA
Copenhagen
Great Belt
Hamburg
Boston
^^
,^
Bremen
^
IIML
-^
^.^^[{stralsund
^^^^^^
Liibeck
I
Rostoc
Rostock
R. Vistula
Ipswich
R.
J^^^''
.
Bruges
Weser
Berlin
Ems
Dortmund
Cologne
R.
Rhine
Brunswick
R.
Oder
Konigsberg
^v
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s
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FH
wars were fought. With Genoese help, Greek rulers regained their empire and Constantinople. The Genoese
destroyed the Venetian fleet at Curzola near Ragusa in
1298, but were themselves defeated at Sapienza in Greece
in 1354. In 1380 the Genoese admiral Pietro Doria was
defeated at Chioggia at the entrance of the Venetian
lagoons, and from this date the power of Genoa declined,
though under Andrea Doria (1466-1560) her fleets were
the scourge of the Turks and the Barbary pirates.
Meanwhile Venice embarked on the disastrous policy
of acquiring territory on the mainland, which involved
her in perennial quarrels with other city states. At the
same time a new power was arising in the east, which
was to dispossess her of her wealth and influence. In 1453
Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks, who began to
push north into the Balkans and to develop a naval power
in the Aegean. Venice lost the Morea in 1488, receiving
Cyprus in exchange, but in 1571 this also was captured.
Since it now seemed that the Turks would advance
upon Italy itself, what was in effect the last Crusade was
launched by Pope Pius V in the form of the Holy League,
with forces drawn from Spain, Naples, Genoa, and Venice.
This temporary alliance between former foes lasted long
18
Republic of
Genoa
) Ottoman Empire
Battle
i^
como
Milan
Trieste
yenlce
Chioggia*
polav
ISTRIA
Segna
Danube
/?.
* Zara
Genoa
DALMATIA
Ravenna
Lepanto
(Navpaktos)
Alexandrena
Alliens
''
'
''
Sl^iros
'i
Chios
(Iskenderun)
r^
I
Ceplialonia'
j_
ll^s*"*
^~''H_,
z:^
Negropont
^Imore^^Aegina
/;\
Aleppo
Andros
-^
Corinth
:^
'^^^
''~i
Naxos
BayofNavarino
i
Sapienza.
'l)
Candia
EGYPT
'
A Venetian
galley of I486, at
company on
a grand scale.
freight,
and above
all for
"C
Scropha
GREECE
Gu// ot Corinth
Reserve
Galleys Of
Venice
B^.ar,go
Spaln-Nap.es
4^^
Santa Cruz
^^
^TOt^
|y
^
.
Turkish Attack
r=ii. #
Eg
pt'
^Mohammed
tlll~
Maltese and
Papal Galleys
Don John
.IL
'v^^\*
(W^
%
Doha
.-
^g^
^^
^W^^
Genoa
Lepanto
\F
m^n^
^
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Turkisli Centre
Ah Pasha
"^tfW
Galeasse
screen
^^
^wp
.^iLcalleys
, m^
^of
Algiers
.^j^l^Ulugh
All
#
The
'^Ai.
map
19
20
Below
The use
of the cross-staflf,
from a sixteenth-century
illustration. The crossstaff and the astrolabe were
used in the calculation of
latitude.
Bottom
Astrolabe designed by
Regiomontanus (Johann
Miiller, 1436-1476), the
The ocean-going ship was the result of a marriage between the sturdy northern ship and the longer Mediterranean trading vessel with finer lines, excluding the
galley, which was used for war rather than commerce.
From about 1400 the square-rigged, clinker-built cog
with a rudder (a northern invention) became popular in
the south because she required a smaller crew. When
carvel-built (i.e. with flush planking) and lateen-rigged
she became the caravel or, on a larger scale, the carrack,
two or three-masted ships usually with a square sail on
the fore and mainmasts. In such caravels of under 300
tons most of the early explorers carried out their voyages,
armed craft.
Guns had been known
sounding of a
A seaman
bell.
21
Sun
Zenith
Zenilh distance
North Pole
Sun's declination
Latitude
Observed
Horizon
of
altitude of the
Sun
observer
The
America.
call a collection of
tion
(first
this
first
this
this
figure
in 1570.
galleon,
Wright of Cambridge
1560, 1600.
22
"^498
JUbclcbir."
11DW
111.1102
VascodaGama
14697-1524
Right
pattern of the south-east Trades, and the Westerlies prevailing in the Roaring Forties became more obvious.
Da Gama's navigation was extremely accurate and his
voyage to the Cape in thirteen weeks without once sighting land was the longest yet undertaken. Being ignorant
of the seasonal changes of the monsoon in the Indian
Ocean, he sailed up the east coast of Africa as far as
Malindi, where he was fortunate enough to obtain the
services of the leading Arab navigator of the day, Ibn
Mahjed, who piloted him across to Calicut. He thus
learned the use of the south-western monsoon (JuneSeptember) and the south-eastern monsoon (OctoberApril) for his return.
The homeward
route,
C
v4
ctl)IOpi.Vj^
"
which he
sea.
With
their
Routes
of
Dias 1486-7
Routes
of
Da Gama 1497-8
Routes
ol
Cabral 1500
Trade Routes
Line of Demarcation by
Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494
many
As he
told
^
"7)0.
of this.
For the first half of the sixteenth century the Portuguese controlled the trade in spices, though the Venetian
trade via the Red Sea made a remarkable recovery in the
latter half of the century. Pepper from Cochin and the
Malabar coast, cloves and nutmegs from the Moluccas
>sL^^''
uii
qxmc\_
23
enormous by contemporary standards. The three- or fourdecked naos or carracks often reached 2,000 tons and had
800 men on board. They were heavily armed, sluggish
sailers, extremely unhealthy and grossly overmanned
because of the casualties incurred by disease- chiefly
scurvy, the curse of long voyages because of the difficulty of preserving food. Four or five such vessels left
Lisbon annually for a voyage lasting about eighteen
months, but one-sixth of the ships were wrecked, more
often because of enfeebled crews than because of errors
in navigation. The wastage of men this involved proved a
terrible strain on a country of under a million inhabitants.
After the appearance of the Dutch East India Company in 1602 the powers of the Portuguese rapidly declined. The spice trade was wrested from them, and they
were frequently defeated at sea. Ormuz fell to the English
in 1622; Goa was blockaded for long periods; Brazil was
attacked by the Dutch West India Company with less
success but thenceforward the Portuguese remained at
Goa and Macao on sufferance by the Dutch or the
English. Yet the people who were the first to reach India
in 1498 were the last to leave it, in 1962.
Henry the Navigator, from a
painting by Nuno Gonsalves.
24
Columbus
(Cristoforo Colon)
"146 settled at
August 1492.
He was not a professional seaman but a geographical
theorist, hence the navigation of his ships was left to his
3
who promulgated
Portuguese spheres of interest. After Portuguese objecTreaty of Tordesillas of 1494 redrew the line
of demarcation 370 leagues west, thus securing Brazil (as
yet undiscovered) for Portugal. Since it was then impossible to ascertain a line of longitude with any accuracy,
there remained the problem of where the line ran in the
East Indies. Not until the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529 were
the Moluccas allowed within the Portuguese sphere,
tions, the
(1498)
Thus
it
was not
until his
Lawrence
river.
25
Above
A model of the Santa Maria.
Opposite
A woodcut
in the published
edition of the first letter by
Columbus describing his
discovery of America. The
artist introduces a Venetian
galley in place of a Spanish
caravel.
^^^^^^
IHJspaniola
Guadeloupe
Veracruz
CAMPECHE
.'^^^fc^^^^^f^
Isanlo
Santo
Oomi
Domingo
Acspuleo
Dominica
HONDURAS
}
Porto Bello
Jl9
"
Cartagena
Terra Firma Flola
Nueva Espana
Flota
Manila Galleons
Callao Galleons
Reluming
fleets
~lMaracalbo
r.
26
Montreal
up
sailed
the
St
Lawrence
river
beyond
The
first
1576,
beyond
lat.
seaman
of the age,
further explored
century,
(see
Map
to be the
key
INTillFS:
J^_
|lf
Far
right
detail from John Rotz's
atlas of 1542, drawn for
Henri II of France, showing
it
37).
known
Right
Sebastian Cabot, the son of
John Cabot. He was with his
father at the discovery of
North America as
Hudson Bay
C^.M
Fli
AfR OCCEAN'F:
was
at the time.
'
.AER DE rHAN
CE:
t?f^^?-^^^
Froblsher1576
J.
Ottawa
Cabot 1498
R.
Montreal (Hochelaga) *
NEW FRANCE
Champlam
l-
MAINE
Lachine Rapids
Ven'azano 1524
Boston^
C Cod,
Nantucket _^^.
Ontario
Hudson
R.
New York.
H Delaware
\7
R Chesapeake
27
THESPANISH ARMADA
28
political
Armada sailed,
Opposite
stages of the Armada
campaign: the arrival off the
Lizard, and the English fleet
leaving Plymouth to take
station astern of the Armada.
Engraved in the eighteenth
century, from the contemporary plans by Ryther.
Two
Below
Sir Francis Drake.
Bottom
culverin.
by fireships at Calais.
The English fieet was hardly inferior in number of
ships or tonnage, and was much superior in armament
and in the more manoeuvrable galleons employed. Only
a few ships were of the old 'high-charged' type, most
of them being of the new 'race-built' type exemplified by
Drake's flagship, the Revenge, of 450 tons and armed with
thirty-four guns, mostly demi-culverins firing a 9 lb ball.
Above all, the English enjoyed the advantages of proximity to their base for supplies and the high morale of
men defending their homeland. Estimates of the number
of ships employed vary because the fleet waited four
months for the arrival of the Armada, but there were
probably 195 ships (of which 50 were stationed in the
Thames), the rest being at Plymouth under Lord Howard
of Effingham with 14,000 seamen and 1,500 soldiers on
board, the proportion of soldiers to sailors being the other
way round in the Spanish fleet.
Captain Fleming was the first to see the Armada off the
Lizard. With their painted sides and decorated sails,
the Spanish galleons must have been an awe-inspiring
sight. He brought the news to Howard and Drake, whom
he found playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe. No time could
be lost in getting to sea in order to avoid being caught
embayed, and by consummate seamanship, the English
ships tacked out of the Sound to take station astern of
the Spanish as they passed the Eddystone rock.
For the next seven days the two fleets moved slowly
up Channel. An occasional straggler was cut out, and on
two occasions, off Portland and off the Isle of Wight, the
fleets came to grips. But Sidonia's business was to reach
Calais, which he did on 27 July (according to the oldstyle English calendar, 6 August according to the new
Spanish one). There he was told that Parma was not
ready, and that the Dutch Sea Beggars were blockading
the Scheldt to deny him access to Antwerp. That night
the English launched fireships against a fleet huddled in
a narrow roadstead. Next morning the Armada lay
scattered along the coast towards Gravelines with an
onshore wind driving the ships on to the sandbanks and
29
By
30
^as
Spain alone.
15/The World
^^
^^
^^
^^
|k
in
1600
Spanish possessions
Portuguese possessions
English possessions
French possessions
Line of Demarcation
31
The World
32
Right
Below
Ferdinand Magellan. 1480?
1.521.
in 1600
Cano
Brunei in Borneo
at the Moluccas (where he took
on board twenty-six tons
of cloves) and at Timor. El
Cano returned to Seville on
6 September 1522, having, among other things,
proved
that the world was round.
The second voyage of circumnavigation
was that by
/'
f 'P
discovering
the
F.lir A Islands
t',
Falkland
before returning home. On
the first
Dutch circumnavigation, that of
Van Noort in 159^1601
no important discoveries were
made
Meanwhile Spanish seamen had been
exploring the
Pacific. Manila was founded
in 1565, the year in
which
Andreas de Urdaneta pioneered
the route of the Manila
galleon to the
the
Solomons and Ferdinand de Quiros
to Espiritu Santo in
the New Hebrides. With
the latter sailed Louis Vaez
de
"'''""'^ '^^"^h *he Torres
lZtt\nimrTtT^
d'^^o^e'V was kept secret until
Cap-
,IZV^
'"
CZIZ
there from
Panama
Peru,
in 1530
who
sailed
minesofPotos,werediscoveredinl545,bywhichdateLima
had been founded. The bullion
was carried by mule trains
across the isthmus of Panama
to Porto Hello or Nomb"
de Dios, from where ,t was
shipped to Spain in heavily
armed flotas sailing by the Florida
passage. These treasu e
fleets excited the
cupidity of innumerable
privateers
operating either in the Caribbean
(as did Drake and his
^ *'^ ^^^^^ <-h-^ --ille's las?
hght of the Revenge
n
arose out of one such
encounter)
None of the Elizabethans managed
to capture the Spanish
tXrZt
at
lllUvl
*?
''k^'u
'!^'
33
accompanying map.
A 'Company of Merchant Adventurers for
the discovery
of regions, dominions, islands
and places unknown' was
of Sebastian Cabot to launch
;r.T
. P
rl"^^''*'"
the
first
Enghsh
voyage of exploration of the new
age
^:^%H^^h W,oughby and Richard
Chancellor,'
who sailed from Greenwich in 1553.
Off the North Cape
the ships separated, Willoughby
continuing to Nova
Zemlya before returning to winter
in Lapland, where he
perished. Chancellor went
on to Archangel and thence
to Moscow, where at the
court of Ivan the Terrible the
Muscovy Company was established.
He died in the
oi a
second voyage.
course
Company
except as a
stimulus for the whaling industry;
nor, with the ships at
their disposal, could it have
ever been successful. Nevertheless, the efforts made
by the English and the Dutch
heralded the appearance of new
sea
to
34
when
Van
de Veldes), carto-
of settlement
from
New Amsterdam
the Cape of
For
Nagasaki (Deshima)
Dolch area
ndia
of influence
Ceylon
Canton
Formosal
Hong Kong
Macao
Cape
(Portugal)
of
Good Hope
w
Saigon
IPenang
Achin
(British)
(British)
Brunei
f\
MALACCA
^IvIOLUCCAS
Borneo
^SPICE
Sumatra
.
Bencooien
(British)
i.
Bantam!
Batavia (Jal(arta)l
,-^FIores ^_.
\^
^m
iTimor (Portugal)
-L
ISLANDS?
from Archangel to
their central
to Nagasaki,
Good Hope. As
according
to the
number
veningen.
In the Second War (1664-67) the greatest
seaman of the
age, Mihiel de Ruyter, and Cornelis,
son of Martin
Tromp, met the Royalist leaders, the Duke of
York (later
James II) and Prince Rupert, with the ex-Cromwellian
Fighting
Instructions.
35
strategic
survival on
the part of the Dutch, because they
were attacked on
land by the French (who had been their
allies in the last
war), as well as by the English at
sea. A series of hardfought defensive actions by De Ruyter
at the Schoonveld
and the Texel ended with a recognition
of the English
claim to the sovereignty of the seas.
Dunkirk
Nonh Sea
Yartnouth
Lowestoft
Scheveningen
Amsterdam
^j
'^
Ipswich
HOLLAND
'
UNITED PROVINCES
Leiden
Sole Bay
(Southwold Bay)
HarwichX5>brtord
Ness
*The Hague
Den
^^
^^
Gunfleet
'yf' Gabbard
Delft
Briel
Goeree
Rotterdam
Hellevoetsluis
Galloper
'^
London
Nore
Gravesend
H.
^^
^"^^
"VSheppey
ChathaiR-*^^aB^H
Kentish Knock
St
Foreland
Goodwins
The
Downs
" ZEELAND
James's Day
Deal
Dover*
Dungenes
^If-
Medway
Walcheren^
Schooneveldt
4
''^
'-^
Breda
-Flushing
Bergen op
Days
^It'
Antwerp
Ostend
Dunkirk
R. Scheldt
Zoom
Utrecht
36
series of
in
at sea.
his throne.
(1650).
Opposite, top
Stern of the Dauphin Royale:
the height of baroque ship
decoration.
Bottom
The Royal Sovereign by
Vande
Velde, 1702.
^/
<^
UNITED PR O VINCES
""'Hellevoetsluis
4. SPANISH N E THERLANDS
Roiito ol
Wilhnm
III
Ushant
Battle
'-Bres(
">
'
'*^.
^Ifi -_i
iBarfleur
ILa Hogue
<Ramillies
Malplaquet*""^^
'^*^.
