PHILOSOPHY

OF
HISTORY

HISTORY

OF

ESPECIAL

WITH

THE

FORMATION

KEFERENCB

TO

DEVELOPMENT

AND

PROBLEMS

PHILOSOPHY

OF

CONCEPTIONS

AND

BY

W.

DR.
Peofebsoe

of

WINDELBAND

Philosophy

in

AUTHORISED

Professor

Univeesity

Steassbueg

op

TRANSLATION

JAMES
Assistant

the

H.
op

TUFTS,

Philosophy

MACMILLAN

in

the

AND
AND

LONDON

1893

All

rights reserved

BY

Ph.D.
University

CO.

of

Chicago

ITS

COPTEIGHT,

By

1893,

MACMILLAN

AND

Norluoolr

J.

S.

Gushing

"

^am

Co.
"

Boston,

Mass.,

CO.

Berwick

U.S.A.

"

Smith.

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Preface.

WINDELBAND.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.
PAGE

"

1.

Name

and

"

2.

The

History

"

Philosophy

Philosophy

of

Philosophy

of

Division

3.

of

Conception

of its

and

History

PART

."^*THE

18

I.
OF

PHILOSOPHY

THE

GREEKS.

'

23

Introduction
I.

Chapter
4.

"

"

5.

"

6.

Conceptions

of

Conceptions

of the

Conceptions

of

H.

Chapter

Period

Cosmolo'gical

The

The

27

Being

31

Cosmic

Processes

Cognition

or

Becoming

47
...

57

Period

Anthropologicai,

66

"

7.

The

Problem

of

Morality

72

"

8.

The

Problem

of

Science

87

Chapter

"

HI.
9.

Period

Systematic

The

grounded

Metaphysics

99

by Epistemology

anew

and

Ethics

104
.

System

of

Materialism

109

The

System

of

Idealism

116

12.

The

Aristotelian

13.

The

System

" 10.

The

"

11.

"
"

of

Logic

132
139

Development

II.

PART

PHILOSOPHY.

HELLENISTIC-KOMAN

THE
Intboduction
Chapter

155
I.

Ethical

The

"

14.

The

"

15.

Mechanism

"

16.

The

Ideal

of

159

Period
the

and

163

Man

178

Teleology
of

Freedom

Wise

the

and

Will

the

Perfection

of

the

verse
Uni190

...

"

17.

The

Criteria

of

Truth

197

xi

xii

Contents.
PAGE

Chaptkk

II.

The

Keligioub

" 18.

Authority

and

" 19.
"20.

Spiritand

Matter

21.

"

God

and

the

The

Problem

^^^

Period

^^^

Revelation

-229
-235

World
of

the

World's

255

History

PART
THE

"

III.

PHILOSOPHY

OF

AGES.

MIDDLE

THE
'.

Introduction

263

I.

Chapter

"

22.

The

"

23.

The

" 24.

The

Chapter

II.

First

Period

270

Metaphysics of Inner Experience

Controversyover Universals
Dualism
of Body and Soul
Second

276
287
301

Period

.310

" 25.

The

Realm

" 26.

The

Primacy

of

the

" 27.

The

Problem

of

Individuality

Nature

of

and

the

Realm

of Grace

318

....

Will

of the InteUect

or

PART
THE

PHILOSOPHY

328

337

IV.
OF

THE

RENAISSANCE.

Introduction
.

Chapter

I.

The

Humanistic

"

28.

The

"

29.

Macrocosm

Chapter

II.

Strugglebetween

The

and

348

Period

352

the

357

Traditions

Microcosm

Natural

3gg

Science

Period
....

"

30.

The

Problem

" 31.

Substance

" 32.

Natural

of Method

and

ggg

Right
.

PART
PHILOSOPHY

OF

378
333

Causality
"

THE

4^5

V.
THE

ENLIGHTENMENT.

Introduction
437

Chapter

" 33.

I.

Theoretical

Innate

Questions

447

Ideas
449

"

3-t.

Knowledge of

"

35.

Natural

the External

World

466

Religion
486

xiii

Contents.

PAGB

Chapter

Practical

II.

36.

The

Principles

" 37.

The

Problem

"

500

Questions

Morals

of

502

Civilisation

of

PART

VI.

GERMAN

THE

518

"
.

PHILOSOPHY.

529

Introduction

I.

Chapter

Critique

Kant's

"

38.

The

Object

of

"

39.

The

Categorical

"

40.

Natural

op

582

Reason

the

537

Knowledge

551

Imperative

Purposiveness

559

'.
.

H.

Chapter

The

Development

"

41.

The

Thing-in-itself

"

42.

The

System

"

43.

The

Metaphysics

of

op

568

590

Reason

615

Irrational

the

of

OF

PHILOSOPHY

Idealism

573

VII.

PART

THE

THE

CENTURY.

NINETEENTH

623

Introduction
.

...

" 44.

"

45.

The
Nature

Controversy
and

about

History

the

Soul

630
636

HISTORY

OF

PHILOSOPHY.
oVUo

INTRODUCTION.

The

" 1.
E.

Haym,
Bd.

W.

Art.

[A. Seth,
T.

Art.

Praeludien

(Freiburg

have

Griiber's

i.

B., 1884),

FMlosopliy.
III.

Encyclopddie,

Abth.,

have

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to

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and

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it, have

and

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common

But

1891.]

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that

widely

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relating

entered

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Brit.'\

usage

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common

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1871.]

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; Lysis,

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be

II.
202

the

recognised,

the

fixed

significance

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Geschichte

of Philosophy,
40
E

ff.

and

der
trans,

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time

particularly

History

Symp.

same

of

Socrates,

Grundriss

Thucydides,
A

the

at

still

may

TJeberweg-Heinze,

.30 and

29

wisdom,"

Aristotle,

trans.

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and

detail

Herodotus,

Plato,

in

"

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Enc.

to

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in

Introduction

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the

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Philosophie

Philosophy

Ladd,

By
of

and

24.

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[G.

Name

also

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by
even

G.

S.

in

Introduction.

ing

which

to

it

denotes

Wissenschaft."^

"

which

that

is

"

work
"

in which

With

the

for

made

aim,
Thus

and

for

meaning

names

with

conviction

for

and

serve

to

one,

and

2
3

been

mathematics

to

remained
from

the

and

which

science

in

the

as

we

of

those

which

are

used

the

it is

"

science

this

well

beginner
science

is of

much

Cf.

The

of

which
that
is

not

"science

"

one

passage

{Met.

I.

6, 987

St

I.
below,
''""'"'' '''

theoS"'

from
been

be

"of

fXweM

value

Beinc

and

lost."

than
compass
"
"science

of

the

and

should

such"

as

praot
iilnral

be

1
"'

alahist
the

over

the

such

science " will be

has.
If it should

often

may
18

29) he annlies

systems of science which

have
speak of the philosophies of

edge
knowl-

scientific thought

science, it

efforts

nated
finallyculmi-

words

"natural

alone

philosophy and
ali of

the

of

name

human

which

greater

[In this translation

larger sense.
The
term

the^'tLi\\nrrnf
8^'
"leSX-"J:
6

possessed from

"

meaning

natural

known

all the

scientific

results

life,and

different
should

the

passed

kept

general.'

to

general

direction

had

they

attached
most

medicine

Metaphysics) as "First
Philosophy"
phi osophies," and
further
distinguishes
theoretical

to

or

the

by

interest

by Neo-Platonism)to create
religionto replace the old that had

new

narrower

remind

In

received

prepared

so-caled

phy."

an

"

Plato, Bep. 480 B ; Aristotle,Met. VI. 1, 1026 a

Plato, ThecEt. USD.
Aristotle sets the doctrine

ater
"

"

that

as

scientific
principles,''

upon

already

independence

for the

French

the

period

attempt (made

conception

scientific
used

2), but

philosophy

change, purely theoretical

relation

win

to

philosophy

had

more

appear

of

Hellenistic

only

and
I. ch.

life

content

of life,based

science, while

hoped
in the

of

not

more

Part

ethical

in part assumed
now
particular philosophies,"which
of their specialsubjects of research, historical or belonging

beginning

English

tasks

conduct

main

the

way

this

philosophy, however,

the

in

the

rigorously that

and

Greek

and

This

disintegration.

right

of

religious

naive

"

philosophy

"

"

natural

which

word

development

vocation

the

art

an

of

consequence
to the

in

which

the

of

finally as
of

the

of

Socrates.

Sophists and

the

gated
investi-

be

to

are

investigation(of.below,

philosophy

practical meaning

more

ences
particularsci-

the

are

know

to

are

we

existent

the

The

when

man's

to

as

instruction

science.

to

of

associated.

process

scientific

essential

the

which

general^

in

philosophy

"

philosophies

wordi

German

the

as

meaning

meaning

time

in

was

questions

important

over

the

at

came

consciousness

In

"

realms

early

very

philosophy

same

thought, through

first theoretical

was

made

to this

; individual

individual

this

second

of

the

known.*

and

also

According

methodical

is the

exactly

cal

"

if

Cthe
other

nhiloso
I,
^

^
Itnrit^V''''*
'"

pfchtt
Heget
tc'

^'''-

""""'

^'^

^^^-

^^-

'^'^ -"^

^"^

Part

'^''^^''' ^^'^'^

P-*-

to

have

philosophy called

Introduction.

had

antiquity
foundation
was

for

conviction

of the

able

to

that

it

and

right
and

from

and

of

duty
this

this

like

meet

to

philosophyof

task, the

regard
rule

positionof insight to

it alone.

it its

Greeks, considered

the

with

men

this

to

of

that

at least

or

the

to

the

of

nature

the

life of

things,

individual

society.

shaken
philosophy was
by Kant,
positionof self-security
demonstrated
the impossibilityof a philosophical (i.e. metar

In

this

who

beside
physical) knowledge of the world
more
once
sciences,and thereby restricted
task

philosophy ;

of

after

for

by

Season

which
than

that

Kant

only to be
knowing.

of

called

in the
be

is,to

sure,

had

the

his

won

function

cosmical

realm

of

far from

this

that

decisive

philosophy,

activities

of

other

united

what

philosophy,
"

apparently final

conception of philosophy gained universal

acceptance at once.
the case
that the great variety of philosophicalmovements
rather
nineteenth

'

"

left

and

that

even

brought back,

peated,
need

has

century

luxuriant

in

knowledge

all human

earlier

no

form

development

for

time,

the

philosophy, and

of

the

insight,and

be

and

new

and

critical consideration

conception
of life.

individual

conception

could

practicaldirection
true

the

systematicallyto

this

or

above

or

just that

to

Kant

With

of

quitclaim the

extended

universal

the

its vocation
It

which

from
of itself,

needed

this

narrowed

particular science,was

as

the

ion
relig-

life,where

of human

need,

equal

was

enlighten

to

and

scientific insignt

from

supply

world

meet

eighteenth century,

the

it, to

to

theory

longer

no

the

In

assigned

of

It is
of

philosophy

the

"metaphysical

inclination

to swallow

this

complete

unre-

again

up
as

an

all-embracing science.
2.
word

view

In

of these

"philosophy
to

historical

the

claim

the
this

to

passed
gain

to

the

all

of

those
Even

name.

the

types

of

Critique of Pure
Schopenhauer,
Instead

Season,
as

A.
Will

the
of

course

those

it

of

mental

the subordination

839
and

is

place a

; B.

of

forward

questionable

one-sided

for

this

activitywhich
philosophyunder
in

the

emphasis

case

the

on

866.

Idea, Vol.

II

oh

17

of

particular conceptibns it is sufficient here

criticising
widely diyergmg formulas in which
the attempt has been
made
impossible
of

practicable
im-

seems

point

to
to

to

perform

such"
thele
concTptioS
C vieldS
'
appl/with
Snce tfthe
i"ie"

task:

of., for example, only the introductions

to works
IJeberweg, Kuno
Fischer,Zeller,etc.
All
thus
determined
apply only in so far as the historyof
phUoswhv
the result which
they express, but they do not
^^
'
j-oicieui.e
lo
tions
hv
nh
InarvniioTO
expressed
the
tions expressed by the philosophersthemselves.
fv,o"""i
those

of the

meaning

time,

brought

structures

teaching which

World

which

general conception of pJiilosophyfrom

None

comparison.
to

through
in

general conception "science"

more

of those

mutations

has

pretend

purpose' apply
lay

"

Brdmann,

"

xne

mien-

Name

" !"]

and

Conceptionof Philosophy.

practicalsignificance of
the

subject-matterand

science, in
from
is

the

The

the

of

science

form

interest

for

philosophy, then

in its scope,

and

do

History,

the

on

other

not

has

in

which

MYAah.

philosophy
the

and

in

the

centre

sole
cluded
in-

are

modern

object of
as

ous.
vari-

extremely

are

it until

an

aside

even

long period

emerged

investigation relativelylate
doctrines, again,

For

special

first almost

at

for

remained

and

it

from

separate

has

hand,

philosophicalsystems,

most

limit

define

we

as

cases.

standpoint for
to

can

considered

for all

good

attempts

of natural

still less

'

philosophy

revived

science,"the

problems

objects of

doctrine

shall hold

primitive or

universal

form

that

way

their

times.

indifference

to

sophical
object of philo-

an

isolated

physical
Meta-

cases.

philosophy is
side at important turningusually sought, we see either pushed one
to be entirelyimpossible
if at
points in history or declared
; and
times
the abilityof philosophy to determine
the life of the individual
of societyis emphasised, a proud standpoint of
or
pure theory
of

'

has

renounced

side

subjectsas

same

another

method

historical

the

; but

occupation.*

it has
other

neither

such

would
method

This

of

course

were

is, however,

so

philosophers imprint
disciplines,
e.g. of mathematics
will

have

nothing

their problems, and

the

creations

3.

From

no

fixed

is

ble of
itself
more

of
these

definition
the

as

universal

less

or

So in the

As
This

for
is

the

is

be

objectionif only the

no

such

no

being

from
their
of

or

the

do

science

the

of

case

the

by

form

torical
his-

endeavour

all

of

methodical

philosophicactivityas

phies.
philoso-

that

method

investigation
with

of

acknowledged

far
on

and

sense

specificcharacteristic

characteristic

in
of

fact
other

nature,*while
treatment

of

analogous

to

art.

for all

is
to

explained also
the other

history.

science, the

of the

case

Chr. Wolf

; cf

especially the

other

the

fact

that

is capar

sciences,which

Where
sciences

there

philosophy presents
only as its
appear

majority of the philosophers of later antiquity.

his Logica, "" 29 ff.
science
where
case
philosophy is regarded solely as
"

Cf., e.g., W.

French

at

the

philosophy
analyse
E.g. with Plotinus.

So Descartes

So, for example, in the

and

Hamilton

close of the

in another

treats

distinctlyseparated parts.^ Where, on the contrary,

assigned the task of grasping the results of the par-

of cognition."

Among

philosophy

there

of philosophy
valid

that

constant

circumstances

relation

philosophyis

genius in

this

at all to

regard

claimed

sciences,but
has

many

others

been

universality. That

method
after

menial

still another

From
the

such

de

in

his

notes

eighteenth

Ventendement

Bacon.

Hegelian system.

and

humain.

to

the

Keid's

works,

beginning

of

II. 808.
this

tury,
cen-

Introduction.

into

in their

sciences

ticular

first

the

in

relations:

peculiarly complex

world,

of the

comprehensive knowledge

have

we

place,

of insight
philosophy npon the existing condition
dependence which expresses
-a
disciplines

;i

sciences

individual

by

opposite direction,when philosophy

action is
This
particularsciences.
according

for their

factors
its

solution,by

the

if it wishes

has

what

of philosophy
its relation

other

furnish

to

to

to

been

the other

said

activities

of

civilisation
For

sciences.

the

the

or

ticular
par-

made
the

in

work

the

of

principally

advances

of

the,

hindrance,

as

questions embraced
of

range

presents

results,dangerous.^
farther, that
it is evident

individual

the

itself

results,appears

like

to

valuable

contributes

times

other

at

if it leads

duplicationwhich,

From

of

resuit,

influence

help

as

of its wider

means

unity,^but

toward

tendency
a

as

felt

particular disciplines sometimes

the

under

part

takes

treatment
philosophical

the

as

reached

place, an

next

the

in

the

as

dependence

prominent

the

philosophy by

of

furtherance

in the

them

harmonising

and
generalsignificance,

no

are

vision

and

itself

only
useless,or

the

relations

less close than

conceptions arising

the life of the

religiousand ethical and artistic life,from
their way
of society,force
everywhere, side by side with
state and
into the idea of the
scientific investigation,
from
the results
won
the

from

; and

frame

the

which

universe

the

of

philosophy

reason's

( Werthbestimmungen) and
place in that idea the more

valuations

judgment demand
ously,just in proportion as
of

aims

metaphysical tendencies

their

the

it is to become

basis for the

to

ards
stand-

vigor,

practical

significanceof philosophy. In this way humanity's convictions and

its
find
their expression in philosophy side by side with
ideals
and ideals are regarded,
intellectual insights; and if these convictions
erroneously often, as gaining thereby
they
and

may

receive

modification

under

by

It is not
and

social

science
Greece

As

mechanics

was

from

the

gence,
scientific intelli-

of

circumstances
Thus

means.

is not

form

only

that

this

of

fication
clari-

valuable

also

relation

receiving,but

of

also

-in external
also the mutations
position
to consider
that
he assumed
It may
philosophy has experienced.
the first,
with
few
pursued in
exceptions (Socrates),
perhaps a
the form
schools.*
The
fact that these, even
at a later time, had

without

relations

in closed

certain

this

philosophy to general culture

that of giving.

the

interest
which

Influence
those

of
of

astronomy

upon

the

beginnings

of

Greek,

or

that

of

modern, philosophy.
in this relation
theology of the nineteenth
century stands
to German
philosophy.
8 Cf.
the opposition of natural
science
to Schelling'sphilosophy of nature.
* H.
Me
dltesten
Diels, Ueher
in Philos.
Philosophenschulen der Oriechen
Juhiiaum
Aufsatze
E. Zeller's,Leips. 1887, pp. 241 ft.
zum
2

The

upon
Protestant

Name

" 1-J
of societies
"

and

Conceptionof Philosophy.

with

in itself alone, in view

not
of the religious
religiouslaws ' would
Greek
judicial institutions, prove
a
religious origin of these
that Greek
science
worked
out its contents
schools, but the circumstance
directly
from, religious ideas, and
that
certain
connections
with
religious cults present
themselves
of directions,^makps it not
unmistakably in a number
improbable
that
the scientific
societies
originally from
religious unions
sprang
(the Mysteries)
character

of

and

all

continued

life had

in

developed

certain

ideal

common

of the

conduct

of

them.

independence,

and
founded
purely scientific schools were
of importance, shared
guidance of persons
exposition,defence, and polemic,^ and at
a

with

connection

complete

to

free

as

with
the

Such

neither

way,

Cicero, Seneca,

were

antiquity

the

were

ties

Pythagoreanism and
the Romanic
Among
unlike

that

in the

in the

train

of

of

Marcus

the

the

time

who,

men

the
had

work

of

research,

ethical

an

tific
scien-

fell away
under
the

bond

in

life.

members

and

of

other

same

when

connections

unions

each

of the larger relations

With
the advent
of life in the
period, these unions
naturally became
loosened, and we
the
who
active
in the
are
Romans,
especially among

purely individual

But

these

school

Aurelius.

schools

drawn

Not
more

Hellenistic

and

Roman

frequently meet writers,

field of philosophy in a
nor
professional teachers.
until the latest period of
closely again, as in Neo-

Neo-Platonism.
and

ancient

Germanic
world.

of the Church

The

civilisation

peoples

the

science

of

; it has

of events

course

the

its seats

Middle

Ages

has

been

also

not

appears

in the

cloister-schools,and
is stimulated
toward
independent development primarily by questions of religious
In it, too, the oppositions of various
minicans
interest.
religiousorders, such as the Doand
themselves
for a time, and
the
freer
Franciscans, assert
even
scientific

associations
of which
the universities
out
gradually developed, had
there
originally a religious background and an ecclesiastical
stamp.* Hence
trine
docto Church
was
always but a slight degree of independence with reference
in this corporate philosophy of the universities, and
this held true
into
on
the eighteenth century
for the
Protestant
universities
also, in the foundation
and
ecclesiastical
and
development of which
religiousinterests had a, foremost
place.
On

the

other

but

men

cobbler,

letters

and

accord

with

which

it is characteristic

hand,

of

the

"World-wisdom"

or

secular

gaining its independence at the beginning of the modern

of the schools,
those
who
bring and support it are not at all men
of the world
and
of life.
An
escaped monk, a state-chancellor, a
of
nobleman,
a proscribed Jew, a learned
diplomat, independent men
of modem
journalists, these are the founders
philosophy, and in

philosophy
period, that

was

"

work

this, their

takes

for

its outer

form

not

the

text-book

or

the

literaryproduction, the essay.

Not
until
the
second
half of the
eighteenth century did philosophy again
This
took
become
in the universities.
place first
corporate, and domesticated
afforded
in Germany,
conditions
where
the most
favourable
were
by the rising
fruitful
a
independence of the universities, and where
interchange between
beneficial
teachers
to
and
students
of the
philosophy also.'
university was
deposit of

academical

disputations,but

the

free

IV.
v.
Karystos
Wilamowitz-Mollendorf,
(Philol.Stud.
Antigonos von
Berlin, 1881, pp. 263 ff.).
2 The
Pythagoreans, as is well known, offer a pre-eminent example of this ;
but sympathies with
the Apollo cultus are
plain enough in the Platonic Academy
Heraclitus
Pfleiderer
has lately sought to bring the apparently isolated
also.
into
Heraklit
with
connection
the
von
Ephesus.
Mysteries (E. Pfleiderer,
Berlin, 1886).
' Cf.
im
H. Usener,
Uebei- die Organisation der wissenschaftlichen Arbeit
and E. Heitz, Die PhiloAlterthum
(Preuss. Jahrb., Jahrg. LIII., 1884, pp. 1 ff.),
sophenschulen Athens
(Deutsche Revue, 1884, pp. 326 ff.).
^

Cf

G.
.

Kaufmann,

Geschichte

der

deutschen

Universitdten

I. pp.

98

ft.

(Stuttg.

1888).
=

Schelling has
activityof

in the

akademischen
pp.

223

ff.).

erected
German

Sttuliums

the

finest monument

to the

ideal

conception

(2. and

of science

des
iiber die Methode
Vorlesungen
Vol.
I. Abth.,
6,
3. Vorlesung. Ges.
Werke,

universities, in his

'

Introduction.

From

it may
be

spread

this

Germany

said

be

nineteenth

in the

that

sought in the universities. ^

lu conclusion, the share
of the various

of

seat

century

the

peoples

in the

Italy,and

and

Scotland, England, France,

to

tiallyto

development
,

in
is

philosopny
,

ot

eral
gen-

easen-

"i,:i"","i
Pnuoso|

of European
culture,
developments
structure
of
the
and
primitive
created
it,
with
Greeks
so
philosophy, -the
essential basis of the
an
to-day
still
is
due
to
their
creative
activity
philosophy
and
peoples of Hel enism
science.
added
in antiquity by the mixed
What
was
form
and
than
a
special
more
to
does not, in general, amount
by the Romans
which
the religiousturn
in
Only
practical adaptation of the Greek philosophy.
find something essendo we
this last movement
took
(cf. below. Part II. ch. 2)
diHerences
the
national
in
of
which
from
the harmonising
tially new
sprang
also international,
was
Middle
Ages
Roman
of
the
The
scientific culture
Empire.
deserves

phy

is

as

in

implied

modern

of

as

maintain

Portugal, the
the

decisive

philosophy.

entirely

in

The

The

varied

more

the

to be

seems

For

also

anecdotal

opinions
motive

1.

At

and

possibly serve

of

"

interest

in

nature

the permanent

as

science.

the

but

common

this

whole

all these

least,however

at

the
many

problems

and

the

more

tent
con-

question

of

there

name.

ous
diversity of variperhaps formerly the

of

centre

field of

stimulated

of

many

the

the

which

checkered

that

history of philosophythan
with

For

almost

noticeable,if anywhere,

is

between

and

kind,

all events, however, it is clear

with

period,of

uniting in historical investigar

not
are
thought which
only so

in

in

'the

time,

things, which
was
History of Philosophy,"

strange

and

in

of

difEerent

the

by

various

on

of

remarkable

assumed

be

can

ultimately nothing

the

chief

so

independence

course

and] exposition products

but

Spain

classical

the

in

in

first movements

the

History of Philosophy.

the

there

meaning

with

Swedes.

the

character

in

philosophy

manifold,

the

" 2.

supply

nations, the rest stand

four

these
certain

; a

among

independently

highest point

its
with

time

recent

rises,what
tion

Compared

receptive attitude

more

of

reached

of

traditions

the

most
vigorously and
Italians, Germans,
English, and French
which

is

first present
mediaeval
ticism
scholas-

particularnations

of

While

influence.

It

language.

Latin

the

of

employment
special characters

themselves

German

in

the

all

with

As

universal
that

science

new

mention.

the

philosophy

themselves

of

brief

these

genuine
the
with

research

variations

too

views,

by

the

cannot

pline.
scientific disci-

case

stands

that

of any

remains
to which

wise
otherother

fixed,on
its

extent,

with
and its limitation
separation from a still more
general field,
tory.
of hisreference
be subject in the course
to neighbouring fields,
may
In such
there
in tracing the developis no
a case
ment
difficulty

its

of
way,
the

knowledge
in

and
natural

This

consequences

it

field

which

can

be

determined

in

this

as
just those variations
intelligible
this development of insight.

eventually making

relation

made
upon
by lack of

over

is

so

proved

success.

of

influential,that the poisonous attacks which Schopenhauer

irritated
ultimately only the attacks of a Privatdocent

to be

The

" 2.]

History of Philosophy.

Quite otherwise,however,
such

no

subject-mattercommon
therefore,sets forth no
to

methodical

sure

which

rule

is

beginning,

solve
had

its

that
the

while

each

after

of

the

soon

their

from

the

gradual approximation

or

it has

sciences,a quiet

ing
build-

gained
they have once
a
rhapsodical beginnings,
"

time

time

to

is

ah

by

what

has

new

it is the

been

already

philosophy begins
if the

as

ovo,

sudden

There

true.

of

systems

problem

tory,"
his-

"

as

reverse

great

formulated

newly

in other

gratefullydevelop

successors

and

periods,and

advance

has

whose

subject in question. Eather,

rule, as

philosophy

philosophy, which

of

case

all its

constant

the

footing

in

"

the
to

interrupted only

exceptionthat
achieved,

of

emphasised
knowledge is

of

up

knowledge

been

always

in

other

to

systems

scarcely existed.

2. If in

tory
spiteof all of this we are still to be able to speak of a hisof philosophy," the unity of connection, which
find neither
we
in the objects with
which
philosophers busy themselves, nor in the
problems they have set themselves, can be found only in the common
work

"

which

they have

subject-matterand
this

But

in

the

spiteof

with

purposes
which

product,

common

in

accomplished

all the

which

have

they

constitutes

the

their

variety in

worked.
of

meaning

the

history of philosophy, rests on just the changing relations which

the work
of philosophershas' sustained
in the course
of history, not
results of science
in general and of the special
only to the maturest
sciences
in particular,
activities of European
but also to the other
the project of
For was
it that philosophy had in view
civilisation.
a

general

either

scientific

in the
of

sought

role

the

of

univetsal

results

view

of

bring to
which
from

"

conscious

the

of

conceptions.

philosophy
a

striven

formulation

the

world
the

and

which
views

in

In

European
of the world

of

reach,

and

of
as

so,
the

ITie

humanity

would

generalising

win

hension
compre-

she

edge
self-knowl-

was

labouring

and

principlesin

forms

necessary

it that

was

reason's

made
that

was

to

its

direction

some

to

she

these
and to transfer
activity,
perceptions,feelings,and impulses, into

of

in life ; and

disclosed.

field she

always

conception

constitution

step by step

her

manifests

original form
has

of

result

reason

as

or

expression the

human

their

that

the

goal,

science, or

the

life which

highest values of will

clearlydefined limitation

universe, which

the

she
special sciences,
should
give a complete expression to
it finallythat with
and feeling,or was
a

of

the

her

of

knowledge

over

and
more

in

some

or

less

these

every

field,

immediately given in
tory,
efforts have
passed into hisand
spirituallife have been

History of Philosophy
embodied

its judgments

extensive

material

the

mental

has

fashion

in

of life.

is the process

in

conceptions its
scientific

Introduction.

10
It is this

themselves

present

intellectual creations -which

all the

of

fruit

common

to

gives

alone

"philosophies,"which

as

the

its content, its problem,

history of philosophy as a genuine science
why a knowledge of
its justification.
and
This, too, is the reason
requirement, not only for
the history of philosophy is a necessary

how
in

life

every-day

judge

the

The

the

beginnings

works

Such

the
most

by

collections

and

of

material

historical

of their
the development
previously brought forward.

preparing for

of
purpose
examination

dialectical
of

particular

all,

the historical
history of philosophy are to be sought in
of antiquity, especially
schools
of
the
great
lost)
part
in the
examples given by Aristotle,'
As
see
we
may

critical

the

we

sciences, think

the

in

as

in which

experience.

our

School.

had

views

of

(forthe

Peripatetic

these
own

of

world

compositions

well

as

coined,

been

have

for it teaches

whatever;

all culture

scholarlyeducation, but for

forms
the conceptions and

all

views

planned

were

for

the

fields of

various

side by side with

in this way
doxographies ^ in philosophy arose
physios, etc.
histories of particular disciplines,such as mathematics,
astronomy,
later declined,
inclination
and
thought
As
for
philosophic
independent
power
this literature
mingled
degenerated into a learned scrap-book work, in which were
anecdotes
from
the lives of the philosophers, individual
epigrammatic sayings,

science, and

sketches

and

Those
the

of their

doctrines.

expositions belonging

remains

of ancient

tradition

to
had

period

modem

the

this

which

based

were

upon
of ties.
curiosi-

of collections

character

same

Brucker't
s* reproduction
of Diogenes Laertius, and
were
Stanley''
in use
of the sources
Only with time do we find critical discernment
unprejudiced apprehension of the historical
{Buhle,^ Falleborn^'), a more
doctrines
significanceof individual
( Tiedemann,"' Degerando *),and systematic
criticism
of these upon
the basis
of the new
standpoint (^Tennemann,^ Fries,'^''
Such

works.*

and

Schleiermacher^^)
.

through Hegel
independent science, for

It was,
made
an

however,

E.g.

More

Th.

J. J.

in the

Stanley,

tutiones
"

J.

Brucker,
Hiatorioe

G.

Buhle,

G.

G.

the

history

the

discovered

the

of

philosophy was
point that

essential

first
the

Metaphysics.

below.

History of Philosophy. Loud. 1685.

5 vols. Leips. 1742 ff. InstiCritica Philosophic.
Philosophioe.
Leips. 1747.
Lehrbuch
der Geschichte
der Philosophie. 8 vols.
Gottingen,
The.

Historia

D.

1791

FUlleborn, Beitrage
1791

ZuUichau,
'

of

these

on

that

he

ff.

1796
*

beginning

in detail

zur

Geschichte

12

Philosophie.

der

Studien.

ff.

Tiedemann,

Geist

der

Speculativen Philosophie.

Marburg,

vols.

ff.

des
Gfirando, Histoire
Comparee
Systemes de Philosophie. 2d ed. in
Paris, 1822 f.
^ W.
G. Tennemann,
der
Geschichte
Leips. 1798 ft.
Philosophie. 11 vols.
Grundriss
der
UnterricM.
Geschichte
der
aJcademischen
Philosophie fur den
*

De

4 vols.

Leips.

1812.

i"

J. Fr.

Fr.

[Eng.

183.3

trans.

Fries, Geschichte

der

and

1852.]
Philosophie.

2 vols.

Halle,

1837

ff.

his literary remains

Philosophie, from
in the Coll. Works.
III. Abth., 4 Bd., 1 Th.
Berlin, 1839.
12 Cf.
the introductions
of the Phdnomenologie
on
des Geistes, of the lectures
the Philosophy of History, and
those
the History of Philosophy.
Ges. Werke,
on
Bd. II. pp. 62 ff.;IX. pp. 11 ff.; XIII.
In Hegel's works
the Geschichte
pp. 11-134.
der Philosophie, edited
from
his lectures
Michelet,
occupies Vols. XIII.-XV.
by
Berlin, 1833-36.
the History of Philosophy,
[Lectures on
by G. W.
Hegel,
Trans,

Schleiermacher, Geschichte

by

E.

S. Haldane

in

3 vols.

der

Vol.

I.

Lond.

1892.]

On

his

standpoint

Introduction.

12

this

logical
constraining
because

from

themselves

in all

goal

that

is

so

only

the

this

the

chief

along

constancy
impression

circles for
striving fruitlesslyin ever-repeated
the problems
that
attained, proves only this,
cannot
mind
escape.^
human
the
which
tasks

is

"

are

how

understand

we

asserting

chief lines

the

never

philosophy

of

not

that

the

it, and

upon

always

are

in the

philosophy

And

it follows

way,

same

these

case

history of philosophy,but also

repeated. Just
solution
is attempted, are
a
makes
change, which, regarded from without,

which

the

of

nature
in the

anew

problems

that

the

reflection

all rational

for

forces

and
presuppositions

real

the

contains

this material

reason

the

logical necessity in repeated

same

Hence
ress
proggive birth to another.
in the history of philosophy is,during certain periods,to be
understood
entirely pragmatically,i.e.through the internal necessity
of the thoughts and through th'fe logic of things."
instances

causes

doctrine

one

to

"

mistake

The
make

of

Hegel's mentioned
which

is effective

principal, factor.

the
"

of

factor

in

reason

It would
and

history,"

to

see

be

above, consists, then, only in his wishing to

limits, the only, or at least

to deny absolutely the
opposite
of philosophy only
doctrines
successive

within
the

in the

certain

error

true that the total content

It is rather
thoughts of individuals.
be explained only through the fact that the
philosophy can
and
in
themselves
necessities
of things assert
over
over
existing in the nature
accidental
the
the thinking of individuals, however
specialconditions of this
made
to classifyall philothese
relations
be.
On
latter may
rest the attempts
sophical
of rhythmical
establish
sort
doctrines
under
certain
to
a
types, and
2
Cousin
this basis
V.
On
brought
repetition in their historical development.
his theory of the four systems. Idealism, Sensualism,
forward
Scepticism, Mysticism
* his of the
the theological,the metaphysical,
Comte
three
too
stages,
so
August
;
instructive
the
and
interesting and in many
positive. An
ways
main
doctrines
about
the
of
particular
problems is
philosophical
grouping
in
his
d'une
Eenouvier
A.
Systimatique
afforded
Classification
Esquisse
by
which
des
Doctrines
f.). A school-book
Philosophiques (2 vols., Paris, 1885
the philosophical doctrines
according to problems and schools has been
arranges
and
S6ailles ; Histoire de la Philosophie ; les problemes et
issued by PaulJanet

confused
of

chance-

the

history

(Paris,1887).

les ecoles

the

But

4.

of

pragmatic

philosophy.

of

have

thread

very

historical

The

often

order

presented themselves,

in

shows

off in the

breaks

in
particular,
almost

which

complete

history

lems
probabsence

indeed
remain
atical
problemscience, by working with
auxiliary conceptions, which
in themselves, but which, within
certain bounds, suffice for an elaboration
of the material
of experience that meets
it is just in
But
our
practical needs.

auxiliary conceptions

these

problems of philosophy inhere.

of Pure
investigationson "The
Antinomy
' '
Reason
(Critique of Pure Season, Transcendental
Dialectic,second sec.)might
be historicallyand
der
Geschiakte
systematically extended
Windelband,
; cf. W.
1

In

this

are

also

the

results

that

the

of Kant's

Philosophie, II. 95 f.
12, p. 10.

neueren
2

way

Cf.

Note

A.

Comte,

to be
found

Gours

compared

de
as

Philosophie Positive I. 9, with

carrying out of the scheme.

the

in D'Alembert's

Discours

Preliininaire

in the

which

Vols.

Similar

V.

and

thoughts
Encyclopedie.

VI.
are

The

" 2.]
of

such

factor

receives

its

of

the

ideas
of

needs

questions

these,

now

great

intuitions

condition

materials

of

time

the

being

directions
into

; and

and

the

the

in

impulses

the

from

from

the

newly emerging
of the religious

revolutions

of

philosophy

thiir solution

movements

art, the

aside

Tor

time,

and

give philosophynew
the

contrary,
designated as the

be

for

of

conquests

those, problems

now

for the

others

The

all these

intervals,and

the

the

on

civilisation.

special sciences,the

consciousness, the
"

and

best

may

general consciousness

the

life,
political

which

history of

problems

society.
of

the

by

both

13

logical necessity. Here,

itself

asserts

contributed

factor
the

immanent

an

another

Historyof Philosophy.

interest

social

and

irregular

at

which

forces,

foreground, and

crowds

less do

they condition also

the changes which
questions and answers
of
experience in course
time.
Where
this dependence shows
itself with
especialclearness,
have
under
certain
we
circumstances
a philosophicalsystem appearing,
that

represents exactly

of itself ;
the

or

we

finding their

age

And
character

of

current

of

also

with

the

fundamental

historyof

civilisation
has

was

first

"relative

also

at

On

been

availed

culture

history of
historical

"

there

vails
pre-

or
civilisation,

right of

ence
exist-

untenable.

in

he

greater degree than before

ascribes
to the
particular

systematic meaning, owing

due
hand, the element
his successors
by
among

of it in most

of

essential

other

formulated

best
himself

the

factor

has

age

philosophicalsystems.

pragmatic
the

the

general

upon

which

time

same

the

strife of

notice

to

truth"

thought.
has

in

definite

dependence

warrants

brought

the

of

which

in themselves

thought

the

him

dialectical

the

constant

culture, which

by Hegel, although

who
Fischer,''-

the

"

of

relation

has

in

subject-matter
necessitygrowing out

structures

systems

oppositions

the

state

to

the

knowledge

expression

besides

so

also

This

have

may

the

no

brilliant

to

his

to

the

Kuno

in his sition
expounfolding as the

manner

subject. He regards philosophy in its historical

makes
its development
mind, and
self-knowledge of the human
in it
by the development of the object which
as
constantly conditioned
appear
is attaining self-knowledge.
of the most
Although this applies to a number
important systems, it is yet but one of the factors involved.
which
condition the statement
The
influences
from
the history of civilisation
of an
and
solution of philosophic problems, afford an explanation in most
cases
ing
which
is of great importance for understandextremely interestingphenomenon
the historical development ; viz. the complication or
interweaving of problems.
lines
of thought, it is
For
interest
is directed
when
chieflyon certain
will
be formed
inevitable, according to psychologicallaws, that associations
based
the
between
associations
which
different
bodies
of thought,
not
are
on
in themselves
have
and
nothing to do
subject-matter,
so, that questions which
each
other
in their
with
and
made
to depend
each
blended
other become
upon
of
this is
and
often
solution.
An
example
recurring
extremely important
very
in the treatment
of theoretical
the intermingling of ethical and aesthetic interests
views
determined
men's
well-known
fact of daily life that
The
are
problems.
condithat
their
theoretical
and
their
are
inclinations,
wishes, hopes, fears,
by
of

the

progressive

"

"

Kuno

[trans,by

Fischer,
J. P.

Geschichte

Gordy,

Descartes

der

neueren

and

his

Philosophie, I. 1, Einleitung
School, N.Y. 1887].

I.-V.

Introduction.

14

ihre Beurthe^
durch
by their ethical and aesthetic judgments ( Urtheile
the
of
scale
in
their
views
universe,
lungeii'), this fact is repeated on a larger
had
been
what
that
in
pre-1
rise
philosophy
high
ahle to
so
heen
and
has even
an
epistemologic^ii
Kant)
was
proclaimed
(by
viously involuntarily practised,
postulate.

tioned

"

rooted

the

This
of life.
individualityand conduct
development of the history of philosophy
for the

that

reason

have

movement

merely

but

also for

in their
is the

peculiar

working
doctrines

own

kingdom
and

of

the

out

and

to

of their

in those

individualities,of

which

have

value

that

the

That

which

are

is shown

above-mentioned

the

tion
atten-

fluence,
in-

problems,
solutions,both

themselves,
repeated
of
history
philosophy : here, too, great personalitieshave
far-reaching and not exclusivelybenefieial influences.
It is clear

own

in

great

of

successors.

in

their

determining

furnish

details

of

leading part in
marked, independent

been

conceptions to

with

ideas

factor
so

combination

and

thinking

the

be

has

nature

selection

for the

deserves

borne

have

who

themselves

shown

whose
personalities,
not

those

individual

de-;
into

deeply

and
prevalent
logical connection
by
period, always add a particular element
in

thought

historical

the

the

so

ever

the

beliefs

general

of

formulation

who, though
personalities,

individual

that

circumstance

the

accomplished only through

conceptions are

abstract

to

all its

tracing owes

are

we

process

forms

the

and

ideas

of

velopment

their

historical

multiplicityof

variety and

of

the

Mean-wLile

5.

'

history

not

also

to

be

in the

exercised

of problems
is brought
philosophers stand, in a
much
ness
presented in the general consciousof a time, of a people, etc.
There
is no
philosophical system that is free
from
this influence
of the personality of its founder.
Hence
all philosophical
creations
of individuality,presenting in this
are
systems
semblance
rerespect a certain
with works
of art, and
such are
as
to be understood
from
the point of
view
of the personality of their founder.
The
of every philosopher's
elements
Weltanschauung grow out of the problems of realitywhich
the
are
ever
same,
and
out of the reason
it is directed
to their
as
solution,but besides this out of
the views
and
ideals
of his people and
his time
and
; the form
arrangement,
and
however, the connection
valuation which
tioned
they find in the system, are condiby his birth and
education, his activityand lot in life,his character
and
his experience.
Here, accordingly, the universalitywhich
belongs to the other
two
factors is often wanting.
In the case
of these
purely individual creations,
aesthetic charm
must
take
the place of the worth
of abiding knowledge, and
the
of many
impressiveness
of the history of philosophy
phenomena
in
fact,
rests,
of their "poetry of ideas"
only upon the magic
(Begrifsdiohtung).
In addition,then, to the
complication of problems and to the ideas determined
by fancy and feeling,which
are
already enough to lead the general consciousness
in the
astray, there are
of individuals
case
similar, but purely personal,
about

complication

by the subjective relations in which

greater degree than by the occasions

processes
of

to lend

to the

formation

We
artificiality.

cannot

and

individual

solution

fail to

of

recognise

problems
that

still

more

the

acter
char-

philosophers have often

about
gone
struggling with questions which
have
basis in reality,so that all
no
thought expended upon them was
in vain, and
in
that, on the other hand, even
connection
with the solution of real problems, unfortunate
attempts in the a
of conceptions have slipped in, which
priori construction
have
been
hindrances
rather

than

helps toward

the

issue of the

matter.

The

" 2.]
The

wonderful

of such

out
been

on

feature

multitude

the

whole

the

world

laid

viewing
this development.
6.

tasks

life,the

in

from

his

upon

result

of

the

established

available

these

that

part
of

in

the

doctrines

and

and
the

to

general

the

part

ideas

of

course

whole

to

the

the

first two

education

what

points,the

reference

the

to

genetic process

value

for

the

of

of

his

in part

(3)

from

the

total

theories

history
third

may

those

upon

of

to

individual

his time, and

his

estimate

of

philosopher we

every

of

circumstances

doctrines

in

the

precision what

the

reconstruct

of

case,

accordingly

with
to

as

the

depend

the

upon

establish

sources

facts

with
philologico-Mstorical,

To

has

history
philosophy belongs to
explained as regards their origin.

reference

With
is

and

history of philosophy

from

nature

own

consideration

the

outline

development,

his

predecessors,in

the

the

way

how

understand

general

accomplish: (1)

to

mental

such

that

philosophy remains
just this,that
complications there has yet
of universally valid
conceptions for
presents the scientific significance of

and

judging life,which

philosophers; (2)
in

of

history

"

derived

be

may

the

individual

down

Investigation in

following

in

of

and

15

History of Philosophy.

thus

philosophy

element

it is

science.
critico-pMlosophical

(a)

establish

To

and

comprehensive
greatly at different
The
the

main

works

sources

its facts

the

history

examination
times
for

of

in their

difficulties of
since

the

cases
to-day. The
tion, etc.,give rise

has

here

but

kind.
any
Renaissance

the

themselves.

here upon
a
relativelysafe footing.
well
literarytradition has become
so
no

philosophy
These

sources.

and

transparency

investigation in

of the philosophers

of

the

Since

of course
philosophy are
stand
period we
discovery of the art of printing,

For
the

sources,

fulness.

history

established

proceed to a careful
however, vary

must

of

the

and

modei-n

clear

that it offers in general

The

lished
writings which
philosophers have pubfor
the
of
research
are
throughout accessible
in which
of origina/questions of genuineness, of the time
cism
to controversies
are
extremely seldom
; a philologicalcritifield for activity,and
where
it can
enter
a narrow
(as is the

editions
of Kant's
to the different
part in reference
works), it concerns
indifferent,points. Here, too, we
solely subordinate, and in the last instance
case

in

are

tolerably sure of the completeness of the material

anything of weight is
; that
lost,or still to be expected from later publication, is scarcely to be assumed
; if
the sharpened philologicalattentiveness
of the last decades
has brought us new
material
for Spinoza, Leibniz, Kant, Maine
de Biran, the philosophical outcome
has been
of what
with
the value
was
already
only vanishing in comparison
edge,
known.
At
it has
concerned
the
most
question of supplementing our knowlof
occasional
and
The
this must
continue
to be its province.
importance
expressions in letters has been
speciallyfelt here, for these are adapted to shed
factor
in the historical
more
development of philosophy.
light on the individual
less favourably.
With
stands
the sources
of the Medioeval
Philosophy the case
existence.
These
have
still
in part (a small
be
a
to
manuscript
only
sure)
part,
valuable
service
in publishing the
rendered
V. Cousin
and
his school
have
that for this period also we
be convinced
texts, and in general we may
possess
has indeed
material, which
adequate for our
purpose.
gaps, but is on the whole
and
Jewish
On the other hand, our knowledge
of the Arabian
philosophy of the
of Western
Middle
Ages, and so of the influence of those systems on the course
Thought, is still very problematical in details ; and this is perhaps the gap most
for the history of philosophy.
sorely felt in our investigationof the sources
for Ancient
Much
still is the situation
worse
as
regards the direct sources
have
preserved, to be sure, the most
Philosophy. Of the originalworks, we

Introduction.

-^Q
important
of

later

and

the

time,

such

as

Neo-Platonists.

antiquity is lost.

of

which

ments

the

the

works

of Plato

and

Aristotlfe,
though
only the writings
those of Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch, the Church
Fathen
By far the greater part of the philosophical writings

doubtful

often

are

portion of

fundamental

the

these

even

In

in form.

stead

their

of

accident

Besides

must

we

incidental

an

these

we

have

ourselves

content
mention

in

the

with

the

writings of

frag-

extant

in a questionable form.^
has kept for us, here too often
in gaining a view
has been
attained
of the
K, nevertheless,success
ment
developof the ancient
than
that
of the medlseval,
clearer
philosophy,
presentinga
and
is scientifically
extends even
to details
picture whose
accuracy
assured, this
is due
and
not
only to the unremitting pains of philologists
philosophersin
working through their material, but also to the circumstance
that beside tHf
remains
of the original works
of the philosophers there
are
preserved also,
as
of historical records
made
in antiquity. The
secondary sources, remains
best
indeed, of these also is lost : namely, the historical works
which
from the
arose
learned collection made
by the Peripatetic and Stoic schools
at the
end
of the
fourth
and
in the third century b.c.
These
works
passed later through many
hands
before
they were
preserved for us in the extant
compilations prepared in
the Eoman
period, as in the Placita Fhilosophonim,'^ going by the name
of
Plutarch, in the writings of Sextus Empiricus,' in the DeipnosopMstce of Athenseus,* in the treatise of Diogenes Laertius, ireplfituv Soytidrav xai d-iro8eyiiirm
iv 0i\o"ro0ig ciSoKifi-qaivTav,^
Twv
in the collections
of the
Church
Fathers,and
in the notes
of the Commentators
of the latest period, such
Alexander
as
Aphrodisias,Themistius, and Simplicius. H. Diels has given an excellent and thorough
of these
treatment
of ancient
secondary sources
philosophy.
Ch-uici (Berlin, 1879).
authors

Where
hand
where

the

field of

entire
in

hand
the

condition
ancient
with

of

the

examination

transmission

of the

is

sources

philosophy,
of

critical
the

material

so

doubtful

pragmatic

is the

as

ascertainment
and

of

the

genetic

is itself doubtful

we

case

must

connection
reach

can

the

over

facts

go

For
decision

only

by taking a view of the connection

that
shall
accord
with
and
reason
psychological experience.
In these cases
it becomes
the
task of the history of
philosophy as of all history,after establishing
of operations in that which
a base
IS assured
by the sources, to proceed to ascertain
its position in those
regions
with which
tradition finds itself no
longer directlyand
surely in touch.
The

Mfin'pTtKL t^^^"?'^f

the nineteenth
'''
boast that it has
century may
fulfilled this task, to which
it was
stimulated
by Schleiermacher,
by the labours
ot H. Hitter, -whose
Geschtchte der Philosophie
(12 vols., Hamburg, 1829-531 is

Zell'er
and
phirosophy
for the ancienf
TnTof
FTrXT'^^^'f'i-^''^'"^?
T E. Erdmann
of J.
and
Kuno
Fischer
for the
modern.
the
Among
complete expositions of the historyof philosophy
by far the mTt trustworZ
and

manv

lerlescMcLa:r
PhU^A
^-'^frisF
rvds"%TfdTBeL''-mrTr"''.
An
excellent bibliographyof the entire
literature in exhaustive
completeness and

historyof philosophy

assemblinff

good

to

Lran"eS

"

te

the

foZdin

^'*""'"2'
thefthed
Mr,.!r"f^^'
"/
vf^VSfr"^^^
the 4th ed. by
hv G.S.Morris
P
s

(N.Y., 1871),contains

PMlosophy, trans, from

doesnot
additions,but of course

particular authors
notic^srfaSvirtL^'^l"^'"''."*
under
the
mentioned
exSnt IlipnPP^ philosophers. It would be desirable if they
all
fragments of the Pre-Socratics W. F.
hlfr^H"'''''O/^l^e
A
MuUach
has
are

were

as

"

'

6
*

Ed.

Bekker, Berlin,1847
Leips.1867-1869.
^A-^eineke,
Ed. Cobet, Paris,1850.

a^

The

" 2.]

History of Philosophy.

17

the general literature

bibliography of recent -works.] Under
E. Eucken, Die
Lebensanschauungen der grossen Denker

the

give

(Leips.

1890).
of facts

in the history of philosophyis either pragmatic

(logihistory of civilisation,
or
psychological, cATesponding to the

(6) Explanation
:

also

may

mentioned,

1 be

based

cal),or

which

factors

three

the

on

of these

depends

cases

have

vre

Which

thought.

above

modes

It is then

of

determining

as

explanation

is to be

state

of

with

incorrect

to

the

solely upon

of material.

forth

set

three

the

facts

make

either

the

the

one

of

movement

applied
regard to

in individual
the

sole

mission
trans-

principle

of explanation
is dominant
pragmatic method
with
those
history of philosophy the preparation for a definite system
of philosophy ; so with
Hegel and his disciples (seeabove, p. 10 f.); so from a
Herbartian
standpoint with Chr. A. Thilo, Eurze
Geschichte
der
pragmatische
Fischer
and
W.
Windelband
Fhilosophie (2 pts. ; Coethen, 1876-80). Kuno
have
emphasised in their interpretation of modem
philosophy, the importance
of considering the
and
the
history of civilisation
problems of the individual

of

The

treatment.

who

entire

in the

see

sciences.
The

which
deals
purely biographical treatment
only with successive
alities
personquite inadequate as a scientific exposition of the history of philosophy.
This
mode
of treatment
is represented in recent
time
by the treatise of G. H.
Thales
to the Present
History of Philosophy from
Lewes, The
Day (2 vols.,
is

time
of

book

1871), a

Lend.
a

the

destitute

of

all historical

Positivism

French

are

spiritof the
(Damiron, Ferraz)

historians

and

apprehension,

party composition in the

inclined

take

to

the

at

Comte.

of

same

The
this

works
form

of individual
philosophers, not losing from
separate essay-liketreatment
of .development of the whole.^
however, the course

of

sight,

diflScult task is to establish

the principlesaccording to which
most
the
of the individual
doctrines
be made
must
philosophical estimate
up.
The
history of philosophy, like all history, is a critical science ; its duty is not
and
what
is to count
only to record
explain, but also to estimate
as
progress
and fruit in the historical movement,
when
have
succeeded
in knowing
and
we
There
is no history without
this critical point of view, and
understanding this.
of a historian's
the evidence
of this point
maturity is that he is clearlyconscious
of view
of criticism ; for where
this is not the case
he proceeds in the selection
of his material
and
in his characterisation
of details
only instinctively and

(c)

The

critical

without

clear

standard.'-'

It is

understood,
a private theory of
the employment
of
with
belief

with

makes
the
in

he

that

Imbued

such

it of

it

such

the

very

sole

one

from

reverence

wisdom

of

an

an

open

estimate

to

matter

well be tempted
may
Procrustes-bed
of his system
a

deprives

of critical judgment must

philosophic conviction
;

the

criticism

to

the

the

he

attempts

all forms

stretch

; but
historical

reprimanding
epigone.*

exercised
who

philosophical truth, or who

specialsciences in which, no

of the
"

his

even

scientific universality. He

of

the

standard

the
nor

standard

value

simple

that

historian,

possesses
the customs

history, with

of course,
the

who

of

coines

doubt,

which

in

have

be

restrained

philosophy

for their

the
field

result

sure

led

that

to

this

to

be

least

ance
accord-

given

before
pass
contemplates the work

vision, will

heroes

is

not

at

to

him

it,
"

upon

of thought
by a respectful
ignorance of the

de la Philosophie Europeenne, is to be recommended

as
(3d ed., Paris, 1883).
2 This
of
of history, in the history of politicsand
applies in every domain
of
in
that
well
as
as
literature,
philosophy.
' As
of an
that the deserving author
be noticed
an
example of this it may
excellent
History of the Principles of Mechanics, Ed. Dtihring, has developed
in his Kritische
der FMlosophie
Geschichte
(3d ed., Berlin, 1878) all the caprice
criticism
of a one-sided
of the
confessional
The
like is true
passed
judgment.
der
der Philosophie (2 vols.,3d ed., Mainz,
Geschichte
by A. Stockl, Lehrbuch
a

A. "Weber,

Histoire

text-book

good

1889).
*

it was
from

It is

impossible

for
the

a
"

time

the

achievements

to

against the youthful

with
down
to look
Germany

protest enough

fashion

in

of the

present

"

upon

the

great

men

conceit
ridicule
of Greek

with
or

and

which
insult
Ger-

Introduction.

18

pronouncing sentence,

of

method

this external

with

contrast

In

place itself upon the standpoint of

history of philosophy
two
logical consistency
of which
: formal
are
the principles

Critical investigationhas
is almost

contradiction

never

these

by the

of

successors

the

always

denied, but

also

virtue

discrepancies
pragmatic explanation, for this formal
itself

The
same

such
m
a way
that
their
of
quences,
logical consewhich, only by
The
covery
disand
really irreconcilable results.
contradiction
criticism ; it frequently coincides with
is formal

to direct

lead

cism,
criti-

tntellectml

other.
with
each
thinking into agreement
that
the
form
direct
in
a
so
actually present

his

and
thing is expressly maintained
various
positions are put forward
of

and

his thinking
set of ideas, and to these
development to psychologicalnecessity,
possible for him to bring
far it has been

settle how

to

of

elements

different

scientific

certain

subjectedin its

is

and

hound,

remains

the

into

philosopher grows

Every

the

immanent

must

philosopherin question,

in

performed

been

has

criticism

and

thus

has

history

determined

problems.
it applies
point of view alone is not sufficient. As purely formal
but it gives no
criterion
of
views
philosopher,
attested
a
all
to
without
exception
of a doctrine
the philosophical
significance
the question, in what
for decision
on
done
its work
that philosophy has
just
it is often the case
For
really consists.
in themselves
be regarded as
perfect
must
means
in conceptions which
by no
their

for them

this

Yet

or

is

there

occasion

no

weightier

survey
small
than

In

in

corner,

far

so

philosophy great

history of

the

convictions, which

individual

unnoticed

remain

as

errors

our
are

truths.

all else the

before

For

to

is concerned.

historical

of

multitude

a
; while
must
oppose,

contradiction

from

free

is

question

decisive

of

the

has

what

yielded

and

universe

contribution

estimate

of

life?

to

In

conception
development of man's
the objects of study
of thought
are
history of philosophy those structures
and
maintained
themselves
sion
which
have
living as forms of apprehenpermanent

the
the

and
human
This

judgment,

of

norms

mind

has

is then

thus

the

to

come

and

the

in which

abiding

inner

of the

structure

recognition.

clear

standard, according

to

which

alone

we

can

decide

also

which

philosophers
concerning, as they often do, so
which,
various
to be regarded as properly philosophical, and
are
things
many
gation
Investifrom
the history of philosophy.
the other hand, are to be excluded
on
has
of course
the
pletely
of the sources
duty of gathering carefully and comof philosophers, and
of affording all the material for
all the doctrines
so
the history
from
their logicalcontent, or from
explaining their genesis,whether
of civilisation,
of this laborious
or from
psychological grounds ; but the purpose
work
is yet only this, that
the philosophically indifferent
be ultimately
may
overboard.
recognised as such, and the ballast then thrown
tion
selecIt is especiallytrue that this point of view
must
essentiallydetermine
gation
and presentation of material
in a text-book, which
is not to give the investibut to gather up its results.
itself,
the

among

doctrines

of

the

"

"

" 3. Division
It cannot

be

our

philosophy,for
The

of

Philosophy and
here

purpose

this could

differences
in

in

no

to

propose

case

change
The

oldest

philosophy
suspicion that

was

abusing and

man

systematic division of
torically.
universal
validityhis-

prevailin the course

determining the conception,the

that
divisions,

philosophyknew

no

possess

which

development,
subject-matterof philosophy,involve
also in the

of its History.

no

of the

cal
histori-

task, and

the

necessarilyand obviouslya,
this needs
no
especialillustration.
In later antiquity
division at all.
so

mainly the haughtiness of an ignorance which had

it
ultimatelylivingonly by the thoughts of those whom
despising.

; this
it was

was

Introduction.

20

knowledge itself is called logic (in

directed upon
luvestigation
If we
noetic.
of the word), and also sometimes
the generalsense
arises,
t^
are
occupiedwith the questionhow knowledge actually
falls in the

consideration
psycho-genetic
on

other hand,

the

ideas

our

we

set up
as

logicallaws, and

these

logicin the narrower

rise to methodology,which
as

ordering

for
developsthe prescriptions

activitywith reference
arise
which
problems,finally,

The

concerning the

be

reality to

the

to

of

limit

and

range

ends

of

questions

faculty and

it

subject-matterof

the

form

known,

systematic

the

from

knowing

man's

various

the

to

of scientific

knowledge.
relation

psychology.
standards according to whic| i

regards their worth for truth, we call

them,
designate investigationdirected upon
of these laws
gives
The application
sense.

estimated

are

or

norms

of

province

epistemologyor theory of knowledge.

Siebeck, Geschichte dar Psychologie, Vol. I. in two parts (Gotha, 1880-84),
incomplete, extending into the scholastic period.
4 vols. (Leips. 1855-70),
Abendlande,
der Logik im
K. Prantl, Geschichte
H.

brought

only

down

to

the

Renaissance.

I. "Psychologie"; It
Fhilosophie in ihrer Geschichte.
and
1877
1881).
"Logik"
(Berlin,
The History of Psychology (inprep.).]
[R. Adamson,
Die

Harms,

Fr.

problems are, in general,those which grow

far as it is determined
so
investigationof man's activity,
which
is possible,
treatment
Here, too, a psycho-genetic

by

the other
on
hand, which
discipline,
of the ethical norm
the point of view
action from
man's
is ethics or moral philosophy. By morals
{Moral)in the
the proposal and
is usually understood
sense
grounding
all ethical

precepts. Since, however,

community,
the

sense,

there

attached

the
appears

ultimate

in

so

far

as

of

meaning

practicalproblems, in
which

relate

of the
investigation
msthetics

ethics,in

or

has been
takes

the

to

as

the

introduced

we

ethical
to the

the

narrower

the
human

name

philosophyof
stitutes
society con-

religion.
the

of the word, belong

sense

ical
designate philosoph-

To

and

beautiful
end

religiouslife for its

of

last

object,not

intendingto give a science of the nature

of an investigation
with regard to man's
sense

call this

of

already mentioned.

itself
the

narrower

history,the philosophy of history

of the
since

and

ideal of

broadest

art and

nature

the

ard,
stand-

or

unfortunate

the

permanent),

also in this connection,

also those

morals

to

become

likelyto

right. Further,

or

To

are

philosophy of society (for which

sociologyseems
law

considers

reference

has

action

ends.

falls under

That

psychology.

of the

out

Practical

2.

discipline
philosophy of religion.

of art,the

century.
in

the

name

If
sense

losophy
phiof

deity,but in
religiousbehaviour,

of

the

Division

" 3.]

of Philosophyand

of its History.

Ch-undlinien
Schleiermacher,
einer Kritik
L.
works, III., Vol. I., Berlin, 1834).

Fr.

21

der

bisherigen Sittenlehre (collected

Henning, Die Primipien der
Ethik
in historischer
Entwicklung
(Berlin, 1825). lY. v. Raumer, Die geschichtliche Entwicklung
der Begriffe von
Staat, Becht,'und^Politik
(Leips., 3d
ed., 1861). E. Feuerlein, Diephilos. Sittenlehre in ihren gemiichtliohen HauptP. Janet, Histoire
de la philosophie
(2 vols., Tubingen, 1857-59).
formen
morale
et politique
(Paris, 1858). W.
Science
Whewell, History of Moral
(Edinburg, 1863). H. Sidgwick, The Methods
of Ethics, 4th ed. (Lond. and
N.Y.
author
1890). \_Outlinesof the History of Ethics, by same
(Lond. and
N.Y., 3d ed., 1892). J. Martineau, Types of Ethical
Theory (2d ed., Oxford
and
N.Y.
1886).] Th. Ziegler, Geschichte der Ethik, 2 vols, (the third not yet
appeared; Strassburg, 1881-86). K. Kostlin, Geschichte der Ethik
(only the
in
beginning, 1 vol., TCbingen, 1887). [J. Bonar, Philosophy and Economics
Belations
their Historical
(Lond. and N.Y.
1893). D. G. Ritchie, The History
of Political Philosophy (in prep.).]
R. Zimmermann,
der
Geschichte
Aesthetik
(Vienna, 1858). M. Schasler,
Geschichte
der Aesthetik
Kritische
(Berlin,1871). [B. Bosanquet, The History
tiful
1892). W. Knight, The Philosophy of the BeauofJBsthetics (Lond. and N.Y.
(an outline of the history, Edin. and N.Y. 1891). Gayley and Scott, A
biblito the Literature
Guide
of ^Esthetics, Univ. of California,is a valuable
,

v.

liography.]
Berger, Geschichte

der
Beligionsphilosophie (Berlin, 1800).
[Pfinjer,
Philosophy of Religion (Vol. I.,Edin. and N.Y. 1887).
0. Pfleiderer,The
tineau,
Philosophy of Religion, trans, by Menzies
(Lond. 1887). MarA Study of Religion (2 vols., 1888), and
Seat of Authority in Religion
tion
(1890). J. Caird, Introd. to the Philos. of Religion (1880). E. Caird, Evoluand
N.Y.
of Religion (2 vols., Lond.
1893).]
J.