ICherbourg
'^
'<^
<^,
Nantes
FRANCE
y/
_ La Rochelle
I.
de Rf
BAVARIA
Blenheim
Rochefort
AUSTRIA
Corunna
'Bordeaux
Finisterre
/SAVOY /MILAN
*n
go
Oporto
1GENOA
'^V.
Livorno (Leghorn
"^^H
PORTU GAL
Toulonl
SPAIN
Barcelona
'-7
Lisbon
y
Minorca
,
C
Si Vincent
Majorca
jGlbraltar
I
Cadiz*
''*
Malaga
TangiPi^^
Algiers
Ceuta
Sal!."
J'
\
<
MOROCCO
Bougie
VENICE
-Uruz
them to sail fast square-rigged ships, as well as the lateenrigged zebecs, tartanes and polaccas.
As trade developed in the Mediterranean, these corsairs became a menace: there were 25,000 Christian slaves
at Algiers in 1634. All expeditions against them failed,
with the exception of the destruction wrought by Blake
at Porto Farino in 1654. Treaties buying immunity for
ships sailing under a particular flag were often made,
but equally often broken. The first successful attack was
that by an American squadron under Commodore
Preble at Tripoli in 1803. A bigger attack on Algiers by
an Anglo-Dutch
fleet
in 1816
was
fairly successful,
but until the occupation of the seaboard of North Africa by the French in 1830 the Barbary
Corsairs proved a continuing threat to shipping passing
through the straits of Gibraltar.
The terms of the Treaty of Utrecht which ended the
War of the Spanish Succession in 1713 are illustrated on
Map
20,
at that date.
.\
37
38
20/The World
in
1713
^P British
^P French
^P Portuguese
^V Spanish
K_) Dutch
Anson's
route.
1740-44
Bering 1724
NOVA SCOTIA
NEW FRANCE
Louisbourg
New York
13
COLONIES
LOUISIANA
Bermuda
Hispaniola
St Eustatius
Jamaica
.
HONDURAS J^
Portobello
I
^^Martinique
^^
^F Barbados
Curasao
j Trinidad
BERBICE
Cartagena
1
SURINAM
Panama
GUIANA
BRAZIL
CHILE
La Plata'
Areas Operated by
Chartered Companies
Muscovy Co,
Eastland
Co
Levant Co.
African Co.
English, Dutch. French, East India
Cos
Hudson's Bay Co
Dutch and French West India Cos.
3DDl'
out after Robert Jenkins had claimed that his ear had
been cut off by one such coastguard.
This war with Spain, so similar in character to the
Elizabethan conflict in that area, merged into the European War of the Austrian Succession (1744-8). It began
with the capture of Porto Bello by Vernon, which was
followed by a disastrous failure to take Cartagena. In
European waters an indecisive battle off Toulon was
followed by two convoy battles off Cape Finisterre in
1747, the first victory being won over the French by
Anson, the second by Hawke. Louisbourg was captured,
but
39
40
Robinson Crusoe.)
Anson's voyage was ill-manned and ill-equipped, so
that it became the classic instance of the incidence of
scurvy, only 904 of the 1,955 men who left England returning alive. Of the five ships of the squadron, only the
flagship Centurion completed the voyage. She was the
first English warship to reach China, and off the Philippines Anson captured the enormously valuable Manila
galleon worth 2j million, as much by the stupidity of
his opponents as by his own resolute leadership. The
voyage made the fame and fortune of Anson and his
officers,
Opposite, top
Morgan,
in 1671.
Bottom
Section of a three-decker
first
Right
Model of a 20-gun
but
little
Lone cruises such as this were out of date: what was required was the grasp of a genuine maritime strategy on a
world scale, such as Anson was to show himself capable
ship, 1708.
Below
Building a 60-gun ship at
Deptford in 1752. By this date
elaborate ornamentation had
been discarded.
Below, right
still-existing
its
monopoly of the
to 1869.
a.
J 3 a
a^
ll
PI,
42
It is
doubtful
if
these raids
made much
difference to the
Opposite,
left
Top
Resolution and Adventure at
Tahiti, from a painting by
may
be noted.
Centre
Bottom
Captain Bligh in the ship's
boat after the mutiny of th?
Bounty.
off
of
November
opportunity of Hawke
Brest in order to reach Quiberon Bay, where the troops
were to embark. Returning to his watch, Hawke caught
up with the French fleet late on the afternoon of 20
November, just as it entered the rock-strewn bay. Before
dawn, the whole French fleet had been sunk or scattered.
Amphibious operations worked equally well in India,
where Admiral Watson supported Clive by transporting
him from Madras to Calcutta and preventing any French
attempt to relieve their garrisons. Similarly, in the West
Indies Admiral Rodney co-operated with General Monkton to capture Guadaloupe and Martinique. Even after
Pitt fell from power on the accession of George III and
after Spain had joined forces with France the impetus
towards victorious conquests by such amphibious expeditions continued with the capture of Havana in Cuba
(1762)
and Manila
in the Philippines.
lost
Pacific.
from the
21
The
Battle of
Quiberon Bay
20 November 1759
French Fleet
/
British Fleet
43
44
of discovery in
modern
<*jmes.
^^
'
NEW HEBRIDESW
(1768-71
Second (1772-75)
'
Third (1776-80)
Homeward voyage
of
Cook's crew
February
1779.
effort to pass
be called the
Pacific.
THE DISCOVERYOFAUSTRAUA
The
is
a disputed
crew.
New
if
47
Opposite
A Maori
warrior by Francis
Parkinson, the artist on
Cook's First Voyage.
Left
Below
Botany Bay, and the arrival
of the first fleet carrying
convicts in 1788.
Bottom
An emigrant ship bound for
New Zealand in 18.50.
^.^W.,."
^'^r
^^^
^5^ -
49
Rio de Janeiro
50
Right
A deck
slaves on board.
Opposite
Sail plan of a merchant vessel
in 1762.
Below
The
distribution of British
overseas trade in 1792, on the
eve of the twenty-year war
with France. Only the
number of ships is shown, so
it must be remembered that
the tonnage of vessels trading
with the East was over twice
that of those trading elsewhere. In 1792, 16,079 vessels
Britain's
Number
and furs.
The Newfoundland Banks were international fishing
grounds, the vessels chiefly concerned coming from
Brittany, Devon and New England and Nova Scotia. The
trade consisted of dried cod, seals and fish oil (often
called 'train oil', which was used both as a lubricant and
an illuminant). In addition to the trade with Britain,
there was trade with the West Indies and southern Europe.
of ships clearing
went
were
New
Asia 164
Africa 68
Whale
America 772
fisheries 164
France 1442
Russia and Baltic ports 1721
Asia 36
Africa 250
^United
\ British
"
States 223
Greenland an d whale
fisheries 135
\ Southern
Europe 878
France 1317
Ireland 8861
..
'
.
.
..
.,
51
Jiori'.syjr/f i///// Jiiin'///ir
I /////-.'///-//
s
.l//</i;/
3
4
/''r'/'/-
.//!/ 1/,)
i>/l
t'/iriA/iu/
ff
6
<?
,y./n//
^/t/i>////,i
;0/i...
Jfa^
,'; ////^.
/'/^-i,
/(>,//////.>
(/ t^^/i
n/.iiii/
(Vur //tir^
J >////!/.
iV
/J r'U*-t\i
f'fo/u f'/fyt\>.
'2S*^/frt/
afut
tftizt/t/at/ Jfu//u<tri/>f
'l/trtwtAf
i)
to J/l,ts/u.
I; i/t,i//t/an/,i
n^M/uM on /Af
/l,'ft
/S)leai/i^ /or
III//
/^ /V//VV/
cV
3 ^'//f
^1
'
fi '"*'
10 >j/;'/u
-JiuY
MiOo
/f^(a//t/an/.f.
'
jy.in/.<<,-./M/
Sf'yo/J /uA
2/f'r^n* /f>o&
'
O 0//f
i('/i>o,/ />;/:,
6 ii//f'/'////f/.
/oj/frr/j.
tj
/ '///f
'
(fit yfte/ttt.
-l.t
il-i////,- f//t/j/u
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/h/.i/tft/ ////f\f,
J{/,l!^/,^//itiftftl//>'i/n/ \-2f/tl/t;//'t^<
'
/ 7 ^hni'- a
>
fi/Jra,/-,)
'
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:/ucA/m
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k./iff,/,/
/I Ii,-ef' Tar/c/e^
ly/.S/'i'o //',//:/
//,///./
<
tiz/l //,ifrr
'
ll./(,W/,/uri/o.
Fore
-f
J
\iAlX
\ir/
^/ f//
,'1
^ i/risl
,',///
urtU
^/t^o-intr-
':'/'-
49
/i/tuvo. //
(J
'lO
/!,,///, ,f,t
^,111 in/,/tr/.t
,i
y,yi
io
Dm,/ Mf,,,
/St'//'////,:/
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fi//l
<
^// /r'////.t
**
X>
'
l^
'-^//*'
/I'/t
//nii/o
tiitt/ M//\t
'lt///rlr/-
I. '/'/////I
///
"H/'o/'/i
J/
M.f not^n
~Si.
.-iCItam.
/Jr'/l;
T. />///
CT.lVir.l./ Tr,:-.
//
II l/ii////,i/,^./
IS* "'/ //
fY///-- /////:/
Il/tsi li^Jilp-iri/tir
1/ Croii'^nof-
J//// />/.)"/'//.
fi
JJ'A^Ofl'/l/ifo
It/It /I
P/irfsofHbi-niiY/
'
/iJ 'l//ry/if.
l4/%,f=,
'24y(/*f^i/^ *in//\lt//y////if
!)/'//// -////rnJ.
I -i /;.;/:.
//*'</
/n/f...
.y ////>/., ,/,///
iV /I, >/./:,
^Q f '/uo
li //tv/
to 4</ftnt/ari^^
/I/X//1
Z/t/Morri
(t*//t/i///t/nrt,
ij////////'//'
////<>/
.'R./iBMr :Bilr
l/i'ri/
52
Opposite, top
'All at Sea' on board an East
Indiaman, by George
Cruikshank.
Centre
Bottom
The
St Helena, an early
eighteenth-century merchant
ship.
Edward Hughes
drawn
Napoleonic
in
five
War Mauritius
became British.
At the same time in the
chelles
east, where Penang had become a Company 'factory' in 1786, Java was captured, but
was restored to the Dutch. The future of British trade
with China depended on the acquisition of the swampy
Though
Company developed
Persian Gulf
Delhi
R.
Brahmaputra
OUDH
Indus
R.
.j^xr"'BENGAL
Ganges
Buxar
Chandernagore
OMAN
>
Chinsura
jSimx
Bombay
Masulipatam
\
Goa
HYDERABAD ./r??_
#feYSORE
Madras
MALABAR COAST
Mahe
\^
Calicut '-^
CARNATIC
Cochin
possessions
French possessions
^Jff
Dutch possessions
.Jjff'
Portuguese possessions
-^^-
^^^^
MALDIVE
IS.
Battle
Clive
Bencoolen!
large native
53
of the
flag.
to carve out
own
an
their
of muslins,
spices.
By
far the
cottons,
rice,
saltpetre,
indigo and
in tea
from
China.
'1.
During the
54
first
before
the
war
However,
American station, as his brother commanded the troops
on land, was half-hearted in his efforts, so that hundreds
of American privateers preyed on the British trade route
from the West Indies.
In 1778, with the entry of France (soon to be joined by
Spain and Holland, equally anxious for revenge) the war
became international. It was fought all over the world,
and for the first time Britain had no allies. All might have
been well had the well-tried hinge of her maritime
strategy, the blockade of enemy ships in Europe, remained
unbroken. However, on 27 July 1778, Admiral Keppel
failed to defeat the Brest fleet under Comte D'Orvilliers
off Ushant. The next year French and Spanish fleets
cruised unchallenged in the Channel, and for the rest of
.FLORIDA
\
,\
Veracruz
NEW SPAIN
Spanish Possessions
British
Possessions
French Possessions
Dutch Possessions
Convoy Route
Battle
the war French fleets reached the West Indies and the
coast of America every year unimpeded. George Washington soon realised the import of this failure: 'In any
operations, and under all circumstances, a decisive naval
superiority is to be considered as a fundamental principle,
and the basis upon which every hope of success must
ultimately depend.' French troops were therefore sent to
assist his forces, and it was to French fleets that he owed
his ultimate success.
West Indies.
Washington had appealed for his help after the French
arrival in the West Indies with twenty-eight ships and
in the
55
Anegada
VIRGIN ISLANDS
c,^
Angullla
WINDWARD ISLANDS
\Anegada Passage
"{^Barbuda
'
oSt Eustatius
c^St
Kitts
Antigua
^English Harbour
>
Montserrat
o,
Guadeloupe
/\
^^
\_ry
Les Salntes
y^
,^vv
.^jL,
Marie Galante
Dominica
IFort
V-
V^'^
Royal
Martinique
St Lucia
Barbados
St Vincent
Carlisle Bay
NE Trade Winds
LEEWARD ISLANDS
///
^"GRENADINES
")Grenada
Tobago
c_
,
Trinidad (Sp
-Brit.)
56
Opposite, top
The privateer
Bonhomme
commanded by
Richard,
Paul Jones, captures the
Chesapeake on 5 September
1781, when a French fleet
coming out of harbour (upper)
was attacked by the British
(lower) in line ahead. Only
the British van was engaged,
so that De Grasse escaped
undefeated. Note the frigates
lying outside the line of
battle.
Indies
_Wind
to
SE
Drake
Rodney
Diaden-rmt
^ fonmaable
flagship
De Grasse
Ville
de Pans flagship
m^
Hood
Bedford
IBougaJnville
Vaudreuil
27 The
12 April 1782
^41,
4^A
^|
American rebels.
During the War
57
<taL
<dSS
46/,
4^'
4^'
for a
thirty-six ships,
^
'* ii."
fj,!,
astern of him.
He himself surrendered,
iv..
were taken, and had the pursuit been more resolute, many
more would have been captured. As it was, France,
already on the verge of bankruptcy, lost her main fleet
and Britain salvaged the remainder of her empire successfully. After a new signal book (adapted from the French)
had been introduced that year by Howe, the greater
freedom of tactics as exemplified by Rodney's manoeuvre
of breaking the line provided the basis for the victories of
the Nelson era.
R*' '^t
lU'jj'^j.
<
Sgi
Between the opening of the War of the Austrian Succes"^ion (1740-48) and the end of the Napoleonic War in 1815
Britain and France (usually with Spain as an ally)
fought a series of wars in which the prize was maritime
empire. These wars, interrupted only briefly by periods of
peace, form the classic period of warfare under sail.
Tactics remained static until a new method of signalling
was introduced towards the end of the century, giving
admirals more flexibility in conducting battles at sea.
More important and more rare was a grasp of maritime
strategy on a global scale on the part of those responsible
58
disposition of fleets.
for the
In the end,
the conflict
The principal seats of war are shown on the accompanying map, together with the usually futile attempts at
landings. Not until the Peninsular War of 1809-14 did the
British army make an effective penetration on the continent of Europe, though elsewhere the difficult art of
combined amphibious operations was often brilliantly
successful. Success depended as much on the capabilities
of the men on the spot as on the strategic pattern of the
war. When French fleets were closely blockaded in
IheSkaw ^
"^Gftteborg
Flamborough Head
Klllala
>
Dublin
.^^
iBantry
Dogger Bank
Car
jCamperdown
ICamperdown
r %
^^
f^^^iCopenl
Copenhagen
|Den Helder
Londoni
Portsmouth,
S5S
Ushant
1
June 1794
JS*^
'J^ "^^
_^,-,
^rest
^'*''
MT
[Walcheren
Plynouthl Spilheadl
\m
nil
in
IHamburg
Boulogn
Boulogne
Hai
'Cherbourg
TStMalo
Malo
St
P"""
Quiberon
iNantes
#-^
'
Aix Rochelort
^^
^Bordeaux
Corunna
C. Finisterre
Marseilles!
1
,_
Toulon _^.,'
cGenoa
-
jLivorno
(Leghorn)
* Madrid
nil
Lisbon
^_- Lagos
.^^T^' *
A
i^L
C. St Vincent
-^
^ ^^
fMinorca
Sardinia
.^^
^ Cadiz
C. TrafalgarJ^-^^fGibraltar
Algiers*
Port Mahon
British
Fren,
landings
landings
Wellinaion 1809-13
Batl'e
798
supremacy
at sea
^Tstockholm
ClMoidai
to defeat
War and
tactical flexibility.
St Vincent (1797) he
59
Below
under
sail.
Bottom
The destruction
of the French
flagship L'Orient by Nelson's
fleet at the Battle of the Nile
on
August
1798.
The
60
1740-1802:
Aboukir
J^ay, a
The
rating of warships
In every
way
action, there
war with
Empire.
Number
Complement
of
guns
Weight
of
broadside
Mmmm
850-950
s^
lbs.
2300
98-90
750
2500
lbs.
^ii
80-60
720-490
4th. rale (2
5tti.
decks)
MMW
350
100 ions
mKm
lbs
50
800
44-32
636-350
lbs.
28-20
250-180
lbs.
lbs
320-215
1764
1* 4>
-t -f
w
6th. rate(l deck-frigate)
550-650 tons
200-160
Extreme range
24 pounder
;_
iia
2500 yards
11
2500 yards
18 pounder
12 plunder
2000 yards
I
42 pound carronade
1170 yards
1080 yards
; iw
.i
61
.
Copenhagen on
30 The
August 1798
Cuiloc/en
aground
2 Lesnc/er
British fleet
3 Swiltsure
4 Alexander
5
Shoa/
Majestic
6 Defence
7 Bellerophon
8 Minotaur
9 Vanguard {Ue\iQn)
Aboukir Fort
10 Theseus
11 Audacious
12 Or/on
13 Zealous
14 Go//dr/7
escaped
'Wind
oS-k
4 ^A\
*--^^
French
fleet
Fort Roselta
e^
Riou frigates
i.^^-ii.^^T;
i?>*^*L^-'-
Middle Ground
King's Channel
aprF
Laprf
Nelson's course
Outer Deep
3 ships aground
Line of approach
APR/
Bntish Fleet anchors
aprI
Parker's course
TRAFALGAR:
62
realistic
attitude
was shown
in
his
'
C.-
grand
ji
^^^^^m^W*
.^
^
1
^m
Is p4
>i^
^bi
it.'
A more
w^
*..
%fji
*s HT.,
^gllBp^Sg
II
British fleet
numbers
French
numbers
fleet
63
Opposite
Trafalgar: The
64
Below
The death
of Nelson at
Trafalgar, from the painting
Righl, above
Victory today, still the
flagship of the Commander-
HMS
in-Chief, Portsmouth.
Right, centre
Victory
a rack
with sponges etc., above the
guns.
Right
HMS
Victory.
rfih
33 The
^^^^-^
11
Frencfi
British
Tonnam
30
Bellerophon
31 Formidable
32 Mont-Blanc
Belleisle
5 Agamemnon
6 Ajax
20
Achille
7 Bntannia
21 Revenge
3 Prince
Orion
8 Conqueror
9 Africa
10 Leviathan
22
23
24
25
26
27
11 Neptune
12 Timeraire
13 Victory
14 Royal Sovereign
38
Mars
28 Neptuna
29 Scipion
15
16
17
18
19
Sparuate
2 Minotaur
1
65
Colossus
Trinidada
39 Bucentaure
Intrdpide
"0
45 Indompiable
46 Fougueux
47 Pluton
deAsis
Swiftsure
Polyphemus
Defence
51 Aigle
52
53
54
55
56
44 Santa Ana
36 San Agusii'n
37 H6ros
Thunderer
Redoutable
41 Neptunt^
42 SanJusio
43 San Leandro
33 Duguay-Trouin
34 Rayo
35 San Francisco
Defiance
Dreadnougtil
48 Monarca
49 Algeciras
50 Bahama
Santissima
Argonauts
Montanes
Argonauta
Pnncipe de Astunas
San lldefonso
57 Achille
58 Berwick
59 San Juan de
^28
Nepomuceno
431
|,32
9*
|35
J3S
3t
The
ggTc=
P^
40
Victory cuts
the line at 12 45
'
f"
"19 n
^tfi"
jj^^
m^^J^
53f^20
*S4
56*
22jf
23/
2^
-i-"
f57
sal
^iir
*^
26
59I
OF 1812-14
America must be seen in the wider
war in Europe. At the height
of the long conflict between Britain and France the former
had over 1,000 warships and 145,000 men at sea, apart
from an expanding merchant marine. Since the strict
discipline of the Royal Navy did not make the service
popular, harsh measures had to be taken to impress
seamen and to retrieve those who deserted to neutral
American vessels. Britain insisted on the Right of Search
for this purpose, and at the same time Orders in Council
empowered officers to search for contraband if the blockade of Europe was to be maintained. High-handed
methods of enforcing these demands were naturally
resented by neutrals, who refused to acknowledge the
legality of the Right of Search on the part of a belligerent.
Hence the flag under which American seamen fought
carried the words 'Free Trade and Sailors' Rights'.
For the Americans, these were grievances of long
66
in
Below
USS
Constitution dismasts
on 29 December
1812 off the coast of Brazil.
HMS Java
Bottom
The
25 October 1812.
Canada pushed
19
August
riere (a
25 October
29 December
Brazil.
24 February
8
March
June
HMS
HMS
British dead.
14
January
67
The American
frigate
President, captured off
York by
HMS
New
Endymion in
the last action of the war on
14 January 1814.
Constitution
v.
Java
Congress of Vienna
in 1815
overseas possessions were
concerned. Britain had won the prize of maritime empire,
so that her naval supremacy was not seriously challenged
during the period called the Pax Britannica. Her lead in
the Industrial Revolution gave her a similar supremacy in
merchant shipping and overseas trade when the iron
steamship became the rule about the middle of the century; before that, however, American shipbuilders produced the finest wooden ships.
With the advent of the iron steamship (the central event
68
at the
35/The World
in
1850
Emigrants
American Clippers
Wool Clippers
Tea Clippers
Nitrate Clippers
to
ii4
was ceded
in 1852,
69
The World
in 1850
made at a later
The trickle
70
date, are
shown on Map
ment
to find
of emigrants
30.
V,
Arthur
Sydney in 1788 and the last convict ship to call
at Western Australia in 1868 the total number transported
was 160,663: almost as many died of disease or drowning
on the voyage out.
Even so, conditions on board the convict ships were
probably better than those prevailing on board the early
free emigrant ships to America, whether to Canada, the
United States or South America. During the last years of
the Napoleonic wars Britain's chief source of timber was
Canada, not the Baltic. By 1820 one-seventh of her carrying trade was thus employed. Since these vessels left the
British Isles in ballast there was ample and cheap
accommodation for emigrants, but before the Merchant
Navy Passenger Act of 1855 there was no effective supervision of conditions on board, no regulations regarding
unseaworthy ships, overcrowding, ventilation, or the
provision of food and water. Consequently thousands of
emigrants arrived destitute and diseased. It was in this
way that cholera reached the New World. The only virtue
of these early ships was the cheapness of the faresailing of the first convict fleet under Captain
Phillip to
New
His Flying Cloud of 1851 (225 feet long, 1,793 tons) made
the passage from New York to San Francisco via the
Horn in eighty-nine days. His Dreadnought crossed the
Atlantic in thirteen days. His Great Republic, on the
Australian wool run, was the largest clipper ever built.
Since British shipbuilders lagged far behind the Americans at this time, James Baines of Liverpool bought four
of Mackay's clippers, of which the Lightning is reputed to
have sailed 436 miles in twenty -four hours; but this and
other record passages must be regarded with some
scepticism since the competition to sell such ships was so
intense that some skippers exaggerated their speed.
The opportunity which the Americans seized with such
success was provided by the relaxation of the Navigation
laws between 1823 and 1849 in the interests of Free Trade;
by the end of the East India Company's monopoly of trade
in the Indian Ocean in 1814 and with China in 1834; by
the increasing emigration traffic; and by the Californian
and Australian gold rushes after 1849. Many clippers
carried passengers to San Francisco and then crossed the
Pacific to load tea for London at the newly-opened ports
On board an emigrant
ship
Opposite, top
Ariel, one of the fastest
tea cHppers of 1865.
Dimensions: 853 tons; length
197 feet; breadth 33-9 feet;
The
by tens of thousands of
evicted Irish peasants. After the Irish potato famine of the
1840s a thousand ships were arriving annually at Quebec.
New Zealand.
In
Bottom
The Great Britain, designed
by Brunei in 1843 and the
transatlantic liner to be
built of iron. After many years
as a coal hulk in the Falkland
Islands, she is now back in
dock at Bristol. Dimensions:
.3270 tons; length 322 feet;
breadth 50-5 feet; depth
first
.32-5 feet.
became
common, and
72
Northwest Passage.
Right
Fridtjof Nansen,
who made
name
The search
survivors.
first
73
Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen tested his theory of transpolar drift in the Fram, which crossed the polar basin
embedded in ice. In 1903-5 Roald Amundsen became the
first man to complete the Northwest Passage when he
took his 100-ton Gjea, with a 13 hp engine and crew of
only seven men, from the Atlantic to the Pacific by the
route suggested by Franklin and Collinson. During the
three winters he spent on the way he learned enough
about polar conditions from the Eskimos to beat Captain
Scott in the race for the South Pole a few years later.
The only man to have traversed the Passage in both
directions is Henry Larsen of the Canadian Mounted
Police. In 1940-42 he took the 80-ton St Roch from
Vancouver to Halifax, following Amundsen's route. In
1944-45 he sailed her back again by following Parry's
route to Winter Harbour and then south through Prince
of Wales strait, the Beaufort Sea again proving im-
McClure 1850-55
passable.
Collinson 1850-55
Amundsen 1903-07
THEOPENING OF CHINA
ANDJAPAN,1839-60
74
thrown open
island of
first
Below
A model of a lorcha, a vessel
much used
Above
to Britain.
step in opening
Commodore Matthew
Korea
in 1876.
75
76
O
Admiral David Glasgow
Farragut, 1801-1870.
was the
first
true ironclad.
When the American Civil War broke out with the attack
on Fort Sumter in April 1861, the United States Navy
was composed of forty-two ships, of which only twentythree were steamships. Nearly all were controlled by the
Union government, and there were more facilities for
expanding the fleet rapidly in the industrial North than
existed in the South.
therefore determined to
many
light ones.
Fort
Jackson
KM
Blockading Unic
38 The American
Civil War 1861-65
^y
Union States
V_y Confederate
^P
Union held
Union gains
Ml
Hi
Hr
k^
States
territory
by 1862
by 1863
by 1864
Union
Battle
fleet
attacks
The American
78
frigate Mississippi.
Civil
War, 1861-65
79
when naval
and guarded
The object
its
communication.
Below
The duel between the Monitor
(foreground) and the
Merrimac in Hampton Roads.
Bottom
Farragut's victory in Mobile
Bay, 5 August 1864. The
ironclad Tennessee engaged
by the Frigate Mississipi and
several monitors.
ANDTHE PANAMACANAL
For a long time after the Civil War Americans were too
.concerned with reconstruction in the South and with
expansion in the West to consider the overseas implications of Perry's opening of Japan in 1853. Yet even before
that date Senator De Bow had declared: 'We have a
destiny to perform, a "manifest destiny" over all Mexico,
over South America, over the West Indies and Canada.
The Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) are as necessary to our
eastern, as the isles of the Gulf to our western commerce.
Such imperialistic ambitions were not representative
of American opinion until the last decade of the century.
To implement them, a strong navy was essential, but it
was not until 1890 that the first ocean-going battleship
was launched. In that year Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan
published his epoch-making book The Influence of Sea
Power on History, 1660-1783, which provided arguments
for such expansion. On the analogy of the British experience, he considered that the United States required
three things a flourishing merchant marine, colonies
and bases overseas, and an ocean-going navy not confined (as heretofore) to coastal defence or commerce
destruction. On this basis, and with capital ships capable
80
.'
When Mahan's
disciple,
Theodore
Roosevelt,
was
too.
Now
that
\
Galveston
Santiago de Cuba
Tampico
Guantanamo
Veracruz
Campeche
MEXICO
'I
Jamaica
. Belize
^.
BRITISH
HONDURAS
Kingston
/'
Santo
Domingo
._
Puerto Rico
Port-au-Prince
Trujillo
Dominica
GUATEMALA
HONDURAS
/ -< -N
SALVADOR
Martinique
./"
NICARAGUA
COSTA RICA
PANAMA
Sampson
Cervera
Battle
81
Below,
left
Bottom,
left
HMS
82
Right
One
Royal Navy.
Right, below
Panama
Canal.
1898
Opposite
Bird's-eye view of the
to
.-;
'V'
*ri.
83
An
84
^he
Japan during
was the creation
of
Opposite
Below
Admiral Heihachiro Togo,
1847-1934. the victor of
Tsushima.
and France
got
Kiaochow
(Tsingtao),
Boxer
Japan played a leading part
alongside European
allies),
Ural sunk;
Suvaroff sunk
Rozhestvensky
>>^
Ostiabia sunk
line;
On
was
still
at
Madagascar and
fuel
85
1904-5
requirements necessi-
Movement
t?
t?
fleet
movements
Russian
fleets
Railways
^r
of
Battle
The climax
86
of imperialism
expansionist
all
44/The World
in
1914
^B Allied Powers
^B Allied and Associated Powers
(.
3 Severed diplomatic
(central Powers
^HOttoman
^B Neutral
Principal
.^^ Battle
Steamship Routes
Powers
New Zealand.
It was Britain's lead in the Industrial Revolution which
enabled her to develop the iron ship and so, in 1914, to
own 47 per cent of the world's steam tonnage, carrying
over half of the world's seaborne trade. The steamship
had taken a surprisingly long time to overcome the sailing
ship, on account of the speed and economy of the latter
during the clipper epoch. As late as 1876 steam accounted
87
The World
in 1914
88
passage.
The principal steps taken to overcome the manifold
defects of side-wheelers may be illustrated by the three
epoch-making ships built by Isambard Kingdom Brunei.
In 1838 his wooden-hulled paddle steamer Great Western
won the Blue Riband by crossing the Atlantic in fifteen
days. In 1843 his iron-hulled, screw-propelled Great
Britain proved the advantages of the new material so
(British) 1,320
tons
fully that
her hull
still
exists in
dock at
v/sls
Bristol. In 1858
the largest liner to be
1840
(British, sold to
USA
as Philadelphia
and
10,500 tons
1907 Mauretania
(British)
The Growth
31,938 tons
of World Trade
1910 7500
1800-1910
Figures
1933 Rex
(Italian)
in
millions sterling
51.075 tons
1900 4420
iX
lDa[3aa'r'rt4^r{'1=tir=? rf^T'rt
mnn^SHV.
1870 2191
1850 832
1800 302
m.
1939 Queen Elizabeth
(British)
83.673 tons
i^^//i
British
Far
left
nation.
the world.
Total world
Though now
is
reflected
104.
Japanese 1,500.014
American 5,427,636
Italian 1,521,942
German
5,082,061
Dutch 1,309,849
Norwegian 2,457,890
Swedish 1,147,247
British
Sail
shipping
tonnage
2,171.25^
tonnage
2,680,33i
3,396,85!
4,204,3i
4,577,7i
3,851,0
Steam 3,973,483
first
exceeds
Sail 3,346,625
sail
Steam tonnage
1830^ 30,339
89
The World
90
Below
two
German
liner
Bremen
in 1929.
in 1914
British.
is
now being
cleared (1975)
91
Left
Below
The
The
disaster led to a
reconsideration of safety
factors in the North Atlantic
shipping routes.
The causes
92
it
^f^^
f^^H
^^^^Br/^^^jl
^^^
1^
^Hp
'^^
Kjf^ IM
f^^JWi raili^.
Top
of the
Centre
commander
World War.
Above
Admiral Franz von Hipper,
1863-1932, who commanded a
force of battle-cruisers
raiding the English coasts.
As commander of reconnaissance forces of the High Seas
Fleet he took part in the
battle of Jutland.
Marseilles
dreadnoughts and
numbers and
fire
German
insisted
93
Outward tracks
Pol
ay *
Escape tracks
of
of
The
first
Lord Fisher.
At the Austrian port of Pola on the Adriatic the powerful new German battle cruiser Goeben (25 knots, 12-inch
guns) and the light cruiser Breslau were under repair.