History of the Christian

27ie division
that

for

current
"

philosophy
division

of

the

the

Ages

to be

The

scientific

to

as

Modern
so

on

times

modern

Philosophy.
for

history

the

politicalhistory.
the

hand,

Other

transition

of

nature

between

shifting of

the

points

the

regards

as

demands

great

Yet

favourable

other

with

usually connected
distinguishthree

the

point

side.

this,the
to

the

entire

history

following plan
and

philosophy will

of

division,in

of

detail

in
justified

manner

the

by

here

tion
exposi-

"

Philosophy

thought

to

of

the

the

death

of

the

from

Greeks:

beginnings

from

Aristotle,
"

of

about

600

of

Aristotle

to

B.C.

(2)
the

Philosophy:

Hellenistic-Boman

passing

away

from

Neo-Platonism,

of

the
from

"

death
322

B.C.

to

about

A.r".

(3)
"

and,

the

exactly illustrated

more

(1)

500

of

according

itself

to

and

consequence

be treated

either

on

for

are

is

made, equally important

be

development

and
not

are

they perhaps

must

of division

322

as

Middle

In

politicalhistory,so

in this way

made

of

historyof philosophy

Ancient, Mediaeval,

periods,
sections

the

of

from

(4)

Mediaeval
the
The

seventeenth

Philosophy

fifth to the

from

Augustine

to Nicolaus

Cusanus,

fifteenth century.

Philosophy of
century.

the Renaissance

from

the fifteenth to the

Introduction.

22

The

(5)
death

Philosophy

from

Enlightenment:

the

Locke

to

the

1689-1781.

Lessing,

of

of

"

(6)

The

German

Philosophy

from

Kant

to

Hegel

and

Herbart,
"

1781-1820.

(7)

The

Philosophy

of

the

Nineteenth

Century.

PAKT

THE

Chr.

Brandis,

A.
3

in

pts.

Same

Handbuch

Zeller,
3-5

4th,

portion

in

3d

on

Socratic

the

and

Schwegler,
ed.

L.

griechisch-romischen

Beiche.

Philosophie.

Pre-Socratic

and

the

the

Older

that

vols,

the

on

in

the

of

the

concluding

(2 vols.),

Academy,

Socrates

Stoics, Epicureans,

S.

by

exception

Schools

chiefly

und

1862-66.
and

with

and

Peripatetics

Eclecticism,

N.Y.,

vols.

[Trans.,

The

Philosophie

Berlin,

pts.
in

pts.

1879-89.

Plato

griechischen

Elder

works:

of

and

F.

AUeyne

and

J.

O.

Longmans.]

der

griechischen

Ed.

Philosophie.

K.

by

Kostlin.

3d

1882.

Treiburg,

Striimpell,

the

five

Geschichte

GREEKS.

der

Oriechen.

Leips.

and

History

Lond.

Eeichel.

der

Schools,

Sceptics,

and

romischen

ed.

as

der

Sntwickelungen

im

Aristotle

religious period,

A.

der

Philosophie

vols,

Geschichte

THE

1835-66.

Berlin,

Geschichte

Die

OF

der

NacMwirkungen

ihrer

Ed.

PHILOSOPHY

vols.

author,

I.

Geschichte

Die

der

griechischen

Philosophie.

Leips.

pts.

1854-61.

W.

Geschichte

Windelband,

Eitter

Preller,

et

Edited
of

the

[A.

W.

[J.

E.

[J.

B.

Schultess

by

der

Sistoria

philosophioe

and

important

most

Benn,

Mayor,

Greek

on

Sketch

collection

excellent

An

Lond.

Philosophy.

of Ancient

Lond.

vols.

Philosophers.

Lectures

Ferrier,

1886-88.

Gotha,

ed.

7th

In

(Grcecce}.

grceco-romance

Wellman.

1888.

sources.

Greek

The

NSrdlingen,

Philosophie.

alten

Philosophy,

1883.]
1888.]
Thales

from

Camb.

Cicero.

to

1881.]

If

by

work

science

of

sake,

own

century

B.C.,

tendencies
1

India

Even

Chinese

then

it is
that

if
rise

here

it be

weg,

to

I.

conceded

above

pronounce,

philosophy,
occasion

peoples

which
enter

the

remain

upon

them.

of

complete
The

unity
literature

" 6.
23

in

of

itself,

some

philosophy

the
that

brought

India

in

on

"

course
a

and

China

great

logic

conceptions,

is

of

those

moral

from

remote

so

of

those

from

aside

civilised

the

among

dental
inci-

above

which

of

shall

we

European
has

text-book

together

its

sixth

the

"

The

disclosed.

formation

"

forms

Orient,

the

especially

and

scientific
these

of

of

Greeks

the

science,

beginnings

the

that

moralising,
on

such

recently

particularly, only

reflections
not

the

among

find

first

we

and

Greeks,

the

among

for

methodically

knowledge

seeks

which

intelligence

self-conscious

and

independent

that

understand

we

in

Ueber-

no

The

24

peoples

earlier

of

the

universe

; but

and

needs,
remained

and,

of the

Oriental

as

development,

the

of

even

the

peculiarrestraint

the

fruitful

their

relations

and

existed

independent

giftedof

most

the time

until,at

of the national

movement

favourable

anarchy, the
position in

all

life unfettered

peoples.
which

pressing

in their

ethical

did

For

this

in

individual

trade

and

insight,and
own

Greece

their

reflection the
its

also,that

occur,

opinions asserted

their

of
the

by

in the

so-called

similar

their

duty
becoming

in

the

lyric

wise men}

seven

in which

movement,

independence, should

of

the

was

representatives

and

danger

character,find
that

it
the

morals,

prominent

men,

with

loosened

with

measure

spiritual-

brought

individualism

individual

reflection found

fail to

of

of

gnomic poets,especially,
however,
not

refinement

consciousness, of faith,and

youthful civilisation

life,their

This

the

of

development

common

more

recovering

than

increasing wealth

luxuriant

the

the

of

of constitutions

more

threatened

could

they

development
ate
passionto bring out independence of individual
judgments, and to develop the significanceof personality,

of the

It

tical
prac-

so

activityof individuals.

of this

powers

life which

more

and

mythical

in consequence

mighty upward

old bonds

lost.

natural

initiative

the

fancy,

of

struggle tended

opinions and
proved

of

grew

democratic

party

isation

of

out

mind, they lacked, for

mental

the

latter

with

in connection

gained

was

in an

control, partly of daily need, partly of religioijg,;;

was

the

mentioned,

former

Greeks, also,similar

the

Among

The

the

under

poetry

result

the

either

general views

in

single subjects,or

on

the

as

Crreeks.

not, indeed, wanting

antiquitywere

of information

abundance

the

Philosophy of

trench

upon

religiouslife

already so varied, in which the opposition betweeB*

old mystery-cults and
the sesthetie national
lated
mythology stimuthe formation
of so
special types. Already in the cosmany

the

mogonic poetry ^ the poet

myths according to his own

began

sages

poetry, and

to read

in the

coming as
of life,
the
clearlyto view.

had

dared

to

individual

portray the

fancy ;

its ethical ideals into the

reformation
ethico-religious

it did in the outer

new

content

which

form

of

life had

the

heaven

age

gods

of

of

the

of

the

the

seven

Homeric

attempted by Pythagoras,'
return

gained

to
came

the

old strictness

all the

more

whom
sages, "among
Thales, Bias, Pittacus, and Solon
Jv named
J!r while
with
regard to the rest tradition is not aweed, must not,
7i"V
T^^^^"^of Thales, be regarded
representatives of science.
Diog.
Laert.
I. 40

usually
","

are

r,

as

Plato, Protag. 343.

^f^'Z^^^"^^ '? *" ^^
;

the most
regarded
mnl;^^ff
Important of these
at the
time
of the first philosophies,
prose
but
Zrirn??i,n,fJ.^
"^T
wri?fr,"
"r^^throughout, not scientific
^SoVt
of
"cP
^y^'r
Fragments
writings collected
Sturz
as

^"i

by

"

Cf

below

at the

(Leips.1834).
opening of the first chapter

of this part.

cos-

his
his

The
such

From
to which

conditions

they
extended

knowledge
ends,

that

the

these

In

keep

the

time

and

school

the

of

Forms

the

but

knowledge

the

nal
exter-

constitutes

science
its

ing
outly-

in advance

ment.
develop-

the

of

cradles

had

wars

assumed
she

well, which

as

thait Attic

also.

the

material

stood

mental

former,

Its

completion

disinterested
the

to

crated
soil,conse-

advent
in

the

at

was

doctrine

and

work

apprehending

for

first

was

this

effect of

positiveresults
inner

had

led to the

been

extends

reached

same

reached

zeal

for

about

600

In.

action
quent
subse-

accomplished
the

imperious

in the

of those

nings,
begin-

field of

developed

be
to

seem

the

marked

to

as

time

the

all the

great systems

its consummation.

divides,therefore,into

from

tions,
concepworld.

far matured

had

construction

philosophy
Greeks

not, been

so

now

lems
prob-

thing,of

thing, of

which

this

nature

one

change might

for research

zeal

the

human

make

for

had

science

on

external

and

all

devoted

fundamental

the

need,

another

science

primarily to
out

for

cosmologiccd,which

of

stamped

Nature, and,

purely Greek
philosophy of the

scientific construction

knowledge

what

which

of

Greek

and

man's

consideration

that

had,

pure

after

the

there

what

The

the

of

study,

vigorously, and

The

the

this was

by public life

made

be to check

with

the

to

from

were

in

Persian

philosophy inward

of

upon
of

social factor.

more

freedom

as

in the

rose

of

thought,
look

its

study

first

in this

and
of

object of

demands
a

practicallife

itself,which

to

mental

it found

youthful joy

Nature,

to turn

this

of

colonies,which

in

than

with

result

The

reflection

by

Sophists;

reflection

freshness

order

Greeks

ent
independ-

place principallyin

the

attracted

connection

in
that

or

The

the

of Aristotle.

was

of

took

Athens

longer

muses,

the

conceptions.
the

born.

of religious
fluctuations

won

politicalhegemony

much

so

of

the

Nature

of

Grsecia, in Thrace,

after

only

all the

to

It

25

science

that

knowledge

Mother-country

was

together with
to

by

first

in
civilisation,

Ionia, in Magna

It

science.

was

there
of

the

questions

however,

processes,

so-called

the

the

and

limitation

parts of Greek
of

from

Nature,

the

philosophy was

name

itself

Greeks.

of science.

essence

All

fermentation

individuals, aided

of

of

of

the

gave

reflection

fancy,

PMloBophy of the

to

about

three
450

periods :
b.c.

an

half of the fifth

the second
about
which
fills out
anthropological,
the
contains
b.c.
(450-400) ; and a systematic, which
century
development of the three great systems of Greek science,those of

Democritus, Plato, and

The

history

(400-322).

instructive part of the whole

the most
forms
Greeks
the
theoretical point of view, not only because
a
foundations
the permanent
conceptions created in it have become

philosophy of the
of philosophy from

fundamental

Aristotle

Philosophy

The

26

all

for

it

because

in

thinking

Reason

formal

the

attained

Greek

the

Greeks.

promise

in

formulation

beginning,

the

at

has

philosophy

its

still

was

the

rial
mate-

relatively
and

value

typical

the

against

over

also
of

postulates

the

set

as

but

such,

remain

to

contained

sharp

especially

which,
this

In

amount.

and

thought,

presuppositions

itself,

knowledge,

of
in

of

development

further

the

of

its

small

didactic

importance.

advantages

These
entire

then

outward,
to

deeper

is,

general

located
is

of

(negative
of

Greek

Gfeschichte

Greek

positive),

or

the

"

Philosophy,
der

alten

has

is

or

the

object-matter

That,

however,
"

been

Philosophie,

this

from

with

different

5.

view

the

turned

returning

of

only

the

by

the
Author

in

great
in

Socrates

whether

on

have

Sophists

philosophising,

to
the

the

must

of

course

expositions
Whether

with

ultimately

this

to

points.

together

assigned

proved
ch.

at

regard
different

though

Democritus

and

of

point

of

first

at

whole.

placed

depends

Pre-Socratics

and

simplicity

mind

inquiring

controversy

periods

the

Enlightenment,

importance.

the

philosophy,

period,

new

any

Greek

between

begin

or

decisive
from

of

divisions

to

period

of

as

and

transparency

see

itself,

reality

scarcely

therefore,

to

us

upon
of

development

the

made

back

thrown

the

in

enable

apprehension

There
the

already

appear
which

development,

is
any

the

result

regarded

case

systematic
his

in
the

survey

be

as

rated
sepa-

period
of

the

Philosophyof

The

28

great elementary phenomena, to explain which

turned
Besides
this, interest
thought out.

the
were

its relation

the

other

hand, there

secret
those

and

experience studied

of

from
and

medical

fashion
priest-like

this

philosophy when

the

knowledge

schools,

and

as

such

(so Hippocrates),
all-embracing science, only

into

came

Geschichte

der

a
as

wliieh

medicine,

Ancient

Haser, Lehrbuch

Cf.

down

handed

was

orders

It
limited to

was

sure,

science

a
an

was

in

be

to

Cnidus.

and

Rhodes, Gyrene, Crotona, Cos,

expressly to be an art and not
with

moon,
On

"philosophy."

first

the

by

science, which,
proficiencyin the art, and

in

doctrine, guarded

contact

earth,

sun,

for

z6al

graphical
geo-

man.

of

aimed

the

the

motion.

their
of

of

objects

the

-were

stood quite far removed

information
technical

cause

indications

feeble

but

are

organic world

applied to the
Such

and

manner

chiefly to

of

nature

of

hypotheses|vi

many

form

the

as

the

heavens,

sidereal

the

to

planets,and

and

problems, such

astronomical

and

I.

[Part

Crreeks.

the

at

late

Medicin,

der

period and quite transiently.

I. (2d ed., Jena, 1875).
beside
those of
So also the beginnings of mathematics
go along independently
the impression
make
Milesians
the
to
ascribed
ancient
philosophy. The propositions
picked up and put together, rather
of individual pieces of information
are
of genuine research, and
quite out of relation with their
of results
than
the circles of the Pythagoreans,
In
and philosophy.
in natural science
doctrines
sake, to
first
at
evidently
pursued for their own
studies
were
also, mathematical
C".
of general problems.
all the more
be drawn
vigorously into the treatment
.j

G.

had

world-ground

Milesians

the

efforts of

The

I.

Mathematik,

der

Geschichte

Cantor,

in the

already

(Leips.1880).
the

determine

to

,,

of

case

of

nature

the

led

Anaximander

one

beyond

of a metaphysical conception to be
experience to the construction
science away
and thereby drew
used for explanation,viz. the aimpov,
of conceptions.
of facts to the consideration
from
the investigation
While

Xenophanes,

the

founder of
for

the

philosophicalconception of

the

which

hard

result

struggle with

ideas

that

the Eleatic

of

obscure

were

the
and

sequences
con-

from

religious consciousness
unity

the

School, drew

world, HeracUtus,

the
in

religiouslycoloured,
*
an
abiding substance,

analysed destructivelythe presuppositionof

of
and
allowed
content
only a law of change to stand as ultimate
knowledge. All the more
sharply,on the other hand, did the Eleatic
ception
School, in its great representative,
Parmenides, shape out the conof

Being

in the

which,

Very
that

had

the

thrust

antitheses.
efforts
more

were

than

hypotheses

series

in
from

In

the
the

the

aside

toward

made

in

down

foreground

been

that

regardless

followinggeneration

however,

soon,

into

anew

it reached

softened

and

by Zeno,

until

some

of

behalf

this
of

lation
formu-

defended

Melissus.

appeared, which

brought

explanatory natural

science

efforts

development
this interest

enrichment

of

School, was

only by

measure

interest in

by

of the

boldness

of

of

more

the

first metaphysical

comprehensive

knowledge ; this time,

of previous observations,questions and
case
organic and physiologicalrealms were
kept in
an

Cha?.

The

1.]
and

mind;
theories

the

CosmologicalPeriod.

attempt

between

the

made

was

opposing

29

mediate

to

with

conceptionsof

explanatory

Heraclitus

and

Par-

menides.
of

Out
side

of

these

needs

by

side,and

the

theories

the

and

about

many

reciprocalrelations,positiveand polemical,

with

arose,

of

Atomistic

of

middle

of

Anaxagoras,

Empedodes,

School

the

Abdera.

The

the

and

fifth

century,

Leucippus,

number

of

these

founder
theories

well-known

their

another
that in
one
dependence upon
prove
which
individual
and
schools
found
men
by
themselves
there
was
separated,
already a great vigour in exchange
of thought and in literaryactivity. The
pictureof this life takes
the

spite of

on

distance

much

fuller

material,

has

indicates,in

us

The

as

reflect

we

and

that

each

of

entire

truth, an

Pythagoreans, during

theory of numbers,
added

movement

league

they

of

whose

as

number

this

made

itself

conceded

of

memory

what
known

remaining

names

was

to

scientific activity.

period,occupied a peculiar
up the metaphysical problem

same

took

Heraclitus
aid

of

and

the

Eleatics, but

mathematics, and, by

their

first literaryrepresentative Philolaus

of

factors

important

most

The

thought.

the

tradition, in sifting its

the

circle of

side.
positionat one
They also
given by the opposition between
hoped to find its solution by the

known,

that

obviously preserved only

important,

most

form

originalpurpose

felt in

the

their

of

tendency

or

further

doctrines,in that, in fixing these,

their

considerable

to

is

influence

considerations

to

of

(ethical

scientific

worth.
treatment
They indeed
attempted a
sesthetic)
did
the
entire
questions as little as
philosophy of this
period,but the cosmology which they based upon their astronomical
ideas, already widely developed with the help of mathematics, is
or

of

ethical

at the

yet
Of

the

Milesian

aximenes

have

"

flourished
and

in

perished

after

time

same

the

handed

what

then

was

the

the

writings

from

curious

Xleber das

Ionic

capital

motives.
and

An-

that the school

this it appears
during the entire sixth century,

laid

was

ethical

Thales, Anaximander,

"

From

us.

and

the

by

waste

Persians

494,

in

an

old

survived

family,

merchant
the

invasion

of

is said

the

He

had

to

Persians
not

was
as

have
in

predicted

deficient

Aristotle

the

middle

the

of

matical
in mathe-

did

not

know

him.

Anaximander
a

names

to

perhaps seen
Egypt, and
So early an author
physical knowledge.

century.
and

the

sesthetic

of Lade.

from
sprung
eclipsein 585, and

sixth

three

down

which
city itself,

Thales,
solar

only

School
been

with

battle

permeated by

fragment

seems

only

to have
is

iiretpovdes A.

been

preserved.

little younger.
Cf. Neuhauser

Of his treatise

irepl"j"i"rem
BUsgen,

(Bonn, 1883).
"

(Wiesbaden, 1867).

It falls probably about

the period of Anazimenes.
remains.
nothing of his work
vepl "t"iireu"s
Aside
from
that given by Aristotle
(in the beginning of the Metaphysics) we
of the Milesians
chieflyto
information
owe
our
concerning the theories
meagre
der joiiischenPhilosthe Commentary
of Simplicius. Cf. H. Ritter, Geschichte
den altesder Metaphysik unter
ophie (Berlin,1821) ; R. Seydel, Der Fortachritt
ten jonischen Philosophen (Leips.1861)
It is difiBcult to determine

560-500.

Almost

of the

head

the

At

in its

concerned

CosmologicalPeriod.

Greeks:

The

30

generallyplaced.

is

establishment,

who

Xenophanes,

School,

Bleatio

[Part
all events

at

was

570 in Colophon,

about

Born

I.

of the Persian
conquest of Ionia, and gained a
546, in consequence
founded
by the lonians who fled into
living as wandering poet. At last,in Elea,
The fragdied after 480.
He
ments
a
permanent dwelling.
Ma^na
Grsecia, he found
collected
have
been
by
s
ayings
philosophical,
of his partlygnomic, partly
Fr. Kern
him
1864,
see
(Naumburg,
Concerning
1835).
Karsten
(Amsterdam,
and J. Freudenthal
(BresOldenburg, 1867, Danzig, 1871, Stettin, 1874 and 1877)

he

fled

in

lau, 1886).
Eleatic
an
Parmenidea,
society, wrote
Pythagorean

,,.,,.

^v

not
a
stranger to the
family, who was
The
fragments of his didactic poem
470.
about
collected by Peyron (Lelps.1810) and H. Stein (Leips.1864). [Met.
been
have
lost treatise of Zeno
(about 490^30) was
Spec. Phil, IV.] The
tr in Jour.
and
dialectically.
into
arranged
chapters
which
was
separated
probably the first
Elea.

from

He, too, came

Melissos,

the

on

contrary,
his

Concerning

in 442.

of renowned

the

was

general who

Samian

with

personalconnection

the

conquered

school

Eleatic

a^i.

^^

the

nians
Athe-

nothing

is known.
,

,.

supplemented
by
fragments of the Eleatics are m a measure
unimportant
The
others.
pseudo- Aristotelian work.
of Aristotle, Simplicius,and
the accounts
be used
which
must
Berl.
ed., 974 ft.),
Be
Zenone, Gorgia (Arist.,
Xenephone,
Melissos
of
first
the
probably
in
chapter
account
;
with
great discretion, gives an
The

second,
Gorgias.

in the

of

Heraolitus

confusedly intermingling

from

about

("the Obscure"),

Epheaus

sources,

536-470,

third,of

; in the

of Zeno

disgustedwith

the

his
was
high position which
democracy, gave up
ever-growing power
of his life,wrote
a treatise
last decade
of
the
leisure
in
tlie
and
moody
birth,
by
by the ancients, while
which
pronounced difdcult of comprehension even
was
Collected and
often
ambiguous.
it
which
are
we
the fragments of
very
possess
Cf. Fr.
and
J.
water
1877).
By
(Oxford,
edited by P. Schuster
1873)
(Leips.
{Ges.Abhand(Ges. W-, III. Abth., Bd. 2, pp. 1-146); J. Bernays
Sohleierinacher
(Berlm,
(2 Bde., Berlin, 1858); E. Pfleiderer
lungen, Bd. I., 1885); F. Lasalle
Jour. Psy., I.,1888, contains trans,
in Am.
Beraclitus
W.
T.
Patrick,
1886). [G.
of the Fr.~i
of Agrigentum,
in the history of philosophy is Empedocles
first Dorian
The
acter
much
and
regarded in his charabout
prophetic personality,
490-430, a priestly
relations
miracles.
and
worker
of
He
had,
too,
physician,
as
statesman,
of

with

Sicilian

the

familiar
poem,
Karsten

; and

the

school

besides

fragments

the

the

of orators,
of

which

of Klazomene
Anaxagoras
fifth century, in Athens,

accused

in

Lampsacus.

of

impiety

fragments
(Paris, 1843).

the
Zgvort
So
times

little is known
his very

existence

by iJemocritus

of

obliged

he
to

the

personality
doubted.

was

and

Purification) has

left

430) settled,

made

friends

leave

the

city, and

are

didactic

(Leips. 1805),

toward

with

Tisias
a

middle

the

In

Pericles.

founded

434

school

lected
(Bonn, 1829) have coltreatise, irepl (piveois. Cf. Breier
(Berlin,1840),

(Leips.1827)
his

of Korax

names

published by Sturz
(Bonn, 1852).

till after

where

and

Schaubach
of

the
of

been

Stein

(500

of the
was

which

have

(Amsterdam, 1838), and

he

of

Kadapiwl (Songs

his

The

and

of

Schorn

that
Leucippus,
great development

in

even

of

the

ancient

atomistic

its founder.
3) had
completely overshadowed
recognised with certainty in the entire structure
Parmenides.
of thought after
in Abdera,
Leucippus, if not born
yet active
of the school
there as head
out of whicli
went
later,
Protagoras and Democritus
with
have
been
must
though
Empedocles and Anaxagoras, even
contemporary
older.
Whether
he wrote
somewhat
Cf. Diels, Verh.
anything is uncertain.
Vers.
A Brieger, Die
der Stett. Philol.
(1886).
(Halle,
Urbewegung der Atome
der leucipp-demokritischen
Atome
1884); H. Liepmann, Die Mechanik
(Leips.
1885).
The
Pythagorean
Society first appeared in the cities of Magna Grsecia as
association
toward
the end of the sixth century.
Its founder
a religious-political
of
about
Samos, who, born
was
Pythagoras,
580, after long journeys, which
the aristocratic
probably led him toward
Egypt also,made
city of Crotona the
which
had for its aim
and religious
movement
starting-pointof a reform
a moral

theory
But

traces

of Atomism

(see

are

ch.

to be

"

Chap.

Conceptionsof Being.

1, " 4.]

31

first apprised of the internal

are
of the society
purification. We
relations
through subsequent narratives
(Jamblichus, De Vita Pythagorica, and Porphyrius,
Be Vita Pythagoroe published by Kiesling (Leips. 1815-16),whose
trustworthiness
It seems,
is doubtful.
however, to be certain that already the^ldsocietyimposed
definite duties upon
its members,
for private life,and
even
the pracmtroduced
tice
of working
in common
at intellectual
pursuits, especially at music
and
mathematics.
In
of its politicalposition (in regard to which
consequence
B. Krische, Gottingen, 1830) the external
conditions
of the society assumed
at
first a very favourable
the plunder of the
form, inasmuch
democratic
as, after
kind
of hegemonic
in Magna
won
a
influence
Sybaris, 609, Crotona
Grsecia.
In
the
losers
in the
bitter
time, however, the Pythagoreans became
party
often
suffered
bitter
struggles of the cities,and
the
persecution, by which
society was
finallydestroyed in the fourth century.
To Pythagoras himself, who
died about
500, we can trace back no philosophical
writings, although the subsequent myth-making
ously
sought so strenuprocess
to make
him
the
idol of all Hellenic
wisdom.
(E. Zeller in Vortr. u.
and
Aristotle
knew
Abhandl., I, Leips. 1865.) Plato
only of a philosophy of
the Pythagoreans.
been
to have
somewhat
Fhilolaus, who
than
seems
younger
the most
Empedocles and Anaxagoras, appears
as
prominent representative of
this philosophy.
Almost
of the circumstances
of his life,and
nothing is known
the
fragments of his treatise
(ed. by Boeckh, Berlin, 1819 ; cf. C. Schaarconsiderable
schmidt, Bonn, 1864) lie under
suspicion.
Of the remaining adherents
of the society,only the names
known.
The
are
latest representatives came
into so
close
relations
with
the Platonic
Academy
almost
be said to have
that, as regards their philosophy, they may
belonged to
it. Among
them
of Tarentum, the well-known
and statesman,
savant
Archytas
should
be
mentioned.
to
Concerning the very doubtful
fragments attributed
him, cf. G. Hartenstein
(Leips. 1833), Fr. Petersen
(Zeltschr.f. Alterthumsk
;
1886), 0. Gruppe (Berlin, 1840), Er. Beckman
(Berlin, 1844).
The
reports concerning the teaching of the Pythagoreans, especiallyin the later
additions
from
by so many
accounts, are clouded
foreign sources, that perhaps
at no
the actual
facts
point in ancient
philosophy is it so difficult to determine
in the case
if we
sift out
the most
as
here, even
trustworthy, namely Aristotle
and
his best
dark
taught commentators,
notably Simplicius, many
points and
The
for this
reason
remain, particularly in details.
contradictory statements
lies probably in the fact that in the school, which
for a time was
extended,
widely
various
trends
of thought ran
these the general fundamental
side by side,and that among
worked
out
perhaps by Philolaus, was
thought first brought forward
in different
It would
be of great service to attempt such
a
separation.
ways.
H.
der pythagoreischen
Eitter, Geschichte
Philosophie
(Hamburg, 1826) ;
Aristoteles
nach
Eothenbucher, Das
(Berlin, 1867) ;
System der Pythagbreer
E.
(2 vols., Paris,
Chaignet, Fythagore et la philosophie pythagoricienne
.

1873).
" 4. The
The
the

this must
with

furnished

the

of

Nature

fundamental

as

motive

the

another

-wonder^
mobile

lonians.

of

its

To

was

at
and
this

reflection,the

expression in Heraclitus, who seems

been
unwearied
in seeking the most
pointed formulations
universal
mutability of all things, and especiallyfor the
But while
myth gave
changes of opposites into each other.
gave

liveliest
^

this

sudden

of

experience

an

philosophy

have

for

to

varied

fact, which
to

things

indeed

so

Ionic

experience change into one

and
the first philosophicalreflections,
have
arisen
a
people so
early among

fact that

stimulus

Conceptionsof Being.

Cf.

Fragm.

upon

the

philosophical value

(Schust.)41-44, 60, 63,

of
67.

the

Bav/ii^eiv,Arist.

Met.

I.

2, 982 b 12.

of

garb

the

this view

to

CosmologiealPeriod.

fabled

of

account

of

the

questionin the conception

which, experiences
"world-stuff" {Weltstoff),
this

fixed

and

matter,

o^^

transformap

these

all

the

changes,

cosmic

which

into

things arise,and

all individual

which

tions, from

of

all these

of

[Part

formation

the

abiding ground

the

for

asked

"world, science
"

Greeks

The

32

they

tacitly
again transformed {apxn)- !" this conception was
the
whether
the presuppositionof the unity of the world;
contained

become

of

inter-connection

That, however,

1.

nearest
and

they

to

changeability, and

for it in what

Milesians

the

matter

vitality of

thought

the

only by
*

little in this

The

in

ence,
experiTo

air.

mobility,

and

water

only

was.

given

was

at

tion
tradi-

The

water; Anaximenes,

be

determined

inner

the

by

in ancient
School.

elementary

seek

apparent

evident, too, that

Ionic

the

this

probably

were

world-stuff,lies

or

nature, appears

it to

was

Monism

another, and

one

what

declared

Thales

so

choice

this

then

was

course

this
to justify

matter,

of
presupposition

determine

to

question was

of

process

It

know.

not

exception.

without

single cosmic

self-evident

as

into

things

things

entire

the

of

basis

the

all

do

we

attempted

first

all

of

transformation

the

justifythis

to

who

straggler

eclectic

later

by

already sought

'

-Milesians

air.

It is

connection

of

and
of water
air,but only of the states
peculiarities
in itself dead,
While
the solid appears
of aggregation concerned.
the impresmoved
sion
only from without, the liquidand volatile make
the
monistic
and
of independent mobility and vitality
session
prepos;
Milesians
that
the
of this first philosophisingwas
so
great
chemical

the

'

of the

change

fact
intelligible

this

of

it

the

Which

as

their

reason

of

later

of

his

of

doctrine

reason

but

described

them

for

ground

or

instead

course

animated, just as

"

assumed

they

as

in

something

this

this

did

its individual

are

of

all

in

the

I.

3,

983

The

or

mic
cos-

particular organisms,*and

self-

living : they

is

Met.

less
cease-

change

forms.
itself

as

from
the
usually characterised
separationin conceptions as Hylozoism.

Aristotle

admixture

they
with

for

matter,

matter

"

passed

matter

asking

cosmic

most

; at

occurrence

thought

of

thought

once

never

8, has deiined,not

for

point
stand-

without

the

categories.

own

The
hears
in itself the memory
of the
expression dpx^i which, moreover,
chronological fancies of the Cosmologists, is said by Simplicius to have been
first by Anaximander.
used
s
Diogenes of Apollonia. Cf. Simpl. Phys. (D.) 32' 151, 30, and Arist. Gen. et
Corr.

I.

6, 322 b 13.

Schol. in Arist.

For

iSap,iypiv
the

accounts

metaphysical
6

ture

Plut. Plac.
of

"

air"

1. 3

514
is

83.

frequently substituted.
such

are

from

that

the

the

attempt

"With
has

regard

been

made

menes
"li}pof Anaxi-

to the
to

distinguishhis

empirical : Ritter, I. 217 ; Brandis,

(Doxogr. D. 278). Perhaps this is intended

Aristotle,Met.

I.

3, 983 b 22.

1. 144.
in

the

oonieo-

Chap.

Coneeptionsof Being

1, " 4.]
If

2.
that

ask, however,

we

Thales,

of

air

substituted

for water,

which

characteristic

have

to

seems

why

withia
^

learn

lacked,

water

Anaximander

Milesians.

Anaximenes,

kept

we

The

that

whose

doctrine,

the

bounds

of

he

believed

like

experience,

air to

characteristic,too,

"

33

have

which

his

had

postulated as indispensablefor the

predecessor
of
viz.
that of infinity. As motive
for
primitivematter,
conception
related
there is
this postulate of Anaximander
the argument
that a
finite cosmic

would

matter

productions.^But

of

made
matter

substance

or

transferred

the

itself

Anaximander

conception

the

by

exhaust

of

which

cosmic

had

the

He
that

must

we

it

though

no

yet,to

real and

as
"

be, and

of

the

thus

that

the

other

in the

the

d/jxv:

2
'
*

W.,

indifferent

with

made

was

neutral.

or

reproduced

in

ence.
experi-

consequence,

Arist.

the

reference

in

514

33 ;

to

the

what
that

he

never

Anaximander

is,

unite

it

within

beginning

its

end

or

ing;'
all-determin-

and

mination,
qualitativedeter-

philosopher intended.
expressly maintained

Aristotle'
of matter

qualities

indestructible.

it is to

without

ter
mat-

it had

is,that
by

that

cosmic

undetermined
qualitatively

or

speak

for

more

in

known

indefinite
the

experience,

as
a
equalised,and therefore
The
most
probable view here is,that
the form
of an
abstract
conception the

Slmpl. Phys. (D.) Q' 24, 26.

I. 3 {Doxogr. D. 277)
Plac.
Arist. Phys. III. 4, 203 b 7.
I.

that

all-embracing

understand

to

us

the

clear

Plut.

Schol.

above

in

it all the

to

constructed

quality of being

"

the

called

ascribed

respect

hand,

originalmatter

Anaximander

raised

and

apx^?

in the

changes

be found

not

the

and

of
while
the statements
(dopicTTos),*
of all kinds
assumption of a mixture
mixture
a
completely adjusted or
whole

might
of

the

abiding

therefore

thus

of

be

give

accounts
the

He

mark

the

it cannot
Later

it.

matter,

spatialinfinityand
on

any

this account

on

imperishable, inexhaustible,and

was

only

and

itself

conception

conception of

the

conception

time,

by

objectof experience corresponds to this conception,

such a conception behind
explain experience,assume

nevertheless, clear

in

demand

satisfied

had

derive

to

are

ground

Infinite (to a-rupov),

to

The

the

conditioning

postulatedin
begun

such

"

the

be

not

this

beyond experience. He maintained

originalground of things, possessingall the

from

drew

that

seen

succession

matter

though

even

"

ceaseless

perceive, and

boldly the realityof an

propertiesthat are necessary, if we
of experience from
world
something
change,

also

could

apxv

can

we

in the

; Arist.

Herbart,

III.

Phys.

Einleitung

8, 208

in

die

8.

Philosophie

(Ges.

196).

Met.

XII.

Phys. (D.)

33'

will be

2, 1069 b 18, and especially Phys. I. 4, 187

This
154, 14 (according to Theophrastus)

spoken

of

more

in detail

below

(" 6).

20.

Cf.

also

much-treated

Simpl.
versy
contro-

idea

unclear
"

Q-reehs

The

,34

This

all."

the

of

did

he

that

mixed

quality could be
however, the separation of

and

world

of the

ro

"

scientific

in which

home

to

Deity

"

as

which

remains

still

of God

of all

mythical

while

But

the

of

been

The

in the

well

sure,

first time

in

history,to

has

theory
it at

met

led

the

God,

within

the

the

first

them
time

same

Anaximander's

is

matter

attempt,

and

one

physical,to stripthe

thus

maintained

itself

the

upon
and

only

in

import given

religiouslife

idea

in

responded
obscure

an

which
them

in

to

an

and

the

mination
deter-

influence

an

was

uncertain

myths

Greek

had

and

undergone,
in that

this

to

was

as

toward

everywhere

(Pherecydes, Solon) ;
result,a clearlyoutspoken monism,

within

manner

cosmogonic fancy

interpretation,tended

the

brought nearer, the

hitherto
impulse which

culmination
its final

the

form.

transformation

ethical

their

entirely

of science

dominant

that life.

for

give

to

so

of

religiousneed

results

these

to

be

to

up,

of
metaphysical conception, the possibility

of the results

as

given

it shows

arose,

and

world,

philosophic conception

first

had

be

religiousconsciousness.

for the

sanction

more

view

highest conception which

the

"

reflection

explaining the

for

use

the

qualities

the

philosophers, constantly recurring

of

inclination

view

whole.

regarded as properly
conception of the

be

regards quality would

as

as

so

for the later development.

preparationmade
to the Infinite,
another
predicatewas given by Anaximander
of the religious
As a last remembrance
Oaov,the divine.

Still

the

this

With

it.

to

were
a

individual

the

longer

no

infinite,

an

essential

an

3.

in

qualitativechange

unity

could

matter

it

yet also

substances

ascribed

out of this self-moved

a

the

matter

cosmic

empirical

various

and

"one"

was

the

definite

no

this reason,

Por

which

mythical chaos
by assuming as

in which

corporeal mass,

[Part.

CosmologicalPeriod.

given
theistic
mono-

movement

proffered by

now

science.
relation

This
thinker

brought
investigator,but

and

strong in his
and

West

to

of

expression by XenopJianes, not a,

an
imaginative disciple of science,
convictions,who
brought the new
teaching from East
nance
maintegave it a thoroughly religiouscolouring. His

monotheisrn,which

saying,'that
together for him
the

is

poured

he

out

Timon

with
anger

in Sext.

expressed

whithersoever
into

one

that

the

to

he

Nature

sharp polemic
principallycharacterised

however,
he

was

wit

against
in

over

with

which

Emp.

Pyrrh. Hyp.

he

looked

all

{/xlavets

turn

abundant

enthusiastic

as

the

pursued

constantlyflowing
took
at once,
on
^va-iv),
popular faith,by which

I. 224.

The

which

scorn,

anthropomorphism
the

in

was

literature.
the

intuition

poets

ciem.

as

Alex.

the

of

he

ology,^
myth-

portrayers

Strom.

V.

601.

36

The

changeability.

In

isolated

; the

clitus.

His

the

same

has

ground
either

the

work

world

or

There

is

taken

its constitution

in

or

abides

and

and

substance

not

the

deserves

nothing abiding,
whole.

as

whole,

Not

involved

are

nothing abides. We
only,and pass away
the

universe.

deity,is

of

name

matter, but motion, the

or

through Hera-

the

of

only individual things,but also the universe as

in perpetual,ceaseless revolution : all flows, and
cannot
say of things that they are ; they become
of
in the ever-changingplay of the movement
then, which

was

it is

recognisedas hopeless.

been

second

I,

Milesians,from
separated by a generation,in this way;
define in conceptions an
abiding world-

presupposes

of which

the

in

Xenophanes
place for the

[Part
first element

the

of

took

process

effort to determine

their

OosmologicalPeriod.

thought

doctrine

conclusion

the

Greeks

cosmic

not

That,
thing,

process.

ing
Becom-

itself.
To

meet

Heraelitus
motion

demand

strong

found

this in the conversion

already

noticed

ancient

Oriental

of
the

by

Heraelitus

the

be

material

Milesians

; to

the

the

world

essence

of

substance

which

but

just the transforming process

or

the

activity {zungelnde)

in

the

Heraelitus

the

This

fact that

of Nature

in

of events

under

by Heraelitus
(Xdyos)of the
1

into

each

other

the

with

contact

of

the

added

Persians

that

all its

transformations,

vibrating
ever-darting,
spond
correvanishing which

and

up

much
is

on

in

accomplished
that

later times

is therefore

the

remains
have

always

which

the

sians
Milewith

same.*

the

the uniformity

only permanent

predicates,in

form,

accordance

called

These

still firmer

strongly than

more

the order
destiny (ci|ixap/u,ei/i;)

world.

been

been

itself in its

succession

(which

law)

have

may

had

and

emphasised
this change

relations,and

rhythm

co-operationof

passing away.^
time, however, this idea takes

same

that

definite

Becoming

this

The

survived

soaring

which

fire.

this

lonians

tion,
to abstrac-

day. But when

to be an
ever-livingfire,and Fire,
all things,he understood
by this djox^

to

At

of

]S"ature

not

to the

that

mystical ideas, which

declared

therefore,to

sensuous

things of

especiallyaccessible

made

him

to

by this turn
perception in

made

seems

in the

help

itself

presented

that

; it is termed

the
(SUri),

reason

physical,ethical,

The

of ascribing to such
difficulty
a motion
without
any substrate, to a mere
Becoming, the highest realityand the capacity to produce things, was
evidently
less for undeveloped thought not
very much
yet conscious of its categories than
for later apprehension.
The
conception of Becoming as fire,hovering between
the symbolic and
the real meaning
of the term, was
supported by the use of

language
Heraelitus

which
does

of

treats
not

disdain

functions
to

background in his metaphors

continually stirred).
2

Further

in detail

on

this

and

let the

(of
point

dim

the

relations as also
substantives.
idea of a World-substance
stand

clay kneaded

in the

ever

anew,

followingparagraph.

of

the

Bat
in the

drink

Chap.

Conceptionsof Being

1, " 4.]

logicalorder
undeveloped

and

the

the

separate

in the world
of

state

different

HeraclituB,Parmenidea.

which

thought

The

motives.

still

identified,prove

does

not

as

appear

of conviction

of

Eleatic

School,

it is not

as

worked

was

and

the

of

consists

in the

of which

which

carried

though

that

of

order,

him

as

much

the

didactic

union

head

ception
con-

of

the

this

period. Yet
of this conception from
the quite unique character

his formulation

his

Ephesian, the

by Parmenides,
important thinker of

most

fragments

the

out

to reconstruct

easy

few

the

Being

to

of

knowledge.
oppositionto this theory of

evident

In

5.

only

how

conception, however,

grasped with complete clearness,and

with all the strength of his austere
personality,is
for
conception, nevertheless, whose
validity was
matter

know

yet

ias

Heraclitus

37

poem,

of

dryest abstraction with grand

Being (eo-ti
Jvat),is for the
yap

and

imagery. That there is a

a
postulate of such cogent
positionwithout
proving it,and

atic
Ele-

rich

of

turn

in

which

thought which

we

ilvai),he
(firj
and

that
tive

No

of

forms

is not

to

thought.

its content.^

Being,

This

view

so

declared
does

Being

content

is in relation

leads

are

"Non-being"
be

(to ju,^iov),cannot

not

thought

consciousness

and

whose

main

"is"

all

For

he

only states this

explains it only by a negative
the
to us
sense
completely

he

his

which

two, thought and

thought

that

thought.
Being

that

first discloses

that

or

is,which

nature

that the

adds,

be

cannot

that

understand

to

are

evidence

to

of

far with
to be

thing
some-

correla^

Parmenides

fully identical.

belong,

not

the

Being

no

"

the

and

same.
thought
Being are
which
look
so
abstractlyontological if we
propositions,
we
meaning when
only the words, take on quite another

thought

These

that
what

he

This

was

the

desired

of

fragments

regarded

have

to

great Elean

the

"

as

Being

therefore,only

the

This

same.
same

in

"Being,"

the

singleBeing

one,

case

which

has

lurks

and

is

''

filling

; there

internal

is,

tions.
distinc-

of Being],
Non-being," or what is not [has not
accordingly,incorporeality,empty space (to kcvov). This
cording
meaning of the eimi
(Being) employed by Parmenides, ac-

which

time

Now

no

"

of

is."

the attribute

to

cannot

"

him, "being"

this function

to

as

which

that

or

sider
con-

doubt

no

all that

of

"

double

"

materiality (t6 ttXIov).For

corporeality,

"fillingspace" are the

space, is preciselythe

means,

leave

sider
con-

"

the

word

means

Reality,"leads

then

at
to

time

one

the

"

the

full

"

and

propositionthat empty

at

other
an-

space

be.
for
even

the
in

naive,
these

sensuous

way

of

looking

principlesof Parmenides,
1

Fr., ed. Karsten,

vv.

94 ff.

the

at

things

which

separateness

of

CosmologiealPeriod.

O-reeks:

The

gg

[Part 1^:

in their plurality
they present themselves
consists in their separationby empty space ; and,
and multiplicity,
the other hand, all that takes place in the corporealworld, i.e.
on

things,by virtue of which

in the

motion, consists

all

in the

ences

real

not

empty

"

"

actual,then

or

change

experiVoid

of individual

'/notion

is

things

be real.

cannot

and

number

The

things presentedin

of

variety

succession by experience had

the

for

place which the "full"

Void"). If, therefore,the
of

(or the
the pluralityand

"

culminated

world-stuff has

or

there

Being,

of

seems

little

so

to ask
were

cosmic

Parmenides

with

and

things

of

conception

the

however,

When,

metamorphoses.

occasion

these

all

abiding ground of which

common

Stance

Milesians

the

given

co-existence

sub-

the

in

ception
con-

of uniting these
possibility

realityis denied them, and the one

unitary Being remains also the only being.^ The conception formed
has so developed internallythat to
of explanation
for the purpose

individual things with

it involves

maintain
it.

by

of

foldness
the

this

In

former

are

denial

the

sunk

has

doctrine

deception and

seeming.

Parmenides,

however,

to

it is

eternal,has

One

that

and

especially(as Xenophanes

and

through

in

one

had
with

kind, one

into

come

never

follows

He

Xenophanes

definitive.

complete,and
body

is at the

itself

6.

these

All

For

to

needed

as

were

the

Milesians, nor
of

the
were

the

first had

through

it is

that

distinctions

any

able.
absolutelyunchangein regarding the One
as limited,
then a well-rounded
sphere,perfectly
and

this

for the
gain
presuppositions
conceptionsfor apprehendingNature.

motives
the

for

part regardlessly

the

to

of

thought

world-stuff

"Fire-Becoming"
available

the

being, is imperishable,

part fantastic, in

order

recognitiontherein, neither
Parmenides

in

of the first usable

important

alone "is,"

irXcov la-rl v6rjij.a.

yap

in

mani-

only and unitary worldworld-thought,^

simple, excluding all

the

attempts,

abstract,were
development

is

the

predicate of

itself,without

itself,and

time

same

particularsfrom

Being

within

homogeneous

also

explained

latter

to

maintained)

differences,i.e. completely homogeneous

or

the

are

we

to be

was

is acosmism

All-one:

the

in

which

that

of

Eleatic

the

sense

things

According

it,that

or

that

cosmic

clear

through

to

of the

the Being of

Now

the

come

matter

of Heraclitus, nor

explaining Nature.

become

had

the

contrast

fection
imperwhich

great role in these considerations

of the Eleatics is obviously playedby
ambiguities in language,by which, on the one
both
hand, the (v means
numerical
unity and also qualitativeunity or simplicity,
while
the verb elvai has
not only the function
of the copula, but also the
meaning of " Reality."
2
Hence, terms like "materialism"
and
"idealism"
do not apply to this naive
the

identification

of

consciousness

and

its

object,the corporealworld.

of Being
Conceptions

1, " 4.]

Chap.

separated

the

this,occasion
the

latter

two

period

next

for the

given

was

to

by

as

gulf, and

their

think

out

forms

new

categoriesfor
These

the

of

of

have

mediating attempts

recognition of

Nature

in

the

two

motifs

one
ag'S.inst

over

of which

relation,out

knowledge

the

conceptions

(beingand becoming), and by setting them

to

with

39

independent investigatorsof

more

in

separate

Umpedocles.

:"

another
ble
valua-

permanently

resulted.
the

on

common,

the

hand,

one

is
be
must
recognitionof the Eleatic postulate that that which
a
thought throughout not only as eternal, without
beginning and
imperishable,but also as homogeneous, and as regards its qualities
also to the
unchangeable ; on the other hand, however, they assent
"

"

of Heraclitus

thought
and

that

undeniable

an

change {Geschehen),and

Common

them, also, in

to

is the

thought

to

attempt

their

realitybelongs
the

to

so

manifoldness

adjustment

assume

ing
to Becom-

of

these

of

things.

needs

two

pluralityof beings,each

of

of which

should

satisfy for itself the postulate of Parmenides; while, on

the other
to
hand, by changing their spatial relations,they were
bring about the changeful variety of individual
things which
rience
expeshows.
of

the

If

cosmic

substance

recognition,
be

must

the

with

as

only
Nature

as

to

the

of

qualitative changes

Eleatic

principle

of

be

attributed

to

which

leaves

change

Such

place, i.e. as

The

realityof

with

motion;^

the

Eleatics,

against

Heraclitus, they

insisted

the

upon

the

is

Their
view
is this : there
common
producing the same.
selves,
plurality of existing beings which, unchangeable in themmake
the change and
things comprevariety of individual
hensible.

Being

of

permanent

and

change,

and

the

upon

occurrence

and

able
think-

was

investigators of

fifth

Eleatics, its plurality and

cluded
ex-

to receive

untouched

change, however,

motion.

had

Being itself,

century maintained, therefore,with

unchangeableness of the existent,but
(qualitative)

the

in the

the

if,nevertheless,change ought

kind

existent.

change

of

spoken

Heraclitus, and

reduced

qualities of

had

matter,

or

of it ;
possibility

the

it

Milesians

the

against Heraclitus,
substances

unchangeable

as

lying
under-

and

first and
in its
been
asserted
to have
principle seems
in a form, however, that was
most
imperfect form by Empedocles,
the
elements"
as
widely influential historically.He put forward
four which
still current
in the popular modes
of thought,
are
earth,
7.

This

"

"

"

In

the

later

literature

Klvq(ns (change of place) are

terms
are
as yet lacking.
2

Instead

poetic

term

of

the

"roots

later
of

all

(Aristotle)dXXofwo-is
contrasted.

In

(qualitativealteration)and

realitythis

expression o-Toixeio, we
things," ^ifi6/toTo.

find

is done

in

here, though

Empedocles

the

the

more

The

40

at the

but

of

capable

from

the

from

time

Milesian

the

Empedocles

motion

changing

states

elements.

As

such

it, as
Love

functions,
set

powers
of these

and

the

indication

love

and

indeed

the

Aside

in this.

quite

theory
it

to

and

as

most

tives

in

He

the

to

value

derive

mixture

proper

derive

the
first

beginning

are

them,

the

of

and

specialqualities

the

four

if so,

how,

elements
do

we

not

avoided
difficultywas
by Anaxagoras, who,
principlethat nothing that is can
arise or
pass

conclusion

that

dialectical construction
from

substances.

the

thought

part, upon

His
the

as

many

elements

assumed'

be

must

of

which

Plato

and

obscure

them

Aristotle

evidently-

was
as

original

the

four,

number

this

for

gave

is

the

and

almost

the
from

later recorders
this

that

he

as

fifth

regarded st
""

mythical

terminology

rests, for

fact that

language.
called

"

or

two

for

account

his predecessors, his selection

dependence upon
to regard the different states
of aggregation
things. No importance seems
to have
attached
to the

remote

them

that

experience,^

our
"

Agrigentine.
If 0iXia and
mras
are
occasionallycounted
by
sixth
i.pxi of Empedocles, we
must
not
infer

operative

nature

This

Eleatic

The

in the

of Nature.

possible

the

of

worth

reality

dual

inclination

of

essence

so

of

"

very

the

from

the

to

from

attempted

drew

away,

due

things

know.

from

into the

was

things

was

independent

think

requisite to

were

of

determinations

Empedocles thought
he

hate,

whick

properties,*

mere

fixingthe

also

come,
out-

matter,

satisfactoryway
in

four

The

force

rather
to

the

dead

the

not

are

in any

thought

change

8.

we

certain,that
the

introduced

whether

of

hate.

its own,

but

oar

this account

On

against a

over

elements,

of

system

experience only

and

love

Empedocles,
how

often

deviation

the

independent

of

disclosed

seems

evil in the

that

of individual

the

this

be

to

to set

; but

forces is not

causes,

and

good

them

principle of motion

distinct

the

of

against

over

fragments.'' Only
of the

are, with

hate

relations

moving

in

mixings.

all motion

of

and

which

designated

attempt

made

are

metaphysically independent something,

or

he

mixture

assign independent

motion

of

ture
mix-

themselves.

elements

cause

cause

abstraction

deprived by
obscure.

of this first

however,

moves

seek

to

the

things,which

not

mechanical

parts

elements

when

of

themselves

could

he

and

kind

system^

these

the

of

able,
unchange-

in

unchangeableness

material

of motion

obliged

was

these

to

the

elements

assert

that

extent

and

exist

to

cease

; to

the

of

note

Hylozoism

the

to

pacity of
he

the

mixture

this

to

parts, and

individual

propertiesof

the

same

elements

the

qualitiesof

the various

different

At

into

according

into

in turn

things,which

separated

due

are

change

is

of the

Out

place.

of

these

divisible

time

same

individual
is

of

[Part

imperishable, homogeneous

and

beginning

without

OosmologicalPeriod.

fire.-' Each

water, air, and

arise

Grreeks

avip^ra

conceptions standing for functions are substanf

a
Arist. Met. I. 4, 984 b 32.
(seeds of things),or also simply xP^mTo. (sub,

there

as

Conceptionsof Being : Anaxagoras.

1, " 4.]

Chap.

substances

by simple
into

those

substances

At
of

change

or

this
the

to

which

that

experience,meaning
repeated division always separate

on

with

their

accordance

with

same

temperature

when

known

were

wholes.
his

definition,
mechanical

only

as

Such

of

means

gation,
investi-

conception of element
(in principleentirelycorresponding
conceptions of the chemistry of to-day) applied to the

throughout the

entire

together

that

and

form, colour,

held

in

very

finelydivided

that

that

on

countless

were

He

taste.

universe

and
experience,'

there

compounding

or

in

given

maintained

Anaxagoras

coming

of

time, however,

greater part of the substances

in

things

later,in

were

homoiomeriai.

division

in the

parts qualitativelythe

elementary
called

substances

simple

are

41

count
ac-

elements

they

present

were

Their

state.

constitutes
(o-wyxpto-ts)

fering
dif-

the

arising,

their

the passing away,

of individual
separation (SiaKptcris)
things.
There
in
is,accordingly,something of every substance
present
every.
that
the
thing: it is only for our sensuous
individual
apprehension
takes

thing

the

on

which
The
also

in space,
ask

this

for

force

Anaxagoras
single

hit
of

sort

mobile

that

upon

this its
To

rest.

is,for

lines

the

be

animate

must

be

animate

formation
the

of

from

'

According

'

inner

nature

unite

of

world,

idle

this

looking

the

at

from

this

force-element

the

lightestand
others

of

it is

itself,and
itself and

moves

"force-substance,"

property
things, the
then,

is,

special,

all the

; it

rest

of

the

be

to

is in motion

of matter,

of

tion
originating mo-

sign of

surest

which

the

is self -moved,

"soul-stuff"

or

to

this

bring

elements,

which

revolution

of

motive-matter
about

then

we

which
must

accomplished.

it has

to the fragments
hand, the metals.
[The Greek ^uxi) and German

the

alone
to

if, now,

particular the regular

on

which

This

that

its quality
(Seelenstoff),
is known
psychical.^ And, secondly,a power

or

the

remaining

nature

mode

is conceived

though

ever,
Since, how-

it to

assigning

distinction

thought

stances
sub-

Here, too, then,

motion.

substance.

motion
the

matter

its effect

of

In

exceptionalkind

must

through

of

naive

this

own

determine

however, two
animate

homoiomeriai

and

existent,a something

as

expedient

of all elements.

of

cause

elementary

or

those

by Anaxagoras

now

of themselves.

regarded

the

of

or

end, unchangeable,

is the

(Bewegungsstoff)

communicates
the

which

regarded

or

in motion

be

matter

of the

one

force

substance

preponderating degree.

being, are

true

not

yet
a

that

beginning

must

motive-matter

most

the

as

in

present

eternal,without

as

must

or

be

may

elements,

movable
we

properties of

of the

is the

separated out

it has
be
But

stars, makes

of the

cause

able
the
the

Anaxagoras, bones, flesh, and

to

know

universe, in
impression
marrow

other

Seele include

both

these

its

meanings.]

also ;

The

42

beautiful and

of

in

contemplation,it
the

arranging
this

voBs of

The

could

be

and

Reason

as

mind

For

or
(voSs)

substance,a corporeal
imperishable,diffused in a

stuff

unproduced,

and

virtue

in the

or

ordered

is the

With

this

The
of

in the universe

of

Being

of

in

maintained

that

opposite
and

some,

with

the

that

the sole
to

no

internal

pluralityof such

Being, but

by

incorporeal,
by empty
of

in the

founder

property

which

such

he

of

of

just

While

the

Being

This

all,qualities

that
school
that

of
no

instead

as

of the

Parmenides
from

"Being''
exhibited

of
plurality
they come

the

them

among

Abdera

is the property of

however,

assumed, separated

single worldhad

taught, a

another, not

one

is not

Being, Non-being: i.e. by the

entity,then, which is Non-being [i.e.

sense],must
metaphysical realityascribed

As

tion
concep-

traced.

Anaxagoras

TrXe'oi'.If now,

that which

space.

Eleatic

qualitativedeterminations

distinctions
be

must

that

to

the

positionof Parmenides,

of all the various

to any

Being

them, acting according to

Leucippus developed from

filling
space, corporeality,
things,and the mutations
taking place
and go, were
to be made
then
intelligible,

other

the

"

direction

in accord

with

element
from

of

experience,and

body,

drawn

world.

teleogicalexplanation of nature}

the

metaphysically primitive,the

belongs

Heraclitic

conclusion

cause

the

in

field also.
Atomism

remained

is

elements

of

order

is self-

"

Empedocles
were

the

and

rational

the

finest,

it alone

other

the

conceptionof worth
( Werthbegriff) namely,
is
made
a
perfection
principleof explanation in the

theoretical
9.

order

first instance

procedure

and

beauty

to

in

from
the

being

the

moves

recognise

Anaxagoras,

movements

ends,

own

different

since

essence,

motion

we

of the

of

teaching

of its

which

also in

but

mobile,

most

by
purposive way
emphasising

This

only of a
ruling them.

state

and

moved,
the

is then

Anaxagoras

and
lightest,

or

his

of

circling
wondering

result

throughout the universe;

substances,however, not only in degree,as

other

not

undisturbed

force-substance

the

characterised

finelydivided

by

the

mastering

turned

according to ends,

element, homogeneous,

by

"

Anaxagoras

him

to

this

I.

Thought-stuff."

"

as

seemed

movements

he

reason

system,

which

on

[Part

(Koaynos).Such

order

harmonious

worlds,

countless

OosmologiealPeriod.

purposive

giganticmasses
of

Gfreeks

true

have
to

in its turn

it,^and

kind

of

Being,

Leucippus regarded it

praised by Plato
(Phced. 97 B), and
overestimated
by
b). Cf., however, " 5. The
moderns
(Hegel) have
added
the further
over-estimate
of seeking to interpret the
voSs as
rial
immatean
principle. But the fragments (Simpl. Fhys. (D.) 33'' 156, 13) leave no
doubt
that
this lightest,
does not mingle with
purest element, which
the rest,
but only plays about
them
and
them
moves
as
also a spacelivingforce,was
filling
Aristotle

(Met.

matter

or

was

I.

3,

984

stuff.

Plut. Adv.

Col. 4, 2, 1109.

44

Greeks

The

which

particlesof

been

10.

In

small, on

totalityof Being

the

other

combination

the

small

which

is to

separate

two

itself

must

parts

from

(the

dichotomy

regards number,

what

complete Being,

also

as

numerically
of the

is held

to refute

be

thus

and

space,
in

infinite,to

used

Zeno
of the

them

doctrine

This

his

to involve

of the

of Parmenides

Being

can

it

be

can

second

The

weakly.

the

was

line of

argument

can

is to

becoming,

other

the

be

that
as

hand,

regarded

if all that

When

given

the

the
real

is is in

itself

it must

concept

the

of

turn, became

new

so

that

also

existingentity, then

an

had

in

reductio

cut

both

fact

that

thus

ways,
a

as

shown

was

forced
in space

Being

by existingBeing

by

non-existent

opponents

of

as

in

(for

consistent

more

be

only against Atomism,

atic
Ele-

time.

that

the

Eor

as

Non-being,

(for then
then

the

Zeno, Melissus,

declare

from

nor

in

to

argument

directed

the

absurdum

cotemporary

himself

other

ad

Being.

unlimited

as

from

neither

Being), nor

be) :

must

called

was

infinitum:

one, self-limited

arise neither
limited

which

true, and

reasoned

likewise, etc.

opinions,saw

Being

holds

enigmas involved in it for the contrasting points

and sense-perception
became
prominent also,and

itself,
by

shared

ad

regress

Atomists

dialectic,however,

School
who

is itself

the

of intellect

of view

by

this last

the

of

thing,
some-

separatedfrom

unlimited, while, on

in process

ary
bound-

the

existent

an

is

infinitely

an

as
complete]. And just as with
[i.e.
many," so the positionthat empty space is

itself

which

be

be

because

of which

because

same

Zeno
Sixoro/itas),

Ik

not

space

prominent, all

than

is itself

argument,

it follows

limited

"

and

space,

latter

is must

this

assumption

the

Erom

infinitum.

infinitely

hand

one

parts, each

of

whatever

number

any

again
spatialmagnitude, which
the
two-parts by a boundary of which
in

on

of

by
ity
plural-

pointed out,

the

on

friend

small,
infinitely
great : infinitely

hand

of

be

must

i.e.

the

as

doctrine

assumption

the

small, never
yieldsanything more
infinitely
sum;^ infinitely
great, on the contrary,

be

to

the

the

Eleatic

the

regards size,he

As

is involved.

defend

to

in which

contradictions

the

Beings
that

again

up

restricted sense,

this

by the Eleatic teaching.

systems, Zeno,
opposition to these pluralistic

setting forth
of

to the

limited

discipleof Parmenides, sought

and

took

and
(kiVtjctis),

Hylozoism,in

Milesian

the

attempted,

ascribed

change
qualitative

of

indeed

independent motion

of

had

They

Atomists.

the

by

capacity,not

the

matter

but
(dXXoto)o-w),
the principleof
it had

abolished

in turn

thus

was

I.