On the outbreak of war between Germany and France,
Admiral Souchon was ordered to bombard French ports
in North Africa. This was done successfully on 4 August,
when Souchon retreated to the neutral port of Messina in
Sicily. Since war between Britain and Germany was not
declared until 11.30 p.m. that night, the British commander-in-chief, Admiral Sir Berkeley Milne, could do no
more than shadow the German ships before returning to
Malta.
of Vice-Admiral
had under
Germans
broadside
his
cruisers in the
together
with
the
light
cruisers
Leipzig,
Niirnberg,
Top
Admiral of the Fleet Lord
Fisher, 1841-1920. He was
largely responsible for
preparing the British navy for
action in the First World
War.
Centre
Commander-in-Chief of the
British
Grand
Fleet.
Above
Admiral Lord Beatty,
1871-1936, who led the main
force of the Grand Fleet at the
Battle of Jutland.
The
94
First
World War,
1914
95
47
Far left
King George V on board
HMS Queen Elizabeth in
1915.
Top
The forward
turret of the
battle cruiser
Inflexible
HMS
in 1914.
Above
The wreck
of the
destroyed by
November
Emden.
Sydney
HMS
1914.
in
THE DARDANELLES,1915
The attempt
96
to
which
1915 was a
failed catastrophically.
After the task of clearing the outer seas had been completed by the victory at the Falkland Islands, the war
48/The Dardanelles
18
commanded
Meanwhile
March 1915
Anzac Cove
^QU"
^^
Sea of Marmara
Turkish batteries
Turkish minefields
Turkish searchlights
I
British
Ari Burnu
The Narrows
'\
1 Majestic
2 Prince George
3 Vengeance
Kilid
706
Irresistible
Bahr
<
feet
5 Albion
6 Ocean
7 Triumph
8 Swiftsure
9 Queen Elizabeth
10 Agamemnon
11 Lord Nelson
12 Inflexible
Gabe Tepe
Kephez Point
French
II
13
14
15
16
Achi Baba
709
feet
Gaulois
Charlemagne
Bouvet
GALLIPOLI PENINSULA
Kephez Bay
Fort Dardano*
Suffren
CapeHelles
Jf
^um Kale
Besika Bay
Eren
Kew Bay
97
and reinforcements were cut off from Constantinople. But all was
in vain against the stubborn defence of the Gallipoli
peninsula by the German, Liman von Sanders, and the
Turkish general, Enver Pasha. When German long-range
submarines appeared in the Aegean to sink more big
ships, the main fleet withdrew. The most successful part
of the story occurred when the land forces were taken off
without loss at the end of the year. By that time the
British had lost 205,000 men and the French 47,000, apart
from heavy naval losses amounting to 80,000 tons.
The consequences of this failure to provide a diversionary front were extremely serious. Russia staggered to her
revolutionary doom. Bulgaria entered the war on the
German side and overran Serbia. The Turkish army
moved over to the offensive and threatened the Suez
Canal. At home, both Fisher and Churchill resigned and a
coalition government was formed, which introduced conscription. In 1916 both England and France entered a
period of total war in which the heroic defence of Verdun,
with its motto 'They shall not pass,' and a tightening of
the naval and economic blockade marked a new phase.
vessels were sunk, so that for a time supplies
Below, left
trench in the Gallipoli
peninsula.
Below
The return of
HM
Submarine
Bottom
fleet to force
the
Dardanelles on 25 February
1915.
^.
^
-^^c-i.
^^
^SmSKL
*.rS.
/t
n.
NORTH SEATHEATRE,1914-18
AND THE BATTLEOF JUTLAND
On
98
The
first
deck landing, by
Commander Dunning
Sopwith Pup on
1917.
The ship
HMS
Furious.
Dunning was
later.
is
in a
August
the cruiser
Commander
killed five
days
easily be such a
fleet as seriously
As Churchill
was the only man who could
have lost the war in an afternoon because the Grand
Fleet, guarding allied supplies, was the hinge on which
the whole war effort turned. His responsibility must
therefore be borne in mind when considering his defensive
to jeopardise the future of the country.'
later pointed out, Jellicoe
When
Fleet in 1916
coast of
of force
99
war.
At
High Seas
Queen Mary
Fleet. Realising
Above
The German battleship
Friedrich der Grosse. She was
Scheer's flagship at the Battle
of Jutland.
Left
HMS
1914-18,
100
and
its
bases.
By the time
Opposite, top
of the German
battle cruiser Bliicher at the
battle of the Dogger Bank on
24 January 1916.
The sinking
Centre
The
HMS
Bottom
USS
of the
Pennsylvania.
this lengthy
fire
through Jellicoe's
fleet as it continued on its southeasterly course, but on both occasions he was forced to
break
102
vf>artly
against herself.
had much use for the Imperial Navy) feared that Germany
might not be able to survive another year.
The High Command therefore decided to open another
unrestricted submarine campaign in February 1917.
From that date, wrote Scheer, 'the High Seas Fleet will
have to devote itself to one task to get the U-boats
safely out to sea and bring them safely home again. Our
Defence
against
U-boats
was minimal
when
the
103
Left
A German
torpedoes.
The Submarine War,
1917 18
104
Naval strength
"-^
British
|.
German
1914
Battlesliips
37
ififitif&ifii
Battlecruisers
ififififififififififo ifififififififif,
1939
Battleships
ifififififififififif
A comparison
of the naval
strengths of Britain and
Germany at the outbreak of
the two World Wars.
irih2
Battlecruisers
Top
*^r
camouflage.
Above
The mole at Zeebrugge after
the raid on 22 April 1918.
AfAf
AfAfAfAfAf 5
~'^'^
"
'~
ifififififififififif
ifififififififififif
ifif 2
ififififif 25
AfAfAf^
AfAfAfAfAfAfAfAfAfi
Aircraft Carriers
Right
ifififififif B
AfAf.
AfAfAfAfAfAf&
Flow.
British
ifif 2
building
Af
Merchant Shipping
^ ** Losses, 1914-18^^^^
3,729,785
'
British
Tonnage Losses
191S
855,721
1914
241,201
1917
Average number
of U-boats at sea
Sunk by
Submarine
Sunk by Mine and
jan
Surface craft
153,512
276.132
313,486
353.478
1173,560
329,810
^
.,,..'364.858
/ l/
I 417,92
Submarines sunk
IIP
352,28
352,289
545,282
n^
^
47
(128 operational)
*/
/ /
!>/
253,087
196.212
^~rJB.JB.
^ l/"!?
"jf
"^
JH."^
JE.JE.JB. / ^'~J-SE.JE.
"5^
jA
jiiy^^
jA
jA
r^
jA
6
^
5
-A
JstjsL
^
105
106
It
by Axis
Allied maritime
supply routes
by Allies
ranean. In the
summer
American counter-
North Africa.
Germany had begun her naval rearmament in defiance
of the Treaty of Versailles and before the Anglo-German
Naval Agreement of 1935 allowed her to build up to a
third of British surface strength and up to parity in
submarines. This extraordinary measure of appeasement
seems to have been the consequence of over-confidence
on the part of the British Admiralty in the ASDIC device
for underwater detection. By 1939 the new German navy
107
108
Opposite, top
The German
battleship
Tirpitz, 45,000 tons. She was
out of action for most of the
war. and ignominiously sunk
by air attack in Tromso fiord
on 12 November 1944.
Centre
of
the Allied
fleet.
Lower
The Prinz Eugen (14,420 tons),
the largest heavy cruiser in
Hitler's fleet.
Opposite, bottom
The Bismarck,
sister ship of
the Tirpitz. fires a broadside
at
Hood. Six minutes
after the action began the
Hood, the biggest battleship
afloat, was hit in the magazine
and sank. 24 May 1941.
HMS
Below
The aircraft
HMS
intensified
carrier
Victorious, one of the five
England possessed at the
outbreak of the Second
World War.
fleet
in being' to
1942
109
110
The military situation in the northern theatre of operation on the outbreak of war in 1939 appeared to be similar
to that of the First World War. The Home Fleet was again
based on Scapa Flow, Britain again enjoyed all the
great geographical advantages for a war at sea against
Germany, and the Maginot Line was said by the French
to be impregnable. However, that the U-boat was now a
far more dangerous weapon was soon proved by the sinking of the battleship Royal Oak inside Scapa Flow and the
aircraft carrier Courageous outside Plymouth within a
few weeks of the commencement of hostilities.
The war burst into activity with Hitler's invasion of
in the spring of 1940, the German fleet being used
cover
the operation. Every effort to land troops at
to
Norway
Approaches
GREENLAND
Prinz
Eugen
Bismarck shakes
off pursuers in
poor visibility
Bismarck crippled by
planes from Ark Royal
55/The pursuit of
the Bismarck May
1941
was
56/ The
C. Barfleur
1sl U.S.
Army
2nd
304 warships
1700 landing crall
craft
JUNO
GOLD
SWORO
torpedoes.
Arromanches *
2426 landing
OMAHA
UTAH
Army
British
was
11
German
ships in
i-.
^-N.
X^
1^
/?.
Orne
R. Vire
Caen
Norway
German
>t
Mulberry Harbour
Bayeux
batteries
Scharnhorst sunk
14
26 December 1943
^^Spitsbergen
North Cape
the
Bear
Tirpitz
I.
Murmansk
"^elsamo
Altenfjord
Archangel
>
Tirpitz sunl<
^.
LOFOTEN
June
1940
Is.*
^m ^M
Glorious
Tromsd
November
1944'
N
/
^m
^f
FINLAND
)
it
Trondhelm
Winter route
NORWAY
lORWAY
^L^^^^
Vaagso
iagso
V
Oslo
"Oi
Y
Bergen
^m.
SWEDEN
4
SHETLAND
^ORKNEY
Is.
Scapa Flow
Hood sunk
24 May 1941
Stavanger
Is.
April
|l2
1940
Kiel
DENMARK
Brunsbuttel
^verpool
Dunkirk
EIRE
^H^
Dieppe
Caen
British raids
German
Arctic
^*^
1939-45
attacl<s
Convoys
^^^
Bismarck sunk
27 May 1941
U-Boats
Cherbourg
'Hamburg
T Bremerhaven
Iwilhelmshaven
112
Right
Admiral Sir Andrew
the Mediterranean.
Opposite, above
Barham
The battleship
sinking on 25 November 1941
HMS
torpedo
Below
The aircraft carrier HMS
Ark Royal, launched in 1937.
She was torpedoed in the
Mediterranean in November
1941, after steaming 200,000
miles without a
refit.
Rommel
St. Troi
^BALEARICS
Algiers
^^
I
Casablanca
MOROCCO
ALGERIA
12a
it.'-;
fii
Philippe I
operation
proceeded,
resistance, until 13
in
May
spite
1943,
of
113
German
enemy troops
stubborn
when
250,000
peninsula.
German army
Trieste
Fleet Air
Arm
Genoa
Spezia
Frejus
J,
Corsica!
1ft
battleships
YUGOSLAVIA
and
by
Queen
Elizabeth
Valiant severely
frogmen
damaged
Alexandria
harbour, 19 December 1941
Italian
in
in
943 - OperationlAvalanche
16 Surrender of Italy and the Italian
1
Fleet. 10
September 1943
aircraft
in 1942, as in 1917,
On
it
nearly succeeded.
Allied
the
first
1942
7,790.697
1940
3.991,641
1939
755,392
North Atlantic
U-boats operational
The United
States Navy
Numbers
ol vessels
types in service
throughout the
world
ol all
Total U-boats
destroyed 785
^jfcg
.
-5J^~-5^^ -at.
ggg
*st.J' -.Jg^
jK^
-nt.^
J!'"
-it-
nv^
-ru-^'
J*
-.t.J*
-it..i^
-tje^
5,612
J"
Ik
Ik^
Ski!"
jirt^'
~5t-J^
-J^^ TikJ"
-Bif^
n^^
-rik-~
46,032
-^i
.^s^ sk-~
-**
tkJ'
k.^
-.k-~
-ikJ
_.kL"
'
j^
-liJ^
-tjg^
jjf^
jjf^
"
-iP
.liJ^
59/The
Far left
Admiral Karl Doenitz, 1891.
who planned and commanded
the U-boat fleet in the Second
World War.
Decisive areas
1940-1
1942
1943
Principal Allied
Convoy Routes
activity
U - boats
115
116
60/Western
Approaches
ICELAND
^M^^
* 3
2
1
2
*1
1940-41
*4
^+4
Merchant ships
sunk by U-boats
*5
* **5
****
**** 3*
******
*
*
267
*2
_M
***
10
^y'
**** * IfFRANCE
48
61 American Coastal
Waters
January-June 1942
*
Merchant ships
sunk by U-Boats
Reykjavik
St.
eA
John's
7
New York.
Charleston
New
"tey
Orleans. West
.^
^^** **
+5
**^^
37
'**....
*^
:*^i*****2^2
19 y*24^^^^^*^^
3^4 ^^^^
(*-4Li^|k
+4
^ Jfc>
eg
25'
.,
:i,_*j^ *
:
^79
Tnnidadl
.*_
21
117
Far left
Convoy to Russia, from the
painting by Charles Pears.
Allied ships travelled the
in
enormous resources of
American shipbuilding yards were now fully employed.
When
the
number
The invention
of the Schnor-
new type
Mid-Atlantic
those sunk, the battle was almost won. After an unsuccessful attack by sixty submarines on Convoy 0NS5
in May 1943. Doenitz temporarily withdrew his boats.
This meant that the campaigns in the Mediterranean,
and above all the Normandy landings in 1944, could be
conducted without serious interference.
The graph of Allied merchant shipping losses on page
114 illustrates the extraordinary drop in sinkings after the
middle of 1943, to which the growth of Allied shipping
employed must be added. It was in July 1943 that the rate
of construction of new ships began to overtake the rate of
losses, so that by the end of the war 45 million tons of
shipping was employed. As to warship strength, the
phenomenal increase in the strength of the United States
Navy is shown on p. 114 in the number of vessels of all types
in service throughout the world.
There was a recrudescence in U-boat activity during the
last months of the war. Had not the land campaigns been
of boat, using a
62
mB
Extreme
limits of
land-based
aircraft
Charleston
New
Bermuda
Orleans
****
***
**
**
*
*
**
M
4 !
Kittgston
-X***
*3
*
***
****
*
***
**
***93
*3
40
118
63/ The
and Repulse
10
Pacific
1943
9 Leyte Gulf and Surigao Strait.
23-25 October 1944
10 Samar and Cape Engano.
25-26 October 1944
Nagumo
at Trincomali
warships withdrew.
What Japanese planners had underestimated was the
:3*fi^'^>ifla6MifeSst>t!'
.-^'^ilV^^
^m
^^>-*i^''*
Gulf,
iife
Cruz.
The war
ever built.
Kuantan,
Cape Esperance/Santa
off
December 1941
power.
December 1941
1942.
Pacific.
Li
r
,.r'^
Japanese conquests
Allies
US.S.R.
t^^
l^m^m
^^
^^
Q Mam
'"^
Naval Bases
INDIA
119
f Dutch Harbor
Kiska^
"ALEUTIAN
IS.
Attu
Ik
-
MIDWAY
IS.
HAWAIIAN
IS.
Honolulu V J
Pearl Harbor
Johnston
I.
Palmyra
'GILBERT
>
ELLICE
SAMOA
IS.
FIJI IS.
Port
Moresby
New
Guadalcanal
Caledonia
NEW HEBRIDES
^^r<--^7^
^^^iSi:^:J!^>,^^'^
IS.
120
64/The Sinking
FRENCH fNOOCHINA
of the
Prince of Wales
and the Repulse
10
December
1941
other.
Japanese
06 00
GulfofSiam
air strike
leaves
aircraft sighted
18 35
of the
Force Z 17,35
{Prince of Wales.
Repulse. 4 destroyers)
65/The
Battle of
Task Force 16
Rear-Admiral Spruance
Enterprise. Hornet
Nagumo
6 cruisers 9 destroyers
2 battleships 2 cruisers
Task Force 17
11 destroyers
Rear-Admiral Fletcher
Yorktown
in a position to
In
2 cruisers
pines.
.^
-X-
107 10
Sori/usunk. 19,20
2 Kaga sunV.. 19,25
3 Akagi scuttled, 05 00 5 June
4 Hiryu scuttled, 05 1 5 June
5 Yorktown torpedoed, and
abandoned 14,45- 15,00
1
Aircraft
from
Midway
attack
'
tvlidway Is bears
South 250 miles
121
The
aircraft carrier
USS
^*.