[Pakt

in his way

Anaxagoras, each

and

Empedocles

CosmologiealPeriod.

there

this

from

and

must

so

be

non-existent

purely theo-

appliesto

this

Conceptionsof Being

1, " 4.]

Chap.

retical

of

point

view

influenced

been

The

11.

by

this,as

the

position of

determinations

for their

the

mediating position
doctrines,they -vrere

other

in

the

arithmetical

ascribed

had

geometrical knowledge

these

tions
ques-

happily

fitted

in which

manner

have

to

seems

been

them

to

(as

well-known

the

after Pythagoras) amounts

to
propositionnamed
numbers
representationof simple relations between
+
(.3^

linear

6^,etc.).

the

which

master,

by their emplpyment with mathematics, and by

they prosecuted this study. Its chief direction
; even

45

of worth.

took

Pythagoreans

for

than

Pythagoreans.

It

not, however, in the general relations

was

only that the Pythagoreans found

found
to
was
determining principles; the same
in space

of

phenomena
with.

harmony
of

length
of

the

with

which

the

centre

at

the

various
intervals

thought,

they

and

that

the

numbers.

view

moved

in

In

numbers.

mon
com-

various

so

which

Being

had,

accordance

about

evoke

to

that

bodies

Suggestions

united

in

the

order, in

universe

the

knowledge

heavenly

an

permanent

found

like

man

philosophy
with

contrast

the

; and

beginning, imperishable, unchangeable,

while

Being, they present,

relations,and
to

the

thus

they
the

on

abiding
in

satisfythe

other

Heraclitus

abstract

more

being represented
than

the

of

as
conceptions possess
experience mathematical
of a validitynot
the marks
content
subject to time

problem

clearer

the

their
to

them

taught

relations

them

in

ground

have

to

rhythmical order which

the
Pythagoreans found

the

its

in

such

chiefly engaged

were

numerical

led

in

the

of

immovable

mathematical
of

motions

eternal,without

are

even

for

the

their

the

that

be

to

changing things
regards

advanced,

spheres of
fixed by

seem

was

far

music,^

mentioned

seeking

was

"

was

in

harmony

Philolaus

also

true

strings (octave,third, fourth),and

the

which

these

they

as

simple

upon

harmony prevailingin

like

as

based

was

astronomy,

the

world

corporeal

be

to

theoretical investigations
concerning music

Their

that

the

4^

of constructions

numbers
be

hand,

than

perception

or

demanded.

essense

of

the

"

Thus, then,

the

Milesian,

world
"

in

the

solution
of

capable

more

than

imagination

late
postu-

relations,

numbers,

in

difiieult than

Heraclitic, more

fixed

had

particular

Eleatic

the

those

Eleatic,

offered

by

cotemporary mediating attempts.

The
attached

partly to

arithmetical
sometimes

Out

the

of numbers,

carried

as

observations

numerous

they

relations,partly to analogieswhich
The

of this analogy

definite

arose

the

nature

fantastic

of

each

idea

out

they

individual

of the

by them,

had

numerical

introduced, between
artificially

problems.

doctrine

Pythagorean

harmony

made

was

on

the

discovered

or

and

cal
philosophinumber

of the

and

spheres.

The

46

Greeks

CosmologicalPeriod.

[Part

I.

of the

endlessness

the

series

number

indeed

must

have

first suggested

^t

realitybelongs as well to the limited as to the unlimited,

and
by transferringthis thought into the geometrical sphere the
elements
to the
the
as
to recognise, in addition
Pythagoreans came
unlimited
the
void.
limited, a Eeality as belonging also to space as
the
forms
by
They thought of the elements, however, as determined
earth
of the simple solids : fire by the
tetrahedron,
by the cube,
that

air

by

the

sether,which

added

they

by Empedocles, by

conceptions the prevailing idea

in
essential quality of bodies, consists

these

of the

unlimited, in

forms
The
the

old

the

and

and

good
ideas

with

the

odd, perfect,and
the

world

as

world

The

Some
the

an

is

these

of

of which

and

even

all the
into

at rest

"

While

in motion

and

the

Ecphantus,

and

one

"

main

limitless,even,
of

as

an

and

the

was

imperfect,
influence

the

oracles.

of

Their

against the limited,

imperfect,and bad.

the

number

odd

one,^ which

number,

adjusted to

are

sought

moreover,

form

in

so

the

harmony.

viz. limited

right

and

straight and

Pythagoreans

left

crooked

thus

and

so

through

and

"

followed

the

of ten

table

unlimited

male

"

of space
in the sense
numbers
this,viz. that even

The
reason
presented for
infinity(?), is indeed very questionable
455, 20).

out

antithesis,in

agreed, and

existence:
"

to trace

fundamental

were

to

Nor

over

in

antithesis

the

of this limitation

of

found

this

without

not

between

antithesis

the

perfect

united

well

school

many
"

line of the

conceived

cal
Mathemati-

antithesis

and

case

experience that

pairs of opposites came

odd

the

of numbers.

Pythagoreans,*

realms

assumption

as

antitheses

harmony

of the

various

even

even

the

the

principles

of

dualistic:

are

whole

the

last

thus

In

limitation

forms.

in the

religious faith

stands

good

both

value

the

becomes

Weltanschauung

has

with

trial
terres-

corporeality,or

into

space

that

between

bad,' in this

connected

As, however,

that

and

four

mathematical

the

material,

dodecahedron.^

the

they recognised

odd

to the

this

was

fifth

physicalreality.

believed

unlimited
the

of

out

of

essence

further

between

identified

shaping

the

Pythagoreans

in numbers

the

made

are

limited

again

the

and

icosahedron,

celestial element

the

as

assumed

elements

the

by

octahedron, water

"

female

and

lightand

dark

Empedocles,

"

later,

of Atomism.

permit

bisection

of

artificial (Simpl. Phvs.

D.

WS^

here

overlook
the factor which
had
already asserted itself with
Parmenides, viz. that to the Greek the conception of measure
that had
was
one
a
high ethical worth ; so that the infinite,
all
which
derides
him
must
to
imperfect, while the definite or limited (TreTrepoirmeasure,
appear
valuable.
nivov) was
necessarilyregarded as more
must

Xenophanes

"

Arist.

Or

Arist.

we

and

Met.

I.

5, 986

19.

standing in close relations

Alcmaeon, a perhaps somewhat
Met. I. 5, 986 a 22.
men

with

older

Pythagoreanism,
contemporarv

such
of

as

the

Philolaus.

cian
physiCf.

good and bad

evidently a

and

square

"

collection

oblong

Processes.
with

or

attempt

an

47
sides.

unequal

put together without

ten, but

number

sacred

Cosmic

Conceptionsof

1, " 5.]

Chap.

articulation

at an

is

fill out

to

system,

This

the

at least

may

be

recognised.
In

accordance, then,with

exerted

themselves

system

of

hand

of

they

fell in

of thingswhich

called

be

the

the

applied to

order
of

of

the

various
have

formed

them;

and

according

their

express

thoughts

forms

the

Hardy,
As

the

the most
so,

fact of

but

be

tively
effec-

most

all

are

things

the

are

of

world

original reality,

more

only
the

copy

to

the

world

contrasted

hand,
aim

task

to

indeed

of the

afterward
all the

cosmic

processes

conceptions

various
the

make

more

Being

further

the

aside,

set

Eleatics

thought proved

progress

of

renewed

attention

the

by

by

as

had
ligible.
intel-

Nature

occasionally forgotten, or

conceptions of Being,
the

of

of

processes

furnished

"

abiding Being,

the

reflection upon

for

the

only

was

development

Processes.^

Cosmic

is,the

that

"

occasion

ultimate

determined

and

that

was

but

them,

best

be

to

latter

; the

of

Physis in griechischen Fhilosophie, I. Berlin, 1884.

change

other

immediately

to

der

immediate

This
in the

held

Conceptions of

Begriff

the

on

their

as

Der

higher,

in which

way

conception

this

not

of matter, to the

out

say

could

change.

" 5.
E.

as

empirical reality was

and

Becoming

they

same

kinds

perhaps they
when

themselves,

numbers

in the

to

relations.

Pythagoreans

arisen

not

thought

was

in conceptions, and

school, that

With

belonged abiding Being

former

the

the

abiding order

in mathematical

stuffs,"or

"

of numbers.

imitations

mathematical

of

to

recognise an

to

of

into

overlook

to

us

cause

expressed

notice

members

spheres

not

and

this

of

those

especiallyto

yet
made

grasped

things

of which

but

number,

the other

on

symbolic interpretation

must

elements, etc., that

copies or

and

numbers,

"^ things
principles{apxp-O^

the
is

the term

conceptions in

the

therewith

ground
later

the

of

this

be

it escape

of

notably

the

fundamental

various

to

nature

was

could

ultimate

ISTor did

scheme

Pythagoreans
things corresponding to the

of

individual

every

doing

fact that the attempt

find the

order

an

knowledge

fantastic

reality. The
which

similar

ten, determining significancein the various

to

one

or

by assigning the

numbers,

by adjudging to

from

make

to

department

every

this

given

to

rence,"
occurvariously by " change,"
The
etc.
pass," "becoming,"
"event,"
"taking place," "coming
broad
enough.
used
for
the
Greek
which
is
seems
hardly
jljvoiiai
ordinarily
last,
1

[Geschehen.

I have

translated

"

this word

to

The

German

means

any

natural

process

or

event.]

The

48

Becoming
be

made

1.

much

so
a

change could
intelligible
by it.
the

To

the

of it.

cause

of

to

seem

as

familiar

to

our

relation

in constant

two

in

itself

in

This

matter.

did

Eocplanation,

not

"

not

matter

forms

of

they

as

no

latter process

Beingr

something

was

striking
such simpler

their

seemed

one
another,
qualities,their working upon
to require explanation. They contented
with conceivingthese changes as condensation

cosmic

also

another.

one

process.

explanation,inasmuch
perception. That things change
need

that

thought
asking for
the
view only
tion
explana-

is

to

"

to

of

I.

of

cosmic

what

reducing

ideas

the world

have

or

occurrence

thinking Being
with it,but

so'

then, with

hand,

Hylozoism could

NWive

intelligiblein

or

course

of

consists

however,

in

Hand

[Part

reconciled

be

only

not

of

livingactivityof
that they never
course

particular

need

the

lonians

matter

the

by

and

of Becoming,

go those

CosmologicalPeriod.

change, and

and

Becoming

Greeks

rence
occur-

most

are

form, their
the

to

themselves

sians
Mile-

in

rarefaction

or

them

to

seem

of

this

of the
need

to

at least did add, that these

explanation,though Anaximenes
connected
with
changes in the state of aggregationwere
changes in
condensation
with
with
cooling,rarefaction
growing
temperature

farther

"

This

warm.

contrast

in

aggregation

condensation

or

series

of

rise to the

gave

corresponding

the

primitive

of

arrangement

of

states

the

to

matter

the

degree of rarefaction
viz. fire,
air,water, earth

(or stone).
The

Milesians
of

phenomena

for

important
ment

of

Thus

Thales

fire,and

the

in

air,taught

of these

sphere
either
In

centre

of air

broke

through

setting forth
still
once

Hence

first,on
sphere

or

regarded by Thales
for

all,the

it is

through
and

Milesians
JSTot until

between

the

stone

of

process
that

matter.

form

air and

Anaximenes,

world-formation.

the

earth
to

the

in the

attached

second

"

stars.

as

themselves

later does the

an

Hence, also, the designationof the world-stuff

as

haps
perring
occur-

closely to

consideration

intermediate

was

process

also physicists (not known

as

resting

"

revolving about it,and this

by a sphere of fire,which

Anaximander

there were
world-stuff
air and
Are.

regard

prime

which
world-origination,

that
intelligible

would
or

of air

of

the

air,according

surrounded

shone

and

assumed

was

this process

cosmogonic poetry.^

name) who
and
water,

the

to

of the

earth

analogous

it

of

out

part rarefying to

form

to

an

views

world

in

as

yet again

was

the

water

part condensing

water, according

occupied

of

state

present

the

only to explain individual

meteorologicalprocesses so
also to explain the develop'

not

sea-faringpeople,but

conceived

result

on

ideas

these

Nature, particularlythe
a

startingfrom
As

used

stage

to

seem

to

between

"pxi (beginning).

the

us

by
air

1, " 5.] Cosmic

Chap.

have

Processes

gained prevalence,that

the
to

be

to

assume

regarded
countless

2.

as

ceaseless

of form

change

of

these

essential

which

whole,

as

contain

constituents

have

to

matter

into

put

it if

the
abandoned

the

quality,he
his

thought

that

the

by

union

he conceived

explain water.
along

But

besides

oceanic
these
*

only fragment
the

the

ethical
which

rest

sin.

However

yet

as

3.

The
as

essential

order

the

marks,

he

proached
ap-

the

other

of the

cosmic

opposites,the

two

first to

as

process,

and

and

the

warm

from

out

come

Milesians

the

he

airapov,

taken

by Thales.
metaphysical determinations, the
him, giving his own
words, represents
and
an
so
expiation for injustice,

and

from
as

could

proceed

the

attempt

to

present

conceive

of

the

shadows

bright picture of

Hellenic

doubt

worth

amid

harmony

his cosmogony

world-process
of

an

ethical

as

transitoriness,
retribution

life,as

in it the

voiced

of

predecessorof
which

with

particularinterpretationof

the

without

constant

the

Being,

path

of events

only

of

occasion

on

he

physical necessitythe
appears

it

difEerences

done,

doubtful
is

of

out

regarded

This

to

the

on

with

one

the

the

as

first dim

utterance, there
to

of

preserved

even

the

his doctrine

causelessness

physical

necessity,and

that

tion
evolu-

separate.^
he

as

to

pluralityof primitivesubstances, and

primitive matter was
changeable in

perishing of things

presents

however,
forth

of

became

they
so

regards

as

held, however,

was

far

come

indeed,

was

in its process

in

his

by

the

conception of the

the

to

yet entirely at

was

that

cold,which

of

theory

doctrine

seen,

were

If, then,

later

Hylozoist

had

they

conception

that

the

infinite,self-moved

It

and
itself,

also

them

beyond

The

obscure

itself,so

he

tion,
world-destruc-

characterise

led

properties.

then

self -moved;

of its self-motion.

regards

from

remained

as

be

for

by

definite

no

them

exclude

Anaximander

could

this

qualitativeopposites within

to

must

intended

was

and

worlds}

successive

physical theories of Anaximander, he was

metaphysical conception of the aneipov.
matter

of world-formation

process

number

Although

if to

49

change back to
corresponds, and if,at the same
is
time, matter
not only eternal
but eternallyliving,
it is
necessary

form

original

Anaximander, Meraclitus.

need

of

Here

order.

this

giving
mander
Anaxi-

Heraclitus.

Heraclitus
the

thought

mutation

of oppositesand

of
the

he

could

things,

circuit

had

lish
estabtwo

completed by

certainly by
supported, probably by Anaximander,
in Heraclitus, Empedooles, and
Leucippus.
2 The
decisive
for this very
controverted
question (Ritter, Seydel,
passages
Arist.
and
I.
187
are
a
Fhys.
4,
20,
Simpl. Fhys. (D.) .33' 154, 14 (after
Zeller)
of the passage
in the following note.
Theophrastus) ; also the continuation
s
Cf. Th.
Simpl. Fhys. (D.) 6' 24, 18.
Ziegler, Arch. f. Gesch. d. Fhilos.,
This

Anaximenes.

I. 16 ff.

doctrine

It is

was

repeated

Crreeks

The

50

in

is

world

the

everything in

of

process

"

into

poetic rhetoric
for

be

shorter

invisible

is

world

The

solved.

antitheses, according

These

to

the "way

processes:

on

into water

and

earth, on
into

over

pass

counter-change

and

view

The

envelop

the

conformity

changes.

The

rhythm

and

fire,to

arise

In

at fixed

only

is
and

oppositesit
The

Becoming

Parmenides

of

of

unity

tire

of

sites.
oppo-

in

trary
con-

becomes

all

the

alike.

semblance

for

time

is

change
put

manent
peris

the

upon

these

as

views

changes taking place

fire in

then

and

there

of

compensation
the

Change
of

the

of

from

time,

again

these

ever-repeated
flashes

up

in

Phoenix.^
of

in

all

which

"

as

are

Heraclitus

continual

produced

Heraclitus

this with

oppositions are

hand,

there

sequence

effected,

seems

produces

shares

which

order,

the

of the

things nothing
the

law

whole.

exchange
of change,
If

though something
time
always

same

produces

no

new

in

the
were

individual

between
which

the

tutes
consti-

tween
strugglebeconstantly

perishing product.
Being, as the Being of
a

Becoming.

no

1 In
details his physical,
Metaphysical inquiry is more

He

of

worth

is at

new

and
is

the

is the

taking place

ways

as

way

transformation

meaning

arising,this

of

intervals

contrary movements
the

thought

it anew,

this ceaseless

persists,but

in

world

from

two

where

one

forms

law,

to

rium.
equilib-

world

the

is

hand,

by side, and

the

upon

essential

motions

in

Heraclitus, present

one

other

its appearance

fantastic

other.

of

processes

these

side

on

run

counter-change

much

opposed

and

the

the

on

fire ; and

makes

thing

in

The

of

essence

the

to

seems

things change
same
passed through in both
stages are
fire passes
downward"
over,,bycondensation,
the "way
faction,
upward" earth and water, by rare-

things, and,

fire.

into

back

all

into

changed

finds

Becoming

particularlyin the two

directions, through which, on

this strife

unity divided in
its reconciliation,
a

and

themselves

eo

differences

Becoming,

tinually
con-

him

in his

that

themselves

moment

The

all

which

in

harmony

of

product

every

its satisfaction.

finds

that

at

All

things.

strife which

again re-united,a

itself and
want

thus

is

universe

The

was

opposites,and

operationmaintain

in their

which

forces

and

is the

time

longer

or

of

father

the

to be

he declared
(iroXc/uos)

for

transformed

became

strife of

ceaseless

"

was

is

everything

other

"

I.

that

change

constant

that

the
claim
to
exaggerated by Heraclitus
changing into its opposite. The
ipso the opposed. The "flux of things

[Part
observation

The

in the universe.

changes

in its successive

matter

CosmologicalPeriod.

and

especially his astronomical, ideas are weak.

important with him
than explanatory tion.
investigahis opponent, Parmenides.

Greeks

The

52

OosmologicalPeriod.

displacement of the parts of matter, each

Things at a
iug and displacingthe other.
act upon

cannot

the

form

efluxes

the

as

pores

the

assumption

the

case

of

The

of

an

which

other

form

so

the

present

atoms

each

of

by

in

process

impact,

smaller
some

things

or

impact

or

their

in

portion
pro-

spatial

taught,and

is attested

substances

occurrence

presented by Leucippus.

is that
other

in

empty

themselves

group

which

masses

together,and
not

are

of

pressure

act upon

space

other

separated

masses

comes

which

this

and

occurrence

in

more

coming to be consists in
successively formed
atom-complexes are

All

without.

from

and

pressure

possible in

picture of

each

upon

another

one

flow out and

one

more

I.

always crowd-

Empedocles

least

at

thinking

of

way

of the

resemble

body

Another

also.

impinge

greater or

distance

from

is the

action

So

other.

is

parts

as

one

of which

of
infinitedivisibility

destroyed until

and

the

of

Anaxagoras

to the

akin

This

other.

the

into

penetrate

another, except

one

[Part

and

shattered.
The

fundamental
of the

is that

it is

Empedocles
Reason-stuff

mechanism

introduction

was

the
of

The

one

for

was

of

of

came

so

the

near

farther

of

course

the

they explained,as
pushing and crowding of
motion

in
in

the

this

manner

that

the

ever,
how-

acting

begun by

it is the
The

the

with

continues

atoms.

to

result

principle

myth, with
break
through

in

attempt to
through only by Leucippus.

worth

which

and

the

their
the

be

the

position was

into

to

were,

this

explanatory

evil

sure, not

other

back

to corresponding

ascribed

to

that

he

believed

whole

only from the assumption that

impulse had originatedthe motions.
a
position of Leucippus as to demand
beginning only of

motions,
did

it is

enveloped

tracingthe good

mind,

hate

and

then

completely carried
from
first two
reaching

teleological
explanation for the

in

still

being, but mythically hypostatised;

both

and

of several

half-successful

of love

Leucippus

to

Empedocles

explain the order of the

considered
purposive, rationally

the

ends,

to

systems,

{hivrj).According

Anaxagoras

collision

could

Yet

the

to

considerations

powers
any

the

it first made

hindered

theory.

by

according

with

covering, and

What

forces

from

was

Anaxagoras
the

about

brought

consistency; according

always occurring
of

rotation

acting according

mechanical

in all three

vortex, of circular

elements

the

among

of world-motion

form

and

thus

the

every

vortex-motion;

individual

rence,
occur-

Leucippus,purely mechanically, by the

after these are once
particlesof matter
determined.

they did not

the originationand
explanation even
which, moreover,
plants are regarded
animals.
Anaxagoras is reproached

They

exclude

sistently
proceeded so confrom
this mechanical

functions
as

being

for this

of

organisms, among

as

truly animate

by

Plato

and

as

are

Aristotle,

1, " 5.] Cosmic

Chap.

and

which

he

of

the

odd

the

and

has

animals

been
had

survival

of

grotesque forms,

the

which
fittest,

the

ground

itself in

the

ease

of

these

of

the

ideas,
three

down/

here and

and

is here

that

takes

place

difference

the

arises

world
the

on

perpetual

being

for

once

that
and

; for

one

investigators,

all.

in

perishes

pass

to be

more

their

complete intermixture,

explicit,there
he

excluded,

and

out

until

of this

separate

world

is
in

nor

things ; in
hate

elements

full union

mixture,
A

the

both

again

that

which

love

with

states

when

attained.

in

things

in

motion
in

another

one

elements

the

hate

is

individual
another

one

of

case

there

complete

individual

its appearance.
where

only
and

mingling

into

come

again together,

the

exists

the

Empedocles,

from

makes

acosmism

again

penetrates, this

complete separation,are
Eleatic

one

Atomism,

the

into

brings"them

Neither

is

that

rules, and

hate

separated
love

of

alone

cippus,
Leu-

is

teaches

of worlds

completely parted

are

the

cases

becomes

condition

of

of individual

struggle

different

o-^alpos (sphere);

world-sphere

things, until

in

there

principlesof

calls

homogeneous

four

are

the

to

for

; while

number

tude
atti-

tion
world-dissolu-

first two

Heraclitus,

countless

and

contrary, it

periodic alternation

According

away.

the

on

the

like

Empedocles,

contrary, holds, that

and

Between

the

discloses
their

regards

as

Anaxagoras,

in

lated.
already clearlyformu-

For
cosmogonic theories.
Empedocles
the
of
world-formation
and
namely,
process

principle

contrast
interesting

an

of

course

part

toward

is

out
there,with-

The

great

so

53

according

th",t in the

themselves.

plays

biology of to-day,i.e. in Darwinism,

On

handed

arisen

fitted for life maintained

those

only

that

taught

rule,in

any
time

Anaxagoras,Leucippus.

expression of Empedocles

an

to

Processes

love

and

separating the

elements.
It

is otherwise

about
Erom

irregularlyin
the

various

bring with
according
of the

to

Arist.

man,
of the

and

to

changed

animal

into

sometimes

even

29.

wtiich

conditions

also, the oldest

world

the

here

together

which

the

aggregations

that

atoms

and

individual

thinkers

itself

neighbouring

whole

"

Moreover,
teaches

of life

claimed

Pint.
no

worlds,"

we

find

there.

results,

movement

and

atoms

and

dart

particles

there

occur,

a
whirling
necessity (drayKiy),

draws

to

adaptation
For

which

of

strike

motion

to

such

where

Phys. II. 8, 198

Anaximander,

attributed

universe

the

mathematical

whole,

Some

Leucippus.

impulses

the-m,

complexes,

with

so

gradually

expression alreadyof organisms

by
19, 1 {Dox. D. 430, 15).
an

transformation
Plac.
other

in Plut.

V.

origin than

Strom,

fr. 2.

of

that

{Dox.

D.

growth
579, 17).

Empedocles
the Eleatic
world-sphere, which
suggestion from
absolute, fully adjusted mingling of all elements, taught by Empedocles,
out

Evidently

resembles.

not

without

so

atom-

this
much

64

The

Greeks

OosmologicalPeriod.

[Part

of revolution
is
system in process
movable
itself,since,by the rotation,the finer,more
differentiating
extends.

atoms

driven

are

in

gathered
inclination

into
the

which

How

centre.

The

contrary,
in

is the

The

space.

of the

cosmogonic

the

taken

view
worlds

motion.

"

describes

the

order
"

on

ground

attention

to the

connected

the

on

views

for

beauty

of

disturbance

of Nature
the

earth

conception

is to

the

in

without

posive
pur-

only,which

the

of

manner

the

of

which

world

the

motion.

ments
eleThen

set

it into

began at one point,the pole of

gradually throughout the entire
dividing the elements, so that they

extended

assuming that
adaptation to

system

tained,
main-

our

and
(Vernunftstoff),

separating and
now
perform
mighty revolution
The
manner.
of
teleologicalmotive
is due
his
admiration
essentiallyto
after
it
has
world, which,
performed
no

which

beginning

and

their

is

or

by themselves,

world

one

primitive condition,

of matter,

voSs,moves

world,

vortex-motion

vault, and

without

law, until

introduces

just this

how

Eeason-stuff

This

of which

by Anaxagoras excludes,on
time
well as a pluralityof
as

in

forms

elements,

chaotic

the

vovs,

celestial

mass

whole

of

in different

obvious.

intermingled without

were

ordered

of

greater vortex

ordering mind, which

poetry,

preceded by

came

worlds

by

law

Atomists

perfect."^Anaxagoras, therefore, quite in

most

the

time

one

principlethis

to-day is

pluralityof

motion

was

of

the

in

teleological
pdint of

worlds

the

into

near

science

natural

at

and

another

So, the

greater.

were

subsequently fell

is the

the

moon

of

times

collision with

pieces by

revolution

and

sun

in

the

mechanical

to

are

like,not
to

worlds, each

universe, various
itself,according

massy

to

conformity

at various

arise

and

its way

like

their

there

So

within

the

so

inert

more

finds

like

through

is shattered

perhaps

and

boundless

in motion

is drawn

the

the

periphery,the

impact.

places in
continues

centre

love, but

or

the

to

the

and

pressure

it

such

Meanwhile

as

in

uniformly harmonious

the
of

the

doctrine
the

rotations

always in

this

order

the

same

of

Anaxagoras

in

the

started

stellar

by

track.

the

There

teleologicalcosmology directed

ends

in

livingbeings,or

beneficent

starry heavens

to
and

man

what

to the

even

; its gaze

was

is related

fixed
of the

of

Anaxagoras on terrestrial things, on organisms, and on

keeps quite within the setting of the mechanical
man,
of
mode
in
his contemporaries. What
explanation
vogue
he said,too,
among
with

regard

just as

This

well

to the

have

come

from

motive,fullycarried

reference

to the

of

presence

life

on

other

heavenly bodies, might

the Atomists.

out, is found

opposition between

in Plato, Tim.
31, with
Anaxagoras and the Atomists.

able
unmistak-

1, " 5.] Cosmic

Chap.

Processes

Zeno, the Pythagoreans.

55

of the raffs as also the principle

Accordingly, although Anaxagoras conceived
animation, and
thought of the particles of this substance
as
mingled in
with
organic bodies, yet the central point in this congreater or lesser number
ception
is that
of the
authorship of the astronomical
world-order.
The
other
of the cause
of animate
or factor
side, the moment
life,% much
more
cally
energetitransformation
which
emphasised in the
eclectic
a
natural
younger
philosopher, Diogenes of AppUonia,undertook
to effect in the conception
of
the
Anaxagoras
by connecting it with
hylozoistic principle of Anaximenes.
He
designated air as apx-h [first
principle, primitive element], fitted it out,
of the
omniscience
however, with the characteristics
and
voii,
force
acting
named
this "rational
air"
also Tri-cO/ia
according to ends,
and
found
[spirit],
this formative
and
other
well as in the universe.
principle in man
organisms
as
rich physiological knowledge
A
enabled
him
to carry
through in detail this
and
functions
of the human
thought as applied to the structure
With
body.
him
the
dominant
mode
of apprehending
teleology became
also the
organic
of

"

"

world.
His

have

fragments

All

6.
motion

these

as

they

between

the
The

space.
to bear

collected by Schorn
(Bonn, 1829) and Panzerbieter
Steinhart in Ersch
und
Griiber's
Encyclopadie.

doctrines, however,

that

one

explanation.
when

been

Cf. K.

(Leips.1830).

is

intelligibleof

They thought they

had

pointed

out

all these

doctrines

conception of motion, and

be taken
so
simply,but was
it for

serving

Zeno's

weakest

is that

which

the

if it is observed

other

which

proofs, on

the

discrete

through

stronger, and
with

reaching
thought

same

which
which

the

seeks
has

Arist.

Bewegung

movable

Phys. VI.
und

ihre

Eleatic

this could

and
and

also

rates

of

speed, or
standing

one

made

against this
no

means

which

pacitated
inca-

of

use

motion

again
still.
the

but

from
The

not

The

overcome.

proved by

infinite

the

of

nuniber

varied,

somewhat
the

b. 9.

The

Cf
.

Ed.

three

first

into

in

the

be

must

of

argument

Wellmann,

(Frankfurt a.

0.

(known

Zenon's

proof
fixed

attained

motion.

second

1870).

of
divisibility

The

argument,

impossibilityof passing through

Widerlegungen

in
two

analysis

impossibilityof passing through

as

of

mated
variouslyesti-

infinitelysmall, of the space

time
the
occupied by it, were

were

boundaries.

9, 239

empty
brought

the amount

in

points which
goal permitted no beginning

prove

whether
in

or

by

is

wagon

wagons

and

moving

the

infinite

the

no

School

of
relativity

of

contrary, which

appears,
to

the

from

varying

at

regarded

was

line,since

before

either

is

to

matter,
first of all

that

movement

by motion,
a
long time

reference

This

space.
the

for

of

further

motion,

essence

full of contradictions

from

parts, infinitely
many

passed

was

and

of

one

wagons

rather

proceeds

that

directions

showed

Zeno

of

explained qualitativechange
true

directed

was

conception

in need

principleof explanation.
proofs of the impossibilityof motion,^ the

as

famous

motion, by showing
different

had

and

parts of a continuously connected

the
opposition,therefore,which

upon

Among

itself

its

as

the

presuppose

as

Beweise

space

that

gegen

of

die

Greeks

The

56

of time

subdivision

or

since the

is,that
tortoise)

the

and

Achilles

OosmologicalPeriod.

small
extent of
infinitely
According to this argument,

instant.
moved

is in

body

forth

intended

to

of

the

7.

of
an

of

physical questions
to

bodies

depends

they

the

which

to us.^

On

fire there

way,
the

they

as

Already

takes

able

were

instead

the

rotation

on

the

heaven

by

main,

to

relations

the

actual world

of

reality

were

of

also that

aware

of the
a

as

moon,

fixed

the

sun,

circuit

the

and

change

of

had

come

of

the

enly
heav-

day

and

night

indeed, they
first,

At

performed

about

that

side

planets, and
into

this

about

circles,outside
the

side, a

same

the

philosophy

to

earth

itself.

They brought

stars.

They were
cosmological and

bring

the

earth

in concentric

them.

investigation.They

astronomical

central fire
unknown

earth's

the

tral
cen-

same

finallythe

track,
heaven

system, however,

this

tween
bewhich
metaphysical dualism
they had maintained
as
perfect and the imperfect,inasmuch
they regardedthe

the

in

Plato's

time

the

hypothesis

of

Pythagoreans, Eophantus, Hicetus

younger
of the " counter-earth," which
had
hitherto
been
fire

was

ness
correct-

the

fundamental

to

the

central

in

the

answering

from

sphericalform

the

moved

the

the

the

determined

was,

place among

presented always the

other hand, they assumed

successively the
in

be

earth
the

containing

procedure

to

withdraw

to

movement

upon

of this movement

thought
to

of

knowledge

set

forms, they thereby ascribed a sort

derivative and
secondary character,to

what

to

of their

brilliant results

its

as

forms

of

though

less inclined

also the

far

so

things, and

individual

so

mathematical

of the

even
reality,

of

proof

indirect

as

however, they termed

reality. When,
imitation

ever

which

refutation

"

Pythagoreans, too, was

of the

mathematical

demonstrate

from

but

zero;

conception of Being.

Eleatic

conceptions in

Eleatic

time

same

number-theory

The

its track ; its

of

argumentations of Zeno
skilfully projected system of refuting

at the

serve

any

with
difficulties {airopiai)

theories,especiallyAtomism,

mechanical

to

in

plurality,these

and

extremely

an

equal

ence
refer-

resting arrow," the

point

one

above-mentioned

the

Together with
regard to space

has

'arises.

magnitude

real

no

zeros

many

called "the

some

is then

instant

this

in

movement

in

instant

every

always

performed

motion

the

constantly

becomes

third argument

the

the

to

will

latter

the

which

The

minimum.

approachesa

and

smaller

which

point from

that

pursued simultaneously starts, it follows

interval
be in advance, though by an

val
inter-

in every

pursuer

the

first reach

must

I.

[Part

and

the

earth

was

its axis.
of the

earth, invented
located
With

in the

this

fixed stars

was

merely

to

the
of

central

fire

was

(and

Syracuse

up by
it that

given
with

the
assumed
as placed between
fill out the number
ten), and

centre
of the universe
latter assumption that of
connected.

and
a

provided with

resting positionof

Chap.

Conceptionsof Cognition.

1, " 6.]

heaven

of

the

motions, as

stars,

on

realm

of

the

the contrary, on

on

and

of the

account

tion

world

of

uniformity
beneath

"

the

of its

changing
imperfection.

of

its

moon,"

formations

of

way

values].

It

thought of

in

was

order

an

knowledge

connection

Nature

of

in

Grecian

the

with

astronomical

conformity

insight

law

to

dawned

Anaxagoras reasons
ordering principle. Pythagoreanism finds in the

an

divine

upon

of

rest

upon

the

ideas

and

work

of

earth.
the

Here

different

very

the

Greeks.

relations,in
the

the

such

with

Greek

domain
that

of

science
the

other

In

result

influence

she

of the first

for after

it misses

religious
scientific

in the

tion
muta-

in the' great, simple

abides

the

ever

same.

stantly
change of manifold, conremained
still
hidden
uniformity

regarded
certain

the

its whole

this terrestrial

imperfect,the lower,

world.

the ultimate

heavens

the

by

clear
this

ancient

far

only

stars, which

intersectingmotions, this
from

the

Permanent

permanence

of the

world,

of

yielded thus

latter,seeking

revolution

terrestrial

result

This
found

meeting

the

from

which
(Sichgleichbleibens)

have

we

that
as

mind.

unchangeableness

of occurrence,

In

the

sublime

unrest

that

as

the

looking at things runs

parallelto that of Anaxagoras,
leads,though in another way, to the interweaving and complicar
of theory with
considerations
of worth
[ethicalor aesthetic

and

to

perfection;

motions, they regarded

This

of

account

b1

which

period,

the

wants

this

sense

result

may

world

be

which

rather

looked
a

of

order

sure

had

as

as

upon
ing
determin-

time.

What

the attitude
of the Pythagoreans
to the question concerning a periwas
odic
of the world
is uncertain.
A plurality
change of origination and annihilation
of co-existing worlds
is excluded
in their system.
In their theory of world-formation
and
in their particular physical doctrines
they concede
so
prominent
a
to Heraclitus.
Aristotle
place to fire that they come
near
even
places one
very
of the contemporaries
of Philolaus, Hippasus
of Metapontum,
in immediate
nection
conwith
Heraclitus
(Met. I. 3).
Their
the spherical shells
out of which
assumption of aether as a fifth element
of the heavens
to the
four
elements
of Empedocles,
is
were
formed, in addition
doubtless
earth.
a

if

connected
It

common

they had

is not

with

ground,
spoken

46), mathematical
original number,
seems,

school

too,
side

that

by

separation which

the

less difficult to
and

between
heaven
they made
the elements
they derived

and
from

if so, how

"

is exalted

regard

to

these

above

limitation

questions various

and

the

views

unlimited.
held

were

Yet

within

it
the

side.

" 6. The
M.

whether

it would
: according to
seem
as
many
passages
progressive attraction," i.e. in this case
(cf.above, p.
shaping out or forming of empty space by the ^v (one), the
of

which
in

decide

Schneidewin, JJeber

Conceptionsof Cognition.

die Ke.ime

erkenntnisstheoretischer

und

ethischer

Phi-

Philos.
II. (1869), pp.
Monatshefte,
Denkern,
losopheme bei den vorsokratischen
429.
257, 345,
B. Mtinz, Die
in der vorsophistischen Periods
Keime
der Erkenntnisstheorie
der griechischen Philosophie.
Vienna, 1880.

of the

has

not

it has

generation,until
in

language,

and

-which

logical needs

of

ground

in

this

fixed

and

embodied

data.

ideas

When

given

so

and

"

he

"

themselves

assert

the

does

he

as

flects
re-

then, even
though he takes
philosophising,
his expeof this fact,gro-ws out of discrepanciesbetween
account
rience
of the inadequacy exhibited
his thought
out
and
by what
set over
against
presented to his perception or imagination,when
the

on

no

these

transcends

or

ception
sense-per-

philosophicalactivityultimatelyconsists

it is in this that
the

behind

from

thinker's

the

of

part

The

thought,
generation to

and

consolidated

became

forms

so

of

transmitted

been

-with his reflection

individual

on

has

that

elaboration

an

truth

given, ho-wever, through

are

involuntary elaboration

the

through

and
"

ideas

Those

them.

naive

this presupposition

satisfied -with

longer

no

it seeks

that

current, and

it finds

-which

ideas

is

thought

reflective

ception
con-

consciousness.

recognitionin

to clear

come

Milesian

the

shaken, although

been

-world has

the

that

question proves
above

of

in

I.

intrinsic

current, originaland

the

that

[Part
is the

what

or

contained

already

apxrit presupposes

thinking

of

mode

is

things,-which

of

nature

the

CosmologicalPeriod.

question,-what things reallyare,

The

it

G-reeks

The

58

His

given.

"

is

the

demands

of

unconscious

in the

its inner

on

human

knowledge
farther

from

sprang
be

this

concern

separated from the

daily life,the clearer

theories

turned

conflictingideas

became
to

philosophising may

naive

fail to be

the

in time

the Grecian

became

another

source

sity
diver-

to

their

than

experience

theories

things

at

philosophers

between

contrast

looking

it

to the

he

within.

explanatory

of

way

However

understanding.

observations,therefore,which

reflection.The

and

his

ground

cannot

of the

sources

first

The

made

this

outset, attention

at the

1.

presuppositionsof

and

of

which

authors

that

of

science

belongs
those

that

the

customary

this
on
they
opinions.
yet
say
against truth, and this often
point. They set opinion (So^a)over
doctrines are
the
means
true and
only that their own
opinionsof
So much
false.
others
only is certain to them, that they owe their
To

own

views

reflection,while

to

intellectual

whose

have

sure

not

the

activity it

much

as

of

mass

to

mankind

"

concerning

is

just the older

philosophers,
in
themselves
Heraclitus, Parmenides, Empedocles, who
express
an
extremely depreciatorymanner
persist in the illusion of the
senses.
Only through thinking {^povuv, voeiv, Xdyos), then, is the
"

truth
has

found

; the

become

reflection
which

Heracl.

if

senses,

to

in

the

alone,give

itself that

common

Frag. (Schust.)11, 123

fraud

and

lie. ^

So

strong

it not

sequences
only proceeds to conthinking have become
absolutely

; Parmen.

Frag. (Karsten) 54 fl.

Grreeks

The

60
But

elements.

did

he

extends,

this

did

he

perform;

not

himself

all set

at

not

OosmologicalPeriod.

far

so

[Part

knowledge

our

as

he

task;

this

I.

probably

garded
re-

and
as
particularqualitiesas not being (objectively),
whatever
such
were
deception of the senses, just as all qualities
these

in

the

view

And

Parmenides.

of

oldest

the

so

supported by Leucippus, may well have

things only
point,maintaining that in individual
mists,as

situation,and
that

the

which

other

motion

properties were

here, too, found

of

gone

just

the

the

Ato-

to this

form, arrangement,

atoms

real,and

were

product "of

deceitful

the

senses,

explanation.^

further

no

constituent

the

of

view

of
perhaps jointlyinfluential in the mind
he regarded all qualitiesas
original,and not as
Anaxagoras when
having become what they are, and accordinglypostulated countless
elements.
of showing how
But for him
the oppositedifficulty
arose
it could come
in all,every
about, if all was
regarded as contained
of these
to
qualityin every thing, that only some
qualitiesseemed
difficulties

These

be

in individual

present

consideration

learn

can

that

of

because

the

idea

der's

of

the

minuteness

explained

constituent

the

the

up

that

awapov,

thought,

this

in

part

from

the

imperceptible
only by thought that we
parts

it is

; hence

qualities of things.^

true

followed

of

He

things.

many

their

to have

seems

were

Besides

are

this,however,

he

found

already in Anaximancomplete mingling of definite qualities

the
yields something indefinite.
So, at least, he described
of all substances
which
primitive mixture
preceded the formation
of the world
and
as
completely devoid of quality,'
a similar
thought
him
to
to have
the
four
seems
of
elements
permitted
regard
Empedocles

not

The

primitive substances, but

as

rationalism
the

among

knowledge

narrowing,

as

of

there

known

is here

given

contrasted

as

is,it

basis

is when

hand,

for the
with
the

of

great step

first time

the definite

advance,

asmuch
in-

nature

Only through
things to be
relations lying

of

mathematical
are

in

positive definition

"perception."
essential

recognised that things

are

form

affirming that
thought. This, though in itself

other

taught Philolaus,^is

; that

their

at

the

on

already mixtures.*
pre-Sophisticthinkers assumes,
as

particular

in mathematical

is yet,

"thought"

number,

the

Pythagoreans,
consists

the

to

common

rather

properly conceived

or

It is extremely improbable that the solution

of the problem
through the
suDjectivityof the sense-qualities,which
is found
in Democtritus,
was
presented
already by Leucippus, and
therefore
before
is universally
Protagoras, who
of this theory.
regarded as the founder
2 Sext.
VII. 90 f
Emp. Adv. Math.
"
this passage
the true light
Frag. (Schorn) 4. From
perhaps, be thrown
may,
.

upon
*
s

the
Arist.

sense

Be

in which

Gen.

Anaximander
I. 1, 314

et Oorr.

Frag. (Mull.)13.

designatesthe aTreipoias
a

24.

iSpuiTov.

Chap.

Conceptionsof Cognition: Philolaus, Zeno.

1, " 6.]

understood.

This

had

music

and

effort

in all other

in

result

the

knowledge

of

viz.

the

this

was

When,

Pythagoreans
their

object of

desire

in

and

they^ltimatelycame

to

could

completely

in

be

that

and

in

order,

to

the

however,

of order

realm
realm

the

i.e.

concluded

stars, they
the

only

met

of

the

and

fect,
imper-

earth, only practical

on

of avail.^

positive characteristic

investigators

had

set

specification,
appears

conformity

the

of the
perfect world
relates only to
(o-oc^ia)

subject

not

is
ability(dpET)?)

closer

experience of

is,to heaven,

change

earlier

the

requirement

science

perfection,that

Another

fields.

this

that

this that

of

and

astronomy,

the

from

been

61

of

which

"thinking"

the

against "perceiving," without

obscurely in the reasonings of Zeno,
over

logical laws.

to

the

the

At

basis

of

his

all

attacks

lie the principle of contradiction

and
against pluralityand motion
the presupposition that that can
the same
be actual
of which
not
This principleand presupthing must be affirmed and also denied.
position
and
applied with clearness
certainty,though
Eleatic
The
expressed.
theory of the world, so
paradoxical,forced its supporters to enter into polemic more
did

the

others,and
also

was

logicallywell

of

the

attained

in

2.

setting

"

logical

refutation

not

from

of

other

estimation

an

notable

which

yet

as

relative

their

of

with
and

which

these
of

process

first and
under

of

of

the

at this

time

course

of

other

the

far

so

formations,

universe.

considered

the

things

the

in

The

since

transformations,
or

soul

the

men

everywhere

Stob.

Eel.

I. 488.

of
as

is

activity
decided

In

the

and

are

this

or

to

see

in

this

products

its action

connection

origin

directed

was

activitycame

obliged

or

product they

principlesof explanation are

mental

they

mind

among

thinking

as

were

ceiving
"per-

epistemo[i.e.from

apprehend

man's

scientifically
only in

universe, whose
; and

world,

outer

the

psychological principles
to

their

although

Eor

knowing.

attention

activityone
motion,

investigatorssought

same

chieflytoward

their

the

stand

this,however,

to

and

"thinking"

of mental
of these
forms
two
postulate that one
worth
more
epistemologicallyfor attaining truth].
with

which

training
led

dence
evischool

the

the

contradiction

than

it seems,

as

Werthbestimmung)
{erkenntnisstheoretischen

value

highly

each

against

to

have

to

seem

offer

formal

this

sure,

logicallaws.

over

then,

arose,

does

divided,

of

be

To

circles
of

statement

The

and

arranged

consequence.

treatise,which,

to Zeno's

as

developed technique

in Eleatic

prevailed
abstract

accounts

stractly
ab-

not

were

with

are

of

then

the entire

truly as are all

period the general

as

yet conceived

corpore-

G-reehs

The

62

that

follows

it

ally

Period.
Qosmological

also

meet

we

[Part

materialistic

thorough-going

I.

psychology}
mind

Now

such

ascribed

likewise

and

Heraclitus

moving, rational

Empedocles,
regarded

soul

individual

the

(One)

which

regarded

part

and

that

it

was

fact that

volitions

Besides

by

not

them.

to
all these

mysteries
their

with
2

In

are

and

leaves

science

oldest

it is that

of the

in

which
in

sunlight discloses in the

ing
say-

only

and

the

with

of

the

in

the

body

filled,in

was

knowing,"

"

attention.*

Of

mention.^

But

resulted
of

case

from

several

Pythagoreans)

of

feelings
as

the

their general
these

still other

former, but are

as
prison of the

the

in

evpn

men

trines
doctradiction
con-

sodl (o-ii^iui
=

after
death, transmigration of souls,
recompense
the philosophers took
from
their relations
to the

priestlyteaching, however
expressions are not
the Pythagoreans
declared

their

of

some

by

is,the living,

ideation,of

of

soul, which

tradition

connected

only
A
conception

retained

manner,

the

Empedocles,
not

ideas

was

can

we

nor

body in death, were

we
to-daydesignate
of the specifically

the

characterisation

this

which

find

we

definite

that

propertieswhich

clear

scientific teachings.

like

expression
the body;

soul

the

more

of

the h

world,

the

which

an

"

those
a

personal immortality,
"r^/ia),
"

statement

vague

attributes

(Heraclitus,Parmenides,
are

of

of the

with

same

that

instead,they taught

characterisations

those

the

as

exclusivelythe object of
is scarcely incidental
there

scientific theory,
which

system

essence

principleof

moving

as

parts.
force, which

find

these

among

is almost

and

the

world-

its

time

same

interest

theoretical

in the

Pythagoreans, too,

the

With

considered

harmony

moving

psychical,"we

which

it ;

meaning

at the

be

harmony,

to this

now

"

as

of

activity of

harmonious

not

this very

made

interpret^as

ascribed

could

blood.'

the

found

ApoUonia

of

the

conceived

they

as

number,

If

with

air mixed

in the

soul

hypotheticalphysics)

his

the

Diogenes

soul.

as

(in

air,

lacking, the mixed

corporeal moving principlewas
streams
through the living body, the blood, was

which

substance

Parmenides

the

in

it

found

fiery atoms,^ and Anaxagoras

substance, the toBs. Where, as in
in

fire,Leucippus

in

Anaximenes

was

recognised as

been

whole.

the

principlein

moving

had

world

souls

individual

of

nature

that which

at first in

sought

therefore

essential

The

souls.

of

full

was

whole

the

that

declared

soul to magnets, and

place moving force. Thales

first

the

is in

soul

or

Such

air to be

little they accorded

treated
the

above.

motes

which

the

souls.

3
and
to this, he recognised the distinction between
venous
Since, with reference
by his irvevim what the chemistry of to-day calls oxygen.
arteriajjblood, he meant
*
According to Plato, Phcedo, 85 ff.
6 The
is only knowing
of Anaxagoras
vovs
Diogenes of Apolloniais
; air with
is at the
Being with Parmenides
a
great, powerful, eternal, intelligentbody.
time
Only (piKbT-q^and xeiKos with Empedocles
mythically
voclv,etc.
same
are
hypostasisedimpulses, and these, too, have nothing to do with his psychological

views.
8

"With

this is connected

the

fact

that

in general

we

cannot

once

speak

of

Chap.

individual

soul

of the force
of

of Cognition:Heraclitus,Anaxagoras.
Conceptions

1," 6.]

in

which

it is

as

could

be
This

and

individual

; each

Anaxagoras

is

contained

in

him

is clearest

of

held

was

universe,so also
only as a part

conceived

activityof the world.'

force

moving

the entire

moves

individual

the

far

so

the
of

"

knowing
knowing

Heraclitus

much

knowledge as
general World-reason, fire

the

so

"

Heraclitus,^ the

with

Anaxagoras.

In

the

part

"

the

sys^ms of

in the

has

to be

63

there
with

of

Leucippus
ApoUonia the ideas are similar.
This
with
physical conception,which
Anaxagoras especiallyis
purely quantitative,was
given a turn by Heraclitus, in which
the
epistemologicalpostulate again forces its way
to the
front, and

and

of

vov"s

Diogenes

of

asserts

itself in the

view.

The

the

is

of

vovs

that

which

which

is

each
all.

By

has

one

every
one

has

his

means

of

this

law,

the

and

subjection to

in

the

to

conception

intellectual

the

unite

himself.
world

own

force.

In

is

that

of

knowing

the

common,

realm

acquires

well

as

as

in

law

the

to

(^wdv)

to

universally valid
significance,*

normative

law,

order

is

personal opinion,

common

of

and

then,

and

in

his

distributed

are

dreams,

knowing

the

Heraclitus'

Knowing,

the

characteristic,viz.
to

of

Reason,

It is therefore

profounder

participatesin

Xdyos

moving

as

a'

and

individual
the

same;

all.

to

deeper insight

homogenous

as

universe

common

the

everywhere
whole

of

in which

Anaxagoras,

the

through

interest

World-reason

knowledge

case

as

appears

duty

ethical,and
political,

religious."

attempts at ethical
admonitions

or

of.
^

below,

The

investigationin
be regarded

cannot

this
as

period. For singlemoralising reflections

On the only excepbeginnings of ethics.
tion

5.

note

first used
by Plato, or at the earliest by
much
questioned just for
certainly been
this reason,
Mull.
Heraclitus,
21). The idea is certainlypresent in Anaximenes,
the Pythagoreans.
Anaxagoras, aud perhaps also among
2
Hence
the paradoxical
the
expression, the dryest soul is the wisest, and
warning to guard the soul from the wet
(intoxication).
' Cf
for this and
the
vom
following, M. Heinze, Die Lehre
Logos in der
griechischen Philosophie (Oldenburg, 1872).
*
Frag. (Schust.)123.
5 This
is the only conception in the development
of pre-Sophisticthought, in
the case
of which
we
can
speak of an attempt to propound a scientific principle
of ethics.
If Heraclitus
universal
had
in mind
a
expression for all moral duties
in speaking of this subordination
to law, or at least hit upon
such, he attached
it at once
which
declared
to the fundamental
of
this
his
metaphysics,
thoughts
law to be the abiding essence
of the world.
Yet
attention has above
(" 4) been

expression

Philolaus

"

World-soul

(in the fragment

"

which

was

has

'

called

to the

fact

him, he did fiot

physical

from

itself clear
the

from

which
in the conception of the world-order
yet separate consciously the different motives

the
the

ethical),and
physical to

so
an

ethical
investigation does
independent position. The

Pythagoreans, who expressed the conception of order by the

(which also might be adopted from Heraclitus), and therefore
To
be sure, they used
as
the term
harmony."
"harmony
health, and for many
oth^r things.
"

hovered

that
as

before

the
(especially
not

yet work

as

is true

same

term

"

harmony

designated
"

for the

of
"

virtue

soul, for

The

64

If

3.

now

Greeks

explained that "knowledge"

his

body,

the

find

we

whole

of

company

senses."

When

only

his
is

man

the

individual

the

World-reason

the

was

i.e.into

man,

by
is,"through the

successors

fact

Heraclitus

offered

answer

awake,

[Part I.

assumptions

into

comes

the

that

these

under

how

ask

we

CosmologicalPeriod.

door

and
of the

into his

streams

(sight and hearing are of course

body through the opened senses
This
comes
about,to
chieflynoticed'),and, therefore, he knows.
be sure, only if there is besides, in the man
himself, so much
reason
is met
soul that the motion
or
by an inner
coming from without
^

motion

but

between

the

and

outer

which,

knowledge

reason

Heraclitus

menides,' however,
distinction.*

when

involved,
constituted

Still

the

by
and

permitted,
thought

he

of

that

mixture

when

the

more

said

he

and

perceiving

thinking

as

dependent

regarded

the

for the
These
their

conception more
hypotheses.

Also

smell

the

as

in the members

of the

confirmation

that

same,

change
the

of

blood

thinkers

plain to

that

he

the
of

as

is

man

conditions

of

his

Empedocles

of

in

body

general
general."
declared
in

thought change
body,

and

decisive

that

he

importance

man.

did

not

hesitate,moreover,

to make

the

of physioimagination by means
logical
in
his
taught
hypothetical physics

Parmenides

and

individual

testimony^

upon

(Empedocles)

of the

thinking

the

Par-

state.

corporealityand

capacity of the

last-named

two

to

thought

so

in this

be

to

constitution

intellectual

more

one

how

such a
position to make
sharply still the dependence

of substances

the

thinking

rests.

thinking

every

identity of

express

know

little in

the

found

is

sensesj

between

not

expressed

in which

bodily relations

upon

he

Rather,

does

just as

was

the

through

ing,
perceiving and thinkrespectiveepistemologicalvalues, are so

their

regards

as

abruptly opposed,

taste

(Anaxagoras).

Only

the

Atomists, and

particular Democi-itus, seem

to have
of touch.
given value to the sense
2 Arist.
Be An.
I. 2, 405 a 27.
'
Theophr. De Sens. 3 f.
"
So, too, it is reported (Theophr. De
Sens. 25) of Alcmseon, the Pythago-

reanising physician, that

to be
a

inner

the

distinction,then,
psychological

in

interaction, effected

this

upon

the

he

characteristic

which
precise determination

more

declared

thought

or

^6i/os^uHt/o-i)
(dfrt

consciousness

from
the
distinguishesman
is lackinghere
also, unless, in

other

But

animals.

with the
accordance
expressibn, we think of something similar to the Aristotelian Koivbv aWe-iiTipiov.
With
this would
the circumstance
that the first attempts to localise the
agree

particularpsychical
made

in the

relations

activities

in

particular parts

circles of the
them

to

organs

and

them

Pythagoreans and
localising,
e.g., thought

;
in the

heart, and
ApoUonia, and

the

of

of the
in the

emotions

the

been
to have
body seem
in
near
who
stood
physicians
indibrain, perception in the vidual

also

in the

after him
Diogenes of
Democritus,
these
beginnings of a physiological
psychology.
6
Frag. (Karst.)vv. 146-149.
6

Arist.

Theophr.

De
De

An.
Sens.

I.

2, 404

10 f.

7 ; III.

3,

427

21

Met.

latter organ.
seem

III.

to

have

5, 1009

From

taken

17 ;

in

is

like

that

the

the

in
the

pores

of

which

this

in

This

part

are

is

in

these

metaphysical

Theophr.

Perhaps

perception
opposition

this

was

Theophr.
that

the
the

every

De

opposite
all

is

it

ground

smell,

with

from

organs

their

objects,

observations

by

not

He

warmth

doctrine

maintained

is

also
of

that

taught

without

all

by

opposed

was

certain.''

opposite,
his

events,

like,

by

by
proof

them

in

the
that
their

7.
here

have

from

and

its

into

sensationalism.

Sens.

De
we

and

apprehended

rationalists

crass

is

At

etc'

man,

psychology

like

of

only

hearing,

sense

form

outer

accessible

fit

effluxes

ment
ele-

same

is

organ

the

of

energy

their

sight,

what

on

"

specific

the

out

acute.'

very

that

Anaxagoras,

cold

for

whose

ocles,
Empedcarried

pores,

each

65

warmth

body.

perceives

that

only

between

out

view,

perception

the

similarity

carried

teach

to

as

and

body

the

by

dead

the

effluxes

our

substances

those

derived

he

i.e.

relations
and

of

impress

so

in

Empedocles.

without
in

even

of

element

world,

warmth

cold

theory

Farmenides,

like,

the

his

every

outer

by

by

of

aid

that

thought

to

without

cold

with
the

perceived

always

the

ma,n,

of Cognition

Conceptions

1, " 6.]

Chap.

motion

ivavnoTpoiria,

principle
Sens.

perception

27

of
f".
is

of

remembrance

"

all
It

joined

HeraoUtus,

against

motion,

who

also
and

explained
with

whom

"

motion.
is

interesting
with

pain

that

(Mtttj).

Anaxagoras

inferred

from

II.

CHAPTER

G.

Grote,

C.

F.

1839),
Blass,
H.

Die

Beredsamkeit

der

Jackson,

that

mental

the

Grieohen,"

in

result

the

restraints

and

brought

in
in

Enc.

of
out

und

Vortrggen

"

Eeden,

the

close

schools

upon

the

the

which
of

upward

nation

fE.

54

pp.

it

of

after

torn

been

all

the
from

away

quietly

where

publicity,

the

movement

was

had

by

achieved

science

wars,

stage

1888).

1884),

determined

was

universal

which

in

i. B.

i. B.

science

(3-reek

Persian

Untersuchungen

"

powerful,
life

in

(Freiburg

(Freiburg

Brit.

of

the

of

Aufl.

"Prffiludien"

spiritual

and

victorious

berg,
(Heidel-

1868.

Lelps.

Sophistik,

zur

1873,

development

circumstance

Lysias.

zu

Akad.

"

Verhdltniss

Sophists,

farther

The

I.

Philosophie,

fi.

Sokrates
Art.

bis

In

1855,

Volk,

Sokrates^

Windelband,

474-544.

pp.

platonischen

der

Gorgias

von

sein

219

pp.

Ueber

Philosophie

zur

[H.

und

1859),

Siebecli,

W.

pp.

Sokrates

(Zurich,
H.

1850),

179-231.

attische

Kochly,

System

und

Geschichte

Hermann,

(London,

VIII.

of Greece,

History

PERIOD.

ANTHKOPOLOGICAL

THE

pursued,
ment
vehe-

in

was

agitation.
circles

The

in

from

generation

been

presented

that

hard

were

and

already
views

been

already
architecture.

generation,

to
in

smaller

the

made

the

practically
medicine,

according

of

systems

of

of

natural

and
time

science,

had
that

became

had

through

so

and

of

first

into

had

Nature

only

in

his

an

art

the

with

the

with

permeated

ever-broader

the

conceptions

been

with

had

writings

Hippodamus

physiological
an

widened

Epicharmus,

and

formerly

became

in

scientific

by

as

encumbered
66

abroad

investigation

of

occupied
it

language

philosophy,

hypotheses

at

Euripides

effective,
which

which

filter

to

as

by

traditions,

to

conceptions

course

gained

had

spread

begun

their

fostered

doctrines

and

poets,

into

knowledge

information,
in

had

The

was

the

societies

translate

to

research
and

understand,

to

Even

practised
general

scientific

consciousness.

general
began

which

special

research
space
an

trines,
doc-

which
in

the

excessive

68

Philosophy of

The

from

the smaller

cities,to gain honour

In

so

it

this way

in

that

happened

social

of Pericles

; but

into

It
in

of

state

the

became
the

case

dependence

particular,of politicallife.

in

facts

the

in
principally

themselves

showed

demands

These

in

social

and

tendency

nature, its

it came

means

of practical,and

the demands

upon

this

just by

as

the

only

not

fundamentally changed.
determining factor in politicallife,as

power,

well

I.

"

time

short

inner

position of science, but its own

questions for its solution,were
a

wealth.

and

[Part

capitalas

the

in

them

expounding

trines,and

Q-reeks.

the

that

first of all the capacof politicians

ity
politydemanded
the
instruction
that in consequence
for public speaking, and
of the Sophists was
especiallysought as a preparation for public
of science
this object. Men
and more
life,and converged more
upon

democratic

the

teachers

became

of which

vision

the
At

man's

toward

speaking

designed

which

this

way

formal

to

and

ideas

with

contend

they

and

thinking

was

in

manner

to

science

Greek

their

the

took

subjective direction, studying

ideation
and volition,and at the

the

public

toward

"

the

in which,

way
mutual

their

maintain

and

which

control,

arise, and

volitions

ful
grace-

necessarily directed

activities

and

determine

most

if
investigations,

own

routine,were
"

of science.'

eyes

in the

doctrines

willing,

another

one

the

before

formerly hovered

had

confined

not

were

goal of nature-knowledge,

of the

most

and

they

sight

lost

they presented transmitted

possible. But
pleasing form

the

In

of eloquence.

such, however, they

As

rights.

essentiallyanthropologicalor

an

the

inner

same

time

activities
lost its

of

man,

his

purely theoretical

acquired a preponderantly practical significance.^

itself brought face
while
the activityof the Sophists found
But
of human
with
the manifold
character
to face
thought and will,
the teachers
of eloquence were
while
presenting the art of persuasion
be
which
and
the
could
pursuing
path upon
opinion
every
to its achievement, the question
helped to victory, every purpose
them
whether
above
and
before
rose
beyond these individual
ions
opincharacter

and
is

and

and

purposes

can

defend

right and

which

true

For

in

is the

philosophy,or
it is likewise

religiousfaith

and

itself.

the

1 Cicero's
well-known
holds good for the entire

there

The

problem

of the

the

feels within

one

against others,

universally valid,
Greek

each

Greek

himself

is

as

necessity

that

whatever

anything
question whether there

anything

is

anthropologicalperiod of
Enlightenment.

of

the

problem of the
old morality were

time,

"

of

wavering, a

expression (Tusc. V. 4, 10)

philosophy of this period.

with

time

time

regard

in which
when

to

the

Socrates

Chap.

The

2.]

respect which
all tended

Period.
Anthropological

authority had

towards

commanded

anarchy

an

this

and

war,

with

The

raised

which

taken

fundamental
for

to

the

well

as

which

frivolous

flower

was

With

the

which

only

mentioned,

an

from

of the

the

to

other

and

force

that

existence
of

was

him

the

they

the

the

order

the

Sophistswas

the

author

to

of

dialectic.
as

the

of

of

an

as

quiry
in-

the

unbridled

public life.
least,he

at

him, Gorgias,who

philosophy
a

all

rhetorician

and

and

who

occar

the

surpassed

Prodicus

is

only to
popularising polyhistw, and

truth.

Bhet.

it

This

the

II.

whose

essence

he

of

are

found

conviction

which
in

he

riv

tJttoi
\6yov Kpehra

1402

23.

younger
of

the
with

was

disposition,but
set

anew

over

conceptionalthought.

Sophists stand, accordingly,on

24,

the

conviction

his moral

was

investigation of knowledge,

well-known

the

Arlst,

disowned

conceptions jjhilosophi-

with

Hippias

type

universallyvalid

and

Cf.

so

of

opinions,and

ff.J

of
relativity

Protagoras;

of any

only

domain

of

mouth-piece

essentiallypractical sort;

Socrates

viz. the

"

side,appears

an

of
an

against

as

norms.

consciousness

disordered

the

of

inaries
prelim-

ethical

the

"

position

the

taught,

their

to

this rhetoric,

hand,

moralising.
superficial
example
lack
and
of conviction
activity
and
a
Sophists,Socrates opposed faith in reason
other

tation
refu-

importance

logicaland

presented itself

of

Eleatic
one

scientific

inferior

proposition whatever,^

undermining

his

the

with

the

the

significant. Contrasted

at

by

cal,
universallyvalid truth in the theoretipracticalsphere, and so supported a scepticism
became
a
genuine scientific theory, but soon
their self-complacent, pettifogging advocacy,

who

sionally attempted
the

perfecting the

they practised

of

head

and

usually placed

893

Grecian

and
presentation, verification,

overwhelming

were

one

fruitful

artifices of

of

developed,on

themselves

intellectual

it led

of

decidedly increased

cosmological systems

existence

Sophists made

The

at first

were

investigation

any

such

play.

tendencies

him

Peloponnesian

independent psychology,

purposes

in the

as

first

at

To

Greek

of

what

through

with

to

as

the

the

beginnings

in the

and

clearlyand

be

the

self-

created

of

considered

ideas

cally

tlie

of

supremacy

systematicconsideration

carry

human

was

become

disintegrationof
disorders

and

more,

indeed

science,and

they

as

the

had

teach, they

the

this branch

it had

skill

who

Sophists were
art

to

hand,

one

the

formal
had

they

the

condition

while

of the

which
on

this

For

development

But

fall of Athenian

of

dangers

philosophy.

individuals

in the

and

more

withered.

culture

and

sank

internal

governing. Very soon

clearly evident
spiritbecame
the

of

69

the

ground

voielv, Aristoph. Nuh-

112

of

ff.,

the

same

the

and

caught in the
a
negative result,there the
noble
personalityof Socrates

and

science.

with

the

Sophisticactivityinto

ethical

conduct

become
of

had

and
disintegrated,
who

founded

now

had

in

Sophistic principleswere

the

exclusively anthropological

remained

the

forced

in

for the

the

most

with

the

tempt
atthe

part

teaching
Athenian

scientific work

whose

often

him

activityto the

their

intercourse

enjoyed

made

principlesfor
had

schools

old

and

followed'

It

diverted

schools,

new

same

learning remain
and
end
day

Socrates

insight,sure

the

While

of life.

rhetoric, men

sage

scientific

gain, through

to

the

the pure
plain,sound
sense, and
of morality
find again the ideals

lines.

new

the

of

strong impression yrhich the teaching of

The

discuss

skill and

their

Sophists with
of the opinions
confusion

where

; but

problems

[Part I.

time, and

the

of

consciousness

common

Greeks.

the

Philosophy of

The

70

Soeratic

strangely intermingled,while

direction

their

of

investigation

same.

these

schools, called for the most

Soeratic,"though
Among
part
the
founded
not
quite accurately,
Megarian,
by Euclid, fell most
subtleties
of the later Sophists. Connected
deeply into the unfruitful
with
The

"

this

is the Elean-Eretrian

fundamental

literature

the
Oyreiiaic,
these

the

by

The

and

teachers
In

on:

its

the

most

unimportant.

conception of
its scientific

life which

expression

whose

Stoic

oppositionpermeates all
namely, the Cynie and the
and
Epicurean. The first of

adherents,
In

Diogenes.

School,

of

grandson

societies.

the

figureof

Hedonistic

wandering

time

among

popular

Anniceris, Hegesias,
scholastic

of

numbers

Antisthenes,the
called

that

the

day, found

schools

two

from

precursors

schools

also

life of that

teachings of those

ancient

in

contrast,however,

prevailedin the Greek

in the

School, the

the

same

besides
the

its

founder

founder, Aristippus,was
and

name,

is

latter,which

later

ceeded
suc-

by Theodoms,

Euemerus.
known

the

as

second

the

Sophists

half

of

the

came

fifth

in part from
the earlier
for the
century these had

part disappeared, and had given place to a freer announcement

of opinions
not unfavourable
attained, which
was
to special research, particularlyphysiological
of Hippo,
research, as in the case
of Apollonia,
Cleidemus, and Diogenes
most

which

but

Abdera

of

was

and

attended
the

by a crippling
Pythagorean School

society of Heracliteans
fallen
Prom

into the
away
the Atomistic

which

maintained

of

general speculation. Only

survived
itself

this
in

Ephesus

pursuits of the Sophists, as in the

School

time

case

of

the

school

dissolution.

to have
soon
appears
of Cratylua.i

of Abdera
Protagoras
(about 480-410). He
of the first,
and
was
one
rightlythe most renowned, of these wandering teachers.
Active
times
in Athens, he is said to have been
at various
convicted
of impiety
fled because
in that city,to have
of this,and
to have
his death
met
in flight. Of
his numerous
treatises,grammatical, logical,
and
ethical,political,
religious in
their character, very
little has been
preserved.

1
tin
1010

In
Q
a

Plato
19
13

(ThecBt.

181

came

A) they

are

called

o! i^oi^res : cf. Arist.

Met.

IV.

5,

The

2.]

Chap.

71

Period.
Anthropological

in Athens
in 427
from
his
as
an
Gorgias of Leontini (483-375) was
envoy
In old age
he lived
in
city, and there gained great literaryinfluence.
in Thessaly.
He
from
the
Larissa
of orators, with
Sicilian school
which
came
Empedocles also had been connected.i
of Elis, with
the
Concerning Hippias
exception of sogie opinions (among
criticised in the Platonic
those
which
are
dialogue Sippias Major), it is known
Of Prodicus
of
great parade of his "much
only that he made
knowledge."
of Ceos, the familiar
the island
roads"
at the Crosson
allegory " Hercules
lulls,a town
is preserved by Xenophon,
Memor.
II. 1, 21.
The
remaining Sophists,
for the most
known
intrinsic
We
part through Plato, are without
importance.
know
is put in the mouth
of one
only that this or that characteristic affirmation
native

or

another.

forming
difficultythat
In

conception

a
we

victorious

their

are

made

opponents,

of the

Sophistic doctrine
them
acquainted with

Plato

and

Aristotle.

The

have

we

to contend

with

the

exclusively through
first has given in the Protagoras

almost

fine
of a Sophist congress,
redolent
with
graceful,lively delineation
in
the
in
and
the
Theoetetus
more
a
a
Gorgias
irony,
sharper criticism,
earnest,
in the Cratylus and
of
supercilious satire of the Sophists' methods
Euthydemus
Plato's
is attached, an
name
teaching. In the dialogue the Sophist, to which
definition
of the theories
of the Sophists is attempted, and
extremely malicious
Aristotle
reaches
the same
result
in the book
the fallacies of the Sophists
on
a

(Ch. I.
The

165

21).

history
of

of

opponents

philosophy for a long

of the
Sophists, and

man,"
only a "learned
meaning which
they
thereupon it followed, as

meant

and

repeated

allowed

depreciatory judgment
o-o^wtt^s (which

the
word

the

or, if you
had
given
often

will, a "professor") to
it.
Hegel rehabilitated
for
happens, that they were

bear
the

the

time

paraging
dis-

Sophifets,
estimated,
over-

by Grote.

as

M.

time

Schanz, Die

Sophisten (Gottingen, 1867).

an
epoch in the history of philosophy,
(469-399) makes
even
characteristics, by his original personality, and his new
by his external
neither
longed
savant
nor
style of philosophising. He
wandering teacher, bewas
of the people,
school
and
adhered
He
to no
to none.
a
was
simple man
In his ardent
the son
of a sculptor, and
himself
with
the chisel.
at first busied
desire
for knowledge
with
which
the streets
of
he absorbed
the new
doctrines
his native
iant
to
be dazzled
by these brillcity re-echoed, but did not allow himself
Socrates

of

rhetorical

keen

Athens

efforts,nor

did

he

find

himself

advanced

much

by

them.

His

earnestness
was
contradictions, and his moral
offended
effort after culture.
and
by the superficiality
frivolityof this constant
He
held it to be his duty to enlighten himself
his fellow-citizens concerning
and
the emptiness of this pretended knowledge,
investigation,
and, through earnest
to follow after truth.
So, a philosopher of this opportunity and of daily life,he
worked
his fellow-citizens, until misunderstanding and
unremittingly among
sonal
perhim
to the death
condemned
intriguebrought him before the court which
that was
to become
his greatest glory.
The
accounts
sonality.
concerning him give a clear and trustworthy picture of his per'In these accounts
finer
and
Plato's
coarser
portrayal
Xenophon's
supplement each other most
happily. The first in almost all his writings brings

thought

the

out

took

honoured

of

note

teacher

their

with

dramatic

vividness.

Of

the

second

we

have

to

Sujcpdrous) and the Symposium.

{'ATrofiPTi/wveifrnTo.
As regards his teaching, the case
the presentations of
for here
is more
difficult,
both
and
Plato
Xenophon
are
partisan writings, each laying claim to the famous
The
for his own
mild
doctrine
of Xenophon
name
a
Cynicism).
(in the case
of the
of Aristotle are
all essential
statements
authoritative
on
points, because
greater historical separation and the freer point of view.
di Socrate
E. Alberti, Sokrates
(Gottingen, 1869) ; A. Labriola, La Dottrina
(Naples, 1871) ; A. Fouillge, La Philosophie de Socrate (Paris,1873).
of Megara founded
The
Buclid
of Socrates.
his school
after the death
soon
Eristics
of Elis, Diodonis
two
of Miletus, Alexinus
(see below), Eiubulides
of Caria (died 307), and
Cronus
as
Stilpo
(380-300), are to be mentioned
consider

In

the

regard

1884, pp. 343

Memorabilia

to

fi.

these

relationships of.

H.

Diels, Berichte

der

Berl.

Akademie,

72

The

Greeks

Period.
Anthropological

[Part

had
only a brief existence, and later became
school, which
of the society which
is true
Cynics and Stoics. The same
in his home
at Elis, and
the favourite
which
Fhaedo,
pupil of Socrates, founded
Cf. E. Mallet, Mistoire
after transplanted to Eretria.
Menedemus
soon
de
et d^ErHrie
I'ecole de Megare et des ecoles d^Mis
(Paris,1845).
The
founder
of the Cynic School
Cynosar(named after the gymnasium
older
friend of
Antisthenes
of Athens,
an
who, like Euclid, was
ges) was
Socrates.
of Sinope is rather
The
a characteristic
singular Diogenes
by-figure
In this connection
in the history of civilisation
of science.
than
Crates
a man

belonging

this

to

incorporated

of

Thebes

the

with

the

also

may

mentioned.

be

this

Later

school

F. Diimmler,
Antisthenica
(Halle, 1882) ; K.
Kyniker, oder die Philosophie des griechischen

I.

blended

was

with

that of

Stoics.

Gottling, Diogenes

W.

(Ges.

Proletariats

der

Abhandl.

251ff.).

wandering teacher, somewhat

younger
only for a little time with the Socratic
left to his grandson the
his school
in old age, and
to have
seems
circle,founded
rather
a practical
systematic development of thoughts, which, for himself, were
above-named
into
successors
principle of life. The
(Theodoras, etc.)extend
the third century, and
form
the transition
to the Epicurean School, which
took
of

AristippuB

than

Euclid

the

up

A.

and

Cyrene, a Sophist and

Antisthenes, and united

of the

remnants

Wendt,

Hedonistic

" 7. The
The

reflections

so-called

of

the

fifth

to law.

The

had

meet

century
of

of

Problem

In

their

serious

the
their

like

of

sentences
central

the

manner

for

lack

minds

the

of

disciplineand

discerned

moralists

part against

most

the

point,the
pessimistic

poets, philosophers,and

directed

men,

and

already, as

among

are

Morality.

poets

moderation.

we

license

unbridled

itself.

Gnomic

men

to observe

complaints which
of

the

wise

seven

admonition

into

Philosophia Cyrenaica (Gottingen,1841).

De

of

the

obedience

the
danger which
passionateseething and foaming of public life brought with it,and
the
politicalexperience that party strife was
ethicallyendurable
only where it left the order of the laws untouched, made
subjection
the supreme
to law appear
and the Pythagoreans
as
duty. Heraclitas
expressed this with complete clearness,and knew how to attach it
to the fundamental
conceptions of their metaphysical theories.^
We

more

here

meet

thinkers

laws.

actual

they

are

and

one

two

The

naive

in

asking

it

existence,those

here
the

once

assumptions

self-evident

asking whence

have

No

as

appear

validity of
without

with

for

the

which

presuppositions.
consciousness

comes

or

by

what

as

well

of morals

all,and

the

its claim

to

as

individual

valid

assumption is a conviction which

of all peoples and
all times:

it is

command

the

justified.Laws
of the

to

examining
authority consists.

is fundamental
viz.

that

Cf. above, p. 6.3,note

5.

courts ;

follow

of

them.

the
The

law
ond
sec-

ing
in the moralis-

obedience

brings advantage, disregard of it, disadvantage.

^

first is the

The

those
has

these

among

obeys

pre-Sophisticperiod thought

in what

even

As

to
the

the

law-

result of

2, " 7.]

Problem

thought
which
is
sel,"^

admonition

takes

directed

the

Chap.

this

well

the

With

shrewdness

of

within

him.

slumbering
Enlightenment

Greek

began
it

to

the character

on

desires

to the

as

of Morality: the Sophists.

to

problem.
1. The
impulse

and

waver,

of

the

persuasivecounadmonished

one

in

confidence

73

both

of

accordinglymorality

as

these

suppositions
pre-

became

for

The

frequent

to undermine

of

this

to

from

came

and

sudden

the

authority of

change

it accustomed

but

to reflect and

and

besides

upon

set himself
this

noting

the

not

the

indeed

was

only

took

the

adapted
the

away

halo

individual

law,

democratic

republicespecially
ground and validityof laws as he
law became
a
subjectfor discussion,
it. If, now,
with his judgment above

mutation

variety exhibited

It not

validity from

of

Political

voted.

individual

the

to the

decide

and

consulted

citizen

the

experiencesof public life.

of constitutions

law.

unconditional, unquestioned

the

in

only

attention

time,
in

the

is

also

politicallaws, but

given
also

in

prescribed by customary morality in the different states

the worth
of
is that
different
and among
peoples,the consequence
to laws.^
universal
can
no
longer be attributed
validityfor all men
At least this holds good in the first place for all laios made
by man;
laws.
in any case, therefore, for political
whether
there
In the face of these experiences the question arose
that is valid everywhere and always, any law
is anything whatever
between
that is independent of the difference
peoples,states, and

the

usages

times, and
with

therefore
which

problem

physics.

The

essence

authoritative

for

all.

completelyparallel to

was

of

things

which

ethics

Greek

the initial

remains

the

ever

began

thus

problem of
same

and

changes the philosophers of the first period had called

' it is
is also determined
there
asked
whether
Nature
now
:
("^u'o-ts)
above
is exalted
that
law
a
by this unchanging Nature
(cjiva-a)
this it is pointed
with
all change and all differences,and in contrast
valid only for a time, and within
that all existing prescriptions
out
institution or
a limited
are
given and established by human
territory,
survives

statute

This

all

(Oea-aor vofia).
contrast

between

characteristic

most

work

Nature
of

the

and

Greek

institution

or

Enlightenment

statute
in the

is the
formar

the
choosing
typical example of this is the allegory of Prodious, in which
he
in
case
well
Virtue
Vice,
is promised golden mountains
hy
as
as
by
will intrust himself
to her guidance.
2
IV. 4, 14 ff.
Hippias in Xen. Mem.
=
by the writings of all the older philosophers.
Ilepi (pitrem is the title borne
^tfo-iswas
mark
of the concept
It is to be
that
the
constitutive
emphasised
the
like itself. The
contrary of this is then
originallythat of remaining ever
occurs
a single time.
transient, that which
1

Hercules

74

tion

[Part I.

philosophy of

entire

the

dominates

It

conceptions.

of

Period.
Anthropological

G-reeJcs:

The

the

ciple
period,and has from the beginning not only the meaning of a prinof
dard
stana norm
or
of genetic explanation,but the significance
is anything universally
If there
of worth.
/or f/ie esimaiiow
of

distinction
in the

law

of

presentationof
gods

the

formed

law, which

problems, on
Nature, everywhere

of

in addition

how,

did

problem Protagoras

first

the

written

theme

the
the

to

consists;

same,

this,the

to

hand,

one

institutions

arise.

of historical law
The

that is contrary to Nature.'

to much

the

came

this law

in what

law

Sophocles.

other, to understand

the

that

the

and

The

determines,
(vd/xos)
annises
tyr-

"

conceptionsthat opposition between

in its

this antithesis

of

establish
on

divine

Antigone

Out

"

him

forces

"

by man
a single

for

worth

Nature

which

this.

beyond

goes

formulated

Philosophy
natural, "

and

man

over

worth,

justlyauthorised

is

institution

human

of the

only

without

men

established

been

historical

all

for

Nature"
has

; what

time

and

"by

history has only

of
That

occasion.
but

people

course

is valid

which

is that

valid, it

his

to all

gave

of ethical respect

thought

or

which

avoid.

not

Plato

In

the

mythical
preserved,^he taught

has

and
a
sense
ofjustice,
equal measure
in order
that in the
(8"i;and aiSoils),

in

men

reverence

struggleof life they might be able to form permanent unions for

mutual
preservation. He found, therefore,the "^u(ns of practical
in society
life in primary ethical feelingswhich
to union
impel man
The
and in the state.
carrying out of this thought in its details and
is valid by Nature
this which
the definition of the boundary between
of historical institution
and the positivedeterminations
are
((/)vo-et)
unfortunatelynot preserved to
There

however,

are,

reaching

at

between

in

demands

this

the

view.

education

Hippias

Plat. Prot.

in

social

and

law

for

Alcidamas'
Phaleas
all

way

rest
all.

forward, that

and
demanded

Plat. Prot. 337 C.

Cf
A.
320 ft.
HarpfE, Die

others*

combated

des

wide-

thought

was

all distinctions

slavery

equality of property
the
Hippodamus was

Ethik

the

for profound

demand

The

of

only upon
institution,and
Lycophron desired to do

citizens,and

to the

politicallife.

forcing its
the

the

theory
conceptions to

fundamental

equal rightfor

nobility.

point of

of

as

time

before

men

Nature
with

that

such

that

of existingconditions, and

criticism

revolutions

already

indications

many

from

Sophists proceeded

us.

Protagoras

as

that
away
from

well

first to

(Heidelberg,

1884).
s

Arist.

Arist. Pol.

Bhet.

I. 13, 1373 b 18.

I. 3, 1253 b 20.

Cf. also Oral.

Attic,

(ed. Bekker)

II. 164.

Q-reeks

The

76

penal justice,and

of

against,not

Sophists pushed

the

same

the

law

others

of

uses

the

time

is the

right,if

higher

law

of

not

dictates

She
the

such

In
his

of

forms

the

impulses, was

the

supreme

not

from

let them

law

have

disgraceto

for

individual's

proclaimed

may

led

is at

astrayby
And

nature.

own

ing
serv-

this

living beings
the

slave

the

becoming

should

man

development

not

accordingto
injustice,
accordingto the

suffer

law

free

is it

that

the

injustice.'

disposition,the
and

of Nature,

constitution

exalted

to be

discipleof Anaxagoras,
belonging to the Sophistic period,proclaimed that the predicates
good and bad, "just" and "shameful"
{Sikoiov aurxpov),
spring
of

; and

do

natural
as

to be

The

full

disgrace to

all

in

only

younger

weak

law, yet according to

himself.

above

it is

his

human

shows

weaker

The

himself

allow

not

to

be

of Nature

the

according

rule

it may

'

the

stupid man,
strong, however, who

impulse of

bridle his desires,but

law

does

of

oyer

morals.

the

but

is,though,

doing ;

is set

requirements of

consequences.

solelythe

stronger
to recognise a command
human

he

so

Nature.

should

extreme
;

by

wise,

follows

; he

law

to the

subject himself
the

the

[Part I.

Nature

and, radicalism

naturalism

to

on

of

also the

civil law, but

the

law

the

that

proves

respects the

both

In

only

Period.
Anthropological

action

Archelaus,

"

3.

Nature,

Religious
of

had

course,

been

but

ideas

and

taken

from

Institution.

also

were

all the

involved

ethical

in this

since

more

at least

All

after

judging

overthrow

as

is

ventional
con-

ter
mat-

theoretical value

their

in educated

circles,
by the cosmologiphilosophy typifiedby Xenophanes, they had retained recognition
of presenting ethical conceptions.
only as allegoricalmethods
In this latter line of thought the school
of Anaxagoras had been
active for a time, especiallya certain
It
Metrodorus
of Lampsacus.
was
of the ethical
of the Sophists
relativism
only a consequence
away,

cal

when

Prodicus

all that
the

taught
them

brought

gods

to

be

that

blessing,and

invention

an

had

men

of

still excited

official
these
4.

indignation among
priesthood,*it was
easy

questions
The

position of

presents

himself

to wrap

two

Thrasymachus

Callicles in Plat.

Socrates

sides

on

the

made
when

shrewd
the
for

one

declared

Critias

Protagoras
mantle

reference

hand,

he

If

the

'and

masses

gods out

themselves

statecraft.*

in the
with

to

in

of
to

his

belief in

such

claims
of the

powers
the

of

presence

of

scepticism.'

this

brought

whole
the

ment
move-

principle

in Plat.

Bep. 343 C.
Gorg. 483 A and 491

E.

'

Diog. Laert. II. 16.

"
Sext. Emp. Adv. Math.
IX. 51-54.
As is shown
by the oohdemnation
^
'
Diog. Laert. IX. 51.

of Diaeoras

of Melos

Av. 1073).
("Arlstoph.
iv

Problem

2, " 7.]

Chap.

the

underlying

of Morality: Socrates.

other

the

expression
; on

its clearest

to

movement

against its outcome,

to be
contrary as they seem

manner

to do with

had

of

positiveresult

of the

in the most

these

this

as

of

his

external

activity,

opposition

stand, nevertheless,in

man,

connection

Socrates

sides

vigorous

for

just by grasping
its depth, and formulating
in developing from
it a

in all
succeed

time

for

following traditional

without

customs

question is past. Independent judgment of individuals

while
the place of authority. But
the Sophists gave their
to the

the

analysis of

actual

the

forced
in

adjudge

contrary, reflected
factor

in the

and

motives

with

the

upon

preciselythat
of

culture

his

significance

become

evident

In

of

this

which

in the

their

machinery

attention

basis of

themselves
ing
unfold-

an

the

on

the

was

sive
deci-

practical,
political,

and

which

in

science

had

individuals

had

unfettering of personalpassions,

all fields man's

in

the

knowledge

the

that

abilityrests

objectivestandard

his

upon

the estimation

for

Sophists had

the

which

actions

of

which

namely,

process

found

Socrates

and

men

that

taken

Nature, Socrates,

element

time

has

the

ultimately saw
the equal right of
of

necessity

through the
independence,through

insight.
vain

all these

lie at

which

impulses

individuals,and

Just

achieved
it had

social

of

to

accordance

achieved.

feelingsand

decisions

to

the

wide-reaching power.

him, also,the

For

much

Enlightenment

force,did

its full

it in

and

tragic fate

the

principleof

the

both

comprehensive

most

himself

and

rigidlyconsistent

and

exact

most

the

he set

hand,

and

77

in

sought

desires.

feelings and

aper-^ is insight. He
(TiichtigTceit,
Ability,then, or excellence
who
acts
according to feelings,according to presuppositionsthat
clear,according

not

are

indeed

may

it,he
and

is not
error

occasionallyhit
of the

sure

as

to the

only

will be able

and

of

basis

himself.^

of

all

who

in hand

right

to act

who

make

qualitieswhich

is

to make

is certain
the

has

does

not

know

in delusion

mistakes

he

rightknowledge of things
the
is therefore
{ima-TiijiJi,ri)

able

man

he

down,

handed

entirelyinvolved

knowledge

Scientific

been

have

right thing, but

the

issue ; he

matter

that

customs

to

and

useful, of

all

single

aperaC.
This

insightconsists,on

things to
business
who

which
; as

has learned

has to work,
'

we

These

Plato

in

so

the

action

find
it

ch. 9, is most

one

should

turns

important

hand,

able

man

in

in

every

knows

the

it be also in civil and

thoughts
and
for

of

Socrates

variations.

comparison;

exact

should
business

knowledge of
understand
to

be

which

objectswith
life
political

the

are

the
his

one

he

here, too,

reproduced by Xenophon
Mem.
the passage,
Xenophon
Plato, the dialogue Protagoras.

In
in

an

Man

is to relate.

thoroughly and

fundamental
countless

the

the

and
III.

G-reeks

The

78

be

only insightshould
knowledge

himself

principlesby

excellence

ethical

doctrine

that
of

course

The

by

in

followed

by

the

so

led
the

is clear

Socrates

ask

we

free
the

apcr^,*

So

good.*

and

what

word

fundamental

the

to

the

determined,

the

in

ambiguity

of

out

is

excellence

knowledge of

when

less clear

all,
self-knowledge.
,

also

developed

Socrates

virtue, and

consists

become

of

aid

also,or

virtv^

thought

sources

the

to

common

teaching.*

practicalabilityor

which

transferred

became

of his

considerations, which

These

5.

objectswhich

principalvocation to educate
earnest
self-examination;the

to

the watch-word

was

case

entiate
differ-

his

be

it to

fellow-citizens

his

and

(TiavTov
yvC}6i.

to

declared

the

to

general,but

in

only knowledge

Socrates

Hence

individual

the

in

concerns

is not

however,

reference

[PaetI.

excellences

individual

The

trusted.^

accordinglywith

themselves
the

Period.
Anthropological

far the

from

doubt.

who

man

was

by the
clearly defined conceptions intended
good. According to Xenophon's exposition,the good (ayaOov)must
have
coincided
everywhere, for his master, with the profitableor
then
be the knowledge of what
would
useful
Virtue
(cuc^tXt/iov).
suited to the end in view, or useful, in each particularinstance.
was
is the easiest to attach
to that
This interpretation
analogy between
of excellence
shown
in daily
moral
virtue
the various
kinds
and
life,which

reallytaught, and the presentationgiven in the

dialogues, in particularthe Protagoras attributes
cernment
standpoint of individual advantage. Insight or dis-

Socrates

Platonic

earliest

Socrates

to

reach

to

strenuous

so

this

(here

called

benefit

weighs exactly the

action,and

chooses

so

this

with

is a measuring art, which

prudence, "i"p6vyi"n"i)

view

and

what

the

is most

is the

fact

harm
to the

result

exact

the

from

In further

purpose.

in

that

will

that

ment
agreethe

with

contrast

and uncramped
a free
Sophists,who demanded
development of the
passions,Socrates emphasised no virtue so much, and exhibited none
so
life,as that of self-control {ata^oa-vv-q)
fully in his own
But
according to this interpretationthe Socratic conception of
.

the

good

from
1

would

case

to

indefinite

be

case

as

to what

in its content

; decision

suits the

in

end

view,

be

must
or

is

made

useful,and

too, the anti-democratic

position, so fatal for his personal destiny,
demanded
by Socrates, who
difficult and most
expressly that the most
responsible art, that of governing, should be practised only by those of the most
complete discernment, and who on this account
absolutely rejected the appointment
of state officials by lot or popular choice.
Hence,

taken

Socrates

did

not

attempt

system

of

the

individual

excellences

on

the

hand, he did give by way of example definitions of courage

(cf.the Platonic
IV. 6, 3), justice (Mem. TV. 6, 6),
Laches), piety (Plat.Euthyphro, Xen. Mem.
other

etc.
3

As

The

in the

defined
same

Latin

by his theoretical philosophy; see " 8.

ambiguity which has given occasion
to countless
virtus ; so, too, in 070*6^, bcmum, good.

difficulties lies

of the

instead

good

of his

basis

sufEer

than

wrong

with

accordance

unjust

do

to

and

by

not

get

did

His

scorned

he

of

beyonS

the

this

that

the

good for
strove

to

anthropological
position in

it is better

conformity

avoid

to

is

Socrates

reason

strict

himself

preserve

what

doctrine

his

wrong,

that

that

conceptions.

which

sentence

certain

as

also

he

thinking

of his

formulation

the

regarded

be

79

again always have

relativism,and

this

transcend

should

we

It may

something.^

of Morality: Socrates.

Problem

2, " 7.]

Chap.

to

law,

to

in

execution

of

further

life and

by flightfor

an

that the true

meaning of life consists in
activity,his admonition
in man's
ceaseless
labour for ethical
in continual
right-doing,
evTrpaiia,
improvement, in the participationin all that is good and beautiful
his

especially,however,
{itaXoKayaBLo),
only in a
through their

better
of

furtherance

of

consist

taught should
constantly

relation

the

and

friendship

other's

each

erotic, i.e. his

attachment
mutual

aims,

in

It can
presented by Xenophon.
attribute
of utility only if we
between

gain,

the

of

but

the

on

welfare

true

other, which

which

according

Scepticalposition with
the

sharp

that

man's

true

luxurious
consist

in

regard

Apology,

in

virtue

the

be

alone

good
6.
should
which
and
in

he

However

the

circle

properly form
constitutes
this

proved

itself.

much

one

of

psychological,viz.

life,contains
pronounced

important
do

to

may

the

serve

"

Xen.

this
the

not

as

and

act

it maintains
Socrates

and

type

as

to

of

the

so

of

the

what

good

convinced

this

in

is to

conception of

all events
that

poreality.
cor-

nor

virtue

circle

question

good,

knowledge

"

is

bring happiness.
a

tic
rationalis-

pregnant presuppositions,one
the other
ethical,viz.
intellectualism,
two

eudcemonism.

as

knowledge

at

was

In

the

goods

this

soon

of

that

of

Socrates

more

cause

to

answer

content

proposition,which

conception
pronounced

the

virtue,

to
itselfsufficient

This

the

did

Xenophon,

truly useful

as

objectivedetermination
sought he did not find.
indefinite

Phoedo,
historic

completely

to

in outward

not

fast ; the

which

the
a

according

even

capacity to recognise

earthly

immaterialityand

if, however,

in a
accordingly,the doctrine moves
that this truly useful is just virtue
remained

and

immortality,and

between

sought,

point
stand-

in the

maintained

ception
con-

distinction

hand,
forth

set

the

the

slighttraces, since

separation
is to

the

or

mutual

beyond

Socrates
one

good

their

with

the

personal

to

and

united

him

teaches, indeed,

life,but
only

to Plato's

fortune

to

makes

far

goes

be

soul, on

find but

Platonic

Socrates

the

Plato

elsewhere

we

Socrates,even
know

of

teacher
become

and

common

all this

"

that

between

strivingto

life

doctrine

Mem.

III.

8, 5.

80

The
The

fundamental

indeed

the
he

man,
his
he

Grreeks

end,

in the

acts

unfit

be

to

seems

not

if

as

act

some

in

view,

the

is to the

of what

knowledge
virtuous
the

to

judgment"

it must

"

be

that

he

the

evident

becomes

Sophists

difference

fundamental

will,and

it

purpose,

with

otherwise

that

on

the

latter

the

maiptained

its warrant

account

Socrates

between

from

he

and

the

of
originality
; for

Nature

clearly

not

was

surely in possession of this better knowledge, for

is absurd.
would
have
purposely injured himself, which
this

lesser

purpose,

and

In

for

whicli

accordance

in

acts

man

that

fit in

even

or

Every

suited

does

one

no

is

"

his better

"against

useful ;

most

is

makes

best

considers

he

I.

rightly,in the way that is

does wrong
No one
knowingly and purposely : he
rightlywho has not right insight. If it sometimes
acted wrongly in the face of better
one
insight

beneficial to him.
does

that

the end

for

degree. If,then, virtue

follows
immediately that
his knowledge, therefore
only

own

and

thus

reflective,
judiciousnature.

manner

beneficial

most

knows

his

[Part

Socrates

which

assumption

expressionof

says,

Period.
Anthropological

Socrates,

useful
and
thing and to regard a thing as good, profitable,
determines
the
will
the
without
are
same
thing. Knowledge
does what
he holds to be best.
True
it may
be
as
opposition; man
Socrates
in error
in this opinion,and that the truth lies in
that
was
the Sophists, this his intellectualistic
the mean
between
him
and
will

to

conception of
ancient
Sin

the

will

to

came

exercise

decisive

He

is,then, error.
that

believes

because

who

the

he

is

does

doing

stands

case

ethically; only
teaching addresses

For

all
be

can

he

"

taught

brought

be

can

knowledge,

the

what

it would

the

thus

for this

men

bad

good,

is there

i.e. the

good is,therefore
the

not

be

mistaken

good

; for every

advantageous.

Only

in

instructing
meaning
of
being taught.
capable
man
knowledge. Because

stage

of

"

right

and

this

by

action.

alone

means

Were

virtue

not

capable of being taught.

raised
standpoint Socrates
taught by the popular moralising to a

the

morality

customary

scientific

plane.

his

All

his

subtlety,and dialectical dexteritywere

employed
the
that
the
not
against
Sophists
only
surest, but even

keenness,
prove

only

sure

ethical

the

any

itself to man's

to

it from

act does

is virtue

reason

this

From

and

all

over

ethics.

as
judgment, regardingthe bad, i.e. the injurious,
one

influence

way

of

So

to
the

attaining to permanent

prescriptionsunder

morals.

'

he

gives

all

back

happiness, lies in obeying

circumstances,in subordination
to law
to

Authority her

right.

The

in the first book

Compare in Plato the refutation of Thrasymachus
be regarded as Sooratic in its principles,but which
Bepuhlic, which
may
is very
weakly supported, both in form and in matter.

prinof
in

the

part

Problem

2, " 7.]

Chap.

of Morality : Socrates.

cipleof the Enlightenment

the existingstate of things
but

these laws

sustain
made

requirements
it has

unconditional
with
who

one

claim

to

M.

Heinze,

is for the

it is the

of

law

and

their

prove

themselves

to

best; and

because

right course
Far

being in

Socrates

morals,

reasonableness

obey them,

to

from

be

flict
con-

is rather

and

the

thereby

their

validity.^

universal

Wildauer, Socrates^

F.

evince

be rendered.'

must

institutions

they

what

by insight into

undertook

to

no

the examination,

obedience

the

unquestioning subjectionto
of the laws ;
requires examination

and

recognised that

been

now

tolerates

81

Der

Lehre

Innsbruck, 1877.
griechischen Philosophie.

Willen.

vom

Eudamonismus

in

der

Leips.

1883.

In

7.
the

will

and
of

addition
is

itself the

Socrates

his

then, through

doing,

applies,however, only
of

absolutelycertain

have

in the

connected

to

the

the

in

does,

action

is

good

of the

world's

the

The

for

; he

him

This

intended

an

of

ness
Happi-

tion
assump-

perfect intelligence which

that

it

virtue.

of

also.

happy

of

happy.

result

what

after

argumentations
him

necessary

good,

as

draws

good,

the

makes

become
a

recognised

appropriate

and

effects

series

of

this

its end

hence

and

knows,

is

find

is the
well-being (eiSai/ioi/ia)

intelligentman

be

what

knowledge

virtue, as

actually attains

man

or

must

toward

appropriate action, we
further
opinion that

the

virtuous

psychologico-ethicalpresuppositions that

directed

always

therefore

that

the

to

would

action

would

events.

details,as might be expected from the nature of the case, this reliabilitathe popular morals
falls into trivial moralising, especially as Xenophon
the
to render
while
Socrates
hoped precisely by this means
portrays it. But
he came
to the
right service to his people, it proved to be just the point where
their adherents, he passed for
stools : with
the Sophists and
two
ground between
'

tion

In

of

reactionary
cancer

place this

the

on

other

hand,

the

like

who,

men

Aristophanes,

questioning of the authority of law and morals

of the time, without
investigation classed

in the

authority

on

basis

those

of

among
reason,
Socrates
that
about

him

who

saw

general,

in

wished

who

were

the

cisely
predangerous
to

undermining

of
appeared in the Clouds
That
this
he combated.
Aristophanes as the type of Sophistic teaching which
is obvious.
relation
led ultimately to his condemnation
2 It is hence
to demand
to
or
alien
the
even
to
quite
principles of Socrates
of the grounds of the political
for every
allow
individual
act a specialexamination
been
recognised as right
ethical
command.
or
If, for example, it has once
all circumstances, this obedience
under
to obey the ordinances
of the government
the unreasonable
then
be rendered, even
if the ordinance
must
evidently commands
of Socrates
himself, a man
true
and
the unjust ; cf Plato's
Crito.
If, as was
his insight
is convinced
his life is under
divine
that
guidance, and that where
his
at
warns
least,
does not suffice,a higher voice warns
him
feeling,
through
it.

So

it

was

that

it could

come

"

him

away

from

ialiMviov, " 8.
of
in such

his

The

doing,

maxims

he must
is wrong,
"then
essential
thing always is that

obey

what

as

but

the

eTxlude

grounds
an

on

which

examination

he

acts

man

in

in individual

so

this

give an
doing
cases.

Cf.

voice.
account

may

even

on

to

the
self
him-

consist

The

82

G-reeks

he

that

[Part

expressionsof Socrates, in fact,make

transmitted

The

Period.
Anthropological

that

convinced

was

could

man

the

impression
insight

that

possess

I.

its consequences
his action and
is
by its operation upon
happiness, and that he might gain this
adapted to bring about
insight through philosophy: that is,through unremitting earnest

which

Investigationsas

life.

foresee, may

cannot

of

of himself, of others, and

examination

how

to

and

cross

of

course,

which

human
man

of the best

operation even

the

destroy

relations

world's

the

far

the

be

pointed
the slight
consider
When
we
in the
out
teaching of Socrates.
in human
had
he otherwise
knowledge,
degree of confidence which
this attempted to venture
beyond establishingethical
soon
as
as
and

planned

conceptions and
conviction only

life,are

of

conduct
intelligent

most

practicalrequirements,we
the

on

following basis

did

above

that

the
of

object not

an

beneficial consequences

the

frustrate

fear

not

indeed

him

for

was
providential guidance, which
would
of
but
faith,
knowledge,

the

explain

can

he

"

to

not

right action.

of

as

given

the

to

(reXos) of
; and

concept

human

existence

once

afforded

structures.'

The

most

Both

Cyrenaic.

worth
wish

both

how

call

this

in
participation
the

Socratic
and

manner,

man's

and

be constituted

he

though

true

must

in

is

universal

the

for

of

these

to

the

Socratic

the

are

the

in order
or

of

Cynic

and

intrinsic
Both
must

man

this with

dispositionthrough
The

ular
partic-

manner.

attain

to

of ethical

true

happiness consists,how
act

most

in

universal

tain
cer-

ultimate

number

define

the

formation
a

had

of

place

gained, virtue.

is here

possible for

in the

attempt

constitution

happiness
ethics

the

in

open

material

individual

the

in what

show

to

the

important

present

life of

the

of

this

content, and
views

their

incomplete work

conceptionsat
the

into

it

made

This

life to introduce

this first

so

universal

no

tion,
concep-

good, but

of the

knowledge

as

good

left it open.

conceptionsof

diverse

of

of the

concept

respect had
end

this in turn

insight,and

ethical

fundamental

virtue, the

defined

had

Socrates

8.

eudsemonistic

tainty;
cer-

which
side

developed in an entirely one-sided

validityis vindicated for the conception

proposed,the point of view of the individual's happiness forms so

that the worth
of all relations
of public
exclusivelythe standard
is estimated
life even
by it. In Cynicism, as in Hedonism, the Greek
spiritis proceeding to appropriate the fruit which the conditions

"

So

indeed

Simon,
the
too

in tlie case

too,

seems

and

the

of
to

have

Elean-Eretrian

Megarian
indefinitelytransmitted

to deserve

Xenoplion

have

separate mention.

to us, and

and

been

JEschines
thus

; the

bler
cobpliilosopliising

dependent on
accomplished

schools
is too closelyin contact

What
Socrates.
in this respect is
with

Cynicism,

Greeks

The

84

conclusion, and

consistent
of

men

that

one

as

[Part

I.

to
appealedespecially

have

must

life such

positionin

humble

Period.
Anthropological

."

the

find

-we

to be in

Cynics

part.
to occupy
to

in

radical

the

Cynics

civilisation.
man's

wise

virtuous

of the

measure

the

manner

toward

purely negative attitude

reduce

thought

this

By carrying out

By aiming
what

to

wants

came

was

absolutelyinevitable,and to regard all other strivingsas pernicious

they rejectedall the goods of civilisation and attained
or
indifferent,
ideal strippedof all higher worth.
an
the ideal of a state of Nature,
and
developing them
farther,
Taking up earlier Sophistic theories
"

that

they taught

Wealth

institution.

result

the

as

refinement, fame

and

only

that

despises all

but

merely

of obedience

worthy

or

himself

accommodates

man

peremptorilydemands,

Nature

or

wise

the

of

and

to what

able
desir-

appears
human

opinion
seemed

honour,

to

which
just as superfluous as those enjoyments of the senses
of the most
elementary wants of hunger
went
beyond the satisfg[.ction
to them
Art
and
love.
and
science,family and native land, were
his paradoxical popularity to the
Diogenes owed
indifferent,and
them

ostentatious

jest

attempting to

of

live in civilised

Greece

if in

as

solely"^uo-ei.
philosophisingproletarianforced himself
from
the enjoyment of
good things of civilisation,

of Nature,

state

all the

himself

found

binding

more

of

none

less excluded.

or

the

laws

which

to

and

themselves,

in

to

the

In this way

On

the

which

hand,

he

he

nised
recog-

as
societysubjecteditself,

civilised
is any

if there

other

despise

truth

at

all in

the

coarse

antiquity relates on the subject,this class took

of
elementary demands
pleasure in scofl"ng openly at the most
uralism
forced and, in part, openly affected natmorals
and decency. This
knows
and atSuis (justiceand reverence),
nothing any longer of 81K17
which
the older Sophistic teaching had
allowed
to remain
which

anecdotes

as

natural
that

natural

and

impulses,
greed

and

elicits

lust

Cynics

the

not

were

bad

so

preserved a remnant
Diogenes even
the only thing which
could free
as
institutions
into

the

also

conducted

nothingness
the

without
the

the mark

and
of

lead
the

education

Sophist, according to
On

the

complete

which

virtue

qualitiesof

essential

poses
supthe

man.

Yet

not

of

conception

the

of

from

freedom

pretended
of

the

themselves.

made

respect for mental

man

to

they

as

prejudicesof

the
from

goods

sons

of

principlesof

the

training,

by insight

wants

of

civilisation.

Xeniades,

ventional
con-

He

Corinthian

Cynic naturalism, and

success.

whole, this philosophyis a characteristic sign of the time,

of a dispositionwhich, if not hostile,
was
yet indifferent

Problem

2, " 7.]

Chap.

had

lost all

from

within

societyand

to

bles

to

us

see

in the

is but

there

clear idea
In

9.

complete
of

philosophy
the

from

there

the
of

taught

that

is in the

this

of

denial

enor

societywas
called

ideal

his

; it

goods

integrating
dis-

himself

thought

adherence

of

to

any

the

pluralityof gods
that, according to Nature,"

and

men,

Greek

85

"

doctrine

Cynic

monotheism

trace

no

Iforthem

was

to warrant

especially

an

especiallydeep feeling.

an

even

or

the

its ideal

Diogenes

trace

no

only

of

time

When

if Crates

that

conclusion

the

that

at

opinion of

God,

one

but

; and

community

only

how

in this

cosmopolitan,there was
community of all men,
exists

comprehension

individuals.

into

civilised

of Morality: Aristippus.

with

contrast

this

Starting

regardless enjoyment.

incompleteness

of

the

stands

system

Socratic

Hedonism,
did

as

the

the

Cynics

doctrine, Aristippus struck

He
was
opposite direction.
quick to give to the concept
that
of the good, a clear and
of pleasure (Ji"ovrf).
simple content,
This latter conception at first does duty under
the general psychological
of
the
of
which
of
contentment
out
meaning
feeling
grows
the fulfilment of every
Happiness is then the
strivingand wish.'
state of pleasurewhich
springs from the satisfied will. If this is
the only thing to be considered, it is a matter
of indifference
what
the
the
object of will and of gratificationis; all depends on
degree of pleasure,on the strength of the feelingof satisfaction.'
This, however, in the opinion of Aristippus,is present in the highest
in the

out

"

in

degree
the

is

of

case

immediate

virtue

much

as

to

the

satisfaction

directed

and

of

the

relates

possible.

to

If,then,

moment.

happiness,it must

toward

vigorously as

as

which

bodily enjoyment

sensuous,

present,

knowledge

enjoy

to

the

enable

Virtue

is

man

ability

for enjoyment.

Every

to be

one,

sure,

and

may

enjoy ;

can

education, of intelligence,of insight

how

In

enjoy rightly.

to

this

the

"

which
intelligentappraisal (c^povT/o-is),
the

various

life,those

which

least mixed

with

pain ;

man

who

of
and
the

the

who,

when

enjoyment,
which

Besides

will

afford
we

is not

enjoys, is

but

is to stand

makes

man

the

this,also, Xenophon

follow

blindly to

he

above

slave

not

give

to

never

of

also

it and

in

the

of

course

highest, purest,

inner

sion
self-posses-

rising appetite,

every
himself

entirely

control

it.

things is,indeed,

infrequently puts

the

select, among

to

is

of

man

only

not

how

the

the

understands

"

consider

knows

consider

must

only

man

present themselves
the pleasure that

that

enjoyments

wise

must

we

but

as

The
the

up

to

enjoyment
Cynics

the

the

rjSi into

the

eudsemonistic

mouth

of Socrates.
Socrates.
2
This, too,
]le.
ciple.

is

completely correct

consequence

from

prin-

The

86

rejected;but

say, to be
self up

Q-reeks

however,

to

it, as

renounce

wisdom

the

ground

transmitted

was

give one's

not

yet

do.

the
in particular
Cyrenaics,
"mother-taught," because
(called /xiyTpoStSaKTos,
this

On

[Part I.

Of this,
they
capablethrough rightinsightonly.^
than

becomes

man

Period.
Anthropological

delightin pleasure and

to

it is harder

to

to

him

his

grandfather's

his mother

through

Aristippus

younger

Arete), set

of

on

the

mOr], the
systematic investigationsas to the origin
psychology which was
feelingsand impulses. In a physiological
the
with
that of Protagoras (cf.below, " 8), they traced
connected
in the' body : to rest
varieties in feeling back to states of motion
pain, to gentle motion
corresponded indifference,to violent motion
foot

pleasure.
of

ophy
explanatqry theories,however, this philosto an
extended
unprejudiced general theory

such

Besides

bonvivants

taught,all ethical and legal

things. Vov them, too, as Theodorus
valid for
merely institutions that were
ultimately'
prescriptionswere
of enjoyment gives himself
the educated
of men;
the mass
man
of

trouble

no

about

them,

enjoys things when

and

possession. Theodorus, who

aside

also

all

bears

the

religious scruples which

they

surname

opposed

are

into his

come

the

"

Atheist," put
to

devotion

to

also
itself in this
exerted
enjoyment, and the school
interest
to strip the halo from
as
religiousfaith,so far as possible,
is proved by the well-known
theory of Euemerus, who in his lepJi
to trace belief in the gods back
to the worship
avaypa^riundertook
sensuous

of ancestors
Thus

that

and

the

veneration

Cyrenaics ultimately agreed

they, too, regarded

convention

of heroes.

of

morals

all that

and

law, as

is

with

fixed

the

vo/au,

limitation

Cynics

i.e.

of that

by

in

the

this,
social

ment
enjoyand
wise
the
which
by nature
man
{^wra),
exercises
without
about
historical institutions.
troubling himself
The
Hedonists
gladly shared the refinement
of enjoyment which
eivilisation
it convenient
brought with it ; they found
and perwhich

others

right

to

has

man

inissible that

the

prepared;

intelligentman
but

should

enjoy

the

honey

which

bound
duty or thankfulness
them
to the civilisation whose
fruits they enjoyed. This same
dition
conof recognisingno
native land, this same
turning aside froni
the feelingof political
which
the Cynics grew
responsibility,
among
of despising the enjoyments of civilisation,
out
for the
resulted
the egoism of their enjoyment.
Cyrenaics from
Sacrifice for
others, patriotism,and devotion
to a general object, Theodorus
declared
wise

man

to

to

be

no

form

of

share,and

even

Cf.

feeling of

foolishness

which

it did

Aristippusrejoicedin
Diog. Laert.

II. 65 ff.

not

become

the freedom

the

from

Chap.

with,

connection

state, which

any
of

philosophy

The

of Science

JProblem

2, " 8.]

the

his

life afforded

wandering

parasites,who

the

87

Sophists.

feasted

the

at

full

him.^

table

of

from
the ideal meaning of that
far removed
as
beauty, was
beauty as was the philosophy of the beggars who lay at the threshold.
In the meantime, the principleof the expert weighing of enjoyments
which
leads
element
contains
an
necessarily
beyond that
which
doctrine
of enjoyment for the moment
Aristippuspreached,
this advance
made
directions.
and
in two
was
Aristippus himself

Grecian

had

admitted

already

which

and

pain

must

be taken
be

to

was

would

into

enjoyment

could

be

in

afforded
tion

the

by

bodily existence, leads

Epicureans.
fail

aimed

But,

on

ultimately

of

mass

of

man

painlessstate, is

the

that

is to

Hegesias, he

found

see

to

the

educate

to

other

be

free

Treitrt^omTos, he

surname

"

representativeof
satisfaction
end

of

of

wishes,
life,it

human

of

eudaemonism,

"

" 8. The
P.

Alten.

Natorp, Forschungen
Berlin, 1884.

The

Xen.

the

Mem.

first instance
11.

sometimes

attains

are

but

the

great
desires, preponderates:

He
this

with

also

him

the
first

is the

if

the

is to

and

live.

ever,
doctrine,how-

that
be

to

happiness,
and

meaning
be

rejected as

annihilating

the

sequence
con-

criticism.

of Science.^

Problem
Geschichte

to

With

death.

to

its immanent

of

rare

unsatisfied

of

end,

last

des

bei den

Erkenntnissproblems

eloquence. They
political

give instruction

on

the

nature

were

and

1, 8 ff.

IWissenschaft. Science, as used

scientific knowledge."
Sometimes
and

already happy

enjoyment

"

general,

to

teachers

Sophists were

obliged in

zur

In

shows

this

it

who

He

misses

which

lot.

pessimism;

is the

Pessimism

worthless.

and

to

the
could

school

discomfort.

persuaded

those
of

better, therefore, not

itself.

refutes

than

presented this, brought

he

eudoemonistic

eudsemonism

as

be

which

impressivenesswith

is but

pain

it would

them

civilisar

doctrine

Hedonistic

the

actual

the

the

into

painless enjoyment

accounted

this

the

gratifying

more

culture

that

to see

spiritualaspects of

hand,

from

discomfort,

men

for
The

the

and

the

(xapa) than

spiritualjoys of
family,and of civil society
knowledge that the enjoyments

directlyover

the

highest good

mind

came

pleasure

enjoyment

the

of

Anniceris

ultimately finer,richer, and

are

not

frame

This

intellectual

the

that

higher degree through

through bodily enjoyments.

than

of

and

moment,

from

found

cheerful

the

weighing,

result

intercourse,of friendship,of

human

of

act

future

the

in

of the

the

; Theodorus

account

attained

in

in

rather

sought

in the

that

the

objective.]

in
the

this

section, is nearly equivalent to

subjective aspect

of the

term

is

nent,
promi-

88

The

right use
from

of

Q-reeks
And

language.

traditional

Period.
Anthropological

art to

while

they

first place to linguistic

researches, and
and

sentence, the

of

of

creators

the

grammar

the

Protagoras distinguished

fruit

the

to

as

became

in

parts of the
investigationsas to
and
etymology. Prodicus,
words, synonyms,

of

use

Hippias, and

themselves

instituted

They

syntax.

I.

transforming rhetoric

were

science, they applied

[Part

their

themselves

investigations,we

in

this

respect;

only imperfectly

are

informed.
1.

Our

exception of

condition.

For,

treated

few

allusions

also the train of

consists

however,

in

lost,is

are

of

matter

as

which
logical acquisitions,

their

of

knowledge

still

course,

This

refutation.

and

It

of

rhetoric

train of
then

was

the

unfortunate

more

teachers

the

in discourse.

thought

proof

in

with

thought,

inevitable

Sophists should
project a theory of proof and refutation,
of Protagoras.'
and there is explicittestimony to this in the
case
to how
more
as
precise information
Unfortunately, there is no
far the
to whether
as
Sophists proceeded with this, and
they
from
those
elements
attempted to separate out the logicalForms

that

the

which
the

to the

content

little information

which

belong

Sophists relates
the

principleof

thought.
have

we

without

almost

To

was

is

characteristic
the

the

their

to

essential

than

that

of

logic

the
of

emphasising
of

nature

closely related

more

special treatise

It

concerning

exception

contradiction.

task, refutation
left

of

the

cate's
advo-

proof. Protagoras

concerning Grounds
of Refutation,
the law of the
perhaps his most important writing,and formulated
contradictoryopposite,so far, at least,as to say that there are with
reference
and
to every
object two mutually opposing propositions,
to draw

from

consequences

Zeno
procedure which
played a great part in
indeed

the
it

For

them

force

to

such

Aristotle

Diog.

It is

different
8

thus

fact,the

in

formulated,

practicallyemployed, and which also

of the
disciplinaryexercises
Sophists,

the

main

ideas

arts

if

and

Laert.

IX.

answers

as

others.

51

that

titles of this

Plato. in the

when

From

preserved,it

probable

"

Enlighteners

the victims

to

make

as

thus

the

is evident

real

that

this

plex
per-

confused,
tured,
manufac-

or

ridiculous

become

examples

to

involve

valid,to

were

them

"

Plato

which

procedure

'

was

and
not

fi.

KarajSiiXXoi'rcs {sc. \tiyoi)

and

work,
Euthydemus

SophisticFallacies."

these

possible,by logicalconsequences,

absurd

have

of

previously regarded

contradictions,and

themselves

to

the

to

them

to

of the

one

as

in

had

He

greatest part.

was

men

this.

the

first chapter of which

and

in the

are

only

book

"0"

"AiTtXoyfot
treated

Oratylus,Aristotle

two

truth.
in the

the

Problem

2, " 8.]

Chap.

always
present

but
purely logical,

too

any

of

sense

of Science

the

word.

result

which

witticisms

and

grammar,

etymology

quite often, however,

to the

according

ings of

and

customs

merely

nonsensical

to

properly logical;

Characteristic

here, too,

negative

or

presuppositionsof

language,

upon

are

affirmative

an

popular expression,
absurdity. The

of

snare

based

dull.

either

words, gives rise

the

the

by

and

coarse

where
catch-questions,

the

in

rarely they

more

awkwardness

often

are

89

thoroughly sophisticalin the

examples show that these people

ambiguity in speech, no
of it they might weave
out

if

Megarians.

was

The

slipno

let

the

the

are

answer,

ordinary

mean,

unforeseen

consequences,

answering.'

one

portrayed two brothers, Euthydemus and Dionysidorus,

had
practised this art of logomachy or eristic,which
great

Plato
who

has

success

word-quibbling.

to

the

principallyby

catches,which
the

and

Zeno,
wished

is

parts

fundamental

show

that

the

were

another

Megarian,

the

famous

Diodorus

possible which

of

in which

Heap
is to

be

the

school,

His
of

the

traced

in

of

out

he
small

against
such

finding out

is

invented
to

destroy
for

possible;

itself

evinces

to

which

by

designed

actual

Bald-

back

Diodorus

was

erature.'
lit-

"

strengthened,' by

or

same

such

whole

and

rents,
adhe-

arguments

Unwearied

actual

become

not

forth

Zeno's

(Kvpievwv)which

the

series

"

deepened

Gronos.

of

arguments
magnitudes

of

manner,

:
only
possibility

does

for

tomed
accus-

prosecuted

was

head

called

the

and

refutation.''

"

contradictions,this

argument

conception

and

if not

amplified,even

and
aporioe, difficulties,
also the

like

of

two, the

are

it

the

famous

were

by him into
composition

In

impossible.

motion

theory

thought

introduced

was

to

there

them,

whom

great sensation

these

Among
head,"

Alexinus,

made

from

among
the

great talkers

were

Aside

with

and

EubuUdes

who

Megarians,

himself

Euclid, busied

Athenians

the

among

thereby

to

be

impossible.'
In

another

Eleatics,show
and
Even

As

false,upon

typical example,

Cf.

Which
makes

"

"

assumption

Have

you

his

principle of identity.

opinion

that

that it is incorrect

left off

tion,
contradic-

principleof

the

beating

the

your

all statements

predicate

to

father ?

"

or

"

Have

?
youi- horns
Diog. Laert. II. 107.

the

supported

affiliated with

"

out

have

to

seems

were

the

corresponding exaggeration of

shed

you

applicationof

extreme

an

Gorgias
are

also,the Sophists who

manner,

Prantl, Gesch. der Log, I. 33 ft.

kernel
of grain by being added
the

bald

head

Sext. Emp.
Adv. Math.
Cie. Be Fato, 7, 13.

X.

85

fl.

makes

the heap ?

Which

hair falling

90

The

Greeks

Period.
Anthropological

[Part I.

subjectanything else than just this subject itself;and the

Cynics, as well as Stilpothe Megarian, made this thought their own.
There
remain, accordingly,only such purely identical judgments as,
of this,
As
etc'
is man,
a
logicalconsequence
good is good, man
as
pluralityand
impossible as were
judging and talking are made
of any

motion

according

principle. As in the metaphysics

which
appears occasionallyboth among

Eleatic

the

to

ghost of
Megarians and the Cynics (cf.below,
of relation
permitted no combination

of

the

Parmenides,

the

led to

and

denial

of

2.

assert

taken

windings

Sophists concerning the

manifesting itself. If on
all formation
of syntheticpropositionswas
that
of

itself

knowledge

identity,

in

dichotomies

expression in the

treatise of

and

nothing;

of

for

which

both

Being,

are
conceptions
were
anything, it

that

there

Knowledge

would

could

it could
in view

and
which

be

be

not

of

the

neither

manifold,

and

than

knowable
that

which

taught

; for every

difference

the

communication,
employed in
mutual
understanding.
to be
nihilism,to be sure, scarcelyclaimed

This

the

title of the

ing Nature,
grotesque

book, -n-tpl
ov
"^i;crea)s
ireplTov

concerning

or

farce.

The

that

which

Rhetorician,

trained

is
to

is

eternal
are

If, however,
is

which

that

wise
actually is,otherthere

there

taken
jxrj

not),

edge,
knowl-

were

only his
thoughts and

their

open
edge,
Knowl-

There

as

has

one

between

of

Non-being

; for

distinguished. Finally,if

be

must

of

even

not

else

Being,

contradictory.
be

not

most

impossible.

thought

as

themselves

tJioughtis always something

they

nor

be

principle
ensnared

to

came

showed

doctrine

become

declared

to

be

can

one

as

in

itself
This

Zeno.

abstract

Eleatics'

the

Gorgias,^which

Communication

transitory,neither

as

nor

of

the

had

Parmenides

the

past help

in

formulated

of

doctrine

The

Being.

been

this

maintained,

with

irreconcilable

was

it had

as

conceptions of
of the subjecta

of the
by the researches
the scepticaldirection is
knowing activity,
of
such
grounds the logicalimpossibility

devious

all these

In

plurality

of

lack

logicalrelation made
variety of predicates.

of conceptions

with

unity

of

the
here
so
plurality,
it appear
impossibleto

lack

5), the

No.

ideas,

own

signs

the
is

anty
guar-

no

in earnest

oi/Tos

appears

{Concei-nlike

dexterity,who

formal

despised all earnest science and pursued only his art of speaking,'
the entire labour
of philosas empty
indulged in the jestof satirising

Plat.

Extracts

treatise

De

Theoet. 201

E.

Soph.

partly

Xenophane,

Zenone,

66-86.
"

Cf.

found

are

Plat. Meno.

95

C.

in

251

B.

the

third

chapter of

the

Cforgia(cf.p. 30), in part

pseudo-Aristotelian
in

Sext.

Emp.

VII.

The

92
and

Empedocles

Protagoras,

as

at

were

extended

agreement

with

one

native

Period.
Anthropological

Grreehs:

of

farther

still

This

made

assumption,

the

to

school

out.

probably gone

had

Abdera,

whose

from

Atomists,

the

[PartL

all

on

of motion
not only a condition
perception there was
in the percipthe thing to be perceived,but also a like condition
ient
the
view
metaphysical
Whatever
might be taken as to
organ.

sides,that
in

in

of that

essence

motion.

advances
^

this foundation

On

If, that

up.

directed

the

just as obviously it

objectwhich

the

calls

forth

both.

different

from

doctrine

of the

something

pregnant discovery

is

motions

two

else than

the

else than

the

by both, it is yet
designated as the

of sense-perception.
subjectivity

Nevertheless, in

the

of

case

Since, like

Protagoras

consciousness,he taught

that

peculiar

evidently could

he

corresponding existent
motion

this double

from

with

this appears

thinkers,

all earlier
without

consciousness

is

perception. Conditioned

This

is built

theory of knowledge

Protagorean

perception is the product of these

another, it is obviously something

one

edged
acknowl-

outer.'

the

meet

to

perceiving subject,but

assume

be

to

is to say,

toward

restriction.

it seemed

every

had

motion

motion,

in

perception presupposed this double

that the
already anticipatedthe doctrine

that

Empedocles
organic

there

was

undoubted

as

inner

which

the

there

was

viz.

completelyadequate knowledge of
of

the

the

thing.
when

instant

thing

the

it

what

Every perceptionis
arises

arises,there

represented content,

as

is

also

itself.

thing

such

as

he

represents

Protagorean
individual
famous

them

they
propositionthat
to

as

to

appear

which

him

; and

is the measure

man

this,therefore,every

is true, and

yet

in

motions

in

certain

of perception
indeed

as, at

true

with

connection

the

no

with

reference

is the

this

of

he

all

just

of

for

are

him

to

meaning

things

opinion which
sense,

fold
two-

edge
knowl-

no

far

so

perception knows
knows
things not as
perception for him, and

This

to

relativism, according

such

According

himself.

to

in

but
aia-drjTov,

Consequently every one

of
they are, but as they are in the moment
for him
only ; and they are in this moment

the

perceived,but

then

of

content

and content
in the man,
perception (ato-flj^o-is)
in the thing. Perception is therefore
(to aia-drjTov)

result

not

the

every

expressed

in the

things.
grows

for this

out

of perception

reason,

it is

already designated by Protagoras as active

in Plato's
case
presentation (^Theoet.
At all events, such
remain
undecided.
156 A), may
anthropological categories in
of the Sophist are
not surprising.
the mouth
2 With
regard to such preparatory ideas, there is no ground to trace this
which
advance
to meet
one
another, to direct connection
theory of the motions
Its Heraclitean
which
Plato
Heraclitus.
with
element,
correctly saw, was
very
reduced
all Becoming
by those direct predecessors who
sufficientlymaintained
and change to relations of motion.
1

and

Whether

these

two

passive (iroiovvand

were

irdo-xox),as

is the

Chap.