^B^^^^^
A
"^.
66/The
Battle of
2 Battle
3 Battle
off
The Japanese
lost
total of
3 battleships,
3 destroyers,
submarine
C24.OO)
24
Northern Force
Admiral Ozawa
4 aircraft carriers
2 battleships
3 cruisers 8 destroyers
25 October
Cape Engano
South Force Van
Admiral Mishimura
2 battleships
heavy cruiser
4 destroyers
1
3 Task Forces)
Centre Force
Admiral Kurita
5 battleships
12 cruisers 15 destroyers
June
1942.
122
^et
arsenal of Kronstadt.
After Peter's death the navy disintegrated. However, it
was during this period that a Dane, Vitus Bering, in the
service of Russia discovered the straits which bear his
name on his voyage in 1728 and 1741. This led to the
annexation of Alaska and the Aleutian islands, while a
trade in furs developed at Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka.
Alaska was sold to the United States in 1867, the present
boundary between the two nations passing through the
Diomede islands in the Bering Strait.
Catherine the Great revived Russian sea power when
she sent two fleets from the Baltic to the Mediterranean
in 1770 during her war with the Ottoman Empire. One of
these was under the command of the Russian admiral
Spiridov, with her favourite Count Orlov on board; the
other was under a Scotsman, John Elphinston, both
fleets being largely manned by foreign officers. The Turks
were defeated at Nauplia and at Tchesme in Asia Minor,
but the Russians could not pass the Dardanelles. In the
Black Sea another fleet cooperated with the army to
seize Azov and Taganrog and to control the Crimea for
the first time. In a second Turkish war, during operations
around Otchakov near Odessa, the famous American
seaman Paul Jones was one of the admirals.
A large number of foreigners, chiefly Scotsmen, were
employed in the Baltic fleet by Catherine during her wars
with Sweden. Admiral Samuel Greig won the battle of
Hogland. On his death he was succeeded by Admiral
Tchitchagov, who brought about the final defeat of
Swedish naval power by the capture of Viborg.
During the Napoleonic wars Russia was sometimes in
alliance with Britain and sometimes against her: in
neither case was her navy of much account. The most
important naval operations took place in the Mediterranean, where in 1799 a Russian squadron under Admiral
Ushakov wrested the Ionian Islands from the French.
These remained in Russian possession until 1807, when,
now at war with the Turks, Admiral Seniavin won a
decisive victory off the Athos peninsula. Once more,
however, he was unable to pass the Dardanelles, so that
the fleet had to return via Gibraltar, his ships being interned by the British for a period on the way home.
In the year 1827 the British found themselves in
alliance with the Russians against Turkey and at the
battle of Navarino (the last battle under sail) a TurcoEgyptian fleet was defeated by a combination of Russian,
French and British squadrons under Admiral Codrington.
Nonetheless, with the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the
'sick man of Europe', they were in opposition over the
control of the Dardanelles, each side in its turn persuading the Turks to close the straits to its rivals.
It was over this that the Crimean War (1853-56)
developed. The Russians began it by blowing the Turkish
fleet out of the water at Sinope with the first use of
explosive shells in naval warfare. Britain and France came
to the assistance of Turkey and an allied army was
despatched to the Crimea. Thereupon a comparatively
powerful Russian fleet of sixteen battleships was sunk to
block the entrance to Sevastopol harbour, an unusual
way of using a fleet. The allies landed at Alma in Kalamita
Bay and then at Balaclava east of Sevastopol in order to
besiege the town. For most of the war their ships were
occupied with transport duties, though there were naval
operations off Kinburn to the west and in the Sea of Azov
to the east. In the Baltic the story was similar during the
summer months when the Gulf of Finland was free of ice.
The Russians withdrew to the fortress of Kronstadt,
which they defended with mines, 'infernal machines' as
the British called them. The latter were left with nothing
to do except bombard coastal towns such as Sveaborg and
Bomarsund. By the Treaty of Paris, Russia undertook not
to build another Black Sea fleet, but it was not long before
this undertaking was abrogated once more.
In the last of the Russo-Turkish wars in 1877-8 most of
the operations were conducted on land. The most important acquisition was the port of Batum. After the construction of the Volga-Don canal (sometimes called the Lenin
Canal) was completed in 1955, Baku and the ports of the
Caspian Sea were linked with those in the Black Sea.
The Straits question, which had bedevilled Russia's
relations with the West throughout the nineteenth
century, entered a new phase in 1923, when at the
Lausanne Conference a surprising change of attitude was
adopted. The traditional Russian desire to keep the
Dardanelles closed to foreign warships was overruled by
a British demand to keep them open in order to participate
in the civil war which was then raging in Russia. In 1936,
however, by the Montreux Convention. Turkey was
permitted to refortify the Dardanelles.
67/The Baltic
"^^ Battle
SWEDEN
Danzig*
(Gdansk)
123
KOLA PENINSULA
124
Opposite
The ice-breaker Lenin on the
northern sea route.
Below
Checking
for radiation
on
68/The Northern
sea route and the
Russian Pacific frontier
.
Nordenskjold's voyage
in
Vegd
of nuclear-powered submarines
and
icebreakers, such as the Lenin, the situation was revolutionized. There are now over forty icebreakers in service,
new
air
is
outstanding.
cruisers, submarines
minelayers rather than battleships or aircraft
carriers, the Soviet naval air service being land based. It
and
125
126
on
The whole Soviet navy is now
large as it was in 1939. Figures for
seems that
missile-firing submarines.
guided-missile cruiser.
1973
were:
times as
twenty-five
cruisers,
seventy-five
nuclear
be withdrawn at will.
In such ways a new sea power has appeared on the stage
of history during the past twenty years. The enormous
land power of old now possesses the added strength of
maritime and air power, however much it is restrained
by political rivals such as the NATO powers on the west
or China on the east. In the age of the long-range submarine, the nuclear icebreaker and the intercontinental
missile, the geopolitical position of the
USSR,
lying as it
it a truly
127
"^^ Battle
^y
\^^\
R.Don
Stalingrad
R. Volga
I
Lenin Canal
Astrakhan
R. Dnieper
\
)
/
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
U.S.S.R.
Caspian Sea
Taganrog
Rostov
>
The revolution
128
oil
Opposite
Below
The Vu/caraus
(1,180 tons),
Amsterdam
in 1910.
become so vulnerable
'
Tripoli
^';P';
M.
/:>>
jSuez W
IRAN
IRAQ
>
-^
Basra
,_L;j Abadan
.-I
in
.4
^--~r\
^-
^^rC7^-^\
_7^
^^Persian Gulf
,j'--^
^--^?.
(disused)i
Suez
arah
=
_^
i
|M~a_,"a'"a
'
of Hormuz
^^^J
MUSCAT
EGYPT
SAUDI ARABIA
'and
TRUCIAL
STATES
Sudan
Port
/
/
C'^\
SUDAN
YEMEN
/
1-
Mocha/
.J
ETHIOPIA
/
.-' Aden
Bab
el
Mandeb
Masra
KURIA MURIA
Red Sea
OMAN
IJedda
Mecca
.J
\
ADEN
IS,
42,000;
new
harbours.
The
table,
showing where
oil
it is
^\;k Lip?
kuUi^
Str.
Guff of Oman
>
jAbuDhab,
QATAR.
GulfofV
.-
.BAHRAIN
DhahraiV*
GulfofAqaba
Bandar Abbas
tflushire
lElath(Eilat)
|_
yc-
1 1SRAEL
3"
-Kirkuk
f
VLEBAr(ON
Haifa
SYRIA
........j..-..,i;j,.,A-.,;,.-^.i..:->j(:i-,j
to, illustrates
suppliers.
Oil.
in million
tons
Total Exports
~>
Caribbean
187.5
Middle East
989.0
'
North Africa
163.3
West
Africa
105.8
Otiiers
2494
ift'P
I
Total Imports
Others
342,3
(i
Japan
Western Europe
283.?
755.8
U.S.A.
313.2
130
its
of
unknown.
important of these, which are used as anchorages, airrefuelling depots, repair docks, or fuel and ammu-
fields,
still
in use.
Fleet
1953.
US Navy
brought to
Communist power,
131
FBM.
On
71/American bases
overseas 1960
l|^^=
American bases
DEW
Presumed Communist
in
1960
llireats
132
The four
largest Navies,
1974
.V,
Aircraft carriers
^11-
+
bi TT^^I
Guided missile
cruisers
\*^
~f\
JRfPCsr^^-^;
USA
USSR
Britain
building
France
--J^
^ag^
22
15
Escort ships
Gun
cruisers
,k4.
Other submarines
-V^
-^
19
-4L.
22
11
12
:r=^
-j^:
;^
175
Assault craft
tf
down
Missiles.
133
Opposite
The
igures
The US
remained
at the
same
level since
I'fj
1967
1962.
-4<
134
Opposite, top
British aircraft carrier
Glory refuelling at sea
The
HMS
off
Korea.
Centre
HMS
Bottom
Below
American landing
craft
beaching at Wonsan on
26 October 1950.
off
of the
Yalu
river.
on land.
was claimed that 90 per cent interdiction was
achieved, it was only when President Eisenhower, having
replaced President Truman, threatened the Chinese with
atomic weapons that a truce was signed on 27 July 1953,
and the status quo was restored. By that date American
casualties amounted to 142,000 those of the sixteen allied
assisted artillery
Though
it
War 1950-53
f727The Korean
Tumen
~~rt
!
Blockading Forces
MANCHURIA
Landings
Hashin
.^
Islands occupied
('
Chongjin
/^
Mukden
October 1950
U.S.S.R.
^ <>
./Manpogln
Task Force 77
.^Chosanl
'""^^
Yang-do
Yanc
,/
Sinuiju
I
Sea of Japan
^^k
HungnaiDj
October 1950
ft
Tae^S-do
i ^Yo-do
^BL
Wonsan.
Wonsan
<j-
^^^^^^
/^^Bn
'^^Nan-do
H^
Pyongyang
Kusung
Cho-do^Jp*
Task Force 95-1
-^^_
Pyonggang ,
Panmunjom
Line of Demarcation
,-
rChunchon
Paengnyong-i
g-dol
*^ U-do"^
Seoul
38th Parallel
THE ANTARCTIC
136
73/The Antarctic
SOUTH ORKNEY
'
NEW ZEALAND
Is.
South Georgia
Antarctic Circle
SOUTH SANDWICH
.
Is!"'
Sydney
Strait
TASMANIA
Melbourne
AUSTRALIA
Tristan
BOUVET
da Cunha-
I.
MARION
Cape TowB^
SOUTH AFRICA
voted his
man
life
was the
to
The
of time.
The
first
137
Upper
left
drawing by W. Brockendon.
Upper right
Sir Ernest Shackleton,
1874-1922.
Left
continent, in 1957.
Below
Scott's ship the Terra Nova.
held in the ice pack on his
second Antarctic expedition,
1910-12.
THEARCTICOCEAN
Only
138
in the air
'pivotal'
Opposite, top
USS Nautilus, the
first
atomic-powered submarine
on its initial sea trials. The
Nautilus travelled under the
North Pole in 1958.
Bottom
Nansen's ship the Fram, used
to chart the Arctic drift in
1893-96, was used in 1911 by
Amundsen on his voyage to
Antarctica to set out for the
South Pole. The Fram is seen
ice.
958
Permanent
Ice
//
Fairbanks
Anchorage
/
CANADA
western America.
The story
of the
many pioneering
139
^-
\3Kt
:^
^PT^t-.
^-^
*^^
^^
^iiiril^0S^?S
^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^bJ^^^^^^T^'^
^^^z^
^^.^^^^
^^^gflMfMl
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^HH^^L^^^'^*"^
^^^^^i^^^p'
.^^u^^H^^^^P^\^.-.
j*^
l^t
*"
"*^
i^'''*'
-'
^^fll
-
.j-
Meanwhile,
it
it
was possible
to
^11^b
i
"W/
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Admiralty (Crown Copyright
HMS
Model photographs
56, 61
Times
&
of the
65 by Dick Miller
Maps on
pp.
140
Akaba(M)
Akagi (M) 65
38
54,
Ulugh(M)9
Pasha (M)9
Ali
Allied
War (M)
59
Ambarchik (M)68
Amboina (M) 16.63
American bases overseas (M) 71
American Civil War 1861-65 (M) .38
American clippers, 1850 (M) 35
American Coastal Waters January-June
1942 (Ml 61
Amoy
(M)37, 63
Amsterdam (M) 17
Amundsen, Roald (M) .36
Amundsen Gulf (M).36
Amundsen Sea (M) 73
Anchorage (M) 74
Ancona (M) 8
Andros(M)8
Anegada(M)
Babel Mandeb(MI 70
Bacalaos (Belle Isle) (M) 13
Baffin. William (M) 13
Baffin Bay (M) 13. 36,74
Baffin Island (M) 5. 36
Baffin Land (M) 13
Baghdad (M) 44
Bahama (M) 33
Bahamas (M) II. 12. 26
Bahia (M) 15. 20. 34
Bahrain (M) 44. 70
Baikal. Lake (M) 68
Balaclava (M)69
Balboa (M) 41
Balboa. Vasco Nuriez de (M) 11
Balearic Islands (M) 3. 58
Bali(M) 16.63
Baltic Sea (M)67
Baltimore (M) 24. 34
Banda (M) 16
Bandar Abbas (Gombroon) (M)
Bangkok (M) 25
Banks Island (M).36
Bantam (M) 16
Bantry (M) 29
Bantry Bay (M) 14, 49
Barbados (M) 20. 24. 26. 32
Barbarigo. Agostino (M) 9
Barbuda (M) 26
Barcelona (M) 18
Bardia(M)58
Barents. Willem (M) 15
Barents Sea (M) 68. 74
25, 70
35
Bosphorus(M)69
34
Bayeux (M) 56
Beachy Head (M) 14. 17. 18
Beardmore Glacier (M) 73
Bear Island (M) 57
Beatty. Admiral Sir David (M)
Beaufort Sea (M)
35
Belgium (M)49
Chemulpo (M)43
Cherbourg (M) 18. 19, 29, 56, 57
Chersonese (M) 3
Chesapeake (M) 34
Chesapeake Bay (M) 39
Chesapeake Bay (battle) (M) 28
Chesapeake River (M) 13
Chile (M) 20. 35, 44, 46
China (M) 37. 43, 44,63
China and Japan, 1839-60 (M) 37
Chinese Communist attacks, Korean
War (M) 72
(D) 50
Britannia (M) 33; (D) 88
British Army Eastern Task Force. 2nd:
1944 (M) 56
British blockading fleets. 1744-1815 (M)
29
British Guiana (M) 44
British Honduras (M) 40
British landings, 1744-1815 (M) 29
British Merchant Shipping Losses, 19141918(D) 104
British shipping tonnage. 1830-1948 (D)
(M)
44, 71
21
63
Bushire (M) 70
29.
Camperdown (M) 17
Camperdown (battle) (M) 29
Camranh Bay (M) 63
Camulodunum (Colchester) (M)
Canada (M) 34. 35, 36, 44. 74
,54. ,55.
57
(M)3
:i
44
The (M) 21
Carentan (M) 56
Caribbean Sea (M) 41
Carlisle Bay (M) 26
2 April 1801
May
1942 (M)
Cornii>a;/(M)47
Cornwallis, Admiral William (M) 28. 32
Coromandel Coast (M) 25
29
11. 41
Dartmouth (M) 6. 14
Darwin (M)23. 54.63
Davis. John (M) 13
Davis Strait (M)5. 13. 36
Deal (M) 17
Dease Strait (M) 36
Defence (M) 30. 33
De/iance(M|.33
Delagoa Bay (M) 10
Delaware (M) ;38
Delaware. Lake (M) 13
Delft (M) 17
Delhi (M)25
Corcyra (M) 1
Corfu (M) 8, 45
Corinth (M) 1. 3, 8
Corinth. Gulf of (M) 9
Cork (M) .35
(M)48
Darien (M)
16
Dhahran (M)70
Dhenusa (M) 45
Diadem (M) 27
63
Corunna(M)
Desroches (M) 70
Detroit (M) 34
54,
Da Nang(M)71
Danelaw (M) 5
Dannebrog (M) 31
Derna(M| 58
Deshima (Nagasaki) (M)
Candia(M)8
Cardinals.