Problem

2, " 8.]

It is valid

also false.

only

the

at

And

it.
other

of

there

ideas, and

is for human

valid.

This

to the

individual

far

it rejectsall

as

How

far

knowledge
one's

every

is

In

which

that

far

so

the

tion,
percep-

it teaches

as

in

limited

is,however, scepticism

in

so

that.

for

is true

no

is universally

from

practicalconsequences

opinion

is

phenomenon,

transcends

drew

particular they

possible ;

for since

perception, different
all events,

of

only

assertions

is; he

motion,

spoke
and

of

concluded

this

do

himself, we

make
of

not

the

the

not

the

actual

phenomena

tion
contradicof

content

statement
that

reality

which

his

object.

same

positive

any

the

actual

no

about
have

never

can

to

that

talks

one

every

Protagoras refused

what
but

of

; it

moment

whatever

in

even

validity forsakes

Protagoras, there
knowledge than

nothing

knowledge

to the

him

Sophistsconcluded that,according to this,error would

possible; everything, and again nothing, belongs to everything

attribute.

as

na

for

Later

be

not

sense

and

of
other

phenomenalism

Protagoras himself

principlethat
know.

is

universal

view

knowledge

view

entirely definite

this

All

therefore

93

perceiving, and

one

the

to

Protagoras.

it arises.

since, according

kind

for the

only

when

moment

Science

of

it

At
cerning
con-

moves,

produces

for

perception.
the

Moreover,

by

or

was

made,

now

whether

the

Sophisticactivitydependent
perception,and so also in the

in
differences
motion

attempt

in

which

this

motion.

It

considered

was

was

in this

self,
him-

by Protagoras
him,

upon

to

ferences
dif-

trace

back

to

principallythe velocity of

the

phenomenon,
the

connection, though

form

also

probably regarded.''It is interestingto note further that under

the concept of perception not
only sensations and perceptions,but
also the sensuous
subsumed
worthy
feelings and desires,were
; it is notealso an
states
to these
tary
a momenespecially because
ala-O-qrov,
of the thing which
qualification
produced the perception, was
held
to
ability
correspond. The
predicates of agreeableness and desirreceive
in this way
the same
valuation
epistemologically
do
the
of
as
sensuous
qualification. What
predicates
appears
is
and
desirable
to
one
agreeable, useful,
agreeable, useful,
any
was

and

desirable

here, too,

the

determination
the

Hedonism

doctrine

; .we

Doubtless

for

hini.

measure

of
of

the

The

individual

of

things,

worth

of

and

things

state
no

of

other

exists.

Aristippus was developed

know, teaches
Aristippus, not

out

consciousness

universallyvalid
In

of

is

this

the

things,but

direction

Protagorean
only

their

have
here asserting itself the development
of the Pythagorean
we
this reduction
of the
knowledge out of the Atomistic
school, to which
essential
phist
qualitative to the quantitative was
(cf.above, " 6), even
though the Sodeclined
from
principleto enter into such metaphysical theories as Atomism.

theory

of

The

94

the

for us, and

worth

however,

Period.
Anthropological

into
{irddr])

states

which

indifference,violent

rest and

are

these

Of

pleasure.

and

motion

Greeks

only

the

motion

[Part

they put us.

These,
and pain,or gentle

is worth

last

I.

strivingfor

(of.above, " 7, 9).

all

4. Thus

unattainable.

as

he

that

believed
is

Virtue

it

; and

knowledge
also.

knowledge
postulate.
there

knowledge,

be striven

must

"

for the

seeks

the lover

as

possession

is the

'

of this

doctrine

of

he

knowledge

in the

and
science,''

be

to

the

of

knowledge

for

Science

object.

Out

only

sciousness
con-

epistemological

an

as

moral

be

yearning, struggling love for

philosophy (cf.Plat. Symp. 203 E).
^iXo"jo^!.a,
of the Socratic
all the peculiarities
conviction
grow

loved

held

clearness

must

knowledge,
morality is not possible without
knowledge ; and if knowledge is not here and now

be

must

the

history the

for.

Because

existent,it
of

on

be virtue, there
in

truth

this account

honestlysought

were

must

first time

the

complete

with

appears

there

since

for

Here

if it

be attained

to

was

giving up

truth,and

needed

Socrates,however,

in

issued

Sophisticthought

of

courses

first

and

necessary
relations

the

place

of

within

bounds

possible.

therefore

It is

is necessary

life that

human

which

and
only for these is a knowing necessary,
only for these is man's knowing facultyadequate. Hypotheses as
the philosophy of Nature
have
to metaphysics and
nothing to do
the

for

with

life ;

ethical

ethical

man's

task, and

left unconsidered

are

by Socrates,

Sophists that it
Science
impossibleto gain a sure knowledge concerning them.
possibleonly as practicalinsight,as knowledge of the ethical
much

so

was

is

rather

they

the

he

as

shared

the

view

of

the

life.
view

This
successors

of

principle.

For

far

so

him

Socrates
both

it affords

as

happy.
in

not

formulated

was

With

itself,but

knowing

man's

under

Cynics
to

still
the
and

the

man

Antisthenes
as

natural

more

means

needs;

sharply by

influence

of

his

the

eudsemonistic

Cyrenaics science had

serves
right insightwhich
and
Diogenes science
for

controllingthe

the

Cyrenaics

said

Sophistic

worth

only
make

to
was

prized
and

desires
the

causes

for
of

of
for us
much
matters
perception (to,Trnroi-qKOTa
are
as
TrdBrf)
indifference
as
leads
to
they are unknowable; knowledge which
with
know
happiness has to do only with our
we
states, which
toward
certainty. Indifference
metaphysics and natural science
to,

Cf. Fr.

Schleiermacher,Ueher den Werth des Sokrates als Philosophen (Ges.

ff.).
^
[Wissenschaftslehre. Wissenschaft, scientia,,""science," has here both
its subjective and objective sense
mental
; knowledge as
act, and knowledge as
of truth.
Hence
a body
both "doctrine
of science,"
means
Wissenschaftslehre
of knowledge, and
i.e. science
"scientific doctrine"
i.e. philosophy. Tr.]
"W.

III., Bd. 2, pp. 287

"

"

Socrates,

is with

inner

the

with

both

matter

that there

the

change

one

and

the

and

clear

so

was

of

and

notion.

demand,

the

The

ancient

in the

theory

other

they

than

the

able

to

psychologically or
here, too,
is to

serve

all the

in

be

expected only for

to

be

knowledge,

makes

and
(A.oyos),

science

"

scientific

essential

in

the
nature

of

be

more

be

all, must

in

only

that

subjective community
knowledge]
[scientific

universal

is

an

out

into

abiding

relief

"

eKaa-rov

nature

as

this

had

either
because

which

work
than

he

opinion,

is

common

upon

validity is

Hence,

if there

in which

all

object-matter
ideas

is the

is

ticular
par-

which

concept

accordinglycoKcepiionai

the

validity

element

is
the

which

opinions.

is the

definition.

which
that

condition

common

perceptions and

all scientific work

they

worth

what

in

world

but

subjectiveuniversal

of

tC

the

tially
essen-

themselves

forced

have

found

of conceptions,

is to establish

ideas

be

is to

the

of

or

rational

the

in

the

that

for

succeeded

objectivelyuniversal.

all individual

goal

in

the

relative

in

concept brings

is contained

concept

rooted

opinion^

universal
The
thought.
knowledge is only possible on

for

the

something

question by

which

This

agree.

the

cosmological

was

abstract

thinking,

Hence

the

it is to

possible the

claimed

idea

individual relations

to

ideas

in

thing

particular ideas

individuals

the

was

in

Socrates

knowledge

as

the

sought

apprehending

of

distinction

this

The

perform.

He

feeling that

traditional

than

out

the

demanded

it in

knowledge

mode

logically.

defined

it to

expected
that

he

with

contrast

he

propounded
had

their

owed

sensuous

carry

found

that

knowledge

In

ideas

was

postulate.

everyday life,or

been

that

for individuals

sought

and

his

They taught

good

manner.

had

view

thinkers, also, had

which

thinking to
in

(cf. " 7, 1),

Here, too, the

authoritative

so

acknowledge.

others

essential

opposition

hold

individual

should

(i^wVis)as

"Nature"

ethical

vogue

all

the

positive conviction.

like

who

man

essentiallyto

an

"

this

due

Sophists,

all in

for

which

"

Nature

general

in

manner

multiplicityof

and

abiding

logical"

not

of

authoritative

.be

should

employment

of scientific research

psycho-geneticnecessity; he, however, sought

with

or

of

that

within

only opinions (So^at)which

are

result

horizon

achievement

instinct

of

95

all time

determine

yet

the relativism

oppositionto

for

fact

intellectual

This

future.

all the

for

the

itself,in

science

of

nature

Sophists, the

noteworthy

Socrates.

man.

Socrates, should

did

as

of

nature

for himself

narrowed

so

the

with

as

remain

It will

5.

of Science

Problem

2, " 8.]

Chap.

The

determination
aim

of

of

the

tion
investiga-

drj,what each thing is,and to come

over
against changing opinions.

to

96

The- Greeks
doctrine

Period.
Anthropological

[Part

I,

prepared for by the Investigations of the

and
etymological relations.
words,
meaning
synonyms,
In the latter respect, the hypotheses of the Sophists in the beginningsof
the philosophy of language (cf. Plato's
the
to
question
Cratylus) extended
whether
natural
relation
obtains
between
words
conventional
a
or
and
only a
their meanings
mentions
with comSocrates
^ diceC) Prodicus, whom
mendation,
(0iii7ei
been speciallysuccessful in fixingthe meanings of words.
to have
seems
the later Sophists the Socratic
demand
for fixed
conceptions became
Among
forthwith
with its postulate of the idenfused with
the Eleatic
and
tity
metaphysics,
of Being with itself. Euclid
called virtue, or
the good, the only Being : it
remains
the same,
men
call
changeless in itself,and only the names
by which
it differ.
that it
Antisthenes, indeed, explained the concept by the definition
is this which
determines
the timeless
Being of the thing ; ' but he conceived
this identity of the existent
all relations, in so
with
bold a
itself,raised above
that he thought of every
manner
truly existing entity as capable of being defined
but
is impossible. There
are
none
only through itself. Predication
analytic
have
judgments (cf. above. No. 1). Accordingly only the composite can
its
essential
elements
determined
in conceptions ; the simple is not
to
be defined.^
There
is,then, no possibilityof understanding the simple by conceptions ; it can
in a sensuous
thus
from
The
the
presentation.
only be exhibited
Cynics came
of the conception to a sensualism
Socratic doctrine
which
recognised as simple
and
be grasped with
with
and seen
the hands
the
can
originalonly that which
eyes, and this is the ground of their opposition to Plato.
This

in

was

Sophists concerning

some

measure

the

of

6.

The

ethical

searching out of conceptions (for his purpose,

conceptions)

science,and

this determined

philosophising.
all

it must

The

then

be found

solitary hypercriticnor

man

thirsting for
others.

develops
he

which
from

be

must

encountered
of

found

which

him.=

of

everyday
exchange

the

for

of

seeming knowledge and

condition
of things Socrates made
views

one

of

to

eager

others, disclosed

consistency,and
into

the

learn.

state

of

\6yos iffrlv 6 tJ tI
Plat.

This

Thext.
factor

202
united

riv

where

ri

access

common

thoughts;

the

"conversation"

the

customary

mode

the

the

his

entrance

skilful

By

defects

finallyled the

mind

the

of

find

ments
paradoxicalstateing
Sophists,the pride belongInto
such a
thoughtless imitation.

to

as

inertia

begin with
conceptions

The

of

this

innovation,and

characteristic

were

But

koyo^.

to

to

easy

to

as

dialogue; it

ethical

mutual

diifieulties : the

idle desire

the

indeed

was

ready

was

To

himself

the

business.

the

to

he

of

for

is neither

cathedra,but

ex

instruct

to

of his

is valid

Socrates

teaches

of

essence

form

which

philosophy

which

with

in

way

many

thinking, the

talk

whatever

the

was
8iaXoyi(Tjuo"

anxious

as

seeking for, it

was

object

any

element

truth,

who

indeed, only

the
outer

that

thinking.

instructor

an

be

to

common

conversation

would

alone

in

Socrates

first place the

is
philosojphy

in

who

one

every

the

His

itself

in the

conception was

teach

accordingly for

was

he

by introducing

questions he

in

these

views

Athenian, proud

recognised that

iari SrfKdv : Diog. Laert.

drew
with
of

out

self
himthe

less
remorse-

his culture,

insight into one's

VI. 3.

B.
with

the

influence

succeedingphilosophical literature

the

form

of Zeno's
of

the

dialectic to stamp

dialogue.

upon

the

Chap.

ignorance,

own

this
in

effort

serious

meaning

is

the

with

him

to

bring

in clearer,less

and

definite

to

common

partnership

In

meaning.

quality comes

process

to

light, to

diverging opinions.

to be

found

; it is

of

envelopes

lies hidden.

the

the

to

his

caused

so

in

him

mental

another

the

as

wifery,
mid-

essential
rational

common

in

subject

are

conception is

The

the

be

to

not

formation

Socratic
:

it leads

of

spite

made,

determine

and

individual

every

of

the

to

particularviews

of

it decides

forward

and

of

art

still

all parts

inductive

or

comparison

presentations;

which

unfold

irony.

conversation

procedure of

The

his

sation,
conver-

it is

alreadythere, it requires only to be deliiiered from

individual
it
experiences and opinions in which

is,therefore, epagogic
by

of

the

their

this

has, however,

method

maieutic

it his

essential

slumbering

was

called

He

stood

the
thii^ing,

expression what

preparationfor

that

The

press

was

into

contradictory statements,

imperfect presentiment.

the

taken

conceptions. Undertaking the direction of

Socrates
brought his companion step by step to

thoughts

7.

Whoever

of

own

an

97

knowledge.

him
in

determine,

to

Socrates.

all

beginning of

still remained

and

test

of Science

Problem

2, " 8.]

generic

individual

tion
concep-

sensuous

question by seeking
This

general conception.

conceptions

is

to

plished
accom-

by searching
by bringing together analogous cases, and
The
allied relations.
general conception thus gained is then

out

employed

decide

to

of

the

The

inductive

according
childlike

the

of

The
with

once

with

But

of

the

of

for

logic,and

induction

the

are

great the

however

doctrine

be

its value

has

future

Socrates

be

which

that

is

arguments

it is the

by

for

not

the

in

be

may

theory of knowledge.

conceptionalthought,
opinion, to

by

thus
"

defined

no

It

fixes

task

of

essential

only

be

within

employed:
the

domain

that

the

accordance

arguments

in

nature

he

way
to

of

for

that

is

strive

to

science

also

this task
of

of

lessened.

means

science

"

can

of

methodology, but

thinking in conceptions,

science

fulfilled

the

conviction

in

general conceptionsfrom comparison offacts.

within

Socrates,

strong

so

forthwith

decided
gaps

these

is

conception

establish

bounds

by

the

for all the

While

the

as

still marked

sure,

decisive

8.

out

employed

as

hastilygathered material, and

Socrates,the significanceof
His

procedure

questions proposed

it.

nation
subordi-

imperfection. It lacks as yet caution in

of
methodical
circumspection in the formation
need
for the general is so
lively that it satisfies

determining validity

individual

worked

is thus

Plato, is,to

and

Xenophon
simplicityand
to

conceptions.

general

this

knowledge.
of scientific

method

generalisation and
itself at

the

particular under
relation

fundamental

and

specialproblem proposed,

the

fixed

is, in

as

the
his

practicallife.

98

The

Science

is,as

regards

its content

they
they

the
it

of

that

should

So
but

it

same

in

faith.

to

the

this

gods, although

he
in

preparing
as

of

he

the

more

knowledge

less

in
where

form

that

of

idea

an

the

way

knowledge

enters

he

the

most

gods

ceased,

the

wise

hide

succeed

its

of

man

the

science,

as

near

of

which

adaptation
Providence

trusts

possible

as
a

plurality of

monotheism

which

forward

come

and

if he

in

such

his

expounded

true

voice.
in

faith

set

certain

the

his

was

tion
limitations
condi-

are

decision,

daimonion,

cases,

and
rates
Soc-

selling
coun-

that

thought

difficult

and

he

conditions

He

served

complete

there

such

himself

evil

that

task,
for

in

man

he

Saifioviov.

himself

to

that

Under

otherwise

Athens

and

sufficient

from

who

conceptions

this

warning

which

in the

more

rights.

with

confidence

himself

within

warned
man

of

in

not

part

the

and

from

heard

the

world,

conviction

his

"

clearness

upon

that

the

grew

is

universe

untouched.

relations,

knowledge

morality,

the

natural

spoke

not

renounced

of Nature,

ceases,

most

needs.

all

ethical

did

ethics,

toward

which

for

his

he

the

all the

conceptions,

of

ethical

even

the

to

taught

of

could

of

and

he

others

through

kept himself

But

he

completely

and

as

life,nevertheless

Socrates

teleological vieio

and

moral

aside, indeed,

inclined

not

feeling

So

to

people,

time.

ethical

believed

this

his

pressed

in

the

his

faith, however,

of

does

of

rationalism
he

this,

him

Socrates

indeed

left

this

I.

and

though for the

after

understanding

faith

Nature

questions

arrangement

where

reformer

faith,

The

for

the

But

such

into

puts

the

in

which,

With

limited

for

aside.

professes

religious ideas

Out

indifference

Socrates

wisdom

things,'and

own

persist,and

of

time

in

matters

still

possible

that

the

[Pakt

conceptions,

problems

entirely put

more

comes

admires

was

and

satisfy his scientificallygrounded

the

at

of

concerning

attaining insight

all the

was

be

cannot

task

formation

ideas

mass

matter

the

form,

of

whole

questions
are

Anthropological Period.

ethics.

the

connected

its

regards

Meanwhile

part

Crreeks

where

in
his

them.

feeling

beside

ethical

science.

It

is

the

stellar

ascribed

probable

not

Anaxagoras
to

in

this

that

respect,

Socrates
for

the

experienced
latter's

universe, not
human
to
life, while
Socrates, especially by Xenophon,
make

for

admiration

of

the

the

religious views

of

world.
the

great

Much

poets

more

of

any

the

the

to

considerations

utility for

from

influence

strong

teleology relates

man

harmony
which
the

of
are

standard

faith
Socratio
closely related
to
Athens, especially the tragedians.

are

certain

in

only

had

one

three

the

entire

union

which

in the

appears

the

and

which

division

thus

work

this

material.

unrelated
of these

three

of

the
But

the

on

departments
was

that

of
the

building
who
The

of

three

of

point

in ways

and

and

the

ment
endow-

in like

thought

appear

was

the

case

that

philosophical doctrine

achieved

form

of

an

organic

thereby

to

criticism.

which

cognition

in

must
ent
differ-

metaphysical conceptions
deepened,

refined and

world
of
of

were

the

lines
typicalout-

worked

out.

philosophicalsystemof genius
these men

it should

so

by Democritus,

conception,

of systems.

systematising of knowledge
Plato, and

so

method

thought.

adjustment
of

each
of the

and

stand

not

of

mass

over

and

generations

in the

first founders

do

of

disadvantages

measure

working

domains,

the formation

fact that

the

one-sided

forms

scarcely two
the

to

of the

differentconceptions of

advantages

in

fundamental

which

means

between

knowledge,

time

short

the

were

process

the

his

formed

individual

furthered, abstract

so

in the

Thus

schools,in

unittj of purpose

one

of

of

in this

place

with

problems
hand, just by

other

conducted

and

than

more

result

not

guarded against by

was

violation

inter-weaving

take

the

at

did

common

knowledge

of

kind

in

principlewhich

This, indeed, led

to

shared

undertook

the

from

derived

and

explained

extended

inclination

with

in accordance

This

men

material

entire

ity,
literaryactiv-

allowed.

was

But

their

vigorous co-operation of

of labour

their

of

elabora.ted is in part

of material

they

scientific interest

their

of

these, and

isolated,into fruitful

been

character

varied

and

amount

the

only through

had

time

all-sidedness

This

compass

great

this

from

formed

been

had

to

up

relation.

and

like measure

in

lyrohlems. They brought together

of scientific
and comhad won
observation
pared
; they examined

compass

that

brought

work

their

informed

no
especially
psychological

and

physical

directed

men

experience and
the conceptions which

what

both

in

himself

reality,while

actual

interest

shown

yet

as

[Part I.

shown

had

manner

of

departments

investigation,these
to

in like

questions,and

circle of

Greeks.

of the
Philosopliy

The

100

was

Aristotle,and
articulation

of

with
with

science

become

an

clusive
all-in-

increasing success
the
into

last

first found

the

individual

the development of Greek

disciplines.With this Aristotle concluded
philosophy and inaugurated the age of the specialsciences.
The
of this development was
course
more
particularlythis : the
the
from
two
and
Plato
opposing systems of Democritus
arose

applicationto cosmologicaland metaphysical problems, of the principles

the
doctrines
of
the
gained through
Sophists and of Socrates;
from

the

attempt

doctrine

to

reconcile

of Aristotle.

these

ing
oppositesproceeded the conclud-

Chap.

Tlie
that
the

The

3.]
essential

feature

SystematicPeriod.
in

the

work

of

101

Democritus

and

Plato

was

they used the insight into the theory of knowledge, gained by

philosophy of the Enlightenment, to ground^metaphysics anew.

Their

dependence

common

period and

doctrines

of

the

cosmological
ory
Sophisticteaching, in particularupon the the-

the

upon

the

upon

of

Protagoras,stamps upon the two doctrines a certain parallelism

p,nd a partialrelationship, a relationshipthe more
interesting,
between
the two
in other
deeper the contrast
respects. This
"

the

contrast, however, is due

effect upon

no

hence

the

it is

as

the

ethical

this contrast

the

on

in the

the

Thus

materialism

teaching

Plato

on

in the

of the former.

whose

for

basis

Acadeyny

soon

suit the

not

contrary,

the

so-called

time,

its influence

had

decisive

was

of the

system
parallellines

of Democritus

latter

in

is

did

Democritus

time

the

Socratic

explained,too, the difference

purely theoretical
conception of science

The

same

the

preponderant

as

in that

that

from
the

and

of Plato.

From

Plato,

is

developed

source

idealism

with

factor

fact

while

Democritus,

unimportant

same

to the

an

Older

age

scientific

school

extensive

and

following

ing.
work-

prevails

disappeared.

furnished

the

of

this

But

the

at

pleasure

lasting school.
the

their

which

soon

teaching

principleof life,had

Academy,

ing
form-

school,
of

general tendency

the

partly into special investigation,partly into

out

ran

; his

in

ular
pop-

moralising.
Out

of it

thinker
which

that
he

then

rose

the

history has

caused

the

crystalliseabout

the

made
the

him

the

Democritus

of

of his home

unassuming
period, and
any

powerful

of

discovered

and

Greek

Greek

of

his two

between

(about 460-360)

of the

with

science

investigator in

his

from

was

order

sors,
great predeces-

future,and

educated

in
led

years,
the turmoil

city during

native

to

his

system

thought.

by journeys lasting many

far

influential

most

concentration
in

thought

philosophicalteacher

the

of

the
did

ciation
asso-

quiet,

Sophistic

impart
essentially
investigationof
not

was

to the
thought, and particularlyinclined
he united
great
gigantic learning and comprehensive information
clearness of abstract
to simplify problems
thought and apparently a strong inclination
at the head
of his works
that
he stood
schematically. The number
proves
of an
extended
names
are
school, of which
some
preserved, yet
unimportant
characteristic
turned
aside from
of the way
in which
his age
nothing is more
research
that was
with
which
his sysnot
interesting to it than the indifference
tem
of the mechanical
forced
His
doctrine
of
Nature
met.
was
was
explanation
into the background
for two
thousand
by the teleologicalsystems, and
years
it was
there
not
prolonged its existence
even
only in the Epicurean school, whUe
to

Nature.

theoretical

scientific
life of

the

He
noisy activityof Athens.
otherwise, by his teaching, but

the

special ability,politicalor

disposed

the
Aristotle,

in
conception of development (ei/TcXex^ia)

Abdera

remained

of

The

content

perfect expression

most

form

seen.

entire

adjust the opposition

to

great

With

understood.

Antiquity honoured
complete loss

almost

Democritus
of

his

works

as

great writer

is all the

more

also, and for this reason

lamented, as aside

to be

the
from

The

102

the Crreeks.

Philosophy of

[Part

part doubtful fragments ai

theoretically,the Mcfyi
been,
The
most
extant.
vepl iiBvulrisand biroei
practically,
and
ireplIdewv;
and
vov
vepl
MiKp6s SiiKorfws,
work
to
through the source
Kahl
W.
(Diedenhofen, 1889) has begun
KOI.
the

had

which

and

only very unimportant

important writings seem

titles

numerous

collected

been

(Minden,

Burchard

W.

by

in

to have

1830

and

1834)

and

Lor

zing (Berlin,1873).
Cf
thum

P.
.

Natorp, Forschungen

zur

Geschich,U des Erkenntnissproblems

Seelen-

Zur

(Berlin,1884); G. Hart,

und

Erkenntnisslehre

des

Alta
im
Demokr

(Leips. 1886).
of

Plato

made

Socrates

(427-347),of distinguishedfamily,

Athens

artistic

the

assimilated

decisive

so

scientific culture

and

an

impression

of his time

upon

him

that

had

when
he

most
the

successfull

personalityc

abandoned

his a1

H
entirely to the society of the master.
tempts at poetry
his most
time
the
same
indepeii
and
at
and
his
yet
most
truest
intelligent,
was
his acceptance of Euclid'
occasioned
of Socrates
dent
disciple. The execution

devoted

and

himself

for
to
Cyrene and Egypt, returned
through his writings, and perhaps als
he becam
Grsecia and Sicily,where
find him
in Magna
390 we
orally. About
Thi
action.
in
also
and
took
political
the Pythagoreans
connected
with
part
of
the
elde
ruler
the
of
Syracuse,
serious
the
into
at
court
him
danger
brought
with
the help of his friend Dion
he sought to influence
; h
Dionysius, whom
ransomed
to the Spartans and
only by the hel]
delivered as prisoner of war
was
twice
This
repeated late
of a friend.
attempt at practicalpoliticsin Sicilywas
results.
unfortunate
but
with
and
always
361),
(367
his school in the grove Akademos
the first Sicilian journey, he founded
After
for the purposi
of prominent
united
about
him
men
and
a great number
soon
of this society was
to be
Yet the bond
scientific work.
of common
sought stil
His
of ethical
ideals.
teaohinj
in a friendship based
community
more
upon
of a commoi
activityat the beginning had, like that of Socrates, that character
not until hii
finds expression in the dialogue. It was
for truth which
search

Megara
Athens, and

invitation

time

old

to

age
This

to

that

it took

he
; then
here began

on

more

the

journeyed
to

form

teach

of

the

didactic

lecture.

in Plato's worJcs,^in whiol

literaryembodiment
with
dramatic
vividness
itself of philosophising is set forth
the process
anc
of art, thi
of
and
their
views
As
of
life.
works
personalities
plasticportraiture
successful
and
the
most
Phosdo
are
grandest impression o:
Symposium
; the
the exception of thi
the system, as a whole, is afforded
by the Bepublie. With
is everywhere
that
of the dialogue. Yet thi
Apology of Socrates, the form
old age, and
suffers in Plato's
the
artistic treatment
only ai
dialogue remains
thi
and
the Laws.
For
the schematic
setting of a lecture,as in the Timaeus
that Plat(
most
part, Socrates leads the conversation, and it is into his mouth
decision
when
he comes
to one.
Exceptions to this are not foun(
puts his own
until in the latest writings.
mode
of presentation is also on the whole
The
artistic than scientific. 1
more
vividness
and plasticityof imagination in perfect language, bu
exhibits extreme
in separating problems or in methodical
strictness
no
investigation. The con
individual
tents of any
dialogue is to be designated only by the prominent sul
abstract
ject of inquiry. Where
presentation is not possible or not in plao
Plato
takes to his aid the so-called
myths, allegoricalpresentations which utilis
from
fables and
tales of the gods in free, poetic form.
motives
transmission
of his works
The
is only in part certain,and it is just as doubtft
in what
order
they originated and what relation they bear to one another.
the most
The
of those who
have worke
following are among
important names
these
in his translation
over
questions since Schleiermacher
(Berlin,1804 fl,
an
impulse in that direction: J. Socher (Munich, 1820), C. Fr. Herman
gave
life finds

its sesthetic

and

into German
by Hier. MfiUer, with Introductions
by K. Steinhar
As
ninth
volume
of the
series Platon's
Leben, b
Leips. 1850-1866.
Oxforc
K.
Steinhart.
Leips. 1873.
5 vols.
[English by Jowett, third ed.
1893. ]
recent
more
of Stepham
the paging of that
Among
editions,in which
(Paris,1578), employed in citations,is always repeated, are to be noted thos
of J. Bekker
(Berlin, 1816 f.), Stallbaum
(Leips. 1850), Schneider an
M.Sohanz
Hirschig (Paris: Didot, 1846 ff.),
(Leips. 1875 ff.).
1

Translated

8 vols.

Chap.

The

3.]

Systematic Period.

103

(Heidelberg,1839), E. Zeller (Tubingen, 1839), Fr. Suckow

(Berlin, 1855),
Susemihl
(Berlin,1855-56),E. Munk
(Berlin,1886), Fr. Ueberweg (Vienna,
1861), K. Sohaarschmidt
(Bonn, 1866), H. Bonitz
(Berlin, 1875), G. TeichmuUer
(Gotha, 1876 ; Leipsic,1879; Breslau, 1881), A. Hrohn (Halle, 1878),"W.
Dittenberger (in Hermes, 1881), H. Siebeck
son
(Freiburg i. B. 1889). [H. Jack-

Fr.

mJour.

Phil., X., XI., and

XIII.;

Archer-Hind's

editions

of

Fhcedo

and

Jour.
critioallyby P. Shorey in Am.
TimcEus; reviewed
PMlol., IX. and X.]
[On Plato's philosophy, in addition to the above, W. Pater, Plato and Platanism
(Lond. and N.Y. 1893) ; J. Martineau, in Types of Ethical
Theory (Lond.
and
N.Y.
1886), also in Essays; Art. Plato in Enc. Brit., by L. Campbell ; R. L.
in P.'s Bep., in Hellenica
Nettleship, The Theory of Education
; J. S. Mill in
Essays and Discussions. 1
The
writings which are considered
genuinely Platonic are (a) youthful works,
which
scarcely go beyond the Socratic
standpoint : Apology, Crito, Euthyphro,
Lysis, Laches
(perhaps also Oharmides, Hippias Minor, and Alcibiades, I.);
(6) writings to establish his position with
regard to the Sophistic doctrines:
Protagoras, Gorgias, Enthydemus,
Cratylns, jMeno, Thecetetus ; (c) main works
intended
his own
doctrine
to present
Symposium, Phcedo, Philehus,
: Phoedrus,
and
the Mepublic, whose
working out, begun early and completed in successive
into
the last years of the Philosopher's life ; (d) the
strata, as it were, extended
writings of his old age : Timaeus, the Laws, and the fragment of Critias.
Among
the doubtful
writings the most
important are the Sophist, Politicus, and ParThese
menides.
of his
probably did not originate witli Plato, but with men
school
who
with
dialectic and
eristic.
The
first
the Eleatio
were
closelyrelated
two
author.
are
by the same
Cf. H. V. Stein, Sie.ben Biicher
Geschichte
des Flatonismus
zur
(Gottingen,
1861
of Socrates (Lond. 1865);
ff.);G. Grote, Plato and the Other Companions
A. E. Chaignet, La vie et les ccrits de Platon
(Paris,1873); E. Heitz, (0. Miiller^s
Gesch. der griech. Lit., 2. Aufl., II. 2, 148-235).
Plato's school
and
is called the
the time of its development, which
Academy,
aided
reaches
of ancient
was
to the end
by the continued
thought, and which
and
the gymnasium
existingthere, is usually
possession of the academic
grove
five periods : (1) the Older
diate
immedivided into three
or
Academy, Plato's most
and
circle of scholars
the succeeding generations, extending to about
260
took
in which
which
a scepticaldirection,and
Academy,
B.C.; (2) the Middle
of Carneades
and
school
older school
of Aroesilaus
an
a
(about 160) are
younger
of Larissa
which
with Philo
New
Academy,
(about 100)
distinguished
; (3) the
of Ascalon
and
with Antiochus
turned
back
to the old dogmatism,
(about twentyfive years
into the
Concerning the two (or
paths of Eclecticism.
later)turned
forms

four) later
To

the

cf. Part

Older

Academy
heads

The

of

Xenooratea

Philip
among
related

the

of

the

men

school

were

were

Neo-PIatonic

school

took

sion
posses-

great erudition and honourable

sonality.
perthe
of Plato,
nephew
Speusippus,

of
and

Polemo
from

Grantor

school

the

Later

Heracleides

Opus
older, and

with

1.

II. ch. 2.

belonged
the

Chalcedon,
and

of

II. ch.

Cf. Part

Academy.

of the

the

the
among
astronomers

of Tarentum.
Pythagorean Archytas
far
of Stagira towers
Aristotle

Crates

Pontic

of

Heraclea

Athens
are

members.
younger
of
Eudozus

to

these,
; beside
be mentioned
Less

Cnldos

closely
and

the

all his
associates
in the
Academy
tion
physician, he brought with him an inclinaof age, he
medical
and natural
toward
science, when, at eighteen years
in which
entered
the Academy,
as
literarysupporter and also as teacher, at first
of rhetoric, he early played a comparatively independent part, without
acting
the
to
subordination
master, by so^doing.
contrary to a feeling of reverent
that he separated himself
until after Plato's death
externally from the
It was
not
of Atarneus
the
ruler
and
friend
his
w
ith
Hermias,
Xenocrates,
visiting,
Academy,
married.
After
an
relative Pythias he afterwards
Assus
in Mysia, whose
ently
apparof Philip
and Mitylene, he undertook, at the wish
transient
stay at Athens
it for
of the latter's son
Alexander, and conducted
of Macedon,
the education
After
he lived for some
results.
this,
with
the
about
three
years
greatest
years
in his native
city, pursuing scientific studies with his friend Theophrastus, and

(384-322).

together with
had

its seat

called

the

As

son

of

above

Macedonian

in Athens
his own
school, which
him, in the year 335, founded
of its shady walks) was
Lyceum, and (probably on account

in the

Peripatetic School.

104:

The

After

twelve

of

years

politicaldisturbances

Greeks:

greatest activity,

the

and

went

Systematic Period.
left

he

[Part

Athens

account

on

I.

of

he died in the following year,

Chalcis, where
Cf. A. Stahr, ArisUiteJia, I. (Halle, 1830).
to

of .a disease
of the stomach.
(!"fthe results of the extraordinarily comprehensive

literaryactivityof Aristotle
from
the point of view
part
important
only
part,
in the eyes of
of science, is extant.
The
dialogues published by himself, which
the ancients
also,are lo.st with the
placed him on a level with Plato as an author
with
exception of a few fragments, and so also are the great compilations which
the

smallest

the

but

most

of scientific knowlhe prepared for the different branches

edge.
were
designed as text-books
scientificdidactic writings, which
extant.
in the Lyceum,
The
the foundation
to be made
are
of lectures
plan of
execution
in his works
varies greatly ; in many
places there are
only sketchy
the

aid

of his scholars

Only

Iiis

notes, in others complete elaborations

sketch, and it is probable that
same
has

inserted

been

in the

there

are

gaps of the
times
on
(as it appears,
of Rhodes
by Andronicus

prepared in ancient
of original manuscripts)
these

different

also

revisions

of the

matter
supplementary
by different scholars
tion
,*Since the finst complete edimanuscripts.

of

occasion

the

'(fiO-50e.g.)

discovery

new

did

not

separate

questions are still afloat concerning it.

Cf. A. Stahr, Aristotelia, II. (Leips. 1832); V. Rose
(Berlin, 1854); H. Bonitz
(Vienna, 1862 ft.);,T. Bernays (Berlin, ]"();!);B. Heitz
(Leips. 18Ur, and in the
second
ed. of i"). Miiller's
Gesch.
dur
griech. Lit., II. 2, 286-321); E. Vahlen
(Vienna, 1870 ff.).
This
text-book
is arranged in the following manner
collection,!as it were,
:
the
(a) Logical treatises ; the Categories,on
Proposition, on
Interpretation,
the Analytics, the 7'opirs including the book
the Fallacies
on
brought together
critical

parts, many

"

the school

by

'"^Onjaimti"; (ft)Theoretical

as

the
(Metajilii/xics),
three
the

last

attached

are

Etliics in the

likewise

is not

and

Peictic.

the

Phi/:iirs,the

complete)

and

History of Animals,

number

Nicomachean

Philosophy

of separate
Eudemian

treatises

and

(d)

Poietical

or

editions
Poetioal

Fundamental

Science

the

Psychology ; to the
(c) Practical Philosophy:
and

the

Politics

Philosophy

the

(which
Bhetoric

Fr.

des Aristoteles
Biese, Die
Philosophie
(2* vols., Berlin, 1830-42); A.
Rosmini
Sirliati,Aristotele
i'l^onno,
Fxposto ed Esaminato
1858); G. H. Lewes,
the History
from
Aristotle, a Chapter
of Science' (Loud.
1864) ; G. Grote,
Aristotle (published from
his literaryremains, Lond.
1872).
(Carnb.
[Trans, of the Psycltuhii/iiby E. Wallace
1882) ; of the Ethics, by
Peters

(Lond. 1881), Welldun

(Lond. and N.Y.), Williams
(Lond. 1876), Chase
(Lond. 1877), Hatch
(Lond. 1879); of the Poetics, h\ Wharton
(Camb. 1883) ; of
the Politics, by Welldon
(Camb. 1888), Jowett
(2 vols., Oxford, 1885-88) ; of
the Mlietorir, by Welldon
(Lond. and N.Y. 1886) ; also tr. of all of the above and
of the
and
Metaphysics, Orymwn,
in the
Bohn
History of A)limals
Library.
Editions

of the Politics
with
valuable
introduction
by Newman
(Oxford, 1887,
vols.); of the Etliics, by A. Grant.
Cf. also Art.
in Eiic. Brit., Arisintle
by
in Works;
A.
C. Bradley,.. I.'s Theory
A.liiaiit; T. H. Green
of the State, in
E. Wallace, Outlines of A.^s Phil, is convenient
Hellenica.
for the student.]
2

Metaphysics grounded

" 9.
The

great systematisers of Greek

just criticism
among
worth

anew

the
of

upon

tlie

doctrines

of

in

EpiStemology

science

Sopliisticdoctrine.
the

lasting validityand

Sophists but
scientiiic

a;

exercised

Tliey

saw

at

swift
once

but
that

possessed the

singleone

fruitfulness

Ethics.

and

"

the

perception

tlieonjof Protagoras.

Of

the

The
5

Parisian

editions, that of the Berlin

Ac'ademy (J. Bekker, Brandis,
of citations.
the basis
Bonitz),5 vols.,Berlin, 1831-70, is,made
edition
Ileitz)
(Didot) is also to be noticed (Dtibner, Bussemaker,

newer

Rose, Usener,

vols., Paris, 1848-74.

Chap.

The

3, " 9.]

1.

This,"therefore,became

for Plato

; and

both

the consequences
that
can

passes

which

the

of

with

there

the

is

no

Being

to

be

demonstrated

is

no

Being ")

be

to

be

ascribed

set

abandoned

and

the

Plato
the

both

of what

This

the

older

broader

truly

rationalism

is.

of

of perception
The

knowledge.
the

of

contents

had

simply

had

been

old

yet

This,

Cf.

regard
Math.

in

connection

Sext.
to

VII.

with

Adv.

Emp.

"genuine

"

value

Math.

Icnowledge

Republic,

and

Phcedo.

is not

Gorgias.

to

is

it

in

to

deceit

of

VIII.
is most

Democritus

the

the

to

of

of the

Now

fact

that

56.

The

such
of

another

theory of

could

they

illusion.

of

the

world,
illusion

that

way

while

perception might
reality.

scientific knowledge

doctrine

fit

not

this

relative

shaiply formulated

its

Protagorean

this,by

idea

from

only by

not

conceptional

and

for

rationalists}

standpoint

and

again

yet distinguished

owed

transient

the

knowledge,

"thought"

consequence

their

was

Protagoras

Thus

of

Democritus

in Sext.

sensualism
Plato's
attack
the Protagorean
upon
Thecetetus, his positive rationalistic attitude in the

139.

in the

there

("there

better

outspoken

are

which

perceptioninto

least the

at

which

Protagoras by acknowledging

explained (by Protagoras),but in

surrendering its universal validity the content
claim

declaring

of

cosmological period,

also

as

That

metaphysicians,who

where
metajjliysicians,

rejectedthem

is.

universallyvalid

and

looking

itselffrom

earlier

only

of

source

conclusion

again (cf." 6).

rationalism

psychological basis,

valuation

of what

sensualism

higher

Both

the

analysisof perception, but

only

of "nihilism"

the

transcend

manner

metaphysical

new

the

whatever,

positionof

of perception, and
relativity

knowledge
2.

in like

genuine

with Plato)
Democritus, iiruxT-fifni)

taken

be

appears

with
really (cteij

reality,behind

against opinions,the

over

and

process.

what
with

truly or

tradition

grounds

any

perception, must

and

Democritus

"positivist"

by

as
distinguished thought (Stavota),

from

it teaches

doctrine

the

with
{yvrja-it]
yv^iirj

again

must

case

sole

this

"

expressly

process,

natural

same

admit

arises

Being altogether and

the

sought for,
in his

is

be

to

natural

knowledge

no

step of denying

If, nevertheless, from

be

the

Both

likewise

which

regarded perception as

objectsof perception

to

of

of

it.

attack

is.

Plato)

consequently

was

farther

knowledge

product

something only

who

Protagoras,

took

only

and

it and

from

drawn

(calledvd/io)in
expression),not what

oi/tms

knowledge,

Sophist had

view

Sophisticmode
For

of

Democritus

transcend

to

gives only opinion (8d^a);

for human

Democritus,

it in order

itself

105

starting-pointfor

transitory product

as

Perception then
in and

the

the

knowledge

away

Metaphysics.

adopted

perception, as being
be the

he

New

Emp.

was

with
Adv.

is found

cipally
prin-

Fhxdrus,

posium,
Sym-

106

The

Greeks:

the

abiding

toward

directed

SystematicPeriod.
"

true

"

led

Being,

[Part

to

division

need

this the fundamental

conceptionof reality,and with

to clear,explicitconsciousness,
tory thought came

"

unconsciously lay
of

kinds

two

knowledge

world

the

as

calls

is,or

the

introduced

have

to

irey oira

TO.

Plato, to

essence].
this way
perception and

In

analogous

that

to

these

between

But

the

kinds

two

valid

of

for individuals

only

Being higher, purer,

of

and

phenomena
relation

This
for

was

much

think

to

who

the

dependence

universally

above

But

the

and
and

lower

events

it appears

true

actuality
them.

among

carried

valid

by

out

also with

Plato

ritus,
Democ-

theory of knowledge, but also in his ethics.

the two
In this way
metaphysicians agree with the result which
likewise
from
the Pythagoreans (cf." 5, 7, and
won
" 6, 1) had
lower
kind of
their premises,viz. the distinction of a higher and
of this similaritywe
not
are
reality. Nevertheless, in the presence
not

of

between

perception,the knowledge
is the
particular,
by so much

to be unfolded.

in his

obtains
the

the

reason

above

primitive,raised
the changing processes
especiallyemphasised

only

modes

two

this

thought,

as

more

hereafter

reasons

as

for the

and

designatesit

the

respectivevalues, as

cognition. By

consciousness, is

of

act

their

regards

relation, as

same

seems

ritus
realityDemocwhich
[that
really

for

exists

there

domains

two

respond
cor-

"

of

realityas thought cognises abiding reality. To

of reality."^
cognition correspond two domains

of

the

which
is
opinion gain a correctness
ing
thought. Perception cognises chang-

scientific

of

oio-ta

or

To

Democritus

kind

other
ov

ovtws

which

taught

; Plato

expression phenomena

: the
generation,ytVeo-is

of

explanar

need

perception a changing,
geneous,
thought a realityhomo-

former

the

For

abiding.

and

absolute

to

actuality;

realityor

relative,transient

to

of reality:

differentkinds

two

and

Democritus

so

"

Plato

the

of

of science.

beginnings

of the

basis

at the

in

I.

in

complete stranger to
and scarcelyin the case
a

was

astronomical

doctrine
rather

of

theory, but

Ideas)

is that

the

has

an

common,

nowise

in

the

the astronomical
of

Plato,

whose

idea

who

of

of the

indeed

later

the

motive

which

conception of Being propounded by Parmenides,

three
the
to
of the
division
quite different forms
sphere of higher and one of lower reality.
The

systems

pragmatic parallelism in
of

Democritus

Best

formulated

and

in

Plato

the

motives

reaches

Plat., Tim.

27 D

Pythagoreans,
adopted

higher reality(the
The

content.

the

3.

Democritus,

view

entirely different
fundamental

of

case

of the

from

came

led

world

two

case

in

these
into

opposed

step farther, although

ff.,especially29 C.

The

108

Plato
the

philosophy
ethical

Greeks

But

endeavouring to give to the knowledge

object in the form of a general life-purpose,the
Plato
one
wins his metaphysical position with
be

inference

that

this

the

cognition of what
relate to
opinions which

in which

virtue

truly real was

essentiallyan
by

the

derivative

through

of

to

it

thought;
the

Plato, on

within

purpose
it

had

the

case

must

opposed

as

"

his

the

for

as

should

old

knowledge
of

abiding Being, but an

possible to understand
cognised in perception.

be
is

essentiallytheoretical
of

contrary, knowledge
itself ; this

to

was

the

be

to

had

constitute

world

the

idea
the
His

gained

rationalism.

truly real

the

knowledge

relation

to

metaphysicians,

explanation of phenomena,

an

was

other

is to consist

metaphysics.
already parting. Knowledge

realitywhich

amounted

some

unchangeably

the
it

of

were

virtue

Democritus,

which

form

rationalism

hence

idea

demands

of

Socrates

good, pleasure,etc.,
stroke, by drawing

oio-ta,

In

relative.

are

ways

for

of

means

the

is to consist

Here, then,

truly real, the

is

of

virtue

in which

knowledge

out
principle,'

constituted

that

the

[Part I.

according to the Socratic

while the Sophisticfriends

grows,

need.

Systematic Period.

For

its ethical

virtue,and

given

through perception
than
that of sharply defining its limits.
True
Being has
for Democritus
the theoretical
value of explaining phenomena; for
Plato, the practicalvalue of being the object of that knowledge
which
constitutes
virtue.
His
doctrine
is, as regards its original
principle,essentiallyethical rationalism.
no

to

Democritus, therefore, persevered

school
With
to

of

Abdera,

construction

of

work

undertaken

metaphysics

in the
of

Nature.

the

space

help of the Sophisticpsychology he developed Atomism

comprehensive system. Like Leucippus, he regarded empty
and

attempted
all

the

"

in the

the
not

only

to

phenomena, but also

activities,including
true

Being.
Plato, however,

attachment

to

importance

for his

5.

Socrates

the

of

that
he
led

Socratic

the

Set forth

the

motion

of

these

corporeal world

as

quantitative

from

created
the

to

these

the

the

reality.

motions

activity

He

is

then
atoms

mental

all

which

directed

system of materialism.

entirely opposite

doctrine,which

conception of
taught

true

knowing

Thus

had

the

as

from

explain

to

was

it

explain

qualitative phenomena

toward

in

moving

atoms

to be

proved

essential

result

nature

that

of

by

his

decisive

of science.

knowledge consists in generalconceptions.

If, however, this knowledge, in contrast with opinions,was
to be knowledge of what
truly,actuallyis,there must belong to the
of these conceptions that higher Being, that true essential
content
most

clearlyin

the Meno,

96

ff.

it

reality which,
with

contrast
of which

the

constitutes

"

Idea

first

of

summit
of

lines

of

had

within

it

class-moncepts
{OattungPlatonic

of

conception
itself

presents

combined

are

directed

been

reality,knowledge

true

Ideas

of

In

in

determination.

all the

toward

the

the

as

different

physical,the

Platonic
"^v(ns).The
the abiding Being in the
firstly

class-concept,is

or

phenomena; secondly, the object of knowledge in the

opinions; thirdly,the true end in the change of desires.

this oia-ia,
from

But

of

speciesor

doctrine

philosophy.
which

"

consideration, the

this

Plato's

Idea, the speciesor

change

the

109

grasped only by thought,

forms

"

logical first principle {apxv

ethical,the
of

The

Democritus.

be

gains its complete

Greek

thought

change

could

virtue,are

With

understood,

So

held,

was

perception.

sbegriffe),
dSr].
"

Materialism

System of

3, " 10.]

Chap.

the

the
what

of

sphere

definition,is

of its

nature

perceived, and

be

may

to be

not

found

everything

poreal
cor-

capable of being perceived. The Ideas are then something

True
from
the
reality is
essentially different
corporeal world.
division
in the
conception of realitytakes on
incorporeal. The
is

fixed

accordinglj'a

form

; the

which
generation (yevca-is),

reality of

lower

forms

natural

or

processes

object of perception,is

the

the

corporealworld ; the higher reality of Being, which thought knows,

Thus
immaterial
the
is the incorporeal,the
world, tottos
vorp-o's.
Platonic

system

becomes
him

meaning given by
6.

In

The

seen.

throughout
rich

the

the

by
end,

"

more

united

within

points of
Platonic

itself
for

system

than

was

Plato's

in

the

work

the

in

as

by

which

fundamental

he

product

the

are

System
of

the

carried

thought,

the

for
in

must

the

this,

time

thought.
offered

for Greek

system

their

surpass
of

perhaps
the

this

later,

first unfold

earlier

of

However

again

then

most

history

achieve

up

; but

cosmology
become

must

the

is ruled

contrary,

all needs
of

the

which

Nature.

doctrine

of Democritus

relapse into

The

other

criticism

that

that

taken

it satisfied

immanent

the

might

thought, and

entire

systematic character
way

of

be

it after

perhaps

problems

explaining

could

first the

the

" 10.
The

find

on

doctrine

latter

which

at

doctrine

of

call

we

Idealism.

of

Democritus,

this

proportion

attack

latter

it vras

in

complication

condition

fruitfulness,

all the

"Idea,"

interest

one

results

"

word

of

which

similarlydisposed

the

the

as

or,

system, accordingly, we

doctrine

results

its proper

whole

to

interweaving and

extensive
has

Platonic

the

immaterialism,

first

and
More

by

the

thought

period,and

of the

future.

of Haterialism.
doctrine

through
that

in

of
all

scientific

Democritus

consists

departments

theory

must

of

his

so

far

110

The

Gfreeks

/SystematicPeriod.

[Part

I.

of

gain knowledge
motions

in

which

connection

phenomena, as
indication
(even the

that

that

what

his

great work,
and

It

must

1.

his

much

be

assumed

in

but

it,has

for

this

"

thought

is

in

also

has

to

make

to

derived

place

others,

conceptions

must

always

that

Democritus

and

the

from

that

Hence

rationalism

infer

in

"remain

sense,

seek

that

of

the

true

think

to

so

appears

recognised.
must

is

realitymay

experience,or

with

Thought

we

lost,and
of

of

the

must

more

chological
psy-

remain

explaining the
reality. That
and

space

the

the particles

in

is far

the

truth

real

which

knew

from

that

at the
thing
some-

inheres
well

very

perception, and

removed

from

truly

phenomena, that
preserved"^ as

Democritus

truth

even

was

except for theoretical

purposes.
is perceived ;
what
intelligible

value

which

real

perception.^ His

of

show

the

to

been

main

Existent, viz.

the

problem

latter

"

remain

it may

that

the

this

that

the

reason

explain
time

same

has

accounts

which

first

the

as

no

in order

only thought

it may

in

regard

in

whirring
It is

perception.

uncertain.

Atomists

the

the

with

of science, viz.
of this task
fully conscious
world
of experience through conceptions of
which

reality

would

interest

teachings

reconstruction

in

books

his

an

So

preserved, in connection
hypotheticalreconstruction

is

defective

great

as

greater part of

the

the

task

physicalproblems.

to the

them

their

of investigations
by means
objectsof experience,and in this

with

himself

and

atoms

itself

presents

titles of

this

of the

compass

devoted

permits only
of

tools up

entire

as

regret

this

Democritus

covering the

be

in

is every

this) that

reality,i.e. of the
able to explain from

true

to

as

space,

appears

There

the

win

it out
in

being

tradiction
con-

being strange to experience.

perception that

by

means

of which

the

which
of
motive
explained. The
lay at the foundation
mediating attempts following the Eleatic paradox of acosmism

latter
the

is

became

with
and

physics
known

to

as

the

between

knowledge

Democritus

the

natural

science.

how

he

carried

modes

of

two

grows

out

of

thought by him.
the
More
particularly,
1

clearlyrecognised principleof metar

Yet
unfortunately nothing is now
out

in

detail

cognition, and

perception
theoretical

in

the

how
the

relation

methodical
the

by

process

particularinstance

explanation

which

which
was

Democritus

Cf. also Arist.

happy expression for this is Staaii^nvtA "pai.v6iiei"a.
I. 832, 5 a.
2
he recognised the
truth
in the phenomeHence, the expressions in which
non
I. 2, 404
To
a
27, and the like.
attempt, however, to
; e.g. Arist. De An.
of Democritus, as has been
construe
out of this a " sensualism"
attempted hy
The

very

G'eji. et Corr.

E.

Johnson

his attitude

(Plauen, 1868), contradicts

toward

Protagoras.

completely the

accounts

with

regard to

Chap.

for the

gave
the

all

of

phenomena

relation

quantitative

motion.

The

task

of

of

of
of the

absolute

the

and

What

atoms.

less

made

of

the

reduce

to

all

what

their

qualitative to

tions
quantitativerela-

qualitativecharacteristics
Thus, the prejudice in
phenomena.

in

the

imaged (anschaulich),

or

simpler,more
than

problem

order, and

for

principle

if

as

spatial

qualitativecharacter

the

in

comprehensible

theoretical

and

explanation

of

world.

Since
to the

this
whole

principleis applied
of experience,Atomism

all its essential

form

and

this

elements

motion

of

phenomenon

truly real, and

2.

In

the

be

the

entire

of

is

word,

their

motion
exhibit

which

same

as

in

whatever
that

involving

motion

this
of

the

consists

which

atoms

of

sor,
predeces-

necessity (dmyKi;^

of

only

which

with

defined

further

atoms

also

are

that

detailed

his

than

one

upon

immediate

impact, through

operation

with

accordance

operation

no

Democritus

careful

place, and

takes

first

in the

tact,
con-

change

unchangeable

of
as

form.
as

which

that

"is,"

in

the

proper

of

sense

the

accordinglyonly the characteristics of abstract corporeality,

of
the
the filling
of a limited
and
being
quality
space,
in the void.
Although all are imperceptibly small, they
an

endless

constitutes

belongs

change

by

mechanical

Xdyos),in

of

compared

sharply

more

of the

occasionallycalled

itself

atom

viz.

still

derived,

the

as

is

materialism.

enrichment

great

alone

Democritus

of

system

principleas

possible except through

of

has

is

thought

further, that

state

The

the

in

emphasised

or

thought

regards

there

He

also

occurrence

the

spirituallife

or

conscious, outspoken

change

possible,the

he

and

which

that

of

Thus

explanatory theory.
as

the

Being

true

properly physical doctrines,the teaching

where

another

the

the

investigation.

this

the

and

phenomenon,

character

Leucippus, though

all

psychical lifewith

constitute

regarded

mental
this

also

as

by
is

the

the

presents,therefore,no

which

stated

complete systematic rigour

regards

which

motion

and

with

values

atoms

reality. With

phenomenal
assumes

and

must

in its form

matter

the

Leucippus, iu

of

their

in detail

something

were

of

atoms,

show

ie perceived

motion

alteration,is

yet

mechanics

is then

to

appears

may

themselves, and

the

realityproduce

realitywhich

favour ofwhai

in

the

to

science

and
quantitativerelations,

the

with

perception consists,as

Ill

volved
perception as qualitativelydeterminei^ and also as inexists
"in
qualitative change (dA,A.oioiJju.e/Aov),
truth," only

iu

form

Bemooritus.

in

appears

of

contents

reduction

as

System of Materialism

3, " 10.]

the

certain

variety of

or
(tSe'at
a-xoiJ-aTa)

also

geometrical form,

To

fundamental

proper
sense

forms

size ;

e.g. the

yet

difference
it is

sphere,

may

to

be

appear

in

the

atoms,

observed
in

form,
that

different

112

The

sizes.

The

what

the

Democritus

its

greater

mass

[Part
for the

asserted

size,^evidently yielding to
connection

not

the

in the
The

with

these

terms

middle.

themselves

communicate

properties

same

size of the

atoms

component

the

dependent solelyupon
but

the

upon

between
The

greater

the

density.
with

And

since
to

by empty

also to the
All

other

the

is

in

in

conditioned

perception

they

here

taken

with

of

composition are

the

"

are

to

But

things

as

philosophy
1

As

the

ophr. De
2

It is

Atomism

which
the

each

ff.

scarcely to
ascribed

even

from

determinations
of the

the

61

atoms

on

it

the

also

are

perceived

in

act

perceptionas

situation

other

selves,
them-

things

states

the

belong

in

not

from

of

is

hardness

perceived

erties
prop-

which

the

process

This

doctrine, when

Eenaissance

{Dox.
be

whether

now

the

only

taken

IV.

exposition for this and for

D. 516) is to be compared.

decided

to all the

(cf.Part

ch.

the

motion

are

in them

colour,sound, smell, taste, exists

extensive

most

Sens.

Democritus

had,

truth, all that

phenomenon.
of

be

of

principalimportance.'

in
ETeij, i.e.

senses

i.e. in the

atoms,

remains

softness

these

While, then,form, size,inertia,density,and

of

and

states

and

arrangement

reference

of the

displaced
interruptionof the

proceeding

qualitativechange."
throughout by the things in
and

is not

greater degree of

or

by thought.
belong to things

motions

as

and

inertia

particlesmay

of

appear,
have

far

form

grouped together.

this

is known

and

that

space

less

form

the

the

are

depends upon
propertiesof hardness

the

so

of

organs

they

which

of

ease,

empty

the

upon

with

ease

realitythat

only

process

atoms

of

amount

properties, however,

but
upon

less

The

magnitudes

another

one

space,

true

total of the

sum

particleswhen

the

this

in

though

therefore

depends

reference

mass

or

individual

inertia

metaphysical

as

are
qualitiesto things which
composed of atoms.
size of things is produced by the simple summation

essential

{fiapvand koS^ov),however, we are

of the fallingmotion, but solelyof the degree of mechanito think
cal
also his opinion that as
it was
movability or of inertia.^ Hence
forced outward,
atom-complexes whirled about, the lighterparts were
inferior
their
while
the more
inert with
mobility were
ered
gath-

In

by

I.

materiality,space-claiming. For this

weight or lightness to be a function of
the mechanical
analogies of dailylife.

indeed

is,is

SystematicPeriod.

larger the atom,

quality of
reason

Grreeks

by

vidual
the indi-

vofiwOT

up

2)

properties

in the

anew

and

Oi"ra,

later, was

following topic
of their

own,

The-

which

primitive and causeless, was

thought of
conditioned
as
already by the size or mass, so that the greater
the
beginning, possessed less velocity. At all events, these
held good for him
within
the sphere of the mechanical
operation
culty
is largercan
another.
What
one
be pushed with
greater diffismaller can
be pushed more
easily.

is
; what
Cf. Arist. aen.

et

Oorr.

atoms

as

I. 2, 315 b 6.

System of Materialism

3, " 10.]

Chap.

distinguishingbetween

designated as
qualitiesof

things,and

his

for

it is desirable

in which

mologicalsense
useful

the

own

to the

Democritus

the

the

and

secondary

this

expression

Protagoreah doctrine

Sophist

propertiessecondary and relative,Democritus

the qualities
perceived by specialsenses, and

would

set

the

all
for

only

these

against

over

absolute.

"

"

make
this

admitted,

as
quantitativedeterminations
primary and
genuine knowledge
designated also as

the

113

and epistenletaf)hysical

made

While

purpose.

primary
introduce

to

coxresponds throughout

it

here,since

Democritus.

He

fore
there-

insight into

the

to be won
through thought, while, on the contrary,
primary qualities
is directed
toward
the
perception which
secondary qualities he
termed
obscure
knowledge
(yvrjcTLr]
(tkotltj yvwixtf).
3. The
secondary qualities appear
dependent
accordingly as
"

"

"

primary

the

upon

alone,

but

rather

But

agent.

according
the

far

of

essence

These

finest,smoothest,

Upon

this

systems,
the

true

are

they
built

of

essence

of

of the
In

are

placed between

held

the

soul.

his

up

The

reality.
carrying out this

world,

from

and

in

so

animate,

as

in the
two

every

as

human
of

atoms

together by breathing.
as

we

explanation

of

That

mobile.

most

see, to

action

realitywhich

of

with

it
the

thijigsupon
is

appears

from

phenomena

is,perception,and

the

older

the

the
fire-

result

necessary

true

theories

of

perception

(cf.above,

" 6, 3) which

and

organs
and

is

things.

secondary qualities,arises
atoms

whole

presupposition,then, analogous,

Democritus

and

things may be regarded

united
in largest numbers

fire-atom

where

the

also

constitute

other

they
a

which

atoms

also through

mind

it consists,
explicit,

more

the

scattered

percipient

perceives, the

fire: namely,

in life

sorts, and

which

be

To

the

upon

same

having souls,but
other

that

system

of atoms.

these

the

animals, plants,and

body, where

of

of

indeed

are

only

Democritus,

to

action

atomistic

consist

these

not, however, dependent upon

are

the

upon

in the

soul, can

or

they

through

advanced

by

proceed

them

the

took

Democritus
his

from

refined

and

up

predecessors.
things

fire-atoms,he

in

set

to

called

and
organs

was

motion,
worked

as

and
out

small
infinitely

this

theory

very

of

of

the

acutely by

the

The

the

efiluxes

motion

images

the

(dSuiXa),

Their
copies
the
the
is perception,and
fire-atoms
impression upon
similarity
between
the content
held to be
of this perception and its objectwas
secured
of all
thereby. Since impact and pressure are the essence
the mechanics
of the atoms, touch is regarded as the most
primitive
The
sense.
the
as
were
capable
regarded
specialorgans, on
contrary,
of receivingonly such images as corresponded to their
tion
formaown

regarded

them

doctrine

things.

specificenergy
Democritus.

of
From

the

sense

this

it

The

114

foUo-wed
not

also

act upon

for the
be

that

Grreeks

in

there

case

of the

one

any

I.

could

imperceptible

other

"

perhaps

these

effluxes

remain

would

these

[Part

whose

things

were

organs,
for

and

ordinary man,

Systematic Period.

"

senses

might

accessible.

theory of images appeared

This

expression,and

It

ancient

plausible to

very

indeed

thought.

certain

to a
extent
brought to definite
is
still common
of representing things which
explained,the mode
for the ordinary consciousness, as if our
perceptionswere
copies
"

of

of

things existing outside

should

things

into
this

of

the

this

For

he

world,

theory, how

out

such

might

think

send

to

come

this

reason

theory

at

did

one

that
"

ask

not

miniature

impressions

"

our

If

us.

of

resemble

attained

howselves
them-

understood, by

can

once

further

likenesses

he

"

means

things

the

out.
with-

predominance

in

physiologicalpsychology, and retained its position until after the

defended
beginnings of modern
philosophy,where it was
by Locke.
Its significance,however, for the
conceptions in the system of
lies

Democritus,
motion

of

hidden

from

well

the

this, that
in

atoms
this

from

as

in

it

which

its

which

such

was

describingthat

as

consists.

perception

materialism,

all

regarded

was

from

that
transformations,

later

It

principle,as

perception

different
psychical activityis something specifically
motion

every

of

individual

the

of
many
4.

the

forms

interestingnow
of

again

an

the

from

arise,the
fine

that

the

it,too, was

which

universe

thought, which
impression

obliged in

of

in

of

is

and

tions
percepcaused
known.

materialistic

physicians
pre-Sophisticmeta-

certain

respect to

erate
oblit-

perception and

regarded
in the

atoms

seeking out

become
the

as

any

Abdera

between

coutrast

motion

the

from

individual

fate befell

befallen

is conditioned

as

of

motion

connected

tem
sys-

impact, it follows

by
trulyreal,can be explained only from
this truly real makes
the fieryatoms,
upon
itself only through the efflux of such
images.

knows

which

the

suggestion, to

Since, that is,all psychical life

since the

But

philosopher

same

had

as

epistemological

and
fire-atoms,'
of

that

the

determined.

motion

Democritus

(cf." 6)

the

however

observation,many

psychology

thought.

of

specialsenses

keen

It is

atoms,

remained

and

contact

the

"

explained therefore
As a psychologicalprocess, therefore,thought is the same
as
tion,
percepviz-, impression of images upon
fire-atoms ; the only difierence
is that in the case
of perception the relatively
coarse
images of the
atom-complexes are active, while thought, which
apprehends true
of the fire-atoms with the finest images,
rests upon
a contact
reality,
with

those

which

represent
1

Arist.

the

De

atomic

An.

structure

I. 2, 405

8.

of

things.

The

116

obscure

insight

and

the

not

true

.which

wise

the

^not be
that

is

This

I.

its

object the phenomenon

pleasure which arises from the

relative

obscure, uncertain
(vo/iu"),
true
happiness,on the contrary,for
the eiSai/io"according to nature"
(^uorti),

senses

only

The

lives

end

is the

right insight,upon

;upon

for

[Part

life,must
(tcXos)and measure
(oSpos)of human
satisfaction,but only
sought in external goods, in sensuous
which
attends
gentle motion, that tranquil frame (eieo-Tul),

which
vi'a,

in

has

also the

so

essence,

man

Systematic Period.

which

deceitful.

itself,and

of

follows

of the

"excitation

Grreeks

alone

insight

the

gentle
the

gives to

soul

of

the

fieryatoms.
and
harmony (ivfifielends it
(d^av/iao-ia),

movement
measure

emotional
astonishment
guards it from
Tpi'a),
security and imperturbability(arapaiui,
aOafj-^ia) the ocean-calm
of the soul that has become
of its passionsthrough
master
(yaXiyVi;)
and rest is secured
knowledge. True happiness is rest {rja-uxLa.),
only
Thus
Democritus
by knowledge.
gains as the cap-stone of his
"

his

'

system
from

all wishes
in

also
,

"

; with

noble

Enlightenment

and

this

of

this

that

life,
"

ideal,this

loftytheory of

which

tendency

ideal

personal

characterises

knowledge, free

pure

systematic materialism
life.

the

And

yet

morals

of

there

the

minates
culis in it
of the

age

knowledge is the
life,and where the ethical teachingsof
happiness of an individual
Democritus
extend
tion
beyond the individual,it is friendship,the relaof individual
personalities to one
another, that he praises,
while

he

remains

peace

indifferent

" 11.
The

origin

of

one

the

of mind

of

and

most

The

as

fruitful,processes

thought,

and

the

The

process of
a

constant

century.

dialoguesarose

the

state.

of Idealism.

the

doctrine
as

one

of
of

Ideas

the

is

most

entire

history of European
still
properly is made

of

re-shaping: their composition extended

through
Since,however, the order in which the individual

has

not

been

transmitted

to

and

us

lished
be estab-

cannot

absolutelyfrom external characteristics,

pragmatic hypotheses
the logicalconnections
of thought must
on
be called to our aid.
In the first place there
is no
question that the opposition

between

Socrates

Platonic

Socratic

and

the

and

in

Sophists

Plato's

thought.

affectionate

the

task

in

with

apprehending it
difficult by the literaryform
in which
it has been
transmitted.
Platonic
the
dialogues show
philosophy of their author in

more

1.

connection

development of the Platonic

difS.cult and
involved,as well

and

based

regards

System

effective

half

resting upon

the

doctrine

formed

the

for
starting-point

first

to an
dedicated
writings were
of
main, certainly,a faithful presentation

of

virtue.

To

this

he

attached

polemic

System of Idealism:

3, " 11.]

Chap.

againstthe Sophisticdoctrines
but

increasing keenness,
establishinghis
of

criticism

117

of

societyand knowledge marked

by
by an
increasing tendency toward
an
independent b%sis. The Platonic

also

view

own

Plato.

upon

the

Sophistic theories,however, proceeded essentially

from
postulate. It admitted
fully,in the spirit of
of all knowledge gained through
Protagoras, the relativity
tion,
percepbut it found
just in this the inadequacy of the Sophistic theory
the

for

Socratic

science

true

virtue

cannot

states

of

rational

of ethics.^

consist

motion

subject and

consideration
^

knowledge which is
opinions as they arise from

in

in

The

and

it must

object, nor
of

legitimation

have

such

the

it

can

for

necessary

changing

consist

of

opinions gained by

and
wholly different source
wholly
different objects. Of the corporealworld
and its changing states
held
Plato
of Protagoras in its entirety
there
to thii view
is no

perception;

"

"

science,but

only perceptions
that

incorporeal world
exist

must

does

as

side

by

knowledge

Here

have

we

is raised
of

this

side

with

side

by

for the

brought forward
clear that

forms

for ethical
first draft
any
directed

toward

The

the

to

To

it leaves
avoid

to

expressly point

as

thinking.

For

no

Wise

for

need

Arist.

As

set

forth

in the

Investigationsas
latest dialogues.

"

the

of

To

occasion.

which
Ct

the

dialogues

Neo-Platonic

Pt. II. ch.

2, " 18.

object

an

its

out
with-

its own,
that

b^en

had

phenomena

; it is

out
Ideas, with-

generation and
opinion!'

occurrence;

in

of

'

"

must;

we

and
natural

transformation

nevertheless;

conception of immateriality
with
that
of the spiritual'
or

brings together

and

tion
assump-

the

Being

true

Platonic

Phxdrus

theoretical

that

Plato, the

for

assure

of

understanding

world
and-

aim,
to

it is

and

knowledge

science

earlier

coincident

Theoetetus

to

reality,

metaphysics, therefore,in

the

the

mode

"

of

criticism

whole-

of

the

theory of Antisthenes.)

Symposium.

science

of

modern

particular psychical

the

S6^a d\rieiisfierd,Uyov, Theoet. 201 E.

(Probably
Jfei. I. 6, 987 a 32 ; XIII.
4, 1078 b 12.

foundation

seeks

the

rather

was

new

"

its

as

from
easily assumed
Platonic
conception the

the

immaterial

an

be

the

On
this point,
Sophistic doctrine.

that

might

world

independently

as

consciousness,

'

misunderstandings"

out

is in
(aa-dfjuiTov)

of

full

ethical

work

perception

numerous

psychical,

with

investigatingand

troubling:itself about
which

claim

idealistic

immateriail Elea,tism,which

an

the

its end

entirelyupon

reference

this

an

opinion.^

at first have

not

phenomena

builds

accordingly

gained by sense-perception. The

all ideas

of

with

the

world

corporeal

and

expressly

knowledge.
^

the

side

it is

object of science,and

first time

immaterialitydid

explanation

opinions

the

springs from

above

and

the

are

first found

doctrine

of

Ideas

in

the

gave

118
functions
the

body

the
of
of

[PaktI.
do

Becoming, preciselyas

of

and

corporeal things ;

of other

and

world

to the

belong

SystematicPeriod.

G-reehs:

The

"

other

the

on

those of

hand, in

the
of corporeality,

"

Ideas

forms
or
shapes
realitythe
sensuous
qualitiesand relations,find a place preciselyas do
identification of spiritor mind
The
relations.
the spiritual
"

true

"

of the
the division
incorporeality,
Platonic.
The
incorporealworld

and

mind

world

into

which

Plato

those
and

matter, is
is not

teaches

un-

the

yet

spiritual.
the

Eather,

Ideas

through conceptions. Since, that is,the

known
Socrates

found

realitythat

the

realityis
abiding

the

to

world

the

ethical

from

the

related

to

apxn

in which
If

true

the

With

all lines

of

Ideas

turn

of the

two

much

of

thought,

that

universal

out

and

the

had

which

other

"

terial
imma-

Becoming,

the

as

in

"

the

short,

The

Socrates

of the

found

the

as

other"

This

is the

than

the

of

the

to

of

while

knowledge

the

and

in

content

conceive

not

of

it.

in

tion
separa-

becomes
also

goes

oped
devel-

had

latter

perceptionsof

common

tible
percepbe found

sharper

Democritus,

; for

does

point

contained

be

cannot

doctrine

the

ical
phys-

converge.

opinionsand

it

same.

corresponds
that

than

of

the

they

Platonic

perceptions,Plato

induction

in
"

this

through conceptions cannot

perception, for

worlds,

inductively,and

to

Heraclitus.

"something

of them

decidedly beyond
the

second,"

ethical,the logical,and

the

be

to

rationalistic

more

such

as

manifold

the

to

of

that

to

principle)are
earlier philosophy

are

of

this

simple

first

or

content

the

as

sense

world, knowledge
in

in which

object of
cognised through general conceptions,is that

(ground
the

form

must

"

material, as Being

the

Parmenides

in the

given

not

are

wliicli is

conceptions

former, existing by itself,and

changing,

of

"

"is

2.

perceived,they

knowledge,

which

science

of

essence

be

can

reality,different

as

Plato, that incorporeal Being

for

are,

individuals

ions
opin-

these

the

process

of

in this

but sees
in perceptionsonly the
analyticalmanner,
the soul bethinlcs
suggestions or promptings with the help of which
itselfof the conceptions,of the knowledge of the Ideas.
Plato

expressed this
knowledge

example

of the

is not

that

recollection

principlein

the

He
{avafivrja-i^)

form

that philosophical
in

showed

the

Pythagorean proposition
^

extracted

that

edge
knowl-

mathematical

from

but that sense-percepsense-perception,

tion
soul
the
only
opportunity on occasion of which
the knowledge already present within
edge
her, that is,knowl-

offers

recollects

is

rationalistic

has

mathematical

the

purely

rational

relations

are

validity.

not

present
Meno,

80

He
in

ff.

points out

that

the

corporeal reality;

on

pure
the

System of Idealism

3, " 11.]

Chap.

contrary, t*he notion

figuresof
this

to the

of

conceived
little

as

recollection

as

of his

any

the

soul

the

"

when

us

therefor,and

with

the

similar

he extended

the

finds

Ideas

them

in

herself

Plato,

somehow

must

in

general

perception,

occasion

on

be

activityof
is

given

not

are

that

This

for ideas

content

hence, if the

fact

creative

its content.

produces

nevertheless

she

occasion

predecessors,recognises

psychology ;

soul

"

arises in

is connected

which

for all Greek

given to

and

relations
the

119

completely applicabjp to mathematical

of scientific knowledge.
what
is rationallynecessary
should

total

sum

consciousness,

limit

is

this reflection upon

That

be

which

observation,

the

these

perceptionoffer but

knowledge,

as

of

Plato.

of

ception,
per-

have

already received these Ideas in some

or
way
this act
of reception,however, Plato
other.
For
finds
only the
that before
the earthly life the souls have
mythical representation,^
the

beheld
the

must

forms

pure

back

to those

from

this

forms

the

which

the

in the

soul

becomes

true

reality. Here, too,

shown

that

the
of

process

entire

What

Socrates

designated
into

of the

induction,

as

pure

from

the

of the Ideas

the
of

sense

of

case

knowledge

Democritus,

could

analogy

the

to

Ideas

form

of

it is

idea

no

sensuous

of

tion,
percep-

sight.

of the

became

formation

of

conceptions

had

transformed, therefore, for Plato,

each

to

the

is

task

is

speciallyimportant
of

principallythe
of

science

This

concepts

the

to

know

second

for the

of the

Plato

corresponding

perceptions, and
also

step

the
of

reason

logicalrelations

relations
which

to

ideas

such

occasion

for

other.

apprehension

was

pluralityof

objectswhich

further

beyond Socrates, and

division

again

the

of

this grows

It

the

love

that

into reflection
proceeds by recollecting (awayoiyTj)
,
and
This
higher
perception (Anschauung)
purer

multiplicity of

shortly to

in

after

remembrance

corporeal earthly life,and

raised

as

perception,however, yields

to the

the

itself,that

that

upon

calls

rationalism

in his doctrine

intuition

an

ancient

thought except

particularlythat

incorporealworld

philosophical impulse, the

of that

the

the

corporeal things

forgotten

awakes

(epws),by

realityin

similar

of

perception

of

subordination

became

Plato's

that

between

tions
rela-

it led

tions.
concepand

attentive.

ordination
co-

The

class-conceptsor logical genera into their species

or
played a great part in his teaching.^ The possibility
impossibility
of the union
of particular conceptions is brought more
exactly into
of

Phiedr.

Cf.

of

of

school

a
"

246

Phileb.

in the
and

the

ff.
16

nent
dividing process is not anywliere especiallypromiwith the pedantry
It is handled
certainlyPlatonic.
Sophist and Politicus.
Antiquity preserved "definitions"

C.

Yet

this

writingsthat
in the

divisions

mockery, by

"

from
comic

are

the

Platonic

poet,

at

school.

this

In

academical

Athenceus, II. 59 C, is

concept^splitting.

an

instance

Greeks

The

120

consideration/and
thetical

method

methodical

as

aid

discussion,which

of

Period.

Systematic

the

recommended

he

aims

proposed conception by developing all

follow
from
the possibility
of
that would

[Part

to examine

the

I.

hypo-'

tentatively

possible consequences

its union

with

conceptions

already known.
logical operationstaken

These
Ideas

and

their

Plato

denoted

relations

by

the

it has

concerning

to

as

whole, by

another

one

throughout

is found

which
be

to

{Kowcavia)were

What

dialectic.

name

of

means

in his

found,

writings

methodological character, but

the

is not

properly logical.
3, The
closest

doctrine

connection

the world
lower

knowledge

of
with

Plato's

world

of

the

yei/eo-ts,between'

found

he

Becoming,

conception of

Between

of phenomena.
that

influence

strong

is disclosed
imitations

the

as

of

relation

stood, however,

the

relation

Ideas

of

world

of

what

is in

and

is

to

and

ovma.

in

the
of

process

of

similaritywhich exists between

copies or images (etSuXa) In this,
.

of mathematics

Plato

the

found

Platonic

philosophy
already designated things as

upon
had

Pythagoreans

numbers,

higher

what

and their
archetypes(TrapaSety/iara)

too,

recollection

as

that

individual

things always
to
certain
a
class-concepts
only
degree, and that
the
of its empirical
class-conceptis a logicalideal which
none
He
examples comes
expressed this by the conception of
up to.
imitation
It was
thus
at the
time
established
that
same
dut/iijo-ts).
correspond

that

to their

second

the

as

Yet

so

world,

higher, the
this

mode

of

that

of

valuable, the

more

the

relation.

Idea

extent

or

hence

The

Plato

logicalside

or
class-concept

as

of

compass,

sought

which

of the

rather

individual

for still other

the
is

and

for

nations
desig-

matter, according
the

total

things denote

in the expression participation

part, appears
which
(/xe'Sc^ts),
that the individual thing but partakes in the universal
essence

Idea;

mination
deter-

usable

was

species represents
the

regarded

world.

primitive

more

be

to

representing,the matter
gave
respectivevalues than a view that

metaphysical consideration
which

incorporeal Ideas, was

of

their

of the

the

to

tary
unibut

means

of the

the

changing process of this partaking is emphasised by

conception of 'presence {"n-apovcria).
The class-concept
or
species

present

which

in-the

dwell

thing so

in the

communicate

Idea.

themselves

long
The

The

to the

eye

of

the

Ideas

things

to

qualitiesin these 'things which

changed

as

are

latter
come

and

and

go, and

as

qualities
these

again withdraw,

now

like the

the

possesses

Ideas

'

are

now

the

successively

perception.

precisedesignation of
1

this relation was,

Phizdo, 102 ff.

for

Plato,an

object

System of Idealism:

3, " 11.]

Chap.

Plato.

only secondary interest, provided only

of

of

the

world

the

latter

for

him

former,
the

was

which

knowledge

that

the

and

the

upon

sufB-cient

be

Ideas

the

corporeal world,

conviction

virtue

difference

and

that

needs

by

of what

the

between

dependence

IVfest

recognised.^

were

121

and

important
of

means

truly and

of

conceptions

reallyis,could

won.

A. Peipers, Ontologia Platonioa.

the

But

4.

logico-metaphysicalinterest

Socratic

the
master

doctrine

characteristics

of
the

regards

as

which

applied

to all

peopled

with

he

the

world

of

In

Ideas

the

was

for

the

of

the

; for

far

of

world

world

of

the

general
the

Ideas

therefore

was

So

experience.
there

Plato, too,
in

upon

beyond
The

essence

right

was

of

him

grafted

doctrine.

entire

Ideas

world

Plato

immaterial

the

far criticism

so

this

developed

and
class-concepts,

forms."

"

of

contents

which

carried

knowledge

archetypes
so
class-concepts,
many

many

Leips. 1883.

that

saying

perception thought

less
count-

are

Plato's
in

again

over

conception.
In

fact,according

there

Ideas

are

relations
the

; of

to the

the

Since

ugly.

formal

of

of pure

only
Eleatie
Sophistic

copies,but
of

against

such

an

he

had

those

which

he

only say
emphasised more
and

the

would

that

of

as

the

bad
a

and

purely
belongs

dialogue Parmenides,^

by

of

schooled

dialectical

the

one

be met

the

principlethat

no

in

the

difiiculties

Idea

to

with

the

in

its many

thought

his world

to

the

it

permit
seems

strongly

as

the

beautiful),the

100

D.

if in

of pure

be

Arist.

regarded
Nor

as

do

for, the

Ideas,
the

amples
ex-

recognised ;

of

he

continually

course

9, 990

time

expressing worth
relations

contrary, he
1.

tion
intima-

any

principleto

mathematical

Met.

weapon

criterion

world.

determinations, etc.),and

be

attributes

the

as

dialogues

to

were

such

serve

definite

announce

higher incorporeal

adduces
that

could

in the

is there

organic world, while, on

Phxdo,

well

man

of

class-concepts that

smallness, numerical
in

things, qualities,and

rallied,spitefullyenough,

objection,nor
attempted
of

can

good

also

philosophy,

in the

kinds

logical relation

companions

constituents

we

all

of

as

called

to

Platonic

forms.

selection of
as

the

methodologically,in
class-conceptwhatever

; and

attention

philosophy had

that

forms

doctrine

the

was

foul

conceptual
Plato's

in

he

all the

beautiful

is defined

Idea

Plato's

inhere

the

class-concept,
every

was

which

and

good

higher world

not

of

everything possible,

the

as

way,

first draft

the

to

1.

the
no

(as

the

(greatness and
types
longer
^

Parm.

of

species

reckoned

130

C.

122

The

among

the

notions

and

5.

Our

Plato

Ideas

made

to affirm

that

as

in

the

regard

the

of

thought

in content

attempt

is
which

up

in

him

Philebus,

back

well

Idea

regards

as

it
in

its content

this

to

the

of

as

only by
the

highest

the

absolute
The

corporeal.
is

the

as

the

little

end

the

are
categories,

presented

Idea

of

did

as

the

general, but

the

Plato

the

is the

defines

Socrates; he

of

the

termined
de-

represent

reality,of

subordination

in

the Good

it should

of all

accordinglynot

poorest

himself.

of" the relation,that

highest

particular under

of

and

general tions^
concepthese attempts,

But

realisingall others.

its content

was

problematical

very

most

doctrine

Republic, that

means

Idea

the

he

conceptions which

doctrine

as

conceptions,

general

out.

certaintyto Plato

highest, embracing, ruling, and

this

of

which

ultimately
as

the

among

Sophist (254 ff.).

in the

as

order

remains

(five)of

find, rather, only

we

as

carried

Aristotelian

with

and

preceding point. Urgent

number

the

the

toward

traced

With

Ideas

subordination

been

limited

presented

to be

not

to have

not

set

tend

of

in the

seems

to

and

I.

relation, especiallynegative

logicallyarranged pyramid
most
conception that was

culminate

must

realm

the

to

[Pakt

art.'

systematic connection

in the

establish co-ordination

to

of

human

by

of

knowledge

SystematicPeriod.

concepts

mere

things

intended

obscure

Greeks

the

other

poreal
incorIdeas

logicalsubordination

of
teleological

the

of
to

means

end.

In

the

latest

of

period

his

philosophising,concerning which

we

have

and
in critical notices
only intimations in the Laws
of Aristotle,^
and in the teachings of his nearest
the tion
imperfecsuccessors,
of this solution
of the logicalproblem seems
led Plato
to have
the unfortunate
thought of developing the system of Ideas according

to

the

to

Pythagoreans

method

also, to

abiding arrangements
the

number

had

as

when
this

yet

of

series.
no

be
of

Plato, in

attempted

that

Indefinite,and
" 4,

11), and

present
'""

derive

the
from

series

was

with

his

the

Idea

from

Measure

it the

Cf. also Arist. Met.

the

XII.

only

development

makeshift,

because

of

they

of

conceptions: hence,
thoughts,fell back upon

of the Good

as

the

duality (Suas)of
Trepas,

other

conditioning and
3, 1070

the

The

aittaehiugthe

of

purpose

other

and
(Siretpov

this,further,the
of

the

logicalarrangement

connection

to

had

number-theory.

to
things symbolically

makeshift, designated

and

Pythagorean

sure,

But

idea of the

the

Ideas
the

ey,

in such

One,

Infinite

the

even

the

and
a

odd
way

or

; cf.
as

to

conditioned, neither

18.

Being, rest, motion, sameness

and
i.e.
otherness
(TaiiriTTjs)
(eTep4Ti;s),
division of Being into the resting (oiio-Ia),
the same
ever
with itself,and
moved
in process
of constant
(ydvecn!),
change.
8

Cf. A

Trendelenburg,PlatonU

de Ideis

et

Numeris

Doctrina

the
the

(Leips.1826).

The

124

of the

the

partaker in

Ideas, becomes

assigned

be

it must

Hence

timeless,unchanged

survives

SystematicPeriod.

Greeks:

of

essence

the

between

Ideas,

the

worlds

two

but

not

"

vitalitywhich

for the first

Here,

; i.e. immortality.

change

I.

higher realityof abiding Being.

the

position

[Part

time, personal
of

philosophic
immortality is brought forward by Plato as a part
for
adduces
the
Plicedo
this,those
teaching. Of the proofs which
from
reason
the spiritof the system wtich
in accord with
most
are
eternity; in
to its relationshipwith
the soul's knowledge of Ideas
correspondence with
that

conclusion

the

reference

of

the

cannot

be

form

soul

is life ; the

characteristic

essential
the

the

unity and

to the

the

is

system

of the

tenable

most

false

because

its

arguments

is

dead,

become

or

dialectic

which
substantiality

the

soul

positionthe

soul

must

evinces

ruling the body.

in

In

of this intermediate

consequence
traits

itself the

of

both

; there

worlds

in its

be

must

bear in

essence

thing
some-

of Ideas, and
something
corresponds to the world
is the
which
corresponds to the world of perception. The former
rational nature
or
vovs),the seat of knowledge and of the
(Aoyio-riKo'v
which

virtue

which

Plato

corresponds

made

inclines

the

towards

nobler

he

lower

further

found

in

the

in

to

distinction

These

forth

to

the

the

soul

The

sin for the

is to

be

life from

the

knowledge

sought
depend

will

of

the

activityare

Plato

even

these

parts, and

use

246

These
of

resists

which

consequence

and

upon

the

soul

how

But

turned

inasmuch

as

the

retains

ff.; Gorgias, 523

process

of the

immortalityfor

freed
to

'

set

to

of

the
of

punishment
earthly

the

in the

of
life.
of

world

destiny in the
itself in the earthly
its

higher vocation
ultimate
goal.of

its

the

formation
the

Plato

of

is ensnared

far it has

grown

existence

pre-existent state

thus

fettering

stripoff the sensuous

nature,
designated also a.s paHs of the soul

from

The

immortal

boundaries

two

which

the

by

be to

doctrines

motives

The

extends

had

employed

are

individual.

the

in

Ideas.

portrays

it.

{Spirit,Oviws),the

the

appetite, and

sensuous

to

appears

of

worth

Plato

equally beyond

hereafter

ethical

appetite.

'

of

of

sake

nobler,which

Reason,
{Appetite,iiridv/jiM).Thus
of activityof the soul,the
three forms

destiny of
body is at once

sensuous

soul

lower,

the

"

nature,

desire

moral

the

sense

the

irrational

Appetite are the

or
species {dSrj)of its states.
fundamental
psychologicalconceptionswhich

the

soul

elements,

ardent, spiritedWill

the

sensuous

of considerations

out

of two
and

Reason,

Spirit,and
classes

latter,the

it ; in the

of

rational

the
In
the

three
the

"

the

forms

Timmus

soul

out of

part only.

depicted in tlie form of mythical allegorieswhich make

V. Phxdr.
popular faith and from the Mvstery-oults.
ff.;Sep. 614 ff.;Fhxdo, 107 ff.

are

the

already clear

It is

of

relation
the

System of Idealism:

3, " ll.J

Chap.

these

clearlythought
from

formed

three

out

the

of the

worlds,

two

in which

and

the

itualisation

of

the

Phcedo

that

the

death

of

in

But

with

of

him

sensuous

Idea

of

the

in the

Joy

the

Good

of

the

realm

was

fain

of

and

root

and

realised

beautiful,pleasure in

the

the

such

Republic.

thus

in

the

forms,

the

his

whole

within
the

him.

theory

world

imitation

sensuous

was

while

strivings as
his opinion

even

of

logues
dia-

thinker

branch

man's

only

portrayal

active

nevertheless

was

its

part, the

bodiless

living

spir-

It is not

artist,and

of

regard

becomes

blood

world,

the

theory prevails in
in

doctrine

the

and

sense

of wisdom.

heavy

combated

pleasure,it

to

not

was

the

flyfrom

of

Thecetetus,and,

beauty

Strongly as he therefore
would
Aristippus,which

world

ethical

the

from

way,

disposition in

earnest

the

into

psychical life

sgul'snature

would

ideals

light heart-beat

Hellenic

with

that
the

same

nature

the

philosophy lured
charm

this

Gorgias,

the

the

made.'

in this

morals
from

; the

own

been

praised as

Socrates

of

of the

that

possible to give to these conceptions

significanceof purely psychological

followed

negative

were

determinations

forms

since

there

125

the

have

as

breathes

Plato's

associated

need

withdrawal

life

the

as

is it

; nor

at all events

But

changing

fundamental

ethical

distinctions,such
7.

these

stronglyemphasised unity

too

none

from

Plato.

satisfied
that
of

of

of

the

sense.

the

Idea,

of wishing, the development

painlessbecause free from the element
of knowledge and practicalartistic skill,the intelligentunderstanding
of the
and

the

valued
that

mathematical

appropriate ordering
him

by

highest among

and

in the

the

goods

This

Plato

reach

That

the

that

of
the

employment

inhabitants

Idea

of

the

all these

life,
"

and
of

Good.

given expressionto

were

participationsin
the

Ideas, and

of

In

the

Symposium,

this

his

estimate

of

ethical
human

presentationof
the

will

task

the

system
he

fulfil,and

of

used
of

the

virtues
each

perfection of

those

form
which
of

part
its

own

by
he
the
to

of

these

wisdom

for Plato
of

view

of

was

essentiallythat

relative

distinctions

in

worth,
ethics

and

of the

gradation of the
not
only in the
politics,but also in such

is shown

which

of southern

mine
illu-

must

in another

that

showed
so

standards

the spirited (^u/xoetSc's)

("To"t"ia),
in
the appetitive(eTriSu/Ai^TtKoj')
(courage,avSpiix),

part, in

question here
the point

made

to

and

life,was

Here

Republic.

values

characteristic
as
designated this triple division
organic beings (plant, animal, man), or for the different

as

different

circuit

rational

psychical from
remarks

thought,

definite

energy
'

the

has

that

has

individual

of life.

developed in
soul

the

preparatory stages

he

whole

in

of

empirical reality,

measure

consists in knowledge

them,

Philebus

same

the

least

which

highest good

the

in

at

as

which

relations

countries, of northern

countries, and

the

Greeks.

for

the

peoples,

SystematicPeriod.

Grreeks:

The

126

[Part
in

; that, however,
(moderation,aaxjjpoa-vvri)
self-control
a
of the soul as
the virtue
whole, there
all these, as

first unfolded
The

the

operation in
ideal

truly is

in the

and

form

organic

philosophy lay
in

sense,

in which

this

individual

the

is not

truly

existent

in the

state.

of

midst

the

but

man,

species.

mankind,
is the

appears

ethical

ideal

time

the

ness
happi-

Ideas, that which

humanity
The

ethical

ability and

of

was

perfect

the

that

perfection of

doctrine

the

in the

and
political,

the

of

Greek

ideal

of

particularvirtue
its fabric

humanity,
which

project could

his

be

and

makes

from

the

him

the

becomes

which

the

saw

K.

F.

Ges.

Hermann,

If the
three

also all the

if necessary,

force

I. 62

which

first class
and

to

Abhandlungen,

present

which

the

warrior

rule'

second

is for the
aim

class,that
has

(avSpLo)as

to

advantage

of the

evince

the

it maintains

into

wove

then-existing

the

aristocratic
he

Doric

hoped

und

Zeller, Vortrage

Hence

three

Ab-

the

working

laws

of the
To

of

of the

consist

must

parts

the

class.

soul,
"

It

the

belongs

to guide the
("^iA.dcro"^ot),

and

to this class is

whole.

whole,

to watch

their

wisdom, insight into

and

support

over

which

this

class

is demanded
there

is, the

public officials(i-TrLKovpoi;
guardians,(^uXaxes),
virtue
the

the

large,it

cultured

give

to

proper

of the

the

to

of the

(apxavrK)
virtue

in

class,and

alone, that

The

ethical

he

fulfilment

ff.; E.

122

man

observance.

that

public life.

correspond

teaching class,the
state

for whose

that

to

fi.

ideal state is to

parts

the

of

ideals

citizen

Convinced

truly happy.

realised,with

right formation

handlungen,

which

educating

not

constitutions,but

that

of

he approved of
only features which
politicallife,in particularthose of the

Greek

by

ethical

the

the

in

not

it

as

its most

viz.

noticed,

be

directed

trines
politicallife,and in opposition to those docwhich
happiness,
proclaimed only the principleof individual
raised the conception of the state to an
all-controllingheight.
the side of its empiriconsidered
the state, however, not from
He
cal
of presenting in
to its task, viz. that
origin, but in reference

large

to

exhibited

to

of individuals

the

dissolution

he

universal,

now

ethical

union

for Plato

the

polities.

Ideas,

logical principleof

the

the

aspect

individual,but

of the
to

the

of

of

doctrine

the

and

Platonic

of the

True

of

general

the

that

higher domain,

upon

tendency

toward

to

SiKaiouvvi^).
parts,complete uprightness (justice,
cardinal
virtues,is
however, of these four
significance,

true

8.

be

must

of these

right relation
The

addition

I.

of

the

order

of

fearless
the

state

performance
within

XoyitrriKdvis called also T^yeiwvMbv.

and

of duty
without.

It

System of Idealism

3, " 11.]

Chap.

that
{aw"\"po(Tvvri),

becomes

great

thus

class
the

does

virtue

the

of

means

each

when

Only

the

desires

the

in

of the

mass

127

check, self-control

people, the

to

for

care

by

states

its

does

of the

nature

labour

their
and

duty
state

and

industry.*

maintains

correspond

artisans

providing

external

for the

holds

who
have
koX hr)fi.i.ovp\o[)
{yctupyol

farmers

and

which

obedience

is,however,

Plato.

its appropriate
the

to

ideal

of

justice(hiKoxocrvvri)
.

principleof aristocracyin education, which

The

Platonic

in the

provision that

the

ideal
the

for

of

great

sufficient

for its

its citizens

By

of

means

from

right and

the

state has

birth

task,they
lot

is that

whole,
the

to

by

hierarchy,is

sole

the

carries

end

entire

whatever

out

human

of

organisationof

upper

of

that
are

their

be

of

which

wives,

of

teaching.
the

The

thought-

education, and
be

must

to

mediaeval

community

moral

in

bound

the

consequences

consists

of the

thought,

Platonic

in the

community

not

state

communism,

its extreme

life

fulfilment

this

To

sacerdotal

discover

to

two

classes,who

people, must

interest.

of

classes.

is to live for the ends

who

in the

professed to

great Idealist

the

realisation

train

to

private property. Their

of family relations,
state, absence

of the

personal

these

the

in order

and

garded
re-

continued

the

causes

the

in

is

life and

He

goods.

education

any

limited

have

the

by

selection

of

back

body,

family
of

ethical

to hold

this

other

two

by strata;

strata

that

the

only

education, which

the

government

whole

the

renounce

its historic

that

of

of life and

for the

etc.,men

the

class

in

portance
im-

clearly in

itself in order

is

remain

may

education

individual

found

in hand

late years,

organs

of

community

to take

ends,

interest

are

the

decisive

most

third

and

claimed,
while

continuallyrenewed,

properly the

the

purpose,

duty

own

the

individual

no

of

given only to
constantly repeated process

to

to be

classes

for their

state, appears

mass

is

ordinary abilityof practicallife

as

the

is of

that

for

this

and

the

arranged

end.

9.
world
most

Good

With
of

this

new

phenomena
the

perfectly to
disclosed

phenomenon
became

itself

of

human

of decisive

discovered, and

was

spiritof
as

the

Hence

societyhas

importance

for

doctrine

class-conceptswere
the

third

the

doctrine

part of the soul

system

the

as

end

held

form

final

Being
to

ideas

corresponded
the

This
taken

the

discovery
by

Plato's

preciselyas
explain empirical

,ha"ibeen
to

give knowledge

is called also

of the

Idea

(tcXos),which

fulfil.

to

of Ideas
of

of

which

one

Platonic

task,

life in

metaphysical system.
For, as first projected,the
incompetent as the Eleatic
reality. The

the

world

the

between

relation

the

of

the

(j"i.\oxpiiJ.aTov.

forms
imperishable,
separatedfrom the world

originand

without

is

against

the

motion,

and

But

and

toward

only

also

but
participated,
the
that

regarded

be

Idea

every

time

of

cause

and

the

occurrence

the

between

end,

the

"

worlds
; all

world

by

imperfection of

the

Ideas,

pluralityand motion,

^
2

Symp. 211 B,
Page 246 ft.
a

maoher's

but

Phileb.
Yet

we

of the

is

declared

doctrine

that

fisS'avTov
there

of

cause

of

sense

all

means

Anaxagoras,

to

he

deity.*
in

out

as

could

in

later form

which

the

in contrast

with

to

derived

be

not

order

in addition

of

another

with

accordance

pointed

understand

Being

of

aa-diiMTa eldij,can

in

to

the

fwvotiSis ael 8v.

that
criticised,

individual

not

shown

verhal

coincidences

of

the

be

itself tenable.

54 C.
are

not

absolute

dya66v finding
as

had

the

genuineness,has
8

in

the

at once

Anaxagoras,

Leucippus,

as

final

increasingforce

motif

just

adds

in

only the Platonic ; just

factor in the decision
against the genuineness of the dialogue. Schleierthe
of Ideas, thought out to rescue
hypothesisof a Megarian doctrine
with

accordance
this is

from

with

the

inadequacy, however,

KaS'' airb

airb
The

taken

"phenomenon

itself,and

Being

from

motif

gives

in the

as

phenomena.

est
particularthe high-

in

but

This, referring

(voBs),or

appears

This

Being.

true

this

nature

of

the

Oood.

World-reason

the

subordinate

are

of

Plato

as

exists

occurrence

final cause

whole,

presents

Republic, and

of the

as

rest

the

of

doctrine

the

of Ideas

with

side

Pythagorean

of

books

all the

the

and

change

is the

Idea

it

in

place. Here for the first

of Being and
Becoming

metaphysics
teleological

middle

Idea

designates as
Side

But

that

sense

takes

two

the

of

which

Idea, to

Idea

in the

the

occurrence,

to

that

change {ahia)

and

culminating thought by introducing

further

demanded

end

foundation

Philebus

It

the

of the

sake

This

regarded,

imitative, something that

dependent.

in the

only

is fully defined
and yiveai's)
(ova-La
for the

be

should

phenomenon

directed

Being ultimately

true

as

occurrence

but

sense,

relation

the

Idea

been

and

of which

sake

for the

the

the

something

as
as

it excluded-

absolutely unchangeable and immovable,

be a cause
from
itself,cannot
particularfunction

mechanical

the

principleof

is itself

which

excludes

polemic

have

may

other, something

something

as

interests

conceptionof

the

nevertheless, that

demanded,
not

end,

this

Hence,

keen

change.

Plato's

little

however

Sophist,^in

corporeal,
in-

as

arise.

no
Ideas, this doctrine
because
no
explanation of facts,

therefore

itself all motion

from

things

where

I.

changeless,

formed

of

doctrine

and

and,
by itself,

world

dialogue the

in the

demonstrated

was

[Part

itself,simple

for

reality/which, purely

absolute

as

SystematicPeriod.

Greeks:

The

128

being

an

the

to think
ethical

exact

in this
end

or

definition

simplest, the

case

of

purpose
as little

most

being,
personality, or of a spiritual
the world, the conception of the

of
as

with

Socrates.

comprehensible

It is rather

in itself.

posed
presup-

the

Parmenides
Plato

so

with

show

Being
a

secondary

or

for

the

to

i.e. the

cause,

attribute of

Being.

world

secondary
preciselythe same

Plato

real,"or

"

and

the

to

beside

assume

and

which
for

as

the

inadequacy which
the

the

Idea

is not

the

has

these

they

world

of

which

parallelism in

cause,

existentj

logicalconsistency,for

of Ideas

the

129

actual,"and

in that
(^ui/atrtov)

Indeed,

this

Plato.

like

Ideas,

cause

accessory

that

thought

forced, with

reference

of

or

"

explaining phenomena

of

purpose

also

Not-being was

himself

saw

Idealism:

System of

3, " 11.]

Chap.

two

of

Good,
the

not

of

courses

Being (to /u,-^

oV),is
and

Leucippus

viz.

Philolaus,

empty space.^

Space

then

was

of

phenomena

the

deity.

is formed

This

mathematical
world

of

for Plato

and

of

and

the

cause

the

was

Idea

in order

By

virtue
of

in

of

this

of

the

The

the

phenomena

mathematical

thus

occupying

last stage in the

forth

in the

10.

Plato

of

or

taking on
that

Philebus

the

{aireipov)

"

forms

"

of

the

with

together

with

of education

the

for

of

abiding

the

tonic
Pla-

imitate

to

Ideas.

Hence

phenomena

takes

only
the

of

(oia-Lo.),

essence

rational

this,as

wisdom

in the

philosophy of Nature,

in

trine
doc-

purely philosophical

as

of

the

into

not, is able

world

an

against knowledge
intermediate
place,it

preparationfor

mation
for-

the intermediate

are

is

well

as
(Sidvoia),

do

theory

structures

space, which

empty

ciple,
world-prin-

peculiar position

its

forms

mathematical

the
"

knowledge

(8d|a). But
positionof a

rulers,"'as

set

Republic.
viz.

which,

for

given

now
a

sketch

of course,

epistemologicalprinciple,he could not claim the worth

but only that of probability.^Since, that is,he was
not
1

in

mathematical

number

metaphysical preliminarieswere
ultimatelyprojected in the Tim,mus;
the

Good,

"unlimited"

The

draught of

world

of Ideas.

the

of

over

system

the

consists

assumes

world

mathematical

pure

an

the

highest, divine

the

Space

gains

comprised

and set
(vo'ijo-ts),

the

Good.

knowledge

is therefore

of

of

the

i.e. the
(Trcpas),

has to
knowledge (iTria-Tijfn]),
and

in

like the

of which

means

Idea

taught

mixture,

Ideas, mathematics

link,by

the

which

"

this introduction

philosophy.

of

"mixture"

was.

become

to

of

Plato

limitation

"

sake

of

out

formation, however,

hence

form;

perception

that

of

"

"nothing

for the

process

i.e. space,

the

or

true

of
in

what

rough
to

his

certainty,

position

terminology, this secondary cause

modern
it is only recently that
Cf.
researches
is simply space.
have
made
it clear that the Platonic
"matter"
H. Siebeck, Untersuchungen
i.
B.
Gr.
Philos.
d.
Aufl.,
Freiburg
1889).
s.
(2
2 It
into the world
is probable that in this case
Plato
transposed the numbers
of Ideas itself,
as
but looked
their representation in geometrical structures
upon
has

Under

the

been

the

influence

designated

"limitation"
'

The

added

Platonic

Parmenides.

as

of

the

Aristotelian

and
(l/Xi;),

"matter"

to

Physics

space.
is then

Here, too, it would

seem

hypothetical in like manner

that regard for the demands

with
of

that
his

of

dis-

Greeks

The

130

SystematicPeriod.

[Part I.

in conceptions this
establish
and
through dialectically,
end
the world's
from
or
purpose,
project of explaining occurrence
in
Nature
view of
Plato gave an
mythical
expositionof his teleological
and
not
science.
as
form
only as an opinion,
only, a view intended

to

carry

"

view, nevertheless,takes

This

explanation of Nature, and,

mechanical

that
kinds

In

Democritus.

of

worlds

of

Plato

that

scarcelysuppose

can

had

the

the

forth,we

in mind

which

theory

from

is set

doctrine

other

any

there

and

latter

this

as

opposition to

here

arise

to the

positionsharply opposed

makes
"

accidental

"

than
all

ing
(mean-

"undesigned") meeting of "that which is in

unordered, lawless motion," and perish again, he sets forth his own
ful
beautiperfect and most
theory that there is only this one, most
and
unique as regards its kind, and
unitary in nature
cosmos,
be traced
that its origin can
acting according to
only to a reason
"purposeless"

or

ends.
is desired

If,then, it
of

ground

the

of this world
the

idea

formed

of

to the

the

as

itself

into

God

In

which

this

that

the
of

Plato

then

Ideas

is

the

accessory

designates

the

no

conception of

Plato

Being,

not

the
takes

telic relation

expressed by

all

time

of

or

forms

mechanical

the

who
with

ised
is character-

cqrporeal forms
the

representation

pure

"

i.e. space,

Not-being
up

same

cause,

as

origin,the

(S);/x.tovpyos,
demiurge)

connection

find

this

in the

sought

relation
"

which
plasticity
and
(Se^ajneyr;),
yet at the

causes,
up

that

Ideas."

counter-working
takes

This

Ideas.

worldforming
out

be

must

indefinite

fact

for the

"

theory concerning

phenomena

the

to

shaped

or

regard

of

world

form

to

ground
it.

in

individual

This
sory
acces-

necessity(dvayxr;). He

Democritus

as

particularmoment

be understood
physics,in order to explain by it what cannot
teleologically.Divine activityaccording to ends and natural
on
against each other as explainingprinciples,
necessityare set over
into

the

his

one

for the

hand

in the

world

metaphysics
cipleswas
the

attitude
be

like

of

into

united

TimxuB,

perfect,and
phenomena.

with

of

other

Ethical

hand

dualism

for
passes

the

fect
imper-

over

from

physicaltheory.
a

dependence

that

the

on

polemical

upon
Parmenides

purpose.

Democritus
toward

Hence
and

there
a

Heraclitus.

Yet

mingled

is found

combating
the

of

his

views,

distinction

in
an

is not

the realityof the

forgotten, that the Eleatic denied
world
of phenomena,
while
Plato
denied
only that it could be known
ceptions.
i.e. through conscientifically,
In presenting his view, however, Plato
of
omy,
astroninto
questions
goes
mechanics, chemistry, organic life,physiological psychology, finallyeven
into
those
of medicine.
He
gives,therefore, a kind of compendious exposition
of his opinidhsin matters
of natural
in detail are
science, opinions which
of his
extraordinarily fantastic, and as compared
with
the exact
ideas
even
time, inadequate ; and yet taken in their whole
connection, in their relation to
their central
principle,they have exercised an effect extending far beyond the
design of their author.
to

The

132

breadth

of

Aristotelian

The

" 12.
The

SystematicPeriod.

CrreeJcs:

the

in

and

great antipodal thinkers, Democritus

I.

Logic.

appeared

whicli

plan

[Part

of

systems

Plato,

and

in

the

two

accordance

it
methodically developed, made
division
of
labour,but
indispensablethat there should be not only a
The
titles of the writings of Democritus
a separationof problems.
he proceeded clearly and
make
it probable that
definitelyin this
which

with

their

respect also.

activityas

for

problems
In

his

and

of

did

not

became

it is evident

fail to

make

which

we

that
miss

philosophy

of

tially
literaryactivityessen-

his
but

view,

treatment

division

the

conceived

sure,

point

he

separate

school

ethics

If

artist's

teacher

were

be

Plato, to
the

from

doctrines

that

in his
of

arrangement
his

in

dialogues.

dialectic,physics,

into

dominant.
this connection

in
by dialectic,

understand

essentially
the
doctrine
of Ideas
its metaphysical development, Aristotle
in
of prefacing the investigationof the
made
the great step in advance
subject-matterin all three departments with a preliminary study of
the

essential nature

scientific
had

begun

consists,and
had

made

general

the

it

forms

for

into

in

this

for

"

by

Aristotle

the

is to be

way
reached

aim

declarations

express

The
be

immediate

shown

of
of

the

have

we

the

in his

inner

Aristotelian

of

reflection

processes

separate the
tents
particular con-

to

times.

it did

not

Logic,

and

before

laws

activityproperly

the

to

Plato

and

Socrates

different

at

with

even

complete system in which

knowledge of Greek science.
The

and

scientific

given

relates

process

1.

what

forms

the

comprehended

were

"

the

abstractingthinker
thought-processitself from the

beginningsand attempts
this

of

Sophists

attention

sharpened

of the

the

question,

possible

which

to

the

upon

with

Even

to

are

doctrine

of science,a

thought.

we

us

the

All
go

these

beyond

developed

ripe self-

logic is,according

to

philosopher,entirelymethodological.

by which

the goal of scientific cognition can

in all

departments of knowledge. As in rhetoric the art

tific
persuasion is taught,so in logic we are to learn the art of scieninvestigation,
Aristotle
cognition, and proof. For this reason

of

did

reckon

not

his greatest creation,

the
was
logic,which
among
philosophicaldisciplinesthemselves, but treated it in his lectures
as
a
propaedeutic,and for this reason
his school
regarded this
study as the general instrument
for all scientific work.
(opyavov)
this

But

Instead
cases,
of

the

of

as

preparatory study itself

bringingforward

may

well

have

general fixingof

been
a

rules
the

was

of

made

science

practical value

case

which
principle

with
had

the

by Aristotle.
in

individual

Sophists,instead

been

the

service

of

The

3, " 12.]

Chap.

offers

Socrates, lie

an

of

examination

of its

methodological task
in

But

of

forms
task

of

from

object.

Thus

intimate

manner

basis

its

it
principle,

his

of

is

of

his

between

Plato

had

Even

as

not

in addition

While

Plato

which

the

again

the

{-irapd)the

Idea

knowledge

able

grows

fundamental

had

been

the

centre

Aristotle

of

task

Aristotelian

or

Met.

Of

principally wortliy of
which
logical subordination

argues,

from

everything
other
this

the

that

we

calls attention

system

exists

higher general
"vd poJTOs').

9, and

XIII.

to

the

between
above

must

the

chief

of
the

ideas.

general

toward

is perceived,

removing

discovering

shall

make

that

concep-

for

logic,that

of

ing
recognis-

particular,and

the

conceptional thought,

hence
which

by Socrates, stands

in

4.

are

perceive

world

logic.

Principally in

I.

teaching.

particular which

fundamental

two

of

out

efforts,

perceived.

general and

these,

his

doctrine

which

primary
abstract

the

reality,and

of

is

already recognised as
of the

tions
percep-

his

tearing apart
Becoming, iS)

and

is directed

what

the

between

all

This

Being

the

phenomenon

the

particular,
and

of

of

of absence

remained

Ideas

worlds

different

explain

to

form

of

conception, and

and

as

relation

this

In

system

and

of

phase

brings against
two

the

between

true

lie

universal,

or

the object of
objections,^

conception

the

which

in the

phenomena.

in the

this

most

this respect Aristotle

spite

in

phenomenon,

made

general

general

the

this division

of

its

to

the

assumption

later

occurrence

of

Out

in

effort

tional

only

Socratic-Platonic

conceptions

which,

even

and

by

the

Eleatic

between

entire

relation

disclosed

knowledge

combated

between

relation

of

he

the

relation

cause

had

in

roots

What

only

Aristotle

is known

the

disciplines also.

In

special dialectical

which

reproach

its

phenomena,

essence

to

other

conception.

was

beside

of
(x""pi?ai')

the

is the

overcome,

themselves

understanding
of

the

'

of

final

the

relation

the

be

can

truly is,is

of

and

absence

an

task

of

knowledge

from

which

Platonist.

Ideas

by

this

absence

"

of

it has

That

great predecessor

of relation,

the

in
logic is connected
metaphysical presupposition

the

fulfils

thoroughly epistemological.

of

knowledge
always remained

this

He

"

that

general

treatment

Ideas.

and

regular,forms.

gained only
turn

the

such, however,

doctrine

in

all

thinking activity on

Aristotelian

with

the

As

of

the

at

2.

idea

evident
be

right thinking can

thought, and that
definite

the

133

by formal logic.

it becomes

doing

so

Logic.

examination

sides,a comprehensive
the

Aristotelian

be

subsumed

that
difficulty
Idea

and

the

in

passing. The
the
Ideas,
among

mention
obtains
under

number

resemblance,

which,

of

Ideas

; the

according

to

still

makes

the

one

that

phenomenon,
necessary
t plros
both, etc.,in infinitum {finBpiairosairdvOpuTos
the

"

"

134

G-reeks

The

course

of

considerations

relation

same

his

theory

regard

to

relating
the

in

only

true

to

deduction

to

means
scientifically

prove
what

asserted,and

is

these

the

of

the

asked

how

universally
this could

that

the

particular from

sist
con-

To

general.

grounds for the validityof

found
general
only in the more

the

state
to be

are

that
in

(principally

art

manner

found

he

knowledge,

works

Aristotle
a

I.

still another

consisted

the

If now
rhetorical)of proof and refutation.
i.e. in
one
can
anything scientifically,
prove

valid and

of

previous

any

science,they

of

Sophists with

the

[Part

out

grows

found

Aristotle

If

for

preparatory

were

this

importance of
of thought.

The

SystematicPeriod.

particularis subsumed.
constitutes
the peculiar complication which
this resulted
From
The
the Aristotelian
general, the Idea, is,
conception of science.
which

under

the

as

the

Being,

true

of

therefore,out
is to be

the

which

of

cause

and

and

occurrence

through

which

is

that,

perceived particular

the

Science

comprehended, conceived, or explained.

It

change.

has to set forth

the
is
from
general which
perceived particularfollows
in conceptions. On the other hand, the general is in thought
known
the particularis
which
of which
and
from
the
ground by means
proved. Accordingly, conceiving or comprehending and proving are
the

how

the

thing, viz.

same

The

scientific theory of

the

of the particularfrom

deduction

Aristotle

is

general.

accordingly concentrated

in

Scientific
deduction
or
(dTrdStt^is).
conception of derivation
true
logical
Being is the same
explanation of phenomena from
of
derivation
scientific
the
deduction
or
as
proof : namely,
process
what
its general ground.
is given in perception from
Explaining
therefore
the
and
denoted
deduction,"
same
word,
proving are
by
takes as its ground the actual or
and the right proof is that which
real general cause
of that which
is to be proved.' It is,therefore,

the

"

the

task

of

science

to

exhibit

the

logicalnecessitywith

particularinsight (ofperception)follows from

conception) and the particularphenomenon

the
from

generalinsight(of
the

This

characterisation

of

the task

of

science,thus

metaphysical presuppositions,experienced
the
3.

of its author's

progress
The

establish

most
more

immediate

exactly what

an

the

which

general cause.
developed from

essential

change

in

this, is

to

investigations.
task

of

deduction

logic,according
"

i.e. on

the

one

to

hand, proof;

1 This
definition of the conception of scientific
proof is obviously directed
against the rhetorical
proof of the Sophists. In the art of persuasion, all proofs
external
are
welcome, however
remain
of the case,
to the true
they may
nature
Soientifio
provided only they are formally sufficient to bring the hearer to assent.
proof, however, should proceed from the inner, logicalnecessity of the case, and
should
therefore
time
is to
give at the same
of what
insight into the true cause
be proved.

which

in

forms

the

upon

the

thought
This

general.

in the

For

i.e. the

inferenceor

The

in his

of view

logic

of

judgment

of

the

middle

of the

day,

with

in two

in

the

process

to

the

the

forms

another

of

thought

all the

come

has

do

to

an

intermediate

exhaustive
of

of

points

to

from

This

not.

the

the

two

it is to

; in

the

syllogism

consists

and

also

sists
conclusion, con-

that

one

other

concepts

to each

other.

Aristotelian
of

one

doctrine

the

of the

this

should

be

doctrine

of

(the subject)
The
of

decided, with
of

one

answered

both
the

possible

tion
subordina-

only question for

.subordination

this

be

two

question Aristotle

manner

must

to

The

be

in

relations

relation

the

"

stand

sustains

but

upon

concept,

then

premises (wpoTa-

(the predicate)or not.

only with the knowledge
a

concept

relations

the

drawing

concept

one

which

traditional

third

must

these

called

general.

concept, whether
or

and

these

concepts,
the

of

of another

means

term)

its attention

the

basis

concept

are

of

other

thought according

of his doctrine

the

the
general presuppositions,

of

occurs

which

relation

whether

always

syllogism

another

he

form

by

two,

middle

particular under

subordinated

fundamental

point of the
taught (apparently

of it

two

third

other

existing between
is

the

(the

fixed

syllogism

theory
the

the

its

Agreeably to

of the

in

grounded only by establishing

thought which,

of

concepts, discovers

relations

tion.
concep-

central

is afftrmed

Inference, or

concept

same

be

can

This

judgments,

syllogism.

the

first

syllogism is the
fpllowing. The
other
two
judgments. Since in a

from

the

the

of

the

are

(/teVov).

term

the

the

out

syllogism:

between

o-"s)of
and

the

thought

from

statement

all that

(the predicate)

concept
connection

expressed

of

simple

as

thus

doctrine, which

judgment

relations

some

activities

results

points

subject),this afiirmation

desired

those

analysing

this

this

this

one

the

of

ics,
Analyt-

methodology.

to

even

deduction

(the

basis

outlines

The

in the

in
synthetically,
deduction, proof,and

general outlines) concerning

most

lie at the

which

second

those

the particular

treats

syllogism became
To

logic.

in the

forth

set

dependence of

proposition,one

one

to

syllogism ("7uXXoyt(r/u,os).
the

of

doctrine

Aristotelian

only

of

135

given by Aristotle

was

consists, there

deduction

the

the

which

of

process

all deduction

form

theory

Logic.

properly is,or

"

cognises

logicalgroundwork,
the syllogism,in the

part,of
which

Aristotelian

hand, explanation

other

the

oa

The

3, " 12.]

Chap.

the

limits

those
the

forms

help

of

concept under
in

an

lutely
abso-

abiding worth
of its signifi-

cafice.

In

correspondence

theory of
into

the

with

the

fact

just noted,

judgment essentiallyonly

consideration

for

this

end

the

two

Aristotle

treats

elements

which

first.Quantity,

which

in his
come

determines

The

136
the

is either
of connection

either

The

kinds

of the

essentiallyfixed by

subordination

the

the

in which

manner

concepts, which

the

between

the

ordination
sub-

relation

existing between

as

syllogism
in

the

therefore,

are,

relations

the

given

are

in the

sought

this

concepts.

two

figures {crx^imTo)of

or

asserted

separationis

of

or

respectiveextents

the

the

second. Quality, according to which

af"rmed
or
denied, and, therefore, the

and

judgments;

[Part I.

subject to the predicateas regards

and singudistinctions of general,particular,
lar

yieldsthe

extent, and

SystematicPeriod.

of

subordination

of

kind

G-reeks

of subordination

mine
premises,deter-

conclusion,

"

relation

which

in
term
positionof the middle
the two
premises,since this is either the subject of one premise and
As
predicateof the other, or predicate of both, or subject of both.
valuable
and
the most
primitive of these three figures,however,
its external

finds

of

subordination

of

the

conclusion

of the
But

degree

is subordinated

of

generalitycould be
of this activityso

premises,

to

can

according

in

it follows

which

again

term, and

subject
together

to the

cate
predi-

the

essential

those

of

science.

to

nation
explalesser

higher generality
That

is,by

means

anything equally general with

proving anything more
general.
idea

produce

of

the

immediately
indeed,
of

the

nature

in

anything

Aristotelian

that
the

premise

as

of

only apprehend

can

never

conclusion

from

ancient

feature

served

only

deduced

of

the

may,

has

propositions of

the

prove

can

this

science
that

the

deduction, proof,and

so

that

thought

but

given

however,

of

which

to

appearance

never

nothing

say

peculiarrestriction
is

middle

is subordinated

its compass,

it followed

way,

inference, we

what

the

to

principle

major.'
this

means

of

clearly expressed,since

and

purely

in it the

because
first,

by defining inference, and

in

by

is

this,as fallingwithin

4.

the

consistentlydesignated

Aristotle

with

the

expression in

the

new,

logic.

thought,

take

the

case, be

syllogism, and

apart
its

makes

this,

From

deducing, proving,

individual

in

and

of

The

able

and

plaining
ex-

take

to

deduce

it

still

more
general syllogism, but must,
nevertheless,ultimatelyproceed from premises which
themselves
are
as

capable

of

reduction

further

no

middle

to

ground

that

cannot

be

The

deduction,proof, and
truth

not
(a/Accra),

deduction

cannot

The

terms.

therefore, immediate
All

be

needs

proved

to

comprehension,

of these

ultimate

of

no

premises is,

be

deduced, proved or comprehended.

something primitive; all proof,a
all explaining,something given which

explained.

details

aristotelischen

be

cannot

ErJcenntnisstheorie

des

developed

Aristoteles

Forschung

here.

Cf.

(Leips. 1870);
(Berlin, 1872).

in
R.

general, P.
Eucken, Die

Kampe,
Methode

Die
der

The

3, " 12.]

Chap.

limit ; the

therefore,a
ultimate

by
particular

of the

particularon

explainingare

it asserts

itself

the

task

of the

out

the

processes

ultimate

searching

the

the

Hence

in which

general, in
by

to

consists

in

it must
the

of

of the
be

forward

from
and

diately
imme-

as

not

and

consists,must

the

of

procedure

explaining,

be

preceded by

starting-pointsfor deduction, of

case, attended

deducing

the ultimate

and

from

the

the

from

the

general,

explained.

ideas

from

which

that

former

inductive, epagogic.

explaining,
apodictic
In

but

in connection

question

mark

of

means

class

or

for

its

this

of

process

the

he

or

the

formed

genus,

middle

the

term,

is

into

are

once

regard

from

in

proved

direction

the

deductive,

the
and

proving
science

to

As

and
is

is epagogic.

being,
in

appear

concepts.

of

them,

judgments ;
a
judgment

general judgments,

more

concept

is

deduced

or

general concept (the next

ycVos) by adding a particularcharacteristic
from

This
difference(Siaffiopa).