Cienfuegos (M) 40
Cilicia
15
Delos(M| 3
Demerara (M) 34
Den Briel (M) 17
Den Helder(M| 17, 29
Denmark (Ml 49, 57
Denmark Strait (Ml 55
Bismarck (M)
32
15
Berblce(M) 20
Berehaven (M) 49
Bergen (M) 5. 7. 24, 55, 57
Bergen op Zoom (M) 17
Bering. Vitus (M) 20
Bering Strait (M) 22. .36. 68. 74
Berlin (M) 7
Bermuda (M) 20. 24. 32, .54, 59
Berwick (M) 14
Berwick (M) 33
Besika Bay (M)45, 48
Biafra (M) 24
ChukcheeSea(M)68
Chunchon (M) 72
Chungking (M) 63
Chusan Island (M) 37
71
Cagliari (M) 1. 58
Cairo (M) 29
Cairo (Missouri) (M) 38
Calabar (M) 24
Calais (M) 6. 14. 17
Calcutta (M) 20. 25, 44
Calicut (M) 10, 15, 25
California (M) 15
Calioa(M) 35
Callao(M)
Christchurch(Ml 73
Cologne (M) 7
Colombia (Ml 40
Colombo (Ml 44
Colon (M)41
Colossus (M) .33
Columbus. Christopher 11
Columbus. The Voyages of (M) 11
Como. Lake (M) 8
Communist Threats, Presumed: 1960 (M)
Biak (M)63
Biscne Island (M) 73
74
5. 13,
Chosan(M)72
Cod. Cape(M) 5. 13
Colchester (Camulodunum) (M)
Colchis (M) 1.3
Collinson. Sir Richard (M) ,36
Brunswick (M) 7
Bucentaure (M) 33
Buenos Aires (M) 44
Bulgaria (M) 44, 69
35,
72
Chinsura (M) 25
Chioggia (M)8
Chios (M) 1,8,69
Cho-do (M) 72
Chongjin (M) 72
Brunsbuttel (M).57
'25,
61. 62
18
Bruges (M) 6, 7
Brundisium (M) 3
Brunei (M) 15, 16, 63
Burma (M)
Chinnampo(M)43,
13
Dacia (M)3
Daffodil (M) 53
Da Gama, Routes of: 1497-8 (M) 10
Dairen (M) .37
Dakar (M) 54. 59. 61.62
Dalmatia (M)8
Dampier. William: Voyage 1700 (M) 23
Dampier Archipelago (Ml 23
Comte de (M) 27
Bougie (M) 18, 58
Bourbon (M) 20
Bouvet (M)48
Bouvet Island (M) 73
Brahmaputra. River (M) 25
Brazil (M) 10. 15. 20. 24, 35, 44
Bremen (M) 7, 35
Bremerhaven (M) 57
Breslau (M) 45
Brest (M) 6, 14, 18, 21, 29, 32, 55, 57
Breton, Cape (M) 13, 20
Brindisi(M)8, 45, 58
Brisbane (M) .54
Bristol (M)6, 14, 15. 24
Britain (M) 20
Britain's overseas trade. 1792 and 1816
Caffa(M)8
Beira (M) 44
Beirut (M) 8. 58
Belfast (M) 57, 59
Belize (M)40
Belle Isle (Bacalaos)
Belleisle {U) .
.50
35
49.
18
Brixham (M)
36, 74
Cuzco(M|
57
16
Ceylon (M)
3, 18,
Borkum (M)49
3.
Cossyra (M) 4
Costa Rica (M) 40
Crecy (M|6
Crete (M) 1, 3, 8, 29, 45, ,58, 69
Crimea (M)8, 69
Cristobal (M) 41
Cromarty (M) 49
Crooked Islands Passage (M) 26
Cuba (M) 11, 20. 24. 26. 40. 44
Culebra or Gaillard Cut (M) 41
Culloden(M) 30
Cumberland Sound (M)
Curasao (M) 20. 26. 40
Curacao (D) 88
Cuxhaven (M) 49
89
Bavaria (M) 18
Bcd/ord(MI27
Ceram(M)
Ceuta(M)
16. 20.
40
Carthago (M) 3. 4
Carthage (M) 1
Cartier. Jacques (M) 13
Casablanca (M) 58. .59
Caspian Sea (M) 5. 15. 69
Cephalonia(M)
Bonny (M)24
Boothia Peninsula (M) 36
Bordeaux (Burdigala) (M)
20. 26.
Cattaro (M) 8
Cebu (M) 15. 16
Celebes (M) 20. 63
Bon, Cape(M) 58
Bonaparte, Napoleon (M) 29
Bone (M) 58
Bonin Islands (M) 63
Borneo (M)
Carnatic (M) 25
Caroline Islands (M) 44, 63
Carpentaria. Gulf of (M) 23
Cartagena (Colombia) (M) 12.
Cartagena (Spain) (M) 3
Cassino(M)58
Batum (M)69
26
Ocean (M)
Bougainville.
57
Arctic
Arika(M) 15. 35
Arkansas (M) 38
Ark Royal (M) 55. 58
Arromanches (M) 56
Asan (M) 43
Alabama (M)
Argonaute (M) 33
Burnu (M) 48
Ari
Aberdeen (M) 35
Abo (Turku) (M) 67
Aboukir Bay (battle) (M) 29
Abu Dhabi (M) 70
Acapulco (M) 12, 16, 20, 26
Accra (M) 44. 59
Achi Baba (M) 48
i4c/ii;;c (French) (M) 33
Achille. HMS (M) 33
Achin (M) 10. 16. 25
Acre (M) 8
Actium (battle) (M) 3
Adare. Cape (M) 73
Adelaide (M) 23. 35
Adehe Land (M)73
Aden (M) 35. 44. 70
Adriatic Sea (M) 1. 58
Aegean Sea (M) 1
Aegina (M) 8
Aegospotami (M) 1
Aegusa (battle) (M) 3. 4
Africa (M) 60
Africa (M) 33
African Company. 171.3 (M) 20
Aqaba. Gulfof(M)70
Agamemnon (M) 33. 48
Agincourt (M) 6
Agrigentum (M) 3. 4
Aigle (M) 33
Aix (battle) (M) 29
Ajax (M) 33
(M) 10
Dieppe (M)57
Dlkson(M|68
Dingle Bay (M) 14
Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line (M)
71
Diu (M) 10
Dnieper, River (M)
5,
69
Dortmund (Ml
44, 49
DukeiM) 27
Dumet Island (M)21
Dungeness (Ml 17
Dunkirk {M)6. 14. 17. .57
Durazzo (M) 8, 69
Durban (M)44
Dutch East India Company, 1713 (M) 20
Dutch Guiana (Ml 44
Dutch Harbour (Ml ,54. 63
Dutch possessions; India. 18th Century
(Ml 23; West Indies, late 18th Century
(M)26
Dutch West India Company. 1713 (M) 20
East China Sea (M)37
Easter Island (Ml 22
East India Companies. 1713 (Ml 20
Eastland Company. 1713 (Ml 20
East Siberian Sea (M) 68
Economus
(battle) (M) 4
Ecuador (Ml 44
Eddystone(M| 14
Edinburgh (Ml 49
Egypt (Ml 1. 3.8. 58.69. 70
2; 1571
(M) 9
Gibraltar (M) 18, 20. 29. 32. 44. 58, 59, 61,
62
Gilbert Islands (M) 63
Glasgow (M) 46
Glorious (M) .57
:/ep;iafiI(M)31
Elephant Islands (M) 73
Eleusis. Bay of(M)2
Ellice Islands (M) 63
El Mina (M) 10. 15, 20. 24
Elizabeth. Cape (M) 13
Elizabeth River (M) 39
August
of:
(M)45
Goeree(M) 17
1914
Emden(M)49
Emigrants (1850) (M) 35
Ems, River (M) 7, 49
Enderby Land (M) 73
Endymion (M)
Engano (battle) (M) 63. 66
Engano. Cape (M) 66
England (M) 14. 18
25
Cra/Spee(M)54
Graham Land (M)73
Grand Banks (M) 13
Grand Canal (China) (M) 37
Grasse, Admiral Comte de (M)
27,
28
Gravelines (M) 14
Graves. Admiral Thomas (M) 28
Eniwetok (M) 63
Enterprise (M) 65
Ephesus (M) 1
Equator (M) 22. 24
Eren Keui Bay (M) 48
Gravesend (M) 17
Great Barrier Reef (M) 23
Great Belt (M) 7
Great Western (D) 88
Greece (M) 58. 69
Greek Fleet. 480 BC (M) 2
Greek settlements, c, 500 BC (M) 1
Greenland (M) 5. 13. 36. 44. 54
Grenada (M) 26
Grenadines (M) 26
Gris Nez. Cape (M) 17
Guadalcanal. Battle of August 1942 (M)
Erie.
Lake(M)
13. 34
Espanola (M) 15
Esperance. Cape (battle) (M) 63
Essex (M) 34
Estonia (M) 67
Ethiopia (M) 70
Euxine Sea (M) 1
Evangelista (Island of Pines) (M)
Evans-Thomas. Sir Hugh (M) .50
Ewe, Loch (M) 57
Exeter (M) 6
54.63
Guadeloupe (M)
Guam(M)
11. 12.
Guantanamo (M)
26
71
Guatemala (M) 40
Faeroe Islands (M) 5, 57
Fairbanks (M) 74
Falkland Islands (M) 15. 35. 44. 47. 73
Falkland Islands, Battle of the: 8
December 1914 (M) 47
Famagusta (M) 8
Farewell, Cape (M) 13
Farquhar(M) 70
Fernando Po (M)
10
Flamborough Head
(battle) (M) 29
Fleet Air Arm at Taranto. 1940 (M) 58
Fletcher. Admiral Frank (M) 65
Flinders. Matthew: Voyage 1801-3 (M)
23
Flores(M) 16
Florida (M) 11. 20. 24. 26, 34.
Florida Passage (M) 12,26
Flushing (M)6. 14. 17
Foochow (M) 35, 37
Formidable (M) 27. 33
Formosa (M) 16, 20, 37. 63
Fort Dardanos (M) 48
Fort Fisher (M) 38
Fort Jackson (M)38
Fort Monroe (M) 39
Fort
Fort
Fort
Fort
Fort
Fort
Fort
38.
40
Morgan (M)38
Norfolk (M) 39
Pulaski (M) 38
Rosetta (M) 30
Royal (M) 26. 38
St Philip (M) 38
Sumter (M) 38
Fouguaux (M) 33
Four Days (battle) (M)
Foxe Land (M) 13
Fram (M) 74
17
France (M)
Guayaquil (M) 15
Guerriere (M) 34
Guiana (M) 20. 24, 26, 35
Guinea (M) 10
Gulf Passage (M) 24
Gulf Stream (M) 24
Gunfleet (M) 17
Hango(M)67
Hankow (M) 37
Heros (M) 33
Hipper. Admiral Franz von (M)
Hiroshima (M) ,37
Hiryu (M) 65
Hispaniola (M) 11, 20. 24. 26
Hobart (M)35
Hochelaga (Montreal) (M) 13
Hogland (battle) (M) 67
Holland (M) 17.49
Hollandia (M)63
Holy Loch (M) 71
Honduras (M) 11. 12. 20, 24, 26
Honflueur (M) 6
Honolulu (M)63
Hood, Admiral Lord (M)
49.
50
63
27. 28
17
Hungnam (M)72
1,
Gallinas(M)24
Gailipoli Peninsula
(M) 48
Galloper (M) 17
Galveston (M) 40
Gaspe(M) 13
Gatun Lake (M)
,58
Hythe(M)6
41
Gaul (M) 13
Gau;ois(M)48
Gdynia (M)55, 67
Genoa (M) 8, 18. 29. 35. .58
Genoa, Republic of: 1500 (M) 8
Genoese fleet. 1571 (M) 9
Georgia (M) 38
German East Africa (M) 44
Germania (M) 3
German South West Africa (M) 44
German submarine activity. Second
World War (M) 59
Ghent (M) 6
/rresis(l6/e(M) 48
Liberia
Iraq
(M)70
/ris(M)53
(M)69
Jacksonville (M) 38
Jade, River (M) 49
23.63
Kaga (M) 65
Kagoshima (M)
Igarka (M)68, 74
Illinois (M).38
(M) 3
Inchon (M) 72
Indefatigable (M) 50
India (M) 16, 44, 63
India in the Eighteenth Century (M) 25
Illyria
Indiana (M)38
Indian Guard route (M) 12
IndomptableiM) 33
Indus, River (M) 25
41
(M)
15;
Korean War.
37
8*
:i8th Parallel
24, 29,
Naples (M)
14
48
Majorca (M) 18
Malabar Coast (M) 25
Malacca (M) 10, 15, 16, 20
Malacca, Straits of (M) 25
Malaga (M) 1, 3, 18
Malaya (M) 25, 64
Maldive Islands (M) 25
Kilid
Bahr(M)48
43
Kiska(M)63
Klaipeda (Memel) (M) 67
Knossos (M) 1
Kobe (M) 63
Kodiak (M)71
Kola Peninsula (M)67
Kolyma, River (M) 68
Komsomolsk (M) 68
K6nigsberg(M)7, 67
Korea (M) .37, 43. 63
Korean War. 19.50-53 (M) 72
Kormoran (M) 54
Korsakov (M) 68
Kotka(M)67
Kowloon (M),'J7
Krithia(M)48
Kronstadt (M) 67
Kuantan (M) 63
Kum Kale(M) 48
Kuria Muria Islands (M) 70
Kurile Islands (M) 63, 68
Kurita. Admiral (M) 66
Kuwait (M) 70
Labrador (M) 5, 13, 15
Ladoga, Lake (M)67
Ladrone Islands (M) 15
Lac (M) 63
La Four (M) 21
Lagos (M) 24, 29. 44. .59
Le Havre (M) 35
La Hoogue(M) 19
Lancaster Sound (M) 13. 36
L'Anse aux Meadows (M) 5
La Plata (M) 20
Laptev Sea (M) 68
La Rochelle(M) 18, 57
Latitude, Finding of (D) 21
Latvia (M) 67
LeanderlM) 30
Lebanon (M) 69, 70
3
Lc Croisic (M) 21
Leeuwin, Cape (M) '20, 2:1
Leeward Islands (M) 26
Leghorn (Livorno) (M) 18, 29
Leiden (M) 17
Leipzig iM) 46. 47
10
59
59. 61,
Nikolayev(M)69
Nikolayevsk (M)68
1
August 1798
(M) 30
Ningpo (M) 37
Nitrate clippers. 18.50 (M) 35
Nombre de Dios (M) 11, 15. 41
Nome (M) 74
Nore(M) 17, 29
Norfolk lM)bb
Norfolk (Virginia) (M) 28, 34.
Normandie (D) 88
Normandy (M) 19
Normandy. Duchy of (M) 5
Normandy landings. 6 June
Norsemen, Vovages of
54, 63
the:
.39.
71
1944 (M) 56
An 600 1100
(M)5
of (M) 48
62
Markland(M)5
Marmara, Sea
Mars (M) 33
1.32
Malmo(M)7
58,
Lcchaeum (M)
Navpaktos (M)
Malindi(M)
Maldos(M)48
29, 58, 71
Naxos(M)8
25
Majestic (M)
44
8, 18, 20,
Narvik (M) 57
Naukratis (M) 1
Nauplia (M) 69
Nautilus (M) 74
Naval Bases, War in the Pacific (M) 63
Naval strength, 1914 and 1939 (D) 104
Navarino, Bay of (M) 8
Navarino (battle) 29. 69
Navidad (M) 11
43,
15
Narbo(M) 3
Narrow Seas (M)
Narrows (M) 58
Narva (M)
.30,
.58
(M)7
Kattegat (M) 49
59
Mylae (battle) 34
Mysore (M) 25
Lucania (M) 4
Lusitania (M) 3
Luzon (M) 16, 66
Lydia (M) 3
Lynn (M)6, 7
Maine (M) 5
Main Head (M)
Morea (M)S
Morocco (M) 18,
Morotal (M)63
Island (M)63
Liu Chiu Island (M)37
Liibeck
70
Moscow (M)
32
Makin
Mahe(M)
Kent (M)47
Kentish Knock (M) 17
Kentucky (M) ;38
(M)
72
Little
(M)24
Lipara (M) 4
Lisbon (Ml 15. 18,
Lithuania (M) 67
Gan(M)70
Kinchow(M)
(M) 6
Galway (M) 14
Gambia (M)24, 35
Gambia River (M) 20
GabeTepe(M)48
Mocha (M)
Killala(M)29
Hooc((M).54, 55. 57
17
of: 1415
Heraclea (M> 4
Heraklion (M) 3
October 1571
of: 7
(M)9
Leptis(M) 1, 3
Lesbos (M) 3, 8
Kansas (M) 38
Kara Sea (M)68, 74
Karachi (M) 54
Karikal (M) 25
Kasvin(M) 15
(M)
(battle)
Helsinki (M)67
Henry V, Route
45
Leningrad (M) 67
Kamchatka (M) 68
Kamerun (M) 44
Hawaii (M)22
Hawaiian Islands (M) .54, 63
Hawke, Admiral Sir Edward (M) 21
Hebrides (M) 14
Hedic Island (M) 21
Heligoland (M) 35
Heligoland Bight (battle) (M) 44. 49
Helles, Cape (M) 48
Hellespont (M) 1
Hellevoetsluis (M) 17, 18
Helloland (M) 5
Hoorn(M)
Gabbard
Lemnos(M)8,
48
Invergordon (M) 49
Invincible (M) 47
Ionian Fleet, 480 bc (M) 2
Ionian Isles (M) 29, ,35, 69
Ionian Sea (M) I
Iowa (M) 38
Iphigenia (M) 5:1
Ipswich (M) 6, 7, 17
Iquique (M) 35
/falser
47.
Java(M)
40. 71
(M)
Intrepid (M) 53
Inlrepide (M) 33
Irkutsk
Goodwins (M) 17
Goree (M) 20, 24
Gotland (M) 5, 7, 67
Inflexible
Norway (M)
Norwich (M) 6
74
Novgorod (M) 7
Novorossiysk (M) 69
12
141
Ohio (M) 37
Oil Rivers (M) 24
Oil. Sources and destinations (D) 129
Okhotsk (M) 68, 74
Okhotsk, Sea of (M) 68
Okinawa (M) 37, 63, 71
Oklahoma (M) 38
Ola (M) 88
Omaha, Operation: Normandy, 1944 (M)
SB
Oman (M)
142
70
2.5,
8; 1914
(M) 44
(M) 41
Naval Actions (M) 63
Paengnyong-do (M) 72
Pakenham. Rear-Admiral (M) 50
Palawan (M) 66
Palermo (M)
8, 29.
63.71
Gulfof (M)37
Riodela(M)
Rabaul (M) 63
Race, Cape (M) 13
Ragusa, Republic of (M) 8
Rakatis (Alexandria) (M) 1
Ramillies (battle) (M) 18
Rangoon (M) 25, 35, 63
Rashin (M) 72
Ravenna (M) 3
Rayo (M) 33
Re, Islede(M) 18
Recife (Pernambuco) (M) 20, 59
Redoubtable (M) Xi
Red Sea (M) 1, 69, 70
Reggio (Rhegium) (M) 8
Repulse (M) 54, 63. 64
Revenge (M) 33
Revel (M) 7
B<>i(D)88
Reykjavik (M) 25. 54. 55, 59, 61, 62. 74
Rhegium (Reggio) (M) 1, 3, 4
Rhine, River (M) 3, 5, 7, 17
Rhode Island (M) 28
Rhodes (M) 1, 3, 8
Rhone, River (M) 5
Richborough (Rutupiae) (M) 3
Richmond (Virginia) (M) 38
Riga (M) 7, 67
Rimini (M) 8
Rio de Janeiro (M) 10, 24, 59
Riou frigates (M) 31
Rochambeau, Comte de (M) 28
Rochefort (M) 18, 21, 29
Rodney. Admiral Sir George (M) 27
Rodney (M) 55
Roman Empire. AD 180 (M) 3
Romania (M) 69
Rome (M) 3, 8. 29
Romney (M) 6
Ross Dependency (M) 73
Ross Ice Earner (M) 73
Ross Sea (M) 73
Rostock (M) 7
Rostov (M) 69
Rosyth (M) 49
Rota (M) 71
Rotomagus (Rouen) (M) 3
Rotterdam (M) 17
Rouen (Rotomagus) (M) 3. 6
Royal Sovereign (M) 33
Rozhestvensky. Admiral (M) 42
Rugen (M) 5
Russian bases (M) 71
Russo-Japanese War. 1904-5 (M) 43
Rutupiae (Richborough) (M) 3
Rye (M) 6
Rvukvu Islands (M) 37. 63
15
Sagres(M) 10
Pluton (M) 33
Plymouth (M)
15
(M)33
Scotland (M) 14
Scropha, Cape (M) 9
57
Pohang(M)72
Point Barrow (M) 36, 74
Point Comfort (M) 39
Pola (M) 45
Pola (battle) (M) 8
Poland (M) 67
Polyphemus (M) 33
Pondicherry (M) 20. 25
Poole (M) 6
Port Arthur (M) 38, 43
Port-au-Prince (M) 40
Portland (M)49
Portland Bill (M) 14
Port Mahon(M)29
Port Moresby (M)63
Porto Bello (M) 12, 15, 20, 26, 41
Porto Farino (battle) (M) 18
Port of Spain (M)59
Port Royal (M)26
Port Said (M) 44, 58, 69
Portsmouth (Hants) (M) 6, 14, 29, 49
Saguntum (M)
13
Saigon (M) 16. 63,64, 71
St Augustine (M) 15
(M)27
Saipan (M) 63
Sakhalin (M) 68
Saiamis, The Battle
480BC(M)2
Salekhard (M) 68
Salerno (M) 58
Sallee (M) 18
Seville (M) 15
Kingdom
29.
of the
September
Tallin (M) 67
Tampico(M)40
Tangier (M)
Two (M)
18
Taranto(M)8,
Tarawa (M) 63
Tarentum(M)
Sinope(M)3. 69
Sinuiju (M)72
Sirocco, Mohammed (M) 9
Sirte; First Battle of (17 December 1941)
(M) 58; Second Battle of (22 March
1942) (M) 58
Gulf of (M) 58
Skaggerak (M) 49
Sirte,
Skaw(M)29
Tarshish (M) 1
Tarsus (M) 1, 3
Task Force 77, Korean War (M) 72
Task Force 95-1, Korean War (M) 72
Tasman, Abel; Voyage 1642-3 (M) 23
Tasmania (M) 23, 73
Tassafaronga (battle) (M) 63
Tchersky (M)68, 74
Tchesme (M) 69
Tea clippers (1850) (M) 35
Temeraire (M) 33
Tennessee (M) 38
Ternate (M) 10, 16
Terra Firma Flota route (M) 12
Terschelling (M) 17
Texas (M) 38
Texel (M) 17
Theseus (M) 30
Thetis (M) 53
Thirteen Colonies (M) 20
14
Sluys (M)6
22
Southampton (M) 6, 14
South Georgia (M) 73
South Orkney Islands (M)
Tyre(M)
73
60
Swatow(M)37
Sweden(M)57.
1,
40. 61.
62
63,
May
1905 (M) 42
43
37,
Xerxes,
66
57,
59
United
United
United
United
States. 1861-5
(M) 38
Provinces (M)
17, 18
States (M) 34
States of America (M) 34, 35, 44
Upsala(M)
(M) 14
Wllhelmshaven (M) 44. 49. 57
William III. King(M) 18
Willoughby. Sir Hugh (M) 15
Wilmington (M) 38
Windward Islands (M) 26
Windward Passage (M) 24
Winter Harbour (M) 36
Wonsan (M) 72
Wool clippers. 1850 (M) 35
Wool Trade (M) 6
Woosung (M) 35. 37
World in 1600 (M) 15
World in 1713 (M) 20
World in 1850 (M) 35
World in 1914 (M) 44
World shipping tonnage; 1914 (D) 89;
1890 and 1960(D) 89
Unalaska(M)22, 71
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (M)
Union
68. 74
24
Isle of
16.
17.
1942 (M) 65
1942 (M) 65
Utah (Normandy.
Utica(M) 1, 4
Utrecht (M) 17
Valiant (M) 58
1944)
Camp
of (M) 2
Yakutsk (M)68, 74
Yalu (M) 70
Yalu River (M) 43
Yang-do (M) 72
Yangtse River (M) 37
Yap, River (M) 37
Yarmouth (M) 6, 17,49
Yedo Bay (M) 37
Yellow Sea (M) 37, 43
Yemen (M) 70
Yenisei, River (M) 68
Yessen, Admiral (M) 43
Yinkow (M)43
Yo-do (M) 72
Yokosuka (M) 71
York (M)5
York, Cape (M) 23
Yorktown(M)28
Vaagso (M) 57
67. 68. 74
27
Wessex (M) 5
Western Approaches 1940-41 (M) 60
West Indies in the late Eighteenth
Century (M) 26
West Indies Trade (M) 24
West Virginia (M)38
Weymouth (M) 14
Whampoa (M) 35. 37
Whitby Bay (M)49
Wight.
72
Spalato(M)8
18, 20,
of:
Whydah (M)
Vinland (M)5
Vire, River (M) 56
Virgin Islands (M) 26
Virginia (M) 15,38
Virginia (M) 39
Visby (M) 7
Vistula, River (M) 7
Vladivostok (M) 37, 43, 63, 68
Vlieland (battle) (M) 17
Volga, River (M) 5, 69
WhiteSea(M)67.
Tumen (M)
23
Tsingtao (M) 37
Tsushima. Battle
70
Sliaswik (M) 5
9,
15, 20,
Wake
Troy (M)
Skiros(M)8
Triumph (M)48
Tr6mso(M)57, 74
Trondheim (M)67
Skania(M)7
Socotra (M)
69
45, 58,
1, 3,
Smyrna (M)
18
Tonnant (M) 33
58
Surat(M)25
of:
Taku (M)37
Tonga (M)
Kingdom of (M) 5
Sidon(M) 1, 70
Sierra Leone (M) 20, 24. 35
Siguna (M)5
Simoda (M) 37
Simpson Strait (M) 36
Spain (M)
Tahiti (M) 22
Sicily,
Sligo(M)
Taganrog (M) 69
Tirpitz (M) 57
Tiski (M) 68
Tobago (M) 26
Tobruk (M) 58
Sheerness (M) 49
Sheppey (M) 17
Shetland Islands (M) 5, 49, 57
Shima. Admiral (M)66
Shimonoseki (M) 37, 43
Shingle, Operation: 1944 (M) 58
Siam. Gulfof(M)64
Sicilia(M)4
(M)
73
Taewha-do(M)72
Tinian (M)
Shar)ah(M)70
Shark Bay (M) 23
Shatt al Arab (delta) (M) 70
Sicily
54,
Sicilies.
ThuIe(M)71, 74
Thunderer (M) .'J3
Tidore(M) 10, 16
Seleucia (M) 3
Plata,
Valparaiso (M)
Su)i/'/sure(M).30, 33. 48
Segna(M)8
16
Phoebe (M) 34
Phoenician and Greek maritime
empires, c. 500 BC (M) 1
Phoenician Fleet, 480 BC (M) 2
Phoenician settlements, c. 500 BC (M)
Pingmn (M) 54
Pipe Lines (M) 70
Piraeus (M) 2
Plassey (battle) (M) 25
63, 66
Samos(M)3
58
Palmas. River (M) 24
Pechil.
Qatar (M) 70
Pacific Ocean
Pacific. Main
Palembang(M)
Yorktown (M)65
Yucatan (M) 11. 12
Yucatan Channel (M) 26
Yugoslavia (M),58, 69
(M) 56
Zante(M)8, 45
Zanzibar (M) 10.
35. 44
Zara(M)8
Zealous (M) 30
Zeebrugge (M) 49
Zeebrugge Raid, 23-4 April 1918 (M) 53
Zeeland(M) 17
ZuiderZee(M) 17
INDEX
Abadan
128
Aberdeen 70
Aboukir Bay 59-60
Acapulco 33
Achin 52
Actium 10. 11
Aden 69
Admiral Apraxin 84
Admiral Scheer 108
Agrippa
Alaska
culverin 28
Curzola 18
Inman Line 89
Brian Boru 12
122. 138
Albemarle. Duke of 35
Albuquerque, Afonso d' 22
Aleutian Islands 122. 138
Alexander. Field-Marshal 112
Cuxhaven 92
Admiralty 128
Cyprus
Grand
Home
Byzantium
73. 137
Anian 26
Anson, Admiral Lord 39-40.
40. 42
Anzio 113
Archangel
12
47
Defence 94
Delos 10
Carlisle
16.
Comte
Douarnenez Bay 62
D'Orvilliers.
20
57. 81
Carpentaria. Gulf of 46
Carpenter. Captain 103
carrack (naos) 16. 17. 20. 23
Carretra de India 23
Ascension 69
106, 114
astrolabe, 20, 20
Athenia 114
Atlantic. Battle of the 108. 110. 114-17
Atlantis 108
Augsburg. War of the League of 36
Australia 42. 46-7. 70
Austrian Succession. War of the (1744-8)
39.57
Azov 122
Bacalaos 26
backstaff 26
William 26
Bainbridge 130
Cartagena 57
Carthage 8. 10
Cartier. Jacques 26
Casablanca 109
Caspian Sea 33
Cathay 24, 25
Catherine the Great 122
Cavendish, Thomas 33
Cebu
31
Central Africa 69
Central Powers (1914) 92
Centurion 40
Cervera. Admiral Pasqual 81
Ceylon. 34. 52. 69. 118
Champlain. Samuel de 26
Chancellor. Richard 33
Baines. James 70
Balaclava 122
Balboa 25
Baltic Sea 122
Baltimore 50, 66
Chaucer, Geoffrey 14
Chesapeake 66
Banks Island 72
Bantry Bay 59. 128
Barbados 48, 57
Barbarossa. Kheyr-edDin 37
Barbarossa. Uruz 37
Barbary Corsairs 37
Barcelona 36
Barclay. Captain Robert 66
Barents. Willem 33
Barents Sea 124
Barfleur-La Hoogue 36
Barham 112, 112
Barras, Admiral de 55
Cleopatra 11
Clive. Robert 52
Clyde River 70
Cochin 52
Cocos Islands 93
Codrington. Admiral Sir Edward 122
Coen. Jan 34
72
Basra 52
Bass, George 47
Bass Strait 47
Batavia (Jakarta)
cog
122
Beachy Head 36
Beardmore. William 137
Beatty, Admiral Lord 92. 98-100. 102
Collinson, Captain 72
Colombo 22
Belfast 134
Company
Belgium 92
Bellerophon 65
Bellingshausen, Captain von 136
Bencoolen 52
Bengal. Bay of 93
Benguela 34
Benin. Bight of 50
Bering, Vitus 122
Benng Strait
Bermuda 48
John 136
Cornwall
108, 120
94. 108
Bojador, Cape 22
Bombay 52
Coronel 94
corvus 10
Cosa. Juan de la 24
Courageous 110
Cousteau, Captain Jacques 10
Cradock, Rear-Admiral Sir Christopher
53
111
biremes 8
Bombay Marines
Convoy PQ17
Comte de 42
Bourne. William 20
42. 59
94
Crete
18.
112
59
dromons 1
Duff. Admiral
102
Eannes. Gil 22
Earl Balcarres 52
East Indiamen 52, 53
East Indies 34
Eastland Company (1579) 40
East Siberian Sea 124
Cromwell. Oliver 35
111, 134
Elizabeth I, Queen 28
Ellsworth. Lincoln 137
Elmina34. 48
Elphinston. John 122
Emden 92. 100
Emden 93. 94
Emigration 70
Endeavour 42, 45
Enderby. Charles 136
Iwo Jima
22.
23
Hermann
108
Gokstad 12. 13
Golden Hind 33
seal of
'Jason's ship' 15
52. 69. 118
Gombroon 52
Good Hope 94
Good Hope. Cape
67
66,
Admiral Lord
Jellicoe.
Company
Johnson. President Lyndon 82
Jones. John Paul 59, 122
Josev Stalin 124
136
Kagoshima 74
Kara Strait 124
European Migration 70
Harry 20
Lakes 26
Northern War (1699-1721) 122
Republic 70
Western 88
Karikal 52
Karlsruhe 93
Kearsage 79
Keflavik 130
Kellet.