(opia-fioi) As, however,

the

more

deduction
deduction

of the
of

most

presupposes

that

with

so

is that

be

completed

coming

also

treats

of

former, searching

contrasts

is that

then

proceeds,
the

nature

latter

can

latter

latter

particular ;

to

Aristotle

with

by being

higher

; the

lectic,
dia-

opinion (tv^o^ov),

follows

deduced, by being concluded

or

by

particular

The

investigationsand

chief

derived

general

science, in

all these

proved

the

The

particular given

in customary

deduction

by

the

the

particular to general.' Only

"

the

is

taken

from

testing,from

from

Investigation, therefore,

of

when

grounds,

current

reverse

"

apodictic certainty," as

"

same

is not, in the

grounds

Investigation proceeds

perception,and
to- find

the

by

consequences

established.

the

searching out

be

to

grounds of proof, and of the highest principles of explanation.

in this last process
Aristotle
calls
activityof thought involved
its principlesin the Topics.
and has laid down
This

the

proving
and

deducing, proving,

proved

explaining

deduced

of

has,

explained.

because

case,

not

of science

be

which

as

to

to be

first press

case

nature

science

not

not

are

task, which

general,

forbidden

certain

proved.

the

to

137

proof are

explaining

is to fulfil its

means

of

grounds

in

used

Logic.

explaining activity of

ultimate

causes

if science

Hence

the

and

apodictic,proving,

The

the

Aristotelian

general premises, which

concept

is

tion
defini-

propositions
cannot

be

mately
ulti-

further

and
pressed
exinquiry Aristotle
of the thing, is
regards the nature
edge
knowlthe original {irpbrcpovt^ ^lio-ei),
therefore
the general, is for human
and
and
on
the
that
which
be
that,
must
acquired
"rjp.S.s)
(vffTepovirpM
;
later,
the contrary, that which
immediate
is for us
the most
{irpbrepovwpbs -ti/Ms),the
particular,is,according to the true essence, the derivative, the later {vcrepov tv
1

This

relation

in the

of

contrariety

statements

that

that

between

which,

deduction

as

138

The

proved, so, too,

Greeks

5.

elucidations

logical treatises,the

clearly and

carried

in the

out

form

known

should

regards

as

there
he

is but

for

all

and

denial

each
the

as

own

"causes,"

the

be the

seek

we

here

of

also

the choice

the

already in the
of his

agamst

which

as

be the

and

be

result

explanation.
ment
embarrass-

general propositions

highest principle

or

aside

not

the

that

affirmation

thing cannot be
this he prefersto
knowledge has its
a

from
of

these

state

particular nature
the

and

four

the
of

exactly.

more

aside

"

from

material

both

cases

opposed

as

ciplines,
dis-

"principles"(apx"'))

"categories,"

In

the

of individual

which

predication concerning

Aristotle.

of

that

highest concepts,

forms

are

what

find

we

selves
our-

to the

formal

of

concept

teaching.
determination

formation

of

new

the
as
(irpiio-fleo-is)

mark,

stands

deduction

therefore

class-concepts, a

process

concept

"

taking
wiier

measure

could

in great

department

between

by

midst

higher by adding
of

proof

individual characteristics,
away
gains a
in its extent.
Formation
of concepts is,

process

as

immediately

to

were

Of

the

lesser

those

be

to

form

does

Metaphysics,

is,

from

system

exclude
concepts reciprocally

But

the

to

decided

Over

of

every

the

fundamental

elements

his

oped
devel-

are

statement

sure

of Aristotle.

same.

for

not

are

fact that the

hand,

ourselves

metaphysical

designated as
choice

declared

combination

the

"

which

science

purely logical setting

fact that

have

we

that

find

and
presuppositions,

made
"

the

in

not

to the

If, however,
reference

other

concepts

these, we

same

also

ultimate

of

unprovable major premise,

other, partly in
and

the

starting-point of

teaching

an

of the

call attention

or

the

proofs,partly

same

the

main

the principleof contradiction,^

which
single principle,

forth

set

makes

two

those

explain

may

expect

the

for

ask

we

highest

it

left,the

us, fulfils in but

to

Philosopher

investigation,and

If,however,

as

Topics, are

Philosopher

certain,highest propositions or
of

the

raised.

the

what

to

This

surely,while, on

expectationsthus
For
evidentlywe
as

the

and

far.^

the

the

made

at deduction

attempts

well

Aristotle

which

Analytics

which

logicaldemands
so

to
ultimately

inductively;' and

be

nearly complete by

most

all

concepts, also,as

These

back

goes

from

withdraw

text-books

the

Among

concepts

[Part I.

seems
sought
as
of
the propositions
looked
highest generality
upon
of these most
general concepts.

Aristotle

the

as

lower

which

general concepts
and
explanation.
premises of proof, must
most

though

of

definition

SystematicPeriod.

abstraction

one

{i."i"alpe"iii)

which, by continually
poorer

accordingly, with

in

contents, but

Aristotle,again

conpletely analytic,while with Plato it had been intuitive. Aristotle was

the
first to free hjmself from the
ing
opticalanalogy, in accordance
with which
the knowof thought had
been conceived
process
and
even
Plato.
by Democritus
2 In
the case
of the Topics, this completeness
atbeen
to have
seems
even
tamed.

jfej. iv. 3 ft.

lies before

[PaktI.

holds

Aristotle

"

substratum

The

essence.

of that

which,

means

of

matter

the

In

form.

its contents

the

exist

it

does

form,

Occurrence, however,
the

The

actualisation.
and

the

from

apart

process, is that

not

exists
; it

phenomena

only by

own

means

in which

process

which

of

actual
it

succession

of

it realises

its

in the

only

phenomenal manifestations, by means

possibility.The universal is real or
in
the
particularis only because

its

nature

through form, into

possibility,
beside
any second, higher reality

mere

has

essence

by

actu).
actuality{ivepyeCa,

reality or

natural

from

over

passes

essence

the

or

in

real

or

essential

the

by

possibility

actual

become

is given only potentially(8vva/;t"V First,and

(ovo-ia)
of

the

merely

is the

therefore,

matter,

corporeal

not

to

as

substratum

material

or

complete thing, has

the

in

determined

form

the

limit,but

mathematical

matter

in itself indefinite,

but

purely indifferent,empty space,

is
him, this form
(iwoKd^evov)
; for
not

yet

formed

is,indeed,

this matter

the observar

to

phenomenal world,

the

him

for

But

us.

and

the

of

that, in everything

tion

SystematicPeriod.

"limitation

of

and

unlimited"

"

G-reeks

The

140

only

in the

realises

universal

the

ular;
partic-

itself.

fundamental

the

the

it.

of

viz. that

Greeks,
or

problem
of

process
the

From
of

theories

thinking Being

so

philosophy

what

or

"

{das GescJiehen).may

Nature

Hylozoism

his

Ideas, Aristotle

theoretical

the

of

of

doctrine

of the

this transformation

With

Milesians

the

of

solves
the

of

is

"

be

explained from
the
to
opposing

on

Becoming,

that

great predecessors,all standpoints of Greek

two

elements
in this doctrine of Aristotle.
as
metaphysics are contained
which
The
Being cognised in conception is the general essence,
from
manifestations
itself in its particularphenomenal
realises

through form,

potentialityon
of

calls entelechy

Aristotle
2.
in
the

central

The

this

in

essence

the

the

this

to

existence

in

of the

in

essence

realisation
the

the

is

processes

phenomena,

philosophy lies,therefore,

Aristotelian

the

phenomenon,

earlier

of

process

(ivreXix^ia).

of the

conception of

new

to

point

the

comes

self-realisation

This

Nature.

which

is that

Being

motion.

and

cosmic

processes

and

explanation

the
of

respect

Nature

the

as

in

realisation

it is opposed

which

consists

of

therefore

in

had
Plato
only
carrying through in conceptions the teleologywhich
set
as
postulate, and developed in mythical, figurative form.
up
earlier

While

the

process

of

of

cosmic

the
the

pressure

metaphysics
and impact as

processes,

development

activity. From

these

of
two

had

loofed

the

Aristotle

organisms

departments

relation

typical fundamental

regarded
and

mechanical

the

upon

man's
he

took

as

this

tion
typicalrela-

building
his

or

forming

examples

when

wished

he

System of Development: Aristotle.

3, " 13.]

Chap.

the

elucidate

to

character

metaphysical

141

the

of

cosmic

processes.^
Nevertheless, the
the

in these

same

the

between

abstraction, of
end

two

asserts

the

brings

form

and
the

in

to

internallyby

the

form.

contrary, the

material

and
itself,

the

In

the

under
the

former

organic

the

of

process
is

matter

artistic

of

from

beginning

development

already shaped

possibilityexists

with

first

at

is added

in view

its end

the

construction, on

by

later

of motion.

are

to

pass

the
or

is to

development
Matter, the

the

constitutes

Form

the

and

End,

other

as
principles,
expressions for the

different

but

are

regarded

be.

to

comes

be

Form,

contrary, the three

the

find,accordingly,that

this

relation

fundamental

twofold

way

the

on

forms
self-realising
another

and

Cau.se

regarded,

are

Aristotelian

the

of

Eesult

that

ritus

former

so

and

Plato,

name

world,
the

in itself by its form.

of

realises

essence

or

things

hand, things

collide,that

point of view
the

determined

and

side

contradiction

of

is carried

matter

matter, the

of

task

relation

other

as

in

out

regarded

are

in

science,

to

a
as

one

These

form.

principlego through the entire

by side,and in the general principlesof

conception of
that

as

and

individual

other

one

sometimes

apparent

The

3.

form

the

to

fundamental

the

system

system they

the

applied

hand,
the

on

when

of

one

applicationsof

two

the

of

out

process.

We

the

artist

Matter,

the

the

contains

These

on

the

thing, since

same

in

case

means

comes

case,

against

over

the

ence
differ-

carrying

case

reality identical

therefore, the

case,

four principles.

In the

the

the

the

the

sides, separable only through

unfolding,

which
of

of what

the two
same

In

in the

In

completely

and

processes,

everywhere

which

its

matte:%is not

thought.

are

the

shape by

latter

Cause

set

work

the

produce

to

itself

germ

essence

and

purposive

fundamental

one

even

form

of

kinds

and

processes, matter

of

two

Aristotelian

of the

to

relation

substance

itself in individual

it is

be cleared

can

yieldsthe
in contrast

truly
To

real

tion
separa-

for the

telian
Aristo-

away.

result,that

that

both

with
is

their

only by

the

of Democ-

individual

thirig,

it,therefore,belongs primarily

(oio-ia).But

the

determinations,

essence

which

are

develops

partly its

{irdO-i]),
partly its relations to other things^ (ja irpos n).
knowledge has these which belong to the thing (rb.a-v/jt^e^ry
thing itself cannot be
KoTo) to predicate of it,while the individual
predicated of anything else,i.e. in the propositionit can be only
states

Hence

'

Aside

in the
2

from

its discussion

Physics.

Met.

XIV.

2, 1089

b 23.

in the

Metaphysics, this question is chieflytreated

subject and

it,Aristotle

of

substance

are

and

in space

determination

passion

and
("Koiiiv'),

which

I.

possiblewith regard
quality
categories,quantity (iroo-oV),

as

n),
(Trpo's

[Part

in

modes

these

predicatesthat

the

enumerates

relation
(iroiov),
action

SystematicPeriod.

predicate.'Of

never

itself,or

manifests
to

G-reeks

The

142

time

(ttoS. wot^),
in

passiTity (-irau-xav')
; and

or

addition,

This

collection
(Ix"")in
(making ten categories inclusive of substarfce), which, perhaps,
co-operated,is designed to present the
grammatical observations

highest classes
ideas
of this

or

importance

in his

When

consider

we

conception of
it may

appear

neither

word,

thing

could
tion

spoken

have
of form

of

"

constitutes

the

of

the

in

to

in

its dass

thing

the

viz. to

determine

far

so

all its

or

that

he

individual

this

essence

reality

existent

abiding individual

the

as

hand,

determina^

of
of

perience
ex-

individual

to

coherence

knowledge

in

other

inner

the

regard

not

suppose

an

cide
de-

of the

appears

the

to

where

particular

of

the

Aristotle

problem

defined

of

modes

of

ing
appear-

that

the

brought

science

yet again

through which
species. If substance,as
as

did

the

perception.

view

that

consequence

individual

belongs

"

class-conceptfor

Socratic-Platonic

it the

of

therefore,

themselves

show

the

But

the

he

on

teaching

only

ground

"

which

with

essence

problem of science
general conception

forms

thing

his
"

announced

sense

organic individuals,

spiritof

an

his

occasionally

others, and,

to

the

the

by

above-noted

has

he

hand,

one

that

character

that

things, in

the

from

separate

characteristics,where,
solves

the

from

principleapplying to
be possible to
it would

which

whatever

be in the

It would

men.

use

real

only that, on

this

ascribed

he

that

to

glance

truly existing individual

everything
as

first

the

at

principlenor

It is clear

essence

as

methodical

no

shaped out the scientific

metaphysical character,

logical and

its

thing, according

these

are.

metaphysics, aside

in

strange

methodical

what

possible

fore,
categories acquired,there-

the

sharply Aristotle

how

substance

of the

nature

made

all

of

contents

to its determinations.

of substance

relation

of

doctrine

his

the

Aristotle

Yet

collection,and

no

which

under

genera
subsumed.

be

to

are

condition

and
{kuo-Ooj.)

also, position

the

essence

individual

contrasted

thing

with

its

perceptiblephenomena and attributes,presents the universal, on

the species(yo/os,
the other hand
or
again Platonically)etSos)is the
universal

that

the

relation

same

realises
and

realises
is

itself in the individual

repeated ; the

itself in individual

the individual

thing
1

only

Analyt. Post.

I.

as
as

Here, too,

far as it
so
only
their truly existing essence,
the species comes
to its phe-

speciesexists

things

exists

substances.

22,

83

24.

in

System of Development: Aristotle.

3, " 13.]

Chap.

manifestation

nomenal
the

have

claim

contains

of

constitute

which

constitute the

for

this

the

reason

species also
being essences

metaphysical significanceof
the

means

individual

kind

second

Just

conception of substqjicewith

peculiarlychangeable

are

proper

the

to

this

By
(oio-iat).

in it.

143

things

as

double

meaning.

determined

in

substances

(SeuVepaiovmai)

the

of individual

essence

Aristotle

The

substances

conception,but

have

we

the

as

species

these

things, just as

latter

of

perceptiblephenomena.
Scientific knowledge is directed
the
partly toward
the individual
the conception
thing, partly toward

conception of
of the species.

Each

of these

there

much

which,

the

as

realises

itself in

the

of the

of this which

in the
{(Tvix^cfiyjKOTa.
to

the

no

scientific

scientific

scientific consideration

4.

In

doctrine

between

the

relative in

the

different

already
so

far

In

things

the

as

form,

as

this

formed

the

with

from

to

on

which

the

be

eral.
gen-

something
limited

universally (xaS'oXou),

of

in

which
as

form

things, each

matter,

of

in

the

another

is affirmed
of which

relation
with

contrast

when

matter

conception

this

of

tradition

itself also
and

matter

classes

appears

aspect

law,

conception, and

discloses
of

thing

same

lies

disclaimed

of

fast to the

holding

or

this

ttoXv).

relation

actual

as

regarded

higher.

is,the

"

"theory,"

no

in

"

rather

is valid

attitude

same

necessity

declared

which

and

"

Nature

explained by

to
part (eiri

the

If, that

itself

is to be

be

of

realises

is,in according

doctrine,
also

which,
ally,
incident-

"accidental

or

particular follow

he

decidedly

see

of Ideas

direction.

in

we

the

much

conception

there

word)

study

most

to that

/or the most

this

and

to

the

indifferent

Aristotle

ancient

also

particular only

Aristotelian

instance

reallyaccidental, not
at least

the

insight into

individual

it,but

in which

of

the

the

individual

most

This

of

appears

in the

sense

is found

in
conception (o-u/i/Se/ST^KOTa

from

matter

here

and

deduced

Hence

knowledge.

principleany
the

the

conceptionally

of

presuppositions
limit

or

is

usual

characteristic

even

be

conception,

consequence

itself;and

phenomena,

belonging directlyto

as

sense), can

narrower

foreign to

as

essence

becomes
a

contrasted

development

is

lower
with

becomes

the

principleof an ordering of things according to their metaphysical

values,consideringthese things as rising in uninterrupted succession
In
from
the
lowest
to the
formations
of matter
highest forms.
this scale every
class of things is assigned its metaphysical dignity
by

means

the

which

of the

material

test that

of the

So, at least,they
is,to be sure,

the line of

Aristotle's

it is

regarded

as

form

of the

lower

and

as

higher.
are

not

called

in the

treatise

on

entirely uncontested

teaching

taken

as

whole.

categories,the genuineness
designation is quite

yet the

of
in

The

144

lower

and

an

as
itself,

mere

somehow

actualised

Being (the Platonic

which

itself

evinces

space),but

empty

shown

the

in

fact

in individual
completely realise themselves
side-workings (7rapa"^vas)
proceed which
with
the purposefullyactive form, or even
It

is, therefore,

forms

realise

in

Nature.

Hence
of

explanation
(to

causes

the

are

forms

in matter, out
Thus

the

under

the

limit

is,indeed,
in

the

in

in

of

his

to the

this

yet it is in

and
view

of

of matter

; with

the

it united

the

world

purposeless

the

its

H/nnl

former

latter

reside

in the

Idea
far

material

This

material
itself

present

can

foreign,and

itself

opposes

hard

as

thus

retarding

Ancient

philosophy did not

purposive activityof the form

the

resistance

so

{(rv/ijie.-

counter-workings.
ultimately

thought.

the

the

from

between

; the

it.

Aristotle

finds

Idea, that

between

dualism

and

Philebus.

matter

formative

independent, element, that it in part

principleto the realisingof the forpis.
the

that

distinguishes^in

regarded by

are

general, and

with

Swarov) :

(^toi^ dmyxi^s):

causes

an

overstep

the

plasticartist,who

realisation

in

Plato

it

connection

explained

lawless

doctrine

themselves

processes

do not

that from

without

is

sine

aveu,

forms

the

proceed side-workingsand

far related

so

least

it,at

realise

analogy of
the

did

mechanical

of which

cosmic

to

Aristotelian
as

ovk

conoeptionally indeterminate

the
(airo'/iarov),

Nature,

which

fact

being
cause,

ov

in contradiction

"

the

eveKa) and

ov

is

accidental

the

or
firiKOi),

the

course, in

accessory

things,and
are

latter in

is not

{ro

that

which

only potentially (/carato

which

that

that

matter

themselves

arises

matter

from

the

-without

that

the

real effects

through

such

as

realityis

Its

non).

qua

6v, or
/ix^

exists

merely

it is not

Yet

I.

classes,has both

matter,

mere

; it never

actual

[Paht

vXrj)is,of
(jrpuiTtj

matter

form.

as

in

former

Wholly unformed
not
possibility,

their

of

things,and

limit,the

upper

form.

pure

Systematic Period.

individual

system of

This

Greeks

the

naive

demand

of

honesty

the

teleological

of

experience,recognising
necessity,purposeless and contrary to design, which
itself in the phenomena of the actual world.
the'

asserts

5.
since

It

is,on

its

conception is

that

as

the

principleof
a

about

must

which

be
it

as

the

of

case

with

that

pure

form,

of true

uality,
act-

in itself the

to

the

or

of

ing
highest actualitywithout needassumption of such a pure Form is

The

that
for the reason
system of Aristotle,
merely possible or potential,has in itself alone no

motion

beginning

centres

in

immediatelyconnected

whatever.

according

necessary

matter,

contrary, self-evident

it possesses

matter

any

the

of motion
the

eternal

belongs;

generation.

in time

conception
as

in this system
of

we

must

of

development, which

self-realising
essence,

Being itself,to

but yet

cannot, indeed, speak of

We

the

essential

point out

that

since motion

characteristics of

property

in

Being

System of Development: Aristotle.

3, " 13.]

Chap.

is the

which,

of

cause

action of the

form

motion.

from

the
be

it must
the

is true

if the

first of the

only

It

by
the

the

of

means

form

impulse to

mechanical,

fact

but

that

itself
as

above

its absolute

final

pure,

it

in the

matter,

upon

into

comes

in

only

matter

(the prime mover),

not

(kiveI(us epul/ievov,

cause

sideration.
con-

but
activity,

own

actualityexcites

to

be

not

{jpioTov
kwovv)

its action

its

since

and,

first link

mentioned
of

means

moved,

would

firstmover
of

case

according

have

not

The

the

by

operates, not

on, motion

vidual
indi-

ing
proceed-

is itself
form

the

impulse

an

motion

form

higher

so

did

moved.
in

the

as

for

causes

elements

two

far

so

purposive

latter,and

of its

Hence,

elemejits,viz.

the

matter

is itself not

is itself unmoved.
the

in

as

of the

chain

which

Form

But

in turn

regarded

understood
pure

in matter, and

itself.

form

thing

same

distinguishestwo

inherent

formed

is, however, everywhere

which, with reference to

the matter, in

upon

things,Aristotle
to be

This

145

ov

as

kwov-

/ievov).

prime

The

the

or

mover,

metaphysics, quite the

the

Platonic, and

of

the

for

Platonic

It

Aristotle
is

wholly independent, separated

and

the

yet at

It is the

same

actuality;

TrpwTov)and

TO

The

Such

also

itself (actus

characterised

mental

purus)
process

is
,

which

itself

its eternal

-In

these

The

in

the

the

experience
487

it

distinction

6.

show

predicates

else,incorporeal,
and

change.
the

highest (t6 tI ^v tlvax

Aristotle

according
regards

as

its content.

resting purely
possibility,
and

thought

the

individual

thought

which

within

not, of course,

thought,which

pure

; that

to

alone

its

to

things
is

and

employed

presupposes

its constant,
"

for

the

so

determined,

world's

history.

dwells
On

the

significanceof

one

hand,

mono-

the later, so-called costhought from which

essentially arose, is found principally
book
of the
Metaphysics. In his popular dialogues Aristotle
:
with
of worth, by giving it the following form
determinations
between
things of
the
perfect which
imperfect and the more

exposition of this
twelfth

but
nature

conceptions,

mological proof for

amalgamated

in

ing
unchangobject,but has itself for
ness.
voijertus),self-consciousthought of thought (i/ojjo-is

mighty import
1

Good

possibilityis at

determined

an

content, the

telian
Aristo-

immovable,

generation

all

applies itself

with

as

all

it is the

thus

no

thought,

changing phenomena,

nothing else

all

which

exists

by

to

their

and

the

all the

employs

of

cause

Essence,

or

activity,related

an

of

the

deity}

the

"

Idea

from
{xu"pi.(tt6v)

of all that

highest Being

relations,is

that

best

the

the

as

in

eternal, unchangeable,

(evepyeta)in

perfect Being

time

same

time

then,

means,

thing

same

it alone

Idea.

Form,

pure

the

course

existence

presupposes

the

of

of God

reality of

most

perfect.

Cf. Sohol. in Arist.

Crreeks

The

146

theism

grounded;
the

different
that

God

time

the

same

This

divine

; itsessential

manner

dding, all willing,is

All
doer
he

wilier.

the

or

is sufl"cient
has

which
He

acts

the

takes

6.

itself

whole,

the

according

the

of

deity,and

But

in this

of which

for

In

two

the

Aristotle

moves

entire series of

these,taken

(^u'cns;equivalent
is,accordingly,

Nature

viewed

without

which

that

; and

Nature

as

present usage).

of

philosophy of

estimating relative

as

unity, in

the

consists,shows

Nature

The

scale

find

their

union

is,indeed, consistent

with

the

different
which

manner

conceptions

is moved

call it forth

as

and

after Ood.

matter

is the

two

world,

which

ever

Aristotelian

the

developed in
in

well

as

the

{Ottapia),

but
activity,

The

which

that

object;

no

higher,from form to form, through all the

its particularshapes, approaches the
resting Being of
imitatingthis,potentiallytakes it up into itself.
connection, the graded scale of things,in the exposition

standard

end

; between

to

longing of

system of living beings

developing

multitude

moved

designated by

are

connected

matter

the

has.

the

blessedness.

or

(the solelyactual) is

God

motion

suffer

"world"

to

from

being

things, which
as

it,arises

motion

world

the

eternal

his

from

himself

of

knowledge
his

needs

form,

itself.

upon

object,distinct

itself,is

which

anything;

moving

without

in

purely intellectualistic

pure

through

not

an

as

(themerely potential)is

Matter

itself

his

for him

longing
place

mind,

than

goal

world,

the

upon

through
what

other

spiritual. Spiritual

the

of in

toward

himself, and

the

at

poreal
immaterial, the incor-

solely thought directed

directed
divine

The

for

no

is

nature

trine
doc-

science.

ripe fruit of Grecian

is conceived
spirituality

is the

monotheism

being

transcendence,the

the

that

equivalent to

is made

Plato, into

spirit{Oeist) involves

or

metaphysicaladvance

Being,

pure

mind

is the absolute

pantheistic

self-conscious

as

this

besides

But

world.

the

from

of

I.

scientifically

the

still with

even

is conceived

God

since

form,

theistic

and

Xenophanes,

with

it had

form, which

and

from

passed over

it

hand,

the other

on

[Part

conceptionallyformulated

herewith

was

Period.
Systematic

worth.

series,which

system, but

is therefore

only

at the

fundamental

is,nevertheless, in

which

fold
two-

itself

prising.
sur-

Aristotle,there meet,
as
itself,and
characteristics,that of Being, restingwithin
and that of spirituality
rationality
remaining like itself (dt'Stoi/),
or
conception

of

the

deity,according

to

chief

(voSs). Hence
rank

in

individual

proportion as

elements
the

the

series

which

of

they

constitute

phenomena

terrestrial world

to

"forms"

contain
the

ascends

of

the

one

highest
from

the ever-uniform

take

Nature
or

the

worth.

other

In

the unordered
revolution

of

the

of

these

line,

one

change
the

higher

of

the

stars ; in the

148
of rest

in. a state

The

Q-reehs

as

whole,

earthy material

is

Mre

strives toward

the

of

matter

that about

and

then

Air, while

The

changing

in

the

nations,
combi-

enter, constitute

elements

which

the

is accidental

and

celestial

ing
counter-work-

region

where

the

motion

circular

undisturbed

of

side-working

the

Here

stronger than

are

world.

I.

way

conceived, that

be

determinateness

mathematical

four

the

cannot

terrestrial world.

in the

first Water

at

[Part

such

in

composed

celestial outer

which

into

which

imperfect,that

is

disposed

the

however,

SystematicPeriod.

ises
real-

itself.
the

In

8.
and

of

changes

organic processes

built

are

always

higher

the

that

terrestrial world, mechanical, chemical,

the

each

upon

up

the

presupposes

other

lower

in

such

its

as

way

condition,.

sense),
place (^opa or Kivr/cni in the narrowest
the
organic
change of qualities (dWoiwo-ts) is not possible,and
which
consists in growth and decay (a-u^iyo-is
transformation
"^^"rts)
the preceding. The- higher form
both
is not
is,
possible without
merely a product of the lower, but is something selfhowever, never
of which
those
lower
forms
be employed
can
subsistent,by means
of

change

Without

"

"

only

in

purposive manner.

From

this

opposed

to

very

highly

used

develops

important principlein

an

Democritus,
in

regard

to

against the

detailed

with

great deal, even

principlewhich

"

research

express

which

the
in

Aristotle

former

esteemed

science,and

natural

mention.

is

Aristotle

'

protests

all

minations,
qualitativeto quantitativedeterHe
an
by Plato.
attempt ultimately accepted even
the contrasting from
combats
an
epistemologicaland metaphysical
he
point of view, of secondary and primary qualities
; to the former
not a less but rather
accords
to the latter,and
a higher realitythan
of
forms
the inner
in the succession
conceptional character or
is evidently of more
determination
worth
for him
the outer
than
which
determination
is capable of mathematical
expression.^The
the
rank
of a
to
to raise
principlefor
attempt of Democritus
of all qualitativeto quantitative
explaining the world the reduction
reduce

to

attempt

"

"

"

found
differences,
of the

that

saw

its victorious

entelechies,"the

"

it is

inner

opponent

quantitativerelations,and that,on
it may

sense

the
1

Cf.

""'For

entire

body

especiallythe
this

be

third

the

ever
contrary,the quality(by which-

quantitativerelations

book

Aristotle

of the

also

his doctrine

of

perceived)is something
of

and

things. The keen logician

from
develop qualitiesanalytically

Forms

possibleto

never

in Aristotle

treatise

De

as

new,

which

its occasion

poses
presup-

only.

Ccelo.

elements
not
only by the
their motions, but also by primitive qualities
he
; and
and
out of a meeting of the contrasted
develops them
and cold, dry
pairs, warm
moist.
Meteor.
IV. 1, 378 b 11.
reason

differeiit tendencies

of

characterises the

With

9.

the

with

149

view
is applied by
logicalconsistencythe same
of the psychical and
bodily activities ; the
for

matter

metaphysics,and
Aristotle
which
The

body.

of

Aristotle

the

itself in the

the

upon

had

and

the

older

taught.
i.e. the

body,

changes

is,
tions
func-

of the

Timceus),

are

There

corporeal

procedure

entelechy of

motions

latter

th%forms.

psychical

with

is rather

is the

soul

furnish

Plato, in part (in the

soul

realises

former

accordance

even

the

the

dependence

in

Democritus,

as

Form

which

such

Aristotle,no

For

Aristotle.

relation

to the

but

System of Development:

3, " 13.]

Chap.

of the

organic

of

and
bodily formation
motion, a
cause
acting from ends ; itself incorporeal,it is yet actual or real
only as the power
moving and controllingthe body.
But
the psychical life itself is also,according to Aristotle,built
cause

it

as

up

for

matter

presents
the

in successive

were

the

changes

the

to

The

propagation.

soul

significanceof
animal

The
from

pain, in

vital

motion

form

bound

be striven

in space

of

desire

or

Aristotle,that

the

the

to

of

mode

to

is restricted
this

the

whole

characteristics
sensation

body proceeds

shun.

this

and

pleasure

But

these

suppose
pre-

the

at

are

same

object is worthy

of the

view

dependence

to

of all

psychology,is so strong with

ing
relations
expressly,accord-

all Greek
these

and

judgment

is affirmation
from

in

feelings of

that

conclusion

purely physiological

animal

thought

of

and

tottov)and

or

procure

forth

assimilation

is added

the

the

The

and

constitutive

of

life is

mechanical

this

to

the

sets

of

object,and

logical function
drawing

the

functions

from

shunned.

even

"forms"

in turn,

and

inference.

denial,^there

general aim

to

the

In

is the

particular

of action.

The

which

home,

seat, or

proper

ideation

organic

of their

practicalsphere, also,there
process

of

idea

with

to be

he

first Form

Kara
{kivyitikov

arises

ideas,peculiar to

upon

The

motion

effort

an

together
for

which,

soul, whose

which
(ope^ts),

the

of

force ; to

animal

everywhere
time

plants

purposive, spontaneous
desire

strata, each

purposive

of
a

the

kingdom,'

spontaneous

are

higher.

or

which
{dpeirTiKov)
,

vegetativesoul

chemical

grades

is found
this

treats

Aristotle's

in

as

sensation.

it were,

the

In

has

subject^ Aristotle

History

(cf.J.

of Animals

of

B.

the

entire

animal

life of

physiologicalpsychology
in
used
comprehensive

Meyer,

Berlin, 1855) treats

in

emplary
ex-

investigation,anatomical,
physiological,
morphological, and biologicalproblems, and also the questions of
The
system.
parallel work
lost, but in compensation we
on
plants is indeed
have the work
of his friend
and
discipleTheophrastus.
and

manner,

Eth.

Besides

smaller
on

Nic.

VI.

the

treatises

Memory,

on

with

2, 11.S9

sections
attached

Dreams,

admirable

of

care

detailed

21.

which
to

etc.

treat
this

are

this

subject, in the treatise

to be
compared, viz

also

Soul, the
Perception,

the

on
:

on

Q-reeks

The

150

the

theory

which

with

the

pointed to

he

in

perceptionconsists

that

Not

perception arises.

in which

process

unity of

consciousness
what

to
perceptions of the individual senses
or
perceptionsthat perceivethe object as

grasps

also

above

the

individual

must

we

senses

whole,

of

animal

Vegetative and

10.

of

knowledge

our

our

soul

in the

adopt the
objectand

and

old
ject,
sub-

so

doing
Thus

common

sense

recollection,both

of

of

voluntary (di'a/ii'7?a-is
perceptions remain as
time, however,

same

states.^

own

souls,however,

in

motion.

the

assume

that in it the
by virtue of the circumstance
imaginativerepresentations("/)avTao-"u)
; at the
seat

he

ing
conced-

(EinheitUchkeit,
fLiamTj's),
is given in the individual
collective perceptions,
form

is also the seat

which
{koivovaitrOryrripiov),^
the
and
the involuntary or memory
{fxvqiJLr])

it is also the

I.

cessors,
predebut

by

the

satisfied to

jiumber, situation,and

of

relations

the

his

point;

co-operationof

unites

soul

animal

the

this

of
self-activity

the

to

greater importance

much

which

of all earlier doctrines

inadequacy

common

[Part

theories

possessed on

especially Democritus,
overcame

and

particularinformation

all the

manner

SystematicPeriod.

form

in

but

man

the

the reason
peculiarto him,
becomes
will
By its operation,impulse (ope^ts)
{vovq SiavoiLa-OaL).
becomes
knowledge {im{^ovKrja-is)
; imaginative representation
and higher ("from without,''
It comes
as
a
something new
o-Tj^/xr/).
6vpa6ev)to all the psychicalactivities which develop from perception
for the

matter

realisation

of the

Form

beasts.

Aristotle

"

"

even

the

among
the

rational

pure

the

activityitself

and,
TTotijTiKos),

on

the

perceptions,which

material

contrary,

and
possibilities

furnishes
worked

of

and

over

formed

Accordingly the

the

"

"

active

"

considered

as

unity

it is without

'

With

regard

activityto

be

in

to

active

the
and

signifiesthe

the

the

natural

occasions

nating
by desig(voSs

reason

(voSsTraSi/nKos),
bodily existence,
is subsequently
individual

phase
ual
individ-

dispositionof the
of his

personalexperience,
contrary, signifyingthe pure reason
nature
and
Einprinciples(principielle

the

the

The

latter

former

passes

physiological localisation

is mingled
{vvcviia)

breath

its

to the

relation

reason

for reason,

reason

beginning,while

attached

the

arises from

to all individuals.

common
heitlichJceit)
as

in

on

reason,
a

this

it.

by

(Erscheinungsweise)given
and determined
by
man,

as

passive

as

occasions

passive "

"

expressed

vital warmth

Aristotle

is

imperishable,
with

away

found

which
{inipvTov
BepiiAv),

psychical

the
as

the

animating

with

the blood, and

trine
his school
developed this docSiebeck, Zeitsehrift
fur Volkerpsychologie, 1881, pp.
364 ff. In consequence
of this he regarded the heart as the seat of the common
and
so
sense
supplanted the better Insightwith which
Alcmseon, Diogenes of
Apollonia, Democritus, and Plato had recognised the importance of the brain.
still further.

III.

This

Cf. H.

beginning for

2, 425 b 12.

doctrine

of inner

perception

is found

in Arist.

De.

An.

System of Development: Aristotle.

3, " 13.]

Chap.

individuals

in

question by

this conclusion

it

here

doctrines

have

as

whole

the

In

11.

and

work,

the

the

ethical

of

that

the

its

with

from

grafted

upon

the
the

Platonic

the

in

fortune
but

good things ;

ethics

consequence

of

Form

Plato

had

Man's

of

that

feature

in

sought

happiness
also

vain,

has

do

to

with

that

in part
afforded

has

which

the

as

stands

in

man
gains
happiness which
comes
by his own
activity{irpaKTovayaOov). Every being, however, beand
of his own
nature
happy by the unfolding of his own
The
of
virtue
peculiaractivity man, therefore, through reason.
that habitude
man
or
is,accordinglj'-,
("^is)
permanent state of mind
which
he
is
made
of
the
of
rational
ity
activthrough
practice
capable
it
of
the
endowments
of
his natural
out
develops
disposition,
;
our

(to. i"t"'
ij/^tv),
only with

only

this

i.e.

tvell-being

or

is

until

complete

not

the

peculiarto

regarded
system
i
s,
indeed,
dependent
(tcVos),

it is

of

in

solution

Aristotle's

of all endeavour

end

the

to the

Good.

connection

systematic

as

key

even

the

put in
Timoeus, where

"

reason

which

of

content

external

upon

alike

found

is

part" gf the soul, i.e. that

and
impersonal. It is clear that we
empirical psychology, but with such

taken

problem

which
(euSai/iovio),
supreme

"rational"

conception of

soul, Aristotle

human

the

in

as

immortality

psychology
epistemologicalpostulates.

and

ethical

been

Personal

just

only
is everywhere
no
longer to do

part which
have

it appears.

for the

claimed

was

of

-whom

151

power

the

"

and

has

As

for its

in

the

fruit,satisfaction,pleasure.

animal

the

the

other, of
of

sense

of

the

12.
which

the

facultyof
word). Thus

ethical

it

becomes

the

virtues

grow

accustomed

"

this

doctrine

with

evident

assigned to
knowledge ;
the

regard

and

the

out

of

to

It enables

the

facts

of

point,rather,is,that
of

the

the

will

the

Since

shows

he

ethical

life:

the

arising
reverse

from
of

by

With

Socrates,

"

not
over

as

follow

that

he

against

opinion that
insight must of

the

rational

arisingfrom

desire

up

tues.
vir-

will

the

proper.

or

principles of

gave

ability

or

decisions,to

psychologicalindependence

itself be stronger than

experience often

in his

is correct
the

the

determination

fection,
per-

right insight

to

according

what

will

as

dianoetic

or

training of

that

man,

the

excellence

the

intellectual

act

transcends

to

thought

or

result,as

i.e. insight into

Aristotle

tinguished
dis-

develops

reason

rational

character

there

ethical

(^povijtris
opflosA.oyos).
practical reason,

too, the

so,

be

to

on
disposition(^flos),
in the broadest
intelligence {ala-davea-Oai

the

man,

perception were

action, partly as

hand, of the

one

rational

The

expressions,

rational

itself,
partly as

and

impulse

different

as

on

soul

defective

this,man

knowledge.

must

gain by

The

152

is

[Part I.
which

of

means

rationallyknown,

he follows

against

even

strongest desires.^

the

While

habitude,

development of these
a
comprehensive and

cowardice

rashness.

and

friendship

of
the

since

man,

life of

state, the

the

in the
of

the

treated

by

out

that

natural

to

are

natural

that

is

politicalcommunitv.
the

that

moral

which

activities

lence
excel-

of

which

trainingof

individual

considered

was

its citizens.
virtue

man,

in

prosper

only in the life

ultimatelyno perfect moral

end

and

good

As,

ought

to

of

life

by
theless,
never-

develop

politicalrelations also are

from
the point of view, that the historically
be used for the highest possible fulfilment of
the

highest end.

Every
of the

constitution

community

if this

is not

depend

upon

those

of

ethical

the

to

disposition,so

Aristotle

relations

given

of

case

all

for

convinced

is

essential

be the

Aristotle,also,to

the

find its fulfilment

can

him, too, there

; for

virtues.

the

basis of the

relates

always

community,

community
outside

is

striving

the
as
;iustice

it

which

to

extremes

Aristotle,like Plato, was

For

have, rather,

we

between
right mean
particularlydetailed expositionis given

common

also to

beautiful,and
13.

the

as

systematic

insight always jmdj__the_wgAt

rational

courage

individual

the

of

treatment

that

Thus

leads.

life

impulsive
to

delicate

unreasonable

the

between

mean

they

disposition,

distinguishedby

are

refer.

given by Aristotle,but

is not

generalprincipleis

The

which

life to

of

relations

different

the

virtues

individual

the

natural

general belong

in

virtue

ethical

to

insight,and

4(

SystematicPeriod.

which

that

all circumstances

by
(eyKpartta)

self-control

practicethat
under

G-reeks

few

if

an

may

right if the government has the ethical weal

its highest goal ; every
has failed
constitution
The

case.

the

external

rule.^

kingdom

as

of

as

the

who

is

form,

The

rule
bad

(^acnXda),
be

good

if

an

of

good

which

of
if

the

state, therefore, does

is defined

single

by

individual

the
may

not

number
be

right

despotism (rvpawk) ; the rule

aristocracyof culture and disposition,
a

oligarchy of birth or property, bad; the rule of all as a

mob-rule
be good, as
republic of law and order (TroXircia)
may
bad.
With
Aristotle
(SijiUOKpaTta),
profound politicalintelligence,
brings together in these expositions the experiences of Grecian
history,and on the ground of these enters upon the philosophy of
1

polemic against the Socratic doctrine which

Aristotle brings forward
line, Eth. Mc. III. 1-8, are developed the first beginnings of the problem

In the

in this

of freedom.
2

In

the eighth book

of the Nicomachoean
Ethics.
the dialogue the Statesman, passing under
point of view which
Plato's
had
already emphasised, while Plato himself in the Republic constructed

name,
the "bad"

lower

constitutions

parts of the

soul.

from

psychologicalanalogiesof

predominance

of the

System of Development:

3, " 13.]

Chap.

history in giving intimations

out of

constitutions

of

forms

these

Plato's

in

those

for

system

for
fitting

of

care

fragment
of

state

another

one

of

their

which

develop

place the
of

himself

Politics
the

elements

of

ideal

an

critical

off)to

of

noble

the

demand

the

take

the

it will in future
of

treatment

lead

In

public

itself

must

vidual
indi-

state.

for

of which

(in

the

of

with

task

community

breaks

help

Aristotle

proved requisite in

Platonic

education

that

constitution

had

the

ethical

task

the

the

contented

with

; the

with

nature

ual
individ-

and

understand

the general
fulfilling

agrees

it is the

consist,and
the

he

education

of

He

elements

constitutions
connection

which

"

manner.

emphasising of
this

into

over

can
presuppositions we
of projectingin detail

could not think

state

pass

153

necessitywith

another.

one

After

to the

as

Aristotle.

of

out

man

arts, to ethical

which

his
and

rude
lectual
intel-

culture.
14.

the

To

broader

practicalactivity of
of

the

addition

to

sense

(ttoiuv)in

"

acting

so

presents

itself

in

art, and

daily life,that

he

occasionallyset

as

and
besides

the

third

this

poetry, under

the

the

of

name

the

this

the

also
the

on

creative

directed

action

of

fragment

his

This

Poetic.

ends

of

art, poieticphilosophy,
with

theory

sets

hand,

the

poieticphilosophy,there
of

other

which
activity,

side

by

"

making

"

toward

science

science,side

independent

practical. Of
Bhetoric
only

reckoned

between
the

the

(irpS^ts)
; yet,

he made

great distinction

in
{Xoyia-TiKov)

reason

Aristotle

word,
"

the

is
of

the

retical
theo-

preserved
the

of

art

out, indeed, from

lar
principlesrelatingto the nature of art in general,but in its particusubject offers only the outlines of a theory of tragedy. In
this,such

peculiarrelations of this
principalparts of philosophy appear,
this branch

under

either

science
that

of the

of

art

to

other

two

ordinate
dif"cult to sub-

it becomes
other

the

two.

production,and the arts are distinguished as well

which
with
by the objects which
they imitate as by the material
their actions ;
and
they imitate. The objectsof poeticart are men
its means
lar,
Tragedy, in particuare
language,rhythm, and harmony.
represents an
important action as performed immediately by
Art

is imitative

speaking and
But
the

the

purpose

passions

sympathy,

actingpersons.^

are

of

of this

man,
to

be

in
so

particularin
excited,

purificationof
is

brought

representationis

imitative

the

the

case

about.

Poet.

ethical

tragedy, fear

by their excitation
(Ka^aptns)from these

that

soul

of

an

6, 1449

b 24.

and

one

and
hancement
en-

passions

The

154

the
of

view,

realisation

rational

the

by

in

is

man,

and

with

tion

in

and

this

thus,

also,

has

perception

in

this
ends

no

of

the

the
"

these,

ure
pleas-

full

of

highest

the
which

in

eternal

of

"

exists

deed,

or

truth,

which

Poet.

is

9,

this
the

1451

wishless
blessedest

5.

12,

the

"

tigation
inves-

the

reason"

active

(Oeapia)
a

participar
consists,

deity

ness.
self-conscious-

divine
for

only

its

best

sake

own

absorption
and

from

4).

gains
of

the

tions
concep-

and

prove,

"

man

essence

the

"beholding"

truth

the

to

the

to

scientific

of

of

as

blessedness

will

highest

Aristotle

by

of

i.e.

(cf.

The

directed

is

able

unfolding

virtues

happiness.

search

beginning

achieved

is

dianoetic

truths,

being
its

the

beholding
of

the

finally

complete

inductive

take

thought,

pure

particular

this

The

highest

without

to

beholding

that

to

essence.

its

with

development

bring

the

designated

again

For
and

of

and

(cVio-Tiy/tovticdv)

the

must

knowledge

But

or

in

such

brought

nature

knowledge.

reason

of

up

deduction

all

which

is

universal

the

its
in

which

leads

only

universal

its

which

theoretical

judgments

in

of

man

apprehension
and

later

in

particular

the

knowledge,

of

those

and

the

immediate

of

nature

of

activity

the

Kunstlehre

accomplished

however,

object

its

perfection

highest,

the

are

for
Die

Doring,

A.

I,

knowledge.^

upon

highest

The

but

kind

attends

which
15.

offers

it

for

has

science,

like

Art,

is,

end

particular,

as

[Part

important

so

of.

it,

representation

artistic

not

became

concerning

this

of
in

which

Catharsis,
literature

Period.

Systematic

1876).

(Jena,

that

way,

our

the
the

on

attainment

The

and

art,

Aristoteles

des

of

doctrine

On

theory

Greeks

in
of

all.

the

156

Philosophy.

Hellenistic-Roman

[Pakt

it could use
conceptions,with the aid of which
of phenomena.
The
abundance
principalopposing theories of
interpretationof the world had developed in the great systems,
of fundamental

in this

way

fixed

frame

of detail.

treatment

But
of

knowledge

setting

or

formed

was

did, with

it

beginning, as

detail,the

it

development of principles,the more

of metaphysical interest
crippling,at once
In

Hellenistic-

of the

one

and

time

Koman

is erudition

great schools, gained

ruling principlefor

subjects which
metaphysical
fruitful

the

interested
theories

the

scientific

was

now

the

of

firm

support

And

and

science

tendency

scientific

man

of

of

ence
sci-

character

of

development of

the

science, by

into

entrance

collective

opinion,
separate questionsand

of

treatment

him.

was

and

and

the

experienced a
metaphysical force.

fundamental

individual

The

special sciences.

the

the

tended
slightlyex-

so

theoretical

the

this,however,

details,and

toward

was

the

of

consequence

the

Greek

successful

more

the

in

for

II.

indifference

greater, the

toward
it

more

general

appeared

that

of knowledge
special provinces, extension
of facts,and comprehension of special departments of science were
possible,independently of the strife of metaphysical systems. The
had
been
separationof problems, which
completed typicallyin the
Aristotelian
teaching and school, led necessarilyto specialisation,
and
the purely theoretical
in knowledge
interest
for its own
sake
developed, during the Hellenistic-Eoman
period, essentiallyin the

investigation

individual

sciences.

true, in loose
show

during this
philosophy
into
and

The

relations

themselves

in

great

with

time

concerned,

mathematics,

general history,had

With

the

great
whether

which

rich

heads

continued

are

was

of those

mass

so

natural

of

another,

or

science, grammar,
and

which

names

worked

speciallyin

information,
attached

themselves

almost

"

never

So

period
and
So

of

turned

moved
much
and

to

do

we

far
the

no

old

this

or

find

the

"

as

ophers,"
philos-

schools,and
"

History of

connected,

are

record.

as

that

that

that

one

of

knowledge
of

the

Greeks

track

the

powerfully,during these

which

the

it found

the

among

formation

any

problems

elaboration,did

of

treatment

along the
more

in the

to

department ; or it may be personal

importance to philosophy, as that they
or

theoretical

as

results

associates

or

schematic

this

but

reckoned

are

Philosophy," only literary-historical

notices

they

is

philology,literary

comprehensive

schools

in the

antiquity stand, it

they always
metaphysics. So it happens that
far as the theoretical principlesof
tion
extremely small, while investiga-

to

production,

were

school

one

indifferent

of later

savants

earlier
and

new

was

ceptions.
original con-

concerned, this

hither

already

teachers,

thither,

and

laid down.

centuries

of

ation
appropri-

practical significanceof philosophy

Hellenutic-Roman

unfold

itself.

Tlie

need

human

life,of

such

its

individual

in

Thus

his

in the
and

after him

had

begun,

This

the

did

exclude

this

original interest
in

only

i.e. that

view,

they

were

of

about,

key

to

work

gain

to

their

in

practical conviction, and

types
With

this

fact that
of

of the

mingling

predominance

the

civilisation,which
into

entrance
in

the

this

the

airs

of

and

tance
great impor-

throughout

systems

the

as

end

other

in

hand,
the

only

fundamental

the

no

developed
real

the

life; on

with

met

the

by

their

old

practical

Stoic

and

the

always in the fundamental

istic
they are all of them character-

problems.
importance
practi(!al

of

philosophy
already

circle

of

upon

with

general

the
the

the

is connected
movement

made

Sophists

its

became
investigation,

disinterested

and
period a permanent phenomenon,
phidecisivelyin the changing attitude of this losophy

most

toward

ever

doctrines

Hellenistic-Eoman

appears

The

of

had

quiet

Sophistic thought,

lies

far

so

of

dependence

Socrates,

the

doctrines

theoretical

rowing
nar-

conceptions of Greek philosophy,

The
basis for their practicalideal.

with

theoretical

the

which

consequently

of

by

problem
and

hand, they

were

conditioned

and

succeeding period.

and

conduct

comprehensive

only

of

determined

were

originality,they

such

Even

Greeks,

one

sake,

for the

shifted

Neo-Platonic
order

wisdom

the

ever

himself.

upon

the

assuming

on

own

which

lacking

thoughts.
in

their

in

traditions

from

sank

devotion,

fundamental

theoretical

general

period ; but,

directions

the

of the

structure

crumbling political
back

schools

Cyrenaic

contests

for

people

philosophicalproblem

character

general

sharply championed
during

and

of

happiness of

the
of

that

ends

ideal

awakened

thrown

of lifebecame

of the

Cynic

not

felt

the

the

the

the

longer

followed

statement

is the

religion of

life

of

z,% the

urgent

tradition,as

inner

philosophy which

the

of

the

doctrine

guarantee

more

independence, no

the conduct

for

wisdom

become

external

an

of

life,robbed
the

to

more

should

as

pieces,as

life fell in

and

more

but

scientific

wisdom

the individual,could
of Greek

of

157

Philosophy.

religion.
which

more

Greek

philosophy
sharply pronounced opposition to

development

people into which

the specialtask
of

it

had

that

come,

wisdom

post-Aristotelianphilosophy sought,
religiousfaith.

The

cultured

was

world,

taken,

the

religion

with

brought
for the

had

it

conduct
to

which

find
had

afforded

life which

the

compensation for
lost
that

that of individual

wisdom

for

morality, and

the

the

conduct

of

the
that

and was
obliged to give up
by religion,
it
in
also,sought
philosophy. As a result,the point of

Hellenistic-Eoman

of

result

the

of

the

and

life

philosophy which

was

the
of

support
the

view

state

of

the

primarily
busied

itself

Philosophy.

Hellenistic-Roman

158

[Part

II.

The
had, consequently, a thoroughly etldcal stamp.
ethics
to
individualistic
of
this
of
the
religion
opposition
sharpness
But
in
the
the
other
most
Epicureans.
clearlyamong
appears
have
doctrines
of
the
the
a
purely ethical,or
deity
schools, also,
is
that
theoretical
but
none
specifically
religious.
interest,
perhaps a
its
This essentiallyethical development of philosophy reached
with

this

indeed, in Athens, which, amid all

completion in Greece, especially,
and
the
westward, formed .for
spread of Greek culture eastward
centuries

and

the

centre

for

erudite

scientific

of

But

soon

Rhodes,

in

in the
in

Pergamum,

Antioch

centres

new

investigation,arose

detailed
in

museums,

life.

ticularly
par-

ries
great libra-

Alexandria,

in

Byzantium. Of these,
Alexandria
became
especially
important,where not only did elaborative erudition
experience so typical a development, that the entire
direction
of this period is generally called
in
literary-historical
accordance
with
it,but where, also, the philosophicaldirection of
in

Tarsus,

Rome,

and

later,in

and

"

"

the

time

For
that

time

as

went

midst

in the

dissatisfaction

of all the

offered

huge empire
into

of

change.

philosophy could

on

deep feeling

world

its decided

experienced

the

to

glory

peoples

for

ancient
after

draught

peoples

different
had

they

thirsted

this

became

cults

brought

mixed

Into

the

peoples,and
the

became

from

'

with

that

of the

"

outer

nor

become

religion. So

and

the

national
tune.
for-

insipidto
they groped
individual

religionsof

the

Orient

Occident.
the

of

life,

cultured

could

"

It

the

drawn,

more

satisfythe

not

presentation of its ethical ideal

the

worth
had

This

together

their

religiouspractices which

them,

it could

earth

of

to

ancient

welded

loss

inner

the

Empire.

it had
the

after

philosophy was

movement

clear

and

with

those

life of

indifferent

seized

Roman

which

no

The

had

of the

mighty unit,
compensation
it
neither
granted them
independence;
a

remain

not

which

not

more

by

man

for

secure

it
the
him

followed then
in Alexandria
promised happiness.
at first,
the mingling, surging flood of religious
ideas emptied itself
which
build
now
scientific
philosophy,
sought to
a
up
upon
"

that

into

basis,not only

employed

an

ethical conviction,but

religionas

ophy
Philos-

well.

the

conceptions of Greek science to clarifyand put

in order
of
religious ideas, to give to the importunate demand
religiousfeelingan idea of the world that should be satisfactory
to

it,and

so

less intimate

created

the systems of religiousmetaphysics, in

connection

with

more

the

or

contending religions.
Accordingly,in the Hellenistic-Roman philosophythere are two
distinct periods to be distinguished,
the ethical and
the religious.
The
last century e.g. is to be designated as the time" in which
the
one
graduallypassed over into the other.
"

CHAPTER

I.

ETHICAL

PERIOD.

THE

The

schools

two

and

Academic
which

of

the

learned

great

the

into

that

conternporary

metaphysics

had

predominated,

for

moralising

Academy

"

popular
and

phrastus,

after
of

re-shaping

phrastus

its

played
school

against

domain,
cus

the

only

and

gave

the

the

chief
The

fourth

they

and

century,
formulated
life

namely,

the

Citium

and

with

Stoic

first
in

third

head,

more

scientific
made

owed

the

clearness

and

and
more

Chrysippus,
course.

the

their
of

the

both

their

ethical

Androni-

by
his

of

in

they

of
the

works

in

injured

great

teaching.
formed

toward

their

the

the
of

end
the

to

success

impressiveness

iroLKiXrj by

Sroa
in

his

time

and
than

Cynicism

to

succeeded

Epicurus,

Hedonistic

found

itself

upon

toward

time

the

the

likeness
who

drian
Alexan-

ing
workof

fact

the
that

practical

dom
wis-

one-sidedness

Epicurean.
in

had,

the

interpretations

and

founded

tendency

and

natural

system

especially

Theo-

as

to

philosophy

however,

were

the

Cyprus,

Cleanthes,

which

which

in

of

Peripatetics.

were,

which

founded

was

later

the

well
and

the

and

associates

as

reproduction

excerpts,

Lyceum

schools

two

of

The

commentaries,
of

zealous

Theo-

especially

Aristotelian

the

indeed,

the

share

in

others,

period

but

defending

of

the
of

for

occupation

the

of

edition

new

Academy

by

r51e

attacks

stimulus

new

Paraphrases,
the

conservative

But

the

next

development

philosophy

workers.

of

the

studies

great

of

history

industrious

most

had

the

others,

literary-historical

to

the

to

and

philosophy

Lyceum,

metaphysics,

Peripatetics

and

erudition,

in

the

fast

Aristoxenus,

turned
the

In

held

Strata,

Diccearchus,

Later,

101).

p.

time

Pythagoreanising

room

the

the

generation

"

Aristotelian

himself,

science.

them

him,

the

Theoprastus,

(ef.

first

the

made

of

ethical

Aristotle

this

philosophy,

tendency

branches,
in

with

Attic

the

two

While

investigation.

of

masters

followed

Peripatetic,

science

separated

and

the

on

in
the

principle,
159

turning
contrary,
in

Zeno,
in

that

in
the

the

of

his

time

school

founded

refined,

native

and

of
cessor,
suc-

of

its

into
a

society

intellect-

Philosophy.

Hellenistic-Roman

160

vitality. While

scientific

with

connected

world

and

established,
these

it,as

were

to

more

sciences

philosophy.

in

as

by

interesting manner

only

in

the

of

heads

of

case

the

by

Empire

they

were

and

Stoa

the

the

of

for the

the

with

the

decidedly

in

the

special

presented in

been

for

an

centuries,
in various

university; but

great gaps,
the

while

sion
succes-

tradition

in the

first

the

tury
cen-

time.

that

and

can

ofE with

other

each

with

contended

schools
third

of

sort

breaks

after

soon

four

during

fashion

liveliest

Lyceum

well

still maintained

traced;

be

Epicureans

the

these

however,
first,

only

here

school

its

of

through antiquity

in Athens

side

there

formed

and

Academy,

B.C., and
At

side

instruction,and

of

chairs

continued

of the

time

in the

and

schools

four

These

of

poet, Lucretius.

Roman

the

have

Its doctrines

view

remained

world, the school

especiallyin the Roman
the others, as
than
unfruitful scientifically

and

to

won

the

continued

were

11.

slight degree

adherents

numerous

principlethen

social-ethical

developed only

but

form, its centre,

ualised

[^ akt

centuries

second

in

b.c, and

especiallyin ethical questions,and in metaphysical,physical,

with
the ethical,
far as connected
and logical questions only in so
another.^
the palm from
one
that they sought to bear away
But, moving along side by side with the dogmatic doctrines during
it

was

the

whole

period

another

was

tendency, which,

like

Epicurean philosophy,originated in the teaching

namely. Scepticism. It did not, indeed, take on
association

in

form,

and

school, but it,too,

found

an

Stoic

the

Sophists:

of
the

form

brought togetherinto

was

Such

ethical culmination.

and

the

of

an

atic
system-

concentration,

spiritof the times, of the negative results of the

achieved
doctrines
by Pyrrho, whose
teaching of the Sophists,was
This
forth
set
Sophistical scepticism had the
by Timon.
were
triumph of obtaining possessionof Plato's grove for a time ; for,if
the Middle
Academy did not make this doctrine fullyits own, it made
ethics.
and
for combating Stoicism
it a weapon
grounding its own
the two
In this phase of the development of the Academy
appear
with

in accord

heads

of the

about

the

school,Arcesilaus
In

century.

after

Scepticism,this doctrine

time,

met

and

of
is

the

doctrines

preserved in

Cicero

Agrippa

in his

with

the

of

works

Carneades,
when

are

the

to

who

separatedby
again rejected

were

the

Academy
sympathy principallyamong

with

whom,

empirical physicians,among
u^nesidemus

and

be

even

at

end

mentioned.

Sceptics,made

of Sextus

the

A
at

of

this

the

period,

tion
complete collecmuch

later

time,

Empiricus.

philosophical dialoguesgives vivid pictures of

dextrous
of the original sources.
use

these

school

troversies,
con-

of
deeper significance

the

But

the
to expression

fundamental

civilisation

entire ancient

at variance

of mind

frame

civilisation ; and

that

found

only

as

of

in

of the

the

'great

mind

ideal

of

the

the

that

which

seized

true

lack

form

161

Scepticism was
once

the

half

in

schools

of the

this

it had

same

another

Period.

frame

with

the

second

in the

develop

Ethical

The

1.]

Chap.

spiritof

of

the

brought

seized

of

the

Greece,

and

import

"

of

content

decided
which

tion
convic-

began

With

century.

relations

had

*hat

Eclecticism

second

it

the

life of

the

to

sion
exten-

Roman

disappeared,polemic was
Empire, the school-spirit
crippled,and the
made
itself felt instead.
The
need of adjustment and fusion
teleologicalview

of

the

world, especially,formed

Platonism, Aristotelianism, and

Stoicism

the

could

oppositionagainst Epicureanism.
such a fusion,toward
The tendency toward
Stoic

in the

all sides

on

them

had

Larissa
of

the

Aristotle

which

the

case

of

which,

attempt, through
those

awoke

the

Stoa

elements.

In

after

of

doctrine

scepticalepisode

devoid

more

employed

of

taking

in

piecing together,from

view, the different

was

the

common

supporters in Pance-

Aristotelian

in

the

Antiochus,

Philo

ment
developto

in which

doctrines

uhite
Plato

fore,
but not, thereprinciples,
that

significanthistorically,was

Romans
in

consisted

of

agree.

less

the

Academy,

the

important,because
the

the

the

disunited, upon

so

ef"cient

and

New

in

agree

which

upon

syncretism,first

Platonic

end

an

school, made

philosophy,then
Less

stood

made

its most

supplemented

by borrowing

oppositionto

and

found

Posidonius, who

and

tius

school, and

basis

with

school

systems

Cicero, Varro,

which
in

and

of eclecticism

philosophy. This
essentiallypracticalpoint of
their approval. This
met
up

an

sort

Greek

part

with

the

school

of

the

Sextians.
himself Is primarily
(about 370-287), a somewhat
friend
of Aristotle, who
great
through his teachings and writings won
younger
for
the
school.
his
Of
works, the botanical, also a fragment of the
regard
tion,
Metaphysics, extracts from his Characters, from the treatise concerning percepisolated
from
his history of physics, and
some
fragments are preserved
(edited by F. Wimmer,
Breslau, 1842-62).
Of the

to be

School

Peripatetic

(the Lyceum),

noticed, Theopbrastus

the

co-founder

in Lesbos

of Erebus

who
of Tarentum,
of Rhodes,
Aristoxenua
der
by
Musik, German
theoretically (Elemente
learned
R. Westphal, Leips. 1883),Dicaearchus
of Messina,
polyhistor who
a
of Lampsacus,
civilisation
wrote
a history of Grecian
'EXXiiSos),and Strato
(/Sios
With

studied

who

was

Among
Lembus

him

music

head
the

(in

appear

EudemuB

historicallyand

of the

school

(287-269).

Peripateticdoxographers, Hermippus, Sotion, Satyrus, Heracleides

the

second

century

b.c),

and

among

the

later

commentators,

mentioned.
Aphrodisias (about
Athens)
in iEolia
The
of Pitane
Middle
(about
begins with Arcesilaus
Academy
recorded
315-241),whose
teachings were
by his pupil Lacydes, and ends with
ing
Nothdied 110.
Carneades
Clitomachus, who
(in Rome, 155) and his successor
remains
of their writings. The
beside
Laertius,
cipally
prinsources
Diogenes
are,
and
Cicero
Sextus Empiricus.
Alexander

of

200

a.d.

in

are

to be

Thought : Ethical

Hellenistic-Roman

162
Just

indirect

as

and

Academy.

general

of

Philo

Larissa

in

is

its character
still in

was

Period.

knowledge

our

in 87.

Rome

[Part ii.