Captain 72
Larcum
Kendall.
44
Greeks 8-9. 9. 18
Greenland 12. 25. 138
Greig. Admiral Samuel 122
Griper 72
Key West 81
Kiaochow (Tsingtao)
Guadalcanal 120
Kiel Canal 92
Guam
Kiev 12
81. 120
Killala
80, 130
84
Bay 59
Kincaid 120
King William Island 72
Kitchener. Lord 96
knarrs 12
Knights of St John
Guepratte, Admiral 96
Guerriere 66
Guinea, Gulf of 48
Gustave Zeda 90
Haifa 128
Kodiak 130
Komet 108, 124
Haiti 81
Kontore 16
Hakodate 74
Halsey. Admiral William A. 120. 121
Hamilton. General Sir Ian 96, 97
Hampton Roads
Kowloon
Hankow
Hanno 8
Goree 34
Gorshov. Admiral Sergei 124
Gothic Line 109
Graf Spec 108
Guantanamo
.?5
Janszoon. Willen 46
Japan 23, 74. 84-5
Java
Java
Goliath 60
76
74,
134
84
Kronstadt 122
74
Kure
121
Hanseatic League 16
Hardrada. Harold 12
Harold II. King 12
Hartog, Dirk 47
Harwich
kybernates 9
Havana
92. 103
La Bourdonnais. Governor 52
80. 81
Helles. Cape 97
Hellespont (Dardanelles) 9
Henry. Cape 55
Labrador 25
Lachine Rapids 26
Ladrones (Marianas) 31
La Gloire 76
Lagos 59
Lancaster Sound 26, 72
Langley 133
L'Anse aux Meadows 12
Laptev Sea 124
Henry V, King 14
Henry the Navigator
42. 59
Heartland 133
Company 'John
40, 52-3, 70
Company
121. 131
Jamaica 57
James II, King 35;
James, John 26
James Caird 137
Jamestown 33
Jan Companie 34
911
93. 94
Goering. Air-Marshal
Hecla 72
Heligoland
Khedive 90
Admiral 84
Hastings 14
Hatshepsut. Queen 8
Endurance 137
Endymion 66. 66
(1711) 40
Enterprise 72
Enterprise. USS 130, 133
Enver Pasha 97
22,
23
Latvia 124
Hipper 111
Hipper. Admiral Franz von
Erikson, Leif 12
Ericcson, John 76
Espanola (Hispaniola) 24
Essex 66
Estonia 124
Euphrates River 8
12. 137
Lausanne Conference
Law, John 40
Leake. Sir John 37
93, 98,
100. 103
97
70. 74
cross-staff 20
55. 57.
59
of Effingham. Lord 28
14. 14
Inchon 134
Indefatigable
9:i.
Indian Ocean 70
Indomitable 93
99
18
Ill
Lebanon. Mount 8
Le Havre 59
Lemnos
Hornet (sloop) 66
Howard
99
(1923) 122
Leipzig 93
Ht)glancl 122
Holland class submarine 82
Holmes, Sir Robert 35
Holy League 18
Holy Loch 130
Homer 8
Hong Kong 69. 74.80. 118
Free Trade
98-103.
131
Intrepid 112
Investigator 47. 72
Invincible 9-1
Ionian Islands 18. 69. 122
Iphigenia 103
Iris 103
Irresistible 96
lie de France (Mauritius) 52
Great
Great
Great
Great
Great
Great
Erebus
Colon) 24-5, 24
72. 73
54.
III, King 14
Egypt 90. 112
Eisenhower. General Dwight DEl Alamein 108
Elath(Eilat)8
El Cano. Sebastian 33
Elephant Island 137
Chioggia 18
Christopher 14
chronometer 44
22
19
Edward
20. 22.
Ismail.
Graham Land
Duguay-Trouin. Rene 36
Chandernagore 52
Channel Fleet 92
Charcot. Jean 137
Baffin.
Beaufort Sea
Dominica 81
Don John of Austria
Dona. Andrea 18
Dona. Pietro 18
Carnarvon 94
Barrow Strait
Bart. Jean 36
Bay 56
137
(ICBM)
Goeben
Diu 22
12
20. 21
Ito,
Goa
80. SI
Or Helge
Ingstad.
Gluchhauf \2H
Gnetsenau 93. 110, HI
19
Mahan)80
Ghent. Treaty of 66
Gibraltar36. 37. 38. 59
Gloucester
Devonshire 108
Canopus 94
Canton 53. 74
Canute. King 12
Cape Breton Island 38
Cape Coast Castle 48
Cape Cod 26
Cape Colony 69
Cape Verde Islands 22
Caribbean Sea
Strait 110
Denusa 50
Devon 50
Cambria 128
1783.
104
128
Influence of Sea
Dauphin Rovale 37
Davis. John 26. 33
Cabot. John 25
Cabot. Sebastian 25. 26. 26. 33
Cabral. Pedro Alvarez. 22, 25
Cadiz 28. 36. 62-5
Calais 14. 28
Calcutta 52
Calicut 22, 52
California 70. 74
Callao 33
caravel
33. Ill
Arctic Circle 26
Arctic Ocean 138-9
AriellQ. 70
Argus 104
Biscoe.
131
Danegeld
Danna
11. 12
Camperdown 59
Campo Formio. Treaty of (1797)
Canada (New France) 26. 42. 70
106
Batum
Da Nang
Dardanelles
46.
Ganteaume. Admiral 62
Gdynia 110
Genoa. Republic of 18
George V. King 94
Daffodil 103
Dairen 122
Dalmatia. Duke of 18
Dampier. William 40.
Denmark
74
ASDIC
Gabriel 26
galleon (nef) 15.
Gallipoli97. 57
18
Demerara 69
amphorae 10
Amsterdam 34
Amundsen. Roald
Ark Royal
Arrow 74
112
Frobisher. Martin 26
Frobisher Bay 26
Fuchs. Sir Vivian 137. 137
Fulton. Robert 139
Furious 98
Gama. Vasco da
Gambia 50
34
Amoy
112.
Fleet 98 9
Fleet 110
Algiers 112
Amboina
82
Cutty Sark 70
48
94
Bulair 97
Bulgaria 97
Bylot. Robert 26
Byrd. Richard E- 137
Byron. Admiral John 42. 54
82.
Bruges 103
Brunei. Isambard Kingdom 88
Bucentaure 65
79
24. 80
Culebra Cut
overseas trade 89
Brittany 50, 110
Brueys. Admiral de 59
Alabama
Cuba
Bristol
Bristol
British
British
British
British
Adventure 43, 44
Aegean Sea 97
Aegospotami 9
Aegusa 10
Agamemnon
Bouvet 96
Boyne. Battle of the (1650) 36
Levant 37
Levant Company (1567) 40
Leyte Gulf 120
Liaotung 84. 122
Liberia 50
Libya 1 12
Lightening 70
Lindisfarne 12
Line of Battle 35
Line of Demarcation (1494) 23. 26
Linschoten. Itinerario o( 32. 34
Lion 99
Lisbon 24. 28. 48
Lithuania 124
Liverpool 48. 79
Lizard 28. 29
Llovd-George. David 102
London 138
lorcha 74
Lorient 110. 114
L'Onent 59
Louis XIV. King 36
Louisbourg 38
Low Countries 92, 110
Lubeck
Liibeck.
16
Laws
of 16
143
New
Lusiianta 1U2
Lutjens, Admiral
Macao
UO
22
120, 121,
134
Macassar
.34
Macedonian 6G, 66
Mackay, Donald 70
Mackenzie. Alexander 72
Mackenzie River 72
McMurdo Sound
137
Madras ft2
Madre de Dios 20
Magellan. Ferdinand 31. 32
Magellan. Straits of 31. 33
Magnetic Pole 72
Mahan. Admiral Alfred Thayer {The
Influence of Sea Power on History
^-v
1660-1783) 80
Mahe
Nile River 8
Nimitz. Admiral Chester 120
Nimrod 137
Nina 24
Ningpo 74
Noah's Ark 16
Nordenskjold, Baron 72
Nore 59
Norfolk, U,S.A. 76
Seoul
111
Normandy, Duchy
Norsemen 12-13
Madeira 48. 53
Madison. President 66
144
Portugal 22-3, 24
Normandy
.52
of 12
Norway 111
Nova Scotia (Acadie) 38, 50
Nova Zemlya (New Land) 33,
Mahjed. Ibn 22
Novgorod
Islands) 122,
1.38
NUrnberg 93
Manila
Manua
120
Okinawa
Tsuboi. Admiral 84
Turbinia 89
Turkey 93. 96
Quebec 26
Queen Elizabeth (dreadnought)
Queen Marv99. 101
Ormuz
22,
2.3, .34
Abraham
Marseilles (Massilia) 8
Martellus, Henricus 20
Martinique 56
Massilia see Marseilles
Masulipatam 52
Ortelius.
0(ran(o 94
Romans
Ottoman
Ottoman
Ottoman
Outward
Rome
Mauritius 50, 69
Mayflower 26, 33
21, 26, 33
122
Pago Pago
Merchant Adventurers 14
Merchant Navy Passenger Act
Merchants of the Steelyard 16
Merrlmac (Virginia) 16, 78
(1855) 70
120
Parker, Sir
Piatt
Amendment
(1903)81
Monte Cassino
113
Montevideo 108
Montgomery. Field-Marshal Lord
Montreal 26
Montrcux Convention (1936) 122
Moonlight Battle (1780) 59
Moonshine 26
33, 1.39
Edward 36
Russian Navy 122-6, 126; Black Sea
Philadelphia 50
Philip
Murmansk 111
Muscovy Company
Philip,
King 28, 30
Captain Arthur
11,
47. 70
Phoenicians 8-9, 9
Phung-tao 84
Pinguin 108
Pinta 24
Piraeus 9
Nagasaki
22. 34. 74
Nagumo. Admiral
Nance, R. Morton
Nanking 74
118, 120
21
New
New World 21
New York (New Amsterdam)
.54-5
Helena
22,
Vindictive 103
Vinland map
13
Viper 81
Virginia (Merrimac) 76
Virginia Company 33
Waldseemuller, Martin
Warrior 76
21, 25
Washington 66
Washington, George 54, 55
Watson, Admiral 42, 52
Tarshish 8
Tasman, Abel
Tasmania 47
53
Whampoa
47
St Malo 59
St Nazaire 110
St Petersburg 122
St Roch 73
St Vincent, Cape 59
St Vincent, Lord 59, 62
Saintes, Les 57
Saints, Battle of the 57
Saipan 120
Sakhalin 84, 85, 122, 124
Salamis 9
Salerno 113
34, ,36
Thetis 103
Santo Domingo 24
Sao Joao 20
Sao Paulo de Luanda 34
Sapienza 18
Saunders, Admiral 42
Savannah 133
Savannah (Captain Moses Rogers) 87
Sc;iarnhors( 93, 110, HI
Scheer, Admiral 93. 98-9, 100, 102
Schley, Commodore Winfield 81
Schmidt, Otto 124, 139
Schnorkel 117
Wonsan 134
Woosung 70
Santtsstma Trinidada 65
Themistocles 9
81
70
Wilhelmshaven
Tasman Sea 47
Tchesme 122
Lucia 69
131
Vigilante 50
Vigo 64
Vikings see Norsemen
ViUeneuve, Admiral 62-4
Wei-hai-wei 84
St Helena 52
.St
Vietnam
Taganrog 122
Tahiti 42
Taiping 70
.St
Vicroria 30
Victoria Island 72
Victorious 108
Victory 53, 64. 65
Taranto 112
Vicksburg 76
St Eustatius 34, 57
St Francis Xavier 23
Perry,
18. 19
Syracuse 9
Saguenay River 26
St Domingue (Haiti) 50
(169.5) 122
14
12
Venice 18-19. 19
Sylt 92
Pepys, Samuel 35
periplus 9, 10
Perry, Commodore
Matthew Calbraith
Varangian Guard
Vega 72
36,
120. 121
Ryswick, Treaty of 36
Mozambique
Mycenaean Greeks
Mylae 10
fleet
fleet
Rye
Mozambique Channel 53
Mulberry harbours 111
(1553) 33, 40
War
Northern
Tasmania
Verrazzano, Giovanni da 26
Vespucci, Amerigo 25
Suffren, Bailli de 52
Suvla 97
Surabaya 118
Sural 52
Surinam 34
Susquehanna 74
Sussex 102
Sverdrup, Otto 138
Sydney 138
Russo-Turkish
pharos (lighthouse) 9
see
33
Verdun 97
Stamford Bridge 12
Stanhope, General 36, 37
Stirling, Admiral Sir James 74
Strabo 9
Sturdee, Vice-Admiral Doveton 94
Subic Bay 131
Submarines; BlI, HM 97. C3 103;
Pechili 84
Peking 74
110
54, .59
Vanguard 60
Van Noort
nuclear 130
Russell, Sir
Petsamo 124
Pharaoh Necho (610-594 BC)
18
Moscow
Oak
Ro'yal
74, 74
111,
112
Morea
Hyde 60
Stales 66, 66
Venice. Signori of
14
1,30
Van Diemen 47
Van Diemen's Land
37
Spee, Admiral Graf von 93-4
22, 34, 52
Spiridov, Admiral 122
Spithead 59
Spitzbergen 33, 138, 139
112
134
Spice Islands
40
United
United
United
United
United
Ushant
Utica8
Moluccas 33
Monitor 76, 78
Monkton, General 42
Woddes
Parma, Duke of 25
Patras 11
Pax Britannica 68
Peacock 66
Monmouth 94
Monroe Doctrine;
81
10
Medway
Mercator
32
Solomon, King 8
Solomon Islands 33
Bertram 111
10-11, 11
113
Romney
68. 90
River 35
Melville Sound 72
Mendana, Alvero de 33
69, 118
Rommel, General
of 28
Sir
Ulugh Ali
Unalaska
Sierra Leone 50
Sims, Admiral 102
S.
Sidon 128
Rogers,
81
Marlborough. Duke of 38
Marmara, Sea
of 97
92. 94. 96
Otchakov
Oregon
11
Shimonoseki 74
Shimonoseki, Treatv of (1895)84
Shovell, Sir Cloudesley 36
Oseberg 12. 13
Ostend 103
112
Troy 8
Truman, President Harry
Tshushima. Straits of 85
Shannon 66
Shimoda 74
Revenge 28
Rhodes 10
Rickover. Admiral Hyman G. 133
Riebeck. .Jan van 34
Right of Search 66
Roaring Forties 22, 46, 53
Robeck, Admiral de 96, 97
Rochefort 59
Rodney. Admiral Lord 54-5. 57, .59
Oran
137, 757
Putin-Bay 66
Pytheas 8
Resolution 43, 44
121, 131
Ontario, Lake 26
Seychelles 52, 69
Shackleton, Sir Ernest
Tsingtao 93
Redoubtable 65
Red Sea 60. 90
Repulse 118
.37
Octavian 10-11
Odysseus 8. 9
Manuel. King 22
Maoris 46. 47
Mariner's Mirror {Lucius Wagenhaer) 20
Second
10;
Shanghai 74
Rangoon
Ravenna
Ocean 96
Ochialia or Ulugh Ali
1.34
Serapis 56. 59
Serica 70
Sevastopol 122
Punts
Ramsay, Admiral
85, 122
Senegal 50
Seniavin. Admiral 122
12
Malindi 22
Malta 69. 93. 112
Mark Antony
Polosi 70
33. 122
Maine 80. 81
Malacca 22. 34. 53
Malaya 118
Manassas 78
Manchuria 84,
Manhattan 72
50,
70
Thucydides 8
Thule 138
Tientsin 74
Tierra del Fuego 33, 136
Ting, Admiral 84
Tirpitz,
93.
Tobago 69
Tokyo
92,
Yalu River
i:)4
Yamamoto, Admiral
96
Togo, Admiral
Xerxes 9
84, 84, 85
1,38
118, 120
Yokosuka
Yorktown
55
Yorklown,
USS
Zara
131
1'20,
121
18
Zeebrugge
103, 104
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(1970) and Nelson and Sea Power (1973). A Fellow of the Rnvtil
Geographic Society and former Vice President of both The Naw
Records Society and The Society for Nautical Research. Professor
Lloyd IS uniquely qualified for the presentation of maritime
history
in this new and fascinating way.
ISBN
0-668-03779-2
Printed in
Germany
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