His

of

the

New

Antiosuccessor,
the supporters
of

in Athens
in 78.
To
by Cicero
others
first,essentially ethical form
belong among
who
inclined strongly to Stoicism
Arius
(in the time of Augustus),
Didymus,
of the works
and
prepared an edition
of
(under Tiberius), who
Thrasyllus
JDemocritus
and
Plato, arranged according to subjects. An extensive literature
with
Plato's works
also developed in
connected
of paraphrase and
commentary
the Academy.
of

chus

eclectic

Ascalon,

When

have

of the

this

the

descent

personality of

Thus

the
to

absorbed

tiie doctrines

founder, Zeno
Athens, and
of

His

Stoic

School,

the

Hellenistic

we

struck

are

mixed

races

by

the

of the

from
his Cyprian home
(about 340-265), came
captive by philosophy, is said to
there, taken
different

the

principal pupil was

to
hymn
writings a monotheistic
scientific head
muth, p. 25). The
308.

year

the
from

of its members

merchant

Orient.
as

in

consider

we

frequency

heard

was

Platonism

schools,

Cleanthes

of

found

to

Assos

in

his

own

Troas, from

in the

whose

preserved,

Stob.
Eel.
I. 30 (WachsChrysippus
(280-209)of
Soli or Tarsus
in Cilicia.
He
written
is said to have
an
extraordinary amount,
the titles,
but, aside from
only very unimportant fragments of his works
are
Cf.
G.
the
Bagnet
(Loewen,
preserved.
1822).
Among
literary-historical
of the Stoic School, Diogenes
of Babylon
and
savants
to be
ApoUodorus
are
mentioned

; Aristarchus

and

and

(180-110), who

Panaetius

Zeus
of

is

the

Eratosthenes
was

school

stood

was

in close

strongly influenced

by

relation
the

to the

Academic

school.

scepticism

who

maintained
with
the Roman
a close relation
statesmen,
began the synof Syrian
development of the Stoa, which was completed by Fosidonius
latter
of the
Apamea
(about 135-50). The
was
one
greatest polyhistors of
He taught in Rhodes,
antiquity, especially in the geographico-historicaldomain.
and
heard
was
whom
Cicero.
by many
Romans,
was
young
among
Concerning the Stoics of the time of the Empire, cf. the following chapter.
Sources
for the Stoic doctrines
Cicero
and
are
Diogenes Laertius, Book
VIZ., in
also
the
of
extant
the
Stoics
of the
time
of the Empire, and
the
writings
part
cretistic

discoveries

at

Herculaneum.

Tiedmann,

D.

System der stoischen

Philosophie (3 vols.,Leips. 1776) ; P.
Weygoldt, Die Philosophie der Stoa (Leips. 1883) ; P. Ogereau, Essai sur le
Systeme Philosophique des Stoieiens (Paris, 1885) ; L. Stein, Die Psychologie
der Stoa (2 vols.,Berlin, 1886-88) ; [Capes, Stoicism, Lond.
1880].
of an
Epicurus
(341-270), born in Samos, the son
Athenian
schoolmaster,
already made
before
in Lampsacus,
attempts at teaching in Mitylene and
founding in Athens, in 306, the society which
is named
after his "gardens"
horti, as also the other schools
named
after
{ktjwoi,
the places where
were
they
had

much
loved
assembled). He was
as
a
of his companionable
teacher, on account
qualities. Of his numerous
writings lightly thrown
off, the proverbs (Kipm
di^ai),three didactic letters,parts of his treatise wepi (pirem (in the discoveries
at Herculaneum),
and besides
only scattered fragments are preserved; collected
and
arranged systematically by H. Usener, Epicurea (Leips. 1887).
the great mass
of his followers, antiquity brings into prominence his
Among
closest friend
of Lampsacus
Metrodorus
of Sidon
; also Zeno
(about 150) and
Phsdrus
(about 100 b.c). Philodemus
of Gadara
in Coele-Syria has become
a
somewhat
distinct figure to us since a
more
found
part of his writings has been
at Herculaneum
{Hercitlanensium voluminum
first series, Naples,
quK
supersunt,
1793
ff. ; second, 1861
ff.); the most
valuable, Trepi a-naelaiv Kal o-nueiiiireuv (cf.
Fr. Bahusoh,
Lyck, 1879).
The
didactic poem
of Tit. Lucretius
Carus (98-54), De Natura
Merum, in six
books, has been edited by Laohmann
(Berlin, 1850) and Jac. Bernays (Leips.
1852) ; [Eng. ed. with tr. of the poem
by Munro, Lond.
1886.
Cf. Tlie Atomic
Theory of Lucretius, by J. Masson, Lond.
1884].
Further
sources
Cicero and Diogenes Laertius, in the tenth book.
are
Cf
M. Guyau, La Morale
d'Epicure (Paris,1878); P. v. Gizycki, Ueher das
Leben
und
die Moralphilosophie des Epikur
(Berlin, 1879) ; W. Wallace, Epir
eureanism
(Lond. 1880) ; [Wallace, Art. Ep. in Enc. Brit. ; W. L. Courtney,
Ep. in Hellenical.
.

Hellenistic-Boman

164

was

of

which

culminated

with

had

This

and

little

sympathy

even

Plato

both

and.
its

Aristotle

as

well

totle,
Aris-

time, of
hearts of

it found

the

as

II.

thought

the

over

power
and

Plato

Academicians,

the

that

of

schools

the

in

men,

[Part

great, viz. the

lost

had

Period.

foreign to

become

become

had

Greece

active,living state.

an

Mhical

that
glorification

through

that

morals

in which

community,

Thought :

so

Peripatetics,

happiness
foreground the question of individual
of the Academithe treatise
cian
is preserved from
What
virtue.
of Theophrastus under
Grantor, On Grief,^or from the works
the footingof a
title of Ethical
Characters, stands wholly upon

and

the

the

into

brought

that

philosophy

of life to be its essential

In

the

engaged

Attic

of

questions in

these

on

following centuries,the

in the

the

good things

object.

discussions

endless

thinkers

right appreciation of

the

esteems

of

successors

in

themselves

found

philosophy

which

the

the
an

schools

two

great

attitude

of

Both
had pursued through
schools.
oppositionto the new
the entire circuit of empirical realitythe realisation of the Idea of
idealism
with
which
Plato
in spite of all the
the
Good, and
world
of the
the
they had
senses,
especiallystrove to transcend
common

appreciate the relative value of this world's goods.

Highly as they prized virtue,they yet did not exclude the view that
the favour
of external fortune,
for the complete happiness of man
requisitealso, and they denied espehealth, prosperity, etc., are
cially
doctrine
of thev Cynics and
Stoics that virtue is not
the
only the highest (as they admitted), but also the sole good.
failed

not

to

all events,

At

life which

of

conduct

however, they

members

individual

promised

of the

laboured

too

schools

to

make

to determine

right

happy, and while

special researches,

man

pursued

the

their

schools
of the
public activity,especiallythat of the heads
of
in their polemic with
their opponents, was
directed
to the end
This
it was
that the time
man.
drawing the picture of the normal
desired
of philosophy :
Show
how
the man
be constituted
us
must
who
is sure
of his happiness, whatever
the fortune
of the world
That
this normal
be called
the able,
must
man
bring him !
may
the

"

"

the

virtuous,

and

that

knowledge,

that
he

he

can

therefore

owe

must

his
be

virtue
the

only

"wise"

to

man,

insight,to
this is

"

the

presupposition arising from the Socratic doctrine, which is

recognised as self-evident by all parties during this entire period;
therefore

and

of the

all strive

whom

man

his

to

portray

insightmakes

"

the

ideal

of

virtuous,and

"

"

Cf. F.

This

ocrates

Kayser

(Heidelberg,1841).
view
was
completely assented

Aristotelian
of the

Older

Academy.

to

the

wise

so,

happy.

man,

by Speuslppus and

i.e.

~~~

Xen-

The

1.
"

Ideal

1, " 14.]

Chap.

in this

determined

as

Epicurus.

characteristic

prominent

most

man,"

wise

of the Sage

in

the

165

conception

his wisdom
This

him.

for the

ends, find

here

conditions

the

since

But

which

but

does

who

who

he

has

no

knows

himself;

he

must

him.

upon

feelingsand desires which

of his
they are disturbances

the

is

{iraOri,
affectus). Wisdom
maintains

from

passions or emotions,
Stoic expression). To
rest
wisdom."
blessingof this

master

and

It

emotionlessness
unmoved

self
him-

the

general

him,
of

in

world

outer

he

the

must

effects

consist

life excite

therefore,

shown,

creates

himself alone.

emotions,

"

time;

free

to

effects,however,

passions.^

his

to

become

nature

own

its

toward

without

world

trouble

and

in

happiness

world

These

of

how

indifference

the

over

power

happens
ness;
happi-

not

works

wearied
un-

desirable

whatever

characteristic

find his

and

the

man

he

world

he

not

the

virtue,his

sharp expression: the overcoming of

happiness of the wise man.

it exercises

which

the

individuals,and

of

it within

overcome

and

period,is

great purposes,
external
world,

isolation

inner

The

this

his

knowledge,

portrayed, is

of

the

from

his

himself,

thus

for

man,

sake

in

rests

ideal, as

normal

the

attack

it cannot

him,

to

Sceptics are

praisingthis independence of the world as

is free, a king, a god ;
the wise man
: he

qualityof

the

period, is,therefore,imperturbability

(ataraxy, dxapa^ia). Stoics,Epicureans, a"d

in

of

in

in

man

passions

or

the

relation

is

essentiallyfreedom
is the
(apathy, oTrdOtia.,

within

self,this

one's

is the

"

The

with

terms

and

Epicurus

Aristippus

Pyrrho
took

Epicurus,^ who
pleasure

this

doctrine

made

the

It

its

satisfaction and

to

Hedonistic

principlehis

own,

nevertheless

highest good,

to

corresponds

place in the

in

is introduced

point immediately

Democritus.

and

which

as

which

the

dependence
the

school

gradual

preferred

that

designated

the

of

the

upon
formation
trans-

(cf." 7, 9)

likewise

and

of

case

permanent

the

moment.
enjoyment
The
of pleasure in gentle
Cyrenaics also had found the essence
that is still a "pleasure in motion"
motion; but
Epicurus held
;
and
the state of painless rest, free from
all wishes
(17801/^
Karao-Tijof
is
of
value.
the
and
Even
zest
ment
enjoyspirit
higher
IxariKri),
indeed
has become
lost ; the Epicurean would
gladly enjoy

frame

of

rest

"

The

time
best

"

{Affect), extending into modern

It is
of the present psychology.
"
and
the
Latin
translation
"emotions,"
animi,"
by
perturbationes
the outer
is dependent upon
will in which
states of feeling and
man

ancient

conception of the
accordingly wider

(Spinoza),is
defined

includes

all

to

passions

than

that

world.
2

As

intermediate
with

whom

links, the

Sophistic doctrine,
Epicurus heard.

younger
are

followers

named;

of

Democritus,

especially

certain

tured
strongly tincNausiphanes,

excite him
not
pleasure,but it must
cf. " 10, 5) is all
of soul {yaKrivurjxo's,
Peace
all

anxiously avoids the

Epicurus therefore
the

he

; but

wise

The

did.

accordingly,as

man

must,

soon

as

wishes

the
he

which

wants

as

be

and

virtue

satisfied is fuller.

ness
happi-

pleasure,as

for

Just

of

they
act

things.
of

compass
this

it

makes

only

which

and

requisitein the course

greater in proportion as the
not

he

this also,and

sure, understand

be

which
insight (cjipovrjcnq)

the

needs

to

finds

he

of

II.

motion.

wishes,

it becomes

will

his satisfaction

But

absence

seriously renouncing

from

far

was

he

that

in

logicalconsistencywith

recognisedthe

characterised

had

Cynics

him

set

or

[Part

it,i.e. the passions.

threaten

which

storms

Period.

Ethical

Thought :

Hellenistic-Roman

166

reason,

possible to

pleasure and pain as determined

through the feelings,which are to be expected in a particularcase,
should
vidual
whether
far one
and how
but also decides
give place to indiwishes.
In this aspect Epicureanism distinguished three
different

the

estimate

kinds

of wants

since

it is not

the

wise

some

free

cannot

at all without

exist

himself

unavoidable,

and
{4"ixra)

natural

are

possibleto

man

of

degrees

from

their

them

so

that,

satisfaction,
even

others, again, are

only

has
and imaginary, and the wise man
artificial,
(vo/i"p),
him ; between
from
to see
through their nothingness and put them
the
the two, however
radically one-sided
(here Epicurus opposes
conventional

of

nature

Cynicism),

their

natural

Hence

the

since the
them

wise

man

the

as

he

the

aesthetic

which
in

seeks

is

the
in

that

he

in

good things

blessedness

the

joys

refinement

pervaded by wit

connected

are

of

which

wants

the

of

mind,

life,in

and

not

have

of

his

to

without

lot who

stormy

joys higher than

with passionate agitation.
in pure knowledge, but in
mental

that

sentiment

arrangement

falls

quiet enjoyment,

ground, Epicurus prized

comfortable

man,

in

which

those

indeed

possible. Complete

physicalenjoyments
But

of

mass

indispensable for existence.

them
of necessityrenounce
case
; but
giveshappiness,he will seek to satisfy

of these

all these

same

great

not

are

can

satisfaction

rejoicesin
striving.
On

right,but

far

as

lies the

intercourse

and

touched

daily living.

with
with
Thus

friends

delicacy,
wise

the

of self-enjoyment,
quiet,creates for himself the blessedness
He
and its results.
independence of the moment, of its demands
knows
what
he can
for himself,and of this he denies himself
secure
nothing ; but he is not so foolish as to be angry at fate or to lament
cannot

everything.
passiveness an enjoyment like that
and
refined,more
intellectual,
more
possess

This
of

"

2.

Pyi-rho's Hedonism

sought

to draw

the

took

the

"

ataraxy,"or

Hedonists,

but

im-

more

Uasi.

another

practicalresult

is his

from

he
as
direction,inasmuch
the scepticalteachings of

Ideal

1, " 14.]

Chap.

of the Sage

Sophists. According

the

be

it to

held

the

task

of things, in order
what

to know

and

the

know

only

of

be
the

is the

he

may

the

demand

here

which

the

had

foolish

thereby

the

suspension
and

passion

who

never

can

know

is,

and

scepticism

inference.

As

possiblewithout

knowledge
there

remains

ideas

our

result

of

He

be

must

is

edge,
knowl-

no

wise
and

action

things

and

value;

affirmed
be

into

which

to

as

assented

possible,from

withdraws

all

The

opinions.

opinion may
as

action,

proceeds, as

be

can

is

man

to

their

incorrect

nothing

finds

the

opinion

All

from

to

judgment,

himself,

and

in

him

from

imperturbability, rest

within

judgment,

action, he

for

to

of

that

action.

false

This

is not

subject.

are

knows

{Iitoxq)^

from

them

seducements

men

from

can

(Protagoras,
things, it

to

because

and that no
(di^acrta),
restrains
(aKaraXr/i/'ia),^
himself, as far
also

us

relation

that

themselves

and

put

of

action

all that

injurious actions
however,

man,

most

ing
accord-

impossible.

from

taught,

and

things

mass

the

action.

made

But

knowledge

our

is,that

possiblethe
of

at

them,

to

we

Socratic-Platonic

been

argument

is also

as

the

Socrates

had

no

from

that

these

right

right

circumstances

far

as

is

the

to

that

premise

the

these

to resist

side

but

which

the

them.^

evident

things

there

from

gain

become

of

his

relations
appropriate

to

will result

reverse

right action
Under

it has

what

that

negative

so
possible,

man's

expect

If, however,

success

knowledge,

wise

establish

determined

there, from

to

to

167

disciple,
Timon, he
investigatethe constitution

to

into
feelings{iraOyj)

Aristippus).
cannot

exposition of

science

constitution

true

states

what

of

Pyrrho's theory

to

the

to

Pyrrho, Stoics.

preserves

himself, ataraxy.
This

is the

world,

and

Sceptical virtue,which

it finds

relations

himself, must
according
3.
man

its limit

in

which

act, and

to that

formed

the

Stoics.

professed quite fullythe Cynic

outer
world, and the self-control
stamped
1

be
to

upon

Euseb.

in exact

do, then,

their

Prcep.

Ev.

coincidence
if there

is

ethics

XIV.

no

fact

that

the

wise

him,

At

beginning,to

as

an

The

knowledge

The

Sceptics were

called

term, characteristic

also

the

for them.

toward

virtuous

doptrine
tendency of the

of

wise

goods

in

they

sure,
of

the

remained

man

; but

is shown

asks,

act

world

the

feature

; it

to

tradition.

to

be

all

Pyrrho

time

within
than

overcoming

ineradicable

"

they

hy this

What

are

to
we

"

An
expression which
was
probably formed
conception of /coT-dXT/f
is ; cf. " 17.
"

according

of

the

theless,
never-

are,

for him

the

from

man

there

process

of the

to this

man,

and

free

withdrawn

else remains

indifference

also

18, 2.

with

in the

to

appears

the

by

to

nothing

deeper conception of

was

aims

the

-even

when

which

only

also

in the

polemic against

i/pexTLKol
[" Suspenders"]

with

the

Stoic

reference

168

Thought

Hellenistic-Roman
dulled

soon

the

of

edge

penetratingpsychology

of

the

Period.

life,which

impulsive
They emphasise,

[Part

the

of

naturalism

radical

the

Ethical

II.

Cynics by

shows

strong

still

than

more
the
dependence upon Aristotle.
individual
of
the
the unity and independence
soul, as contrasted
Stagirite,
a
nd
with
and
with its particularstates
activities,
them,
so,
determinative
a
principle. The
leadingpersonality first becomes

only

of the

governing part

or

power,

individual

sensation,but

in

organs

the

and

form

true

nature,

its contents
reason

itself

allows

of

the

Nature

and

defend

himself

absence

man

those

dependent

personality

cannot

hinder

may,
latter

Hence

and

ness
conscious-

violence of
and

nature

own

not

of

with

wise

reason.

remains

fate from

for

his
the

the

the

is the

world

is his
assent

our

; if

hold
with-

we

itself.

If

pleasure and

former

not

as

consciousness

proud

does

virtue

give

things

him

of the
; he

reason

immovable, restingupon

preparing

evil,keep

an

of

cannot

presence

of

power

course

if he

man,

feelingin

the

the

upon

nevertheless, by esteeming
as

the

excitations

his assent

it,our

the

its

measure,

passions or emotions,
(awdOaa). His overcoming of
own
impulses. It is not until we

of his

become

he

apprehend

its proper

to

become

to

of emotions

we

like

to reason.^

them

them

overcoming
that

from

deny

allow

not

unity, is, according

'

activities

is to

in which
(i/oCs)
; the states, therefore,
to be hurried
by the
along to assent

contrary

will

vocation

the

its assent

by

feelings into

the

whose

which

of

not

of passion (TraOrj)
and
ease
dis(affectus)
are, then, those
soul; they are
perturbations of the soul, contrary to

states

world,

as

contradict,in

excitement
These

consciousness,

This

will.

of

excitations

the

that

also

excitations

transforms
(oTjyicaTa^etrw)
of

of

perceptions out

makes

which

that

is, for them,

(t6 rjye.fx.oviK6v)
,

soul

pain,
good, and
his

of

self-

sufficiency.
in

Hence,
other

hand, vice, which

passions,
regarded
1

This

is the

assent,

Diog.

sole

in

as

; in the
time
same

the

virtue
itself,

to

the

Laert.

consists

Stoics the

in the

evil,and

all

control

other

themselves

indifferent

be

according to

of

case

is for the

sure,

even

passion, therefore, upon

act of the
VII.

110:

will which
t4

TrdSos

is bound
"

r;

sole
of

things

good, and
the

reason

the

Stoics,rests

false judgment,
up

with

the

the

by

the

relations

and

.' But
{aSia."f"opa)

on

in

the
upon
but it is

judgment.

S,\oyos Kal wapi. "pv(n.v ^wx^s

are

their

ment
judgyet at

Cf. " 17.

/((vTjffis
7

opiiT) irXeoKdfoiiira.The
psychological theory of the emotions
developed
was
especiallyby Chrysippus. Zeno distinguished,
fundamental
as
forms, pleasure
and
As
pain, desire and fear.
the
later Stoics
principles of division
among
there seem
been
to have
used, partly characteristics of the ideas and judgments
which
call out the emotion, and partly the characteristics
of the states of feeling
and will which proceed from
it. Cf. Diog. Laert. VII. Ill ff. Stob. Eel. II. 174 f.
;
3
life in this division,they came
By reckoning even
to their well-known

defence

or

commendation

Seneca, Ep. 12, 10.

of

suicide

(iiayayif). Cf. Diog.

Laert.

VII.

130;

Ideal

1, " 14.J

Chap.

moderate

goods they

doctrine of

of the Sage
the

Stoics.

rigour of

169

this

principleby the
which
is to be rejected{-npo-rfyand
d7ro7rpoi7y;u.eVa).
Strongly as they emp^sised in this connection
iniva
that the worth
which
(d^t'a)
belongs to the desirable is to be
from
the Good
of Virtue, which
is a good in
distinguishedstrictly
distinction of

the

resulted

there yet
itself,

at least

sidedness,an
life.. For
seemed

which

individual

and

theory had

the

between

mean

thus

were

in

these

As

in

Stoicism

the

which
the

abrupt
it

so

said

at the

fool

soundness

of

reason,

possesses

with

this

be

lost ; if he

of

the

his

against

which

this

thus

first

rejectedalike,the
fools there

always

were

departure from
fools there
and
'

The

in

was

the

of

made

of

removal

of

foolish

the

possesses

force

makes

of

of

stood

all

upon
itself

virtue, and

thus

between

the

to

the

Pharisaic
But

fools

over

to

as

be

these

among

regard
wise

men

mations
decla-

in many

that

with

nicates
commu-

perfect

as

with

differences

he

circumstances

self-consciousness.

presented

and

happy,

his soul

sinners,and

looked

and

particularvirtues
alone

men

in

passions, then

his

disease

of

man,

entirely,and

sages

baseness

the

wise

few
and

get

between

universally

plaything

to

to

their
and

men

is progreswho
sive
conception of the man
improvement
(irpoKoirTov)The, Stoics,indeed
the

Stoics also made

development

be

means

passion. According

fools

noticeable

able

and

gratifies its

ideal

inserted
state

is

the

consideration

lutely
abso-

could

later

virtuous

man

this radical

opinion, which

better

the

possession,which

the

The

ally
Cynic element, gradu-

individual

all the

of

lamented

he

action

mass

which

(c^aCXot,
jncopoi).The

this,he

entire

the

self-sufficient

the
rejected,

that

was

controls

lacks

against the great

pessimism

beginning

which

this

hand,

modification,by

If

Stoics,therefore,

they

like

ground.

passions, and

own

itself to

over

and

it

Cynic paradoxical

speak,

to

so

fools

virtue

one

time,

of his

view

with

same

cannot

the

of

beginning,is wise and

is just as
entirelyand
middle

no

and,

the

vicious

other

the

is to be

pedagogically,in

at

that

reason

together again.

in

of

morality.

see

may

usable

the

is

and

we

which

sinful ; there

the

what

to

viable

more

and

everything the

at

and

whatever

so

contrast

wise

was

knit

more

one-

in the hindrances

the

ultimately only

more

world,

it became

virtuous

which

distinctions,by repression

made
on

relation

no

and

is desirable

what

the

on

Cynic

good things

the

between

world,

more

survived
indifferent,

brought

threads

of the

course

the

rejectedconsisted

virtue,the

the

to

for

Good, and,

be

to

of

valued

was

the

was

for

cut,

this,in opposition

further

to

it prepares

from

that

desirable

which

of that

and

secondary appreciation

the

since

adapted

demerit

desirable

the

of their

Platonic
doctrine

cardinal
of the

virtues

virtues.

the

Stob.

basis
Eel.

for

their

II. 102

ff.

tematic
sys-

fast

held

of

this process
into

different

the

investigatedand

were

apathy
certainty,!
in

were

the

of

these

wisdom,

nowhere

sought

the

only pleasure.

In

the

of
and

find, as

we

the

highest good

the

the

withdrawal

ultimatelyan
other

individual

to

wise

the

in

man's

and

mark
the

among
such

itive
pos-

Epicureanism

sharpest

form

the

happiness.

For

the

soul,

of

peace

the

as

desired
and

hand,

his

hidden

from
last

followers,at

they lacked, indeed, that spiritedjoy of the

which
Aristippus had exalted the enjoyment
the joys of the body to be the
end,
supreme
that

already mentioned,

in

doctrine

their

hlasi,critically
appreciativeepicurism of

is declared

man,

sureness

this

and

moment

full

the

on

never

see,

world, is,for Epicurus

with

nature

sensuous

can

expressed

interest

of

of

storms

we

as

which

ethical

positive content

life ;

of

consistently enough

"

direction

of

restriction

the

far

Scepticism,so
supplementation
it in

(ttpokottij)

highest stage,

regarded
epigones in common
so
valuably supplemented as

Greek

was

ideal

Stoic

in the

characteristic

this which

Stoics.

yet

with

in

essential

of

as

turn

rigorous boundary lines

the

done,

was

entrance

sudden

progress

spite of these practical concessions,

individual
-personalitywithin itself remained

Yet

4.

not

the
a

the

designated

place from

effaced.

measure

some

of

stages
was

this

when

"

ethical

attained, but

is indeed

in which
and

state

that

from

rather

[Part II.

takes

virtue,and

true

perfectionresults

of

when

But

about.

to

Period.

transition

gradual

no

improvement

condition

the

that

view

the

to

Ethical

Thought :

Hellenistic-Boman

170

be

to

the

of

content

the

ethical

the

of
the

life.

vated
cultiTo

be

psycho-geneticexplanation Epicurus reduced all pleasure

exception,to that of the senses, or, as they said later,to
the flesh ;
but, combating the Cyrenaics,he declared^ that

sure, in his
without

of

that

just these derivative

superior to those of
the

individual, upon

hinges, is

much

material

of

other

and

contented
this

is the

by

75,
2

and

surer

Cf.

the

The

gifts of fortune,

but

is

account

the

body depend

what

is afforded

noble

men,

wants, of

mind

freed

^he

the

fortune.

wise

mental

of

master

friendship of

of

change

man

the

more

possession of

the

cultured

much

of

free from

sure

reiined

joys

art, by the intimate

and

therefore

enjoyments.

riches, and

the

joys of the mind were far

the senses.
He
recognised very properly that
whose
independence of the outer world all

and

man,

The

the

highest good

(probably

with

regard

for

on

health,

by

science

calm, self-

passions,
"

or

wholly

touched
un-

self-enjoymentof
the

Chrysippus)

to

the

from

almost

aesthetic

hence

by

than

Epicureans.
in

Seneca,

Up.

8 ff.
Athen.

Contr.

XII.

546

Epic. Orat. 4,

(Us.
1088

409) ; Plut.
(Us. Fr. 429).

Fr.

Ad.

Col.
a

27, 1122 (Us. Fr. 411) ; id.

Djog. Laert. X. 137.

sense.^

double

the

On

(cf. " 16), the

morality is his subordination
far

as

obedience

God

of

virtue

to

their action

and

beings

within

the

divine

him

upon

law,

well

as

ordination
sub-

as

the

through

The

other

against

master, and

own

deity,

as

Providence.

of

over

as

vidual
indi-

senses,

ought

within

self,
him-

rest

universal

something

obligation to

under

'

rule

the

and

his

Stoic doctrine

the

the

to

his

himself,

thus

appears

Nature,

dience
willingobenecessity,and in so

Nature,

eternal

to the

perfect individual,who,

the

to withdraw

and

world-purpose

the

of

designated in

is

to

universal

meant

law

the

to

world,

of the

course

this World-reason

it is also

[Part II.

the

power,

ends

the

is

hand

one

Period.

world-thought acting according to

Ao'yos;and agreeably to this meaning, man's

creative, cosmic

to

Ethical

Thought :

Hellenistic-Boman

172

and

all-ruling.
according

since

Nevertheless,
fioviKov, the

life-unityof

this

World-reason,

be

divine
also

that
of

nature

that

which

is
and

man;

the

reasonableness

the

specialmeaning,

essence.

that
ideal
that

the

virtuous

of
But

in every

with

must

as

well

in

the

Nature
the

to

general

more

in like

the

for

measure

inmost

command
of his

germ

has

to

change

of

whatever

their

the

is

reason

of the

doctrine,as

Cf.

Diog.
the

ultimatelythe

has

And
"

Nature,

Greeks

welcome

to the

life

Stoics

was

life in

of

strength

found

thus

conviction

each

individual

own

complete harmony

true

particular terms
that

"

to
this

ought,"
to

their

demand

among

Thus

his

its

the

this,
with

character.

cal
philosophi-

for the iron statesmen

the

in

thought,

which
this

the

the

subject himself

in

wise

Stoics

thought

life according to Nature

which
duty (Ka6JJKov)

he

inclinations.

life,as

fundamental

same,

to which

the

to

everywhere

This

preserve

of the

became

this

with
also in

all,as

of

sense

and

genuine, complete humanity

unfolding

and

essential

republicanRome.

expression

meet

part of

nature,

the
by fulfilling

doctrinairism
political

law

human

is valid

that

man

formulation

to

to

ijyt-

consubstantial

Uniting these two points of view, it seemed

a
of
rationallyguided consistencyin the conduct
of wisdom, and
task
of
they found the supreme

himself^
The

with

the

conception

conformity

life in

this, too,

which

to its

brings

person

the

adapted

morality coincides

soul, is

human

the

Stoic

the

to

man

and
has

oppositionto

itself

gave
was

according
to

a
fulfil,

his sensuous

this strict consciousness

feelingof responsibility,
recognition of a higher order, gives to their

this

life,backbone

also,for
Stoics

and

marrow.

life

in the

according to duty, we occasionally

one-sided
form, that the ethical con-

Laert.

VII. 87.
formulas
ifjaKoyovnivm
same

meaning.

Stob.

tj? 0i)(r" ^v

Eel. II. 132.

and

l^v
inoXoyov/jiivas

have

Ideal of the

1, " 14.]

Chap.

and
opposites,

declares

all

and

not

commanded

is not

and
from
(dStai^Ojooi/),
which

valuable

created

this

regarded

be

consists

proper

the

in

only

moral

Stoics

in

yet,

will

introduced

was

absolute

as

and

"

valuation

to the

of human

different
"^

of

in the
of

basis

to the

broader

the

latter

the

oppositeof

evinced

case^

in

from

of

that

sometimes

valuable

in

of

contribution

all his

that

conduct,

is

with

"

to

there

regard

on

fulfil the

what
some-

demand

is

Good.

duty

mand
dein

Only

{KaTopOuifw.)
,

contrary to duty, as
the Stoics, proceeding

action, and

and

profound

upon

considerations

and

to

fulfil the

as

the
of

entered

the

baseness

distinguished
made

such

to do

to

will

human

is

able
desir-

goods,

hand,

which

fulfilment

duty,

of

was

of

Good

which

were

Thus
(afnapT-qfrn)

consciousness

theory

the

"befitting,"conformable

intention

intention

sin

of the

that

other

actions

perfect

is the
"

most

man

the

action,

values

their

as

is there

ethical

the

called

are

in actual

though

gradation

"

study, extending

the

also

and
{KaB-riKovTa.)

sense

which

an

the

earnest

those

these

"

than

quences,
conse-

bidden,
unconditionally for-

actions,a distinction

solelyfrom

reason

is

duties, which
So, on

between

externally

reason

duty

intermediate."

lax

only

; and

avoid

to

like, gradation of

if

even

which

seek

yet

What

secondary degree, the

that

rejected." Thus, corresponding

be

drew

in words

For

the

aaorally indifferent

sometimes
more

links.

willing

man

remains

ethicallyadvisable

as

grounds, forbids

systematic development

intermediate

173

ethicallyindifferent.

defended

unconditionallycommanded,
must

be

to

the

the

here, too,

rational

on

forbidden,

they perhaps

But

intention.

else

Epicureans,Stoics.

things

requires some

sciousness

Sage

casuistry,

of
we

regard

may

universallyapplied thought,
inner, is responsibleto a

and

outer

higher command.
6.

The

exists
of

great difference

between
and

deep

manifest

in

this,to
the

be

the

certain

Saa

For

the

the
as

both

are

wise

little

even

own

the

at

ethical

the

he

as

contrast

even

the

enjoyment or
Stoics,especiallythe

and

and

VII.

by
morality ;

the

to verbal

to

these

avoid

fulfilment
later

In

state.

in

agreement

37

of

in

the

interest,
In

duty.

Stoics, dissuaded

this
from

108.
has

made

customary

the

Stoics

Kant

the

Latin

distinguishes according

honestum.

Poet.U,

clearly

most

of his virtue,
self-sufB.ciency
that in
any other society; yes,

needs

should

alluded

number

in the

of

here

life which

Stoics,in spite of

almost

one

X670S oipefiroieiv;Diog. Laert.

the

the

and

man,

circumstances,he

expressions legality
precedent, rectum
Epic, in Plut. Be Aud.

Cicero's
"

they

that

state

either of his
sense,

Epicureans

of

qualities,becomes
far-reachingcommon
of
of society and
their respectivetheories

sure,

doctrine

needs

the

apprehension

in

(Us. Fr. 548).

to

174

Hellenistic-Roman

entrance

into

both, and

toward
wise

the

in the

only

man,

But

command

as

the

in the

itself

shows

of

of

form

every
the

of

theory

pledged, even

which

must

Stoics,human

give

way

the inner

of

bling
crum-

received

therefore
of

considerations

reduced

utility. So

was

zealously

so

find the

not

ideal

splendid exposition; *

Aristotle's

in

life

Epicurus expressly

and

men,^

among

conjunction to

it had

quite

the maxim

to

societyappeared
to
only occasionally

school
in his
friendship,which
did
to the
point of sentimentality,

which

support

the

society

social

or

for

typicalexpression.
the
two
between
conceptions of

while
personalperfection,

of

of

its

that, to

reason,

natural

all

denied

fact

task

man's

wise

in

distinction

greater

hold

in which
Xa"e. /Stcio-as,
quiet,'

society found

of ancient

advisable

appear

unavoidable,

it is

where

case

latter

general,the Epicureans

In

to live

master,

the

make

especiallyto

certain advantage.
their

II.

family life and politicalactivity;and for the

marriage and public activity
responsibilitywhich
sufleient
to justifya very
scepticalattitude
was

them

with

[Part

the

Epicureans, the
bring

Period.

Ethical

Thov^ht:

of the wise man's

enjoyment of
ultimatelyonly the motives
culture as heightened in society.*
In particular,
cally
however. Epicureanism carried through systematithe ideas already developed in Sophistic teaching concerning
the origin of the political
community from the well-weighed interest

it finds

of the individuals
has

but

been

of the

other

formation
which
that

the
of

arisen

in

compact

the

Plutarch

men

is not

state

which

are

natural

result

of

expected

and

the

as

virtue

of

in every

its

structure,

and
reflection,
received

from

particular

right or

; and

wrong

since

asserts
greater intelligence

wrote

against

this

the

extant

from

case

convention

as

is

There
o-djlk^c/dovtos).

tov

itself

intelligence."Laws,

growing

advantage (avfi.j3o\ov

common

nothing

'

The

compact

civilisation,
by

the

by

advantages
of

out

therefore,have
to

about

it.

into with
which
enter
men
{o-wd-qKr])
in order that they may
not
another,*and the
injure one
of the state is hence
of the mighty processes
one
through
human
has brought itself up from the savage
state to
race

It grows

each

formed

brought

for the sake

it.

who

in

formation

the

itself to its

treatise

advantage

own

ci
(1128 fl.),

of

itoXfis

X^erai

rd \dde
2
^

^iibaas.
Arrian, Epict. Diss.

I.

Cf.

extensive

" 13, 12.^The

characteristic

sfgn of

the

23,
time

(Us.

Fr.

525);

literature
which

found

ib. II.

on

20, 6 (523).

friendship

its chief

is

interest

in

respect
individual

this

in the

Cicero's dialogue LcbUus

personality and its relations.
duces
{De Amicitia) reproessentiallythe Peripatetic conception.
*
Diog. Laert. X. 120 (Us. Fr. 540).
s Cf.
the Kvpuu
in Diog. Laert. X.
Si|ai of Epicurus the terse sentences
among
150

f.
8

Cf.

the

descriptionin Lucretius,De

Ber.

Nat.

V. 922

ff.,

1103
especially

ff.

as

Ideal

1, " 14.]

Chap.

matter

of

that

disclose

wise
And

as

it is for

course,

is the

the

of

themselves
for

case

Sage

the

most

part

motives

as

their

Stoics.

in

and

origin

175

the

advantages

the

enaction

content,

the

of

laws.'

for

their

also

so

of

the

of pain which
amount
validityand acknowledgment,
they are
hinder
and
which
they are adapted to produce,
pleasure
adapted to
All the main
outlines
of the utilitarian theory
is the only standard.
the atomistic
of societyare logically developed by Epicurus from
that
individuals
first
exist by and
for themselves, and
assumption
enter
voluntarilyand with design into the relations of society,only
sake

for the

could

or

constituted
under

the

the

ethical

the

common

over

to the

parts

which

of the

shall

remain

of

'

is

Stob.

of

it had

as

nationalityor
that

Tu"v

"

unnoticed

of

the

of

form

which
this

sults
re-

of reason

historic

universal

state

empire.

that

the

Stoics
;

thought

primarily it

by

ingly,
accord-

Plato, knows,

thought philosophy

this

politicalpower

and

it is

Plutarch,

constructed
Alexander
But

as

the
it must

of this

was

empire only
spiritualunity

will.

Flor. 43, 139

ttoXitikHv
(pitrcL

Alex.

from

realm

historicallyprepared by
we
know, by the Romans.

as

that

comprehensible

Plut. De

in

already delineated

been

with

such

high-flyingidealism

(Us. Fr. 530).

fifJu" Stob. Ecl. II. 226 ff.
' It
to be sure,
extraordinarily difficult for the Stoics
was,
which
they were
obliged to recognise as a fact lying at the
impulse, into accord with the independence of the wise man,
by them.
2

passes

together

But

entirety.

an

a-va-Trjfm.,

forming

that

ideal

an

"

in

was

completed,

Stoics

all men,
"*

which

secondarilyas
of knowledge

task

once

as

and
(/j,"'Xos),

in

law.''

at

men

ttoXitikov

member

ideal

and

cases.

united

moral

taken

beings

polemic parallel to

bounds

and

the

of the

indeed, recognised
Great,

all rational

life,

friendship,

are

doctrine

fact

very

special

also

the

being

all its members.

state

that

Stoic

virtue

social

in

who

in action

the

this

lead

here

individuals

proving

necessary

to

reason

World-reason, gods

race

society of

rational

of

reason

have

we

living structure,

human

ideal

rational

It

of

World-reason,

exception only

virtuous

one

is

Zeno, partly in

not

of

same

embrace

no

of

relation

general, to

most

individual

The

obtain

not

already,by

as

the

by

of

purely personal relations

for the
that

could

they

man

with

command

admits

connection

great rational

every

the

employment

these

his soul

and
society,^

immediate

most

from

one

for

obligation by

As

As

Nature

by

obligation

an

"

individuals

as

protect.
Stoics,on the contrary, regarded

of
consubstantiality

of the

as

which

goods

not

The

7.

of the

M.

the

'"

6.
Fort.^I.

to

bring

basis
so

of

the

need,

the

social

baldly emphasised

176

Stoics retained
the

to take

charged

to fulfil his

order

duty

held

the

Stoa

to him.

II.

the

historical states
As

of

for any

enthusiastic

become

not

both

world, yet

individual

the

and

some

this base

in

even

state

[Part

life in
political
was
permitted and
particularstate,in

man

life of

ultimatelyindifferent

to be

could

wise

the

in the

all

to

of the

particularforms
were

part

Period.

interest for actual

weak

very

Although

sense.

proper

indeed

only a

Mhical

Thought :

Hellenistic-Roman

to the

former,

the characteristic

government, but,following the Aristotelian suggestion,held

^
rather
to a mixed
system, something such as Polybius presented
desirable
the ground of his philosophico-historical
considera^
on
as

kinds

of

tion of the necessary

transitions

To

of mankind

the

splittingup

the idea

of

It

to the

corresponded

the difference
been

idea of

between

still maintained

overcome,^ and though, in

as

they were
that
the

agitationfor

justiceand

highest duties

appliedalso
society
"

In

that

idea

to

even

the

in

overcoming
by

it the

law

of

the

of

lowest

less,
neverthe-

resulted

as

should

reason,

members

of

teaches

Stoic

highest which
of

be

of human

the

fill

to

far above

an

from

of the
the

the

belongsthe

ethical

it transcended

of

world, his dispositionin

connection

ethics
the

which

subordination

he is raised

aside

its best formulation.

the overcoming
personality,

which

him

it turned

state,to the

ripest and

himself,

of the

life,and yet, in
that

principle,
positionto enter

which

man,

the Stoics

ethical

of

realm

fact, therefore,that

of the national

of moral

means

of

of the

antiquityproduced,
by means
and pointedto the future,attained

divine

their

relations

love

and

worth

with

by

had

the slaves.

thought

glory

the

in full measure,

spite of

Greek

from

aside

set

reforms, they demanded,

the universal

men.

Barbarians,which

and

accordance

social

lowed
fol-

of the age, that

movements

Hellenes

indifferent to the outer

too

active

upon

an

was
by Aristotle,^

even

Stoics opposed

world-citizenship, which
ethical community of all

great historical

in worth

other.

"

"

their

into each

states, the

in different

cosmopolitanism,

directlyfrom

forms

of one-sided

itself

The

world

life of

sic
intrin-

in man's

individual

ideal union

the bounds

of

of his

to

spirits
earthly

with

this,the energetic feelingof duty

his place in the actual world,
vigorously
"

all these
from

than

as

the

are

the

characteristics of

scientific point of view

produced

most

from

powerful

and

conceptionsof human
1
2
8

Stoic

one

it may

was

from

its

appear

of life
rather

which, though
as

put together

principle,
presents,nevertheless,one

pregnant

creations

in

the

historyof

of
the

life.

In the extant
part of the sixth book
Arist. Pol. I. 2, 1252 b 5.
Seneca
Ep. 95, 52 ; cf. Strabo,I. 4, 9.
school

view

The

personal composition also of the

beginningdecidedlyinternational.

In

8.

of the Sage

concentrated

the

of
all

Ideal

1, " 14.]

Chap.

form

law

of

all these

eclectic attachment

in his

For,

Cicero

only

not

of

held

and

ception
con-

for

reason

jurisprudence.

all the

fast

in the

appear

conception,through Cicero,^

Roman

to

177

Nature

by

this

the

became

doctrines

life,determined

and
equally,to "^u"7"StKaiov,
formative
principleof

men

Stoics,Cicero.

great

of Attic

men

objectivelywith

all his

losophy,
phi-

energy

moral

world-order
which
a
determines
with
versal
unithought
validity the relation of rational beings to each other, but
thought also with regard to the subjectiveaspect of the question
the

to

he

in

"

this command

that

it had

of

into

grown

which

and

in

while
of

of

this

life,develop

particularthose
Cicero

proceeds

outlines

arisen

of

all human

of
to

the

human

Roman

of their

self-consciousness
But

the

rather
of

the

the

the

interweaves

the

consideration

or

institutions

historical

law

relation

domestic

the
which
to

coincide

Nature,

takes

of

in

the

self-

natural

all

change

general,
But

ideal form
his

under

on

that

naturale.

jus

standpoint

ideal,in

the

the

downfall

Eomans

hands

Cosmopolitanism, which

had

of their
the

proud

mission.

development of what the state should

investigationof what it is. Not sprung
the voluntary choice of individuals,it is
the

product of history, and therefore

law of Nature
are
mingled in the

partly as

above

morality

the

with

historical

instinct

"

in this theoretical

even

be, Cicero
from

this

state

distant

of
"

Empire.
as

their

universally valid

society,

projectfrom

Greeks

with

commands

universal

equally, and

men

caprice,and

politicalimportance, becomes

own

in all

innate

lex naturae, the

both

Stoic

the

the

among

epistemologicaltheory (" 17, 4)

was

above

politicallife,the

the

reason

is exalted

of historical

his

inseparableconnection

preservation. Out
law

with

correspondence

the

but

which

positive

in

extent

they supplement
in them

come

These

their

this

into

by

force.

principles

of its life with

latter

kinds

Both

ethical
the

content

multitude

The

recognise in

states

of

the

conceptionsthus

time reaches

full

them

the

worth

of

the

philosophicalappreciation:

historical
and

at this

of

law

of historical

important not only as constructing the skeleton for a new

science
off from
to branch
soon
philosophy ; they have
in

their

positivelaw

with

are

significancethat

develop

states, jus civile,partly as

of different

confederates

large

structures

law.

individual

of

another, jus gentium.

one

to

law

of

ever-valid

ments
ele-

formed

special
also

for the

the
first

point Cicero

into consideration
Two
of his treatises,only partly preserved, come
here,
Bepublica and De Legibus. Cf. M. Voigt, i)ieLehre iiom jus naturale, etc.
und
und
(Leips. 1856),and K. Hildenbrand, "eschichte
System der Bechts1

De

I. 523
Staatsphilosophie,
2

Cio. De

Sep. II.

ff.

1 fi.

Thought

Hellenistic-Roman

178

the

to transform

how

kne-w

Mhical

Period.
of his

greatness
political

[Part

II.

into

people

scientific creation.

Teleology.

and

" 15. Mechanism

period separ
practice of the schools in the post-Aristotelian
main
rated
divisions,
philosophical investigations into three
the
logic (the latter called canonic
ethics, physics, and
among
everywhere given to ethics,
Epicureans). The chief interest was
allowed
others
the two
and
were
importance only so
theoretically
The

"

far

action presijpposes

correct

as

of

knowledge

things, and

this in

of knowledge.
right methods
of physical and
tendencies
the
main
Hence
logical theories are
in this period by the ethical point of view,
undoubtedly determined
is easilycontented
and the practicalneed
by taking up and re-shaping
the great objects
the older teachings ; but yet in scientific work
of interest,especiallymetaphysical and
physical problems, assert
tarn

with

clearness

regard

and

their

fascinatingpower,
branches
of philosophy
with

conformity

the

the

specialsciences

alive

and

In
the

in

this

first

must

notwithstanding

developing in

often

of

ethical

the

we

that

way

trunk

these

see

other

is not

in full

which

from

they
of physics,the rich development of
the case
ultimatelykeep general principlesalways

of flux.

state

respect we notice
generations, made

first that

had

received

Peripatetic School, during

in the

main

from

principlesfor

its master.

already with Theophrastus, who

is found

all the

defended

the

noteworthy change

it
which
explainingNature
1. The
beginning of this
doubtless

so

nature

spring. Particularlyin

the

to

doctrines

of

Aristotelianism,especially

The
against the Stoics,but yet in part went his own
ways.
extant
the aporiee,
fragment of his metaphysics discusses, among
contained
in the Aristotelian
principallysuch difficulties as were
conceptions of the relation of the world to the deity. The Stagirite

conceived

had

and yet
(^cSpi/),

effect of the
the
he

world,

of

had

divine

conceived
Eeason

transcendent

immanent

was

the

it remained

other

connected

hand,

he

as
("^ijcr")

of its entire

God,

; and

it.

yet,

This

question regarding

psychical activities.
as

Form

other hand, in its

of

as

pure

being

motion

Form,

as
was

in

itself alive

(teleological)
separatedfrom

animating, first-moving power,

metaphysical problem of the
attitude
seen
by Theophrastus, though his own
fixed by the bounds
On
of Aristotle's doctrine.
shows
definite tendency in the closely
a more

in

followingperiod was
toward

Nature

The

the

voSs

animal

purity,as

as

chief

the

relation

of

to

reason

lower

the

regarded,on the one hand

soul),as immanent, inborn;

sidered
(con-

was

different in essence, and

as

on

having

the
come

the
of

Thought: Ethical Period.

Hellenistic-Roman

180

both defended
Epicurean physics. These
the immanent
explanation of Nature, but the

2.

the
its roots

as

an

of

in

and

state

principleas

of

shaping

so

experience. All
thoughts suggested

world

the

as

logos

view

forms

the

is in its fundamental

Aristotle) conscious

it,however, is

the

through

simple
be

in which

power

the

and

'"

Cf. H.

If

we

similar
shows

and

were

farther

in Strato.

attempt

purposive
of

the

Stoic

is,then,

made

was

motion

HeracUtus

of

the

was

Peripateticphilosophy
to

of itself.
seemed
and

problem,

to

this

metaphysics.'
that

the

verse
entire uni-

whole, and

that

all

cannot

the

the

overcome

opposition between
necessityand reason

and
of

by

Form.

those
this

divine

contained

in like

means

of

power,

der

the

totelian
Platonic-Aris-

be

ing
acting accord-

Stoa

all

the

out

put
to

the

things

be

attempts

this

opposing

of the

world.

primitive

the

conditioning laws
and

World-mind.

deity is the

and

sensuous

conceptions whose

measure

and

der

The

World-being

determination

formative

to

assumed

the

Umbildung
(Unters.z. Philosophie

manner

the

forms

effort

World-ground

Siebeck, Die

Stoiker

der

sure,

are

the

"

productive

ness,
great-

by a divine
is in a state
of eternal
trine
activity. Their docprinciplespantheism, and (in opposition
of
pantheism. The immediate
consequence

identification

purposeful

processes,

the

determinate

Matter

it declares

Hence

in

solution

Stoics

natural

between

characters,to

the

remove

between

supersensuous,

ends,

doctrine

point of

energetic

dualism,^ and

to

Grecian

decisive

more

single,unitary,living,connected

particularthings are
primitivepower which
to

of

the

the

living being,in

the

motives,

fundamental

in which

forward,

came

present itself as in like measure

became, therefore,the central
The

longer find

no

of this

the

of

the

Nature

all these

For

of

which

understand

morality which could

nationalityas in the period of

world

of the

with

force

most

deduction

this

out

principleas
conception
in
to
this,stood,
opposition
possible. But,
decided
disinclination
the
to regard
from
Cynicism,
and incorporealprina transcendent, supersensuous,
ciple,

therefore

inheritance

this

spokenly
out-

as

foreground stands the

pringeneral metaphysical ciple

individual

content

and

make

was

the

In

from

deducing

of

need

to

former

standpoint

mechanical.

was

elements.

different

of

union

ethical

the

also

II.

partment
position of the Stoics, iin the depeculiarlyinvolved
of metaphysical and
physical questions,resulted from

The

the

latter

the

as
teleologieal

[Part

of

all cosmic
As

actively

Aoyos tnrep/ianKo'5,

peripatetischen Naturphilosophiein
Griechen,2 Aufl., pp. 181 "f.).

die

of tiie relation of Aristotle

obliged to conceive
to Plato in a
(" 13, 1-4), just in this point the Stoic philosophy of Nature
development in the same
direction which
talces
the Peripatetic

Mechanism

1, " 15.]

Chap.

and

principle,which

the vital

Stoics.

:
Teleology

unfolds

itself

181

multitude

in the

of

ena
phenom-

peculiar,particular\6yoLo-ttcpiuitikol or formative forces.

In this organic function, God
is, however, als" the purposefully
creating and guiding Reason, and thus with regard to all particular
their

as

all-rulingProvidence

the

processes

the

particularby

the

rational

and

this

the

and
necessity{avdyKr))
,

and

preceding
its

possess

of

could

exceptions

the

form

events

that

is the

all

results

other

As
The

with
"
^

of

and

in

system

from

the

which

Platonic

thing
of

the

school

the

connected

natural

out
withof

this

universe

whole.^

Hence

causelessness

conception

in

hidden

particular

from

human

necessity,admitting of

extends

the

least

expression also
the

to

even

carried

antiquity which
Abderite

no

important

all

through

in

smallest

verbally with

even

agrees

great

virtue

the

naturallyfound

in

world

the

manner

causation

providence

closer
the

can

the

relation

natural

Stoics
to

stand

Aristotle.

necessity of
of

motive

Timseus
character

Democ-

this

most

branches

of

in
For

all that

opposition
while

in
to

comes

to

the
pass

sustain

with

individual

already taught, " 11, 10.

conception of the logos appeared clearlyeven
63, note 5).
had

in the

Heraclitus
(" 6, 2, p.
Plut. De Fato, 11, 574.
Plutarch
makes
Chrysippus

decree

in

sion
succes-

the
things,
impulses
immediately from the livingactivityof the whole, and

the

normative

meanest

place

particular and

respects,indeed,

Stoics it flows

unalterable

science.

Democritus
Atomistic

Stoic school

only

thought

theoretical

of

of

most

divine
the

"

valuable

In

the

of life,"

ritus,and

the

conviction

"

in the

emphatic

apparent

only a
assumption
for

even

occurrence,

that

for

was

inviolable

as

particulardoes

every

most

kind

this

which,

in

destiny {ufw.pii.ivri,
fatum),

purposeful,

in the

taught

mean

In

insight.*

of

of

it

Stoics, as

and
just by
(aina irpoYiyov/ji.ivrf)
,

combated

chance,

event

the

takes

Nothing

determination

and

is for

inevitable

as

effects.

character

Chrysippus

"

law

"

dominant

direct themselves

all-compellingpower
so,

cause

complete causal

the

particularphenomenon

every

causes

such

as

the

of

completely purposeful
highest norm
(vo'/xos),

beings should
activity.^

all-determining

brings forth

Stoics) is

forms

of their

Heraclitus,likewise

of

the

determination

constitutes

(which

all individual

which

development

But

of

and

order,

according to
the

universe

conviction

fundamental

{Trpovow.).The

any

say
other

( Comm.
relation

lb.

Not.
than

7, 572.
34, 5, 1076) that
that

which

not

accords

even

the

with

the

II. 65, 164.

Zeus.
Cf. Cic. De
Nat.
Dear.
Only the circumstance
that the Stoa limited
the immediate
of the divine
action
providence to the purposeful
determination
of the whole, and
this that of the particular,
derived from
dii curant, pana
of expression as the well-known
explains such modes
Magna
negligunt. Cf. " 16, 3.

as

Thought :

Hellenistic-Roman

182

Ethical

Period.

[Part

II

qualitiesto quantitativediffer
they held fast to the realityof propertiesas the peculiai
alteration (dXXotWis
of individual things, and to qualitative

ences,
forces

all

of

reduction

against the

over

their
directed
in space). They
polemic
opposition to motion
of
natura
explanation
particularlyagainst the purely mechanical
their
and impact ; but in carrying out
teleology
processes by pressure
who
had every
they sank from the great conception of Aristotle,

in

where

emphasised

which

the

Forms

which' flow

realised,to

were

the

from

to

they exaggerated,even
the

of

of Nature

of

gods

ridiculous

to

benefit!

the

meet
^

men."

and

the

In

ir

needs

ol

particular

Philistinism,the demonstratioi

and

heaven

which

in

manner

"

reason,

of

consideration

the

phenomena

with

beings endowed

the formations

purposivenessof

immanent

the

all that

and

earth

them

in

is

magnificentadaptation for man}

3. In all these theoretical
views, and just in these, the Epicureant
With
the Epicureans,employment
diametrically opposed to the Stoics.
are
with
metaphysical and physical problems had in genera;
only the negative purpose' of setting aside the religiousideas
which

through
disturbed.
from

the

such

with

arranged

are

quiet self-enjoyment of

the

it

Hence

explanation of
the

of

government

the

was

chief

Nature

of

concern

element

every

world, guided by

the

wise

Epicurus
that

universal

to

to

exclude
allow

would

ends,

b(

might

man

appear

e
as

possible; hence, on the other hand, the Epicurean view of thf

world
was
absolutelylacking in a positiveprinciple. This explains
the fact that Epicurus, at least,had
only a scepticalshrug of th(
for all questions of natural
science from
which
shoulders
no
practica
be
and
of
his
later
to
was
disciples
though many
gained ;
advantage
even

have

to

seem

the
tifically,
allow

the

less

been

of

ruts

the

attainment

conception
teleological
ground

common

to

have

school's

of

opinion
essentiallybroader

of

Nature

which

on

limited, and

formed,

thought

were

worn

aims.

in the

course

and
Academic, Peripatetic,

scien

more

too

The

deep
more

t(

th(

of

time, the

Stoic

doctrine!

in

syncretisticblending,the more
Epicureanism insisted upoi
its isolated standpoint of negation ; theoretically,
it was
essentially
and
in
this
forth
anti-teleological,
nothing positive.
respect brought
It was
successful
in
the
excres
only
combating
anthropological
the
to
which
view
of
world
the
cences
teleological
led, especially
met

Cio.

If

Diog. Laert.

De

Fin.

III.

20, 67 ; De

Nat.

Deor.

II. 53

ff.

Xenophon's Memorabilia, the Stoics had In this no lesi

than
Socrates as their predecessor; yet it seems
a man
in this account
that even
which
is tinctured
with
Stoic point o
from
the
Cynicism if not worlced
over
view
the
faith
of
Socrates in a purposeful guiding of the worli
general
(Krohn),
hy divine providence has descended
into the petty.
Cf. " 8, 8.
one

might

trust

X.

143

Us. p. 74.

Mechanism

1, " 15.]

Chap.

Stoics/

with, the

and

task

Teleology: Epicureans.

which

183

cult,
undoubtedly not so very diffibut to create
not preprinciplesa counter-theoryit was
pared.
availed
himself
for
of the
Epicurus, indeed,
"jjiis
purpose
external data of the materialistic
able to
metaphysics, as he was
a

"

"

from

receive them

Democritus

latter's scientific
far

so

-was

from

nothing

needed

all cosmic

traced

could

empty

(worlds) which

great Atomist

the

and

space

and

things

only

the

world,

corporeal particles
in form

motion, impact, and

all

and

and
he

pressure
of

systems

again perish,thereby seeking

and

arise

the

attaining the

also,for explaining

their

to

processes,

from

varied
number, infinitely

in

; and

far

was

follow

himself

than

more

indivisible

size,and

he

it,countless

within

moving

that

believe

to

as

He

height.

he

; but

to

things
deduce

qualitativedifferences from these purely quantitative relations.^

ural
conception of nataccepted, accordingly,the purely mechanical
and
but denied
expressly their unconditioned
tionless
excepprocesses,

all
He

The

necessity.
to the

over

Epicureans only

; with

of the

doctrine

regard

universal

the

to

the

far

so

much

Democritus, therefore, passed

as

deeper
in

of law

reign

above, passed to

in

of

it

and
his

Nature,

Atomism

was

and

principle

valuable

more

legacy,

as

we

ism
mechan-

have

seen

Stoics.

nected
intimately conjust this peculiar relation is most
with
the decisive
influence
and
with
the Epicurean ethics
their physics ; indeed, one
which
that exercised
say that
may
upon
the individualising tendency taken
by the ethical reflection of the
its most
adequate metaphysics just in
post-Aristotelian
age found

Meanwhile,

the

doctrine

of

the

content

the

regarded
both

of

view

of

the

world

constituents

prime
each

the

other

and

which

had

individual

and

morals,

of

independence

himself, a

upon

To

Epicurus.

of

have

must
of
a

for
his

been

its essential
withdrawal

welcome

which

ent,
realityas completely independsingle force, and regarded their

of
the doctrine
Now
solelyby themselves.'
Democritus
which
necessity of all
taught the inevitable, natural
element
that comes
to pass, contains
unmistakably a (Heraclitic)
which
this autonomy
of individual
things, and just to their
removes
the fact (of." 14, 5)
did the Stoics
owe
adoption of this element
that their ethics outgrew the one-sided
Cynic presuppositionswith
which
It is all the more
curus
comprehensible that Epithey started.
determined

activityas

let

just

this

element

Cf. especiallyLuoret.

Sext.

Thus

"world

hy

Adv.

Emp.
Epicurus
an

IV.

Math.

to

human

408,

Ber.
X.

grounded

appeal

in Zeller

De

fall away

; and

I. 1021

Nat.

; V.

his

156

conception of

Diog.

Laert.

X.

the

97.

42.

his

deviation

freedom

of

from
the

explanation of the
tions
" 16, and also the cita-

Democritus's
will.

Cf.

[Eng. tr. /Stoics,etc., p. 446].

184
world

the

latter

the

for traditions
in

Ages,
the

direction

of

and

the

set aside

of

in every

had

precisely
mined
deter-

as

whole

Nature

Atomism.

misfortune

be

to

for those

also

so

of

his Atomistic

gated
propa-

the

Middle

view, looking

reality of quantitative relations

as

the

of

conception
of

consistent

the

retained

exclusive

the

thought

respect

indeed

mechanical

his

every

the

II.

as
a
product of
regarded
likewise
originallyfunctioning individual

which

system

regarded

antiquity,and

of

[Part

individual

Democritus

of

system

Period.

is characterised

rather

he

originallyexisting and'
things. His doctrine is
Thus

Ethical

Stoa

that of the

with

contrasted

as

by this,that while
by the whole,

in

Thought

Hellenistic-Roman

cosmic

connected

but

processes,

whole, regulatedby

law.
4.
the

doctrine

In

this

Following
of

the

with

contrast

latter

origin of

what

Pythagoreans, but, at
that

in

the

centre

in

space

of

maintains
downward

by
originationof
assumed

that

lead

to

derived

It is
the

the
virtue

all

there

is

seen,

direction

other

no

atom

there

which

of

their

the

had

absolute

an

originallyin

weight.
from

of them
this

is

all

were

groups

formation

from

Atomism.'

by

perhaps by the
events, by Democritus, Plato, and Aristotle,

atoms

atoms,

the

unordered

to

From

of

grouping

to

than

that

from

"

some

line of fall.

form

new

periphery,and the reverse, he appeals to the

of knowledge,
senses,^ agreeably to his doctrine

the

that

maintained

already

been

gave

the

according

"

world

the

had

itself

toward

declaration

direction,Epicurus

But,

this

in

motion
order

universal

down,
from

of

from

and

above

the

derive

to

rain

voluntarilydeviated

deviation

and

up

atoms, he
the direct

explained the impacts,the

which
and, ultimately,the whirling motions
of

worlds,

meeting

of

were

and

which
which

atoms

the

old

moving

were

had

Atomism
about

in

an

manner.'

noteworthy, however,

inner

coherence

of

the

that

after

doctrine

he
of

had

in

spoiled

this way

Democritus,

Epicurus

nounced
re-

the

for the
voluntary choice of the atoms
a
as
means
further
of Nature, and from
explanation of the individual processes
the point when
the whirling motion
of the atom-complexes seemed
to

him

to

Ps.-Plut.

be

Plac.

d'Epic.U.
2
Diog. Laert.
'
Cf " 4, 9.
.

basis

of this

explained,allowed

idea

I. 3 ; Box.

X.
It

D.

285

only

; Cic.

the

De

principleof mechanical

Fin.

I.

6,

17 ;

Guyau,

Morale

60.
seems

and

that

yet would

later Epicureans who

held fast to the sensuous
and
exclude
the voluntary action
of the atoms

out
more
thoroughly the Democritic
conformity to
thought of Nature's
the plan of explaining the grouping
law, hit upon
of
(iepouTii.6s)the atoms on
"
the hypothesis that the more
fell faster in empty
massive
the
;
lighter
space than
at least,Lucretius
such
combats
theories (De Ber. Nat. II. 225 ft.).

carry

"

stand.^

necessityto

used

of

which

principleto explain

as

afterwards

on

it,therefore, just as Anaxagoras

used

For

this

upon

atoms

metaphysical

which

physical theory

185

explanation for

the

beginning

of

pjirelymechanically.

went

(cf.p. 62).
erected

Teleology: Epicureans.

nation
used, therefore,the voluntary self-determi-

only

whirling motion

He

and

He

the atoms

of
a

Mechanism

1, " 15.]

Chap.

his

force-matter, voEs

substructure

acknowledged

Epicurus

the

only

mechanics

all

without
phenomena of Nature
any
out, for organisms especially,
by employ-

as

exception,and carried this

the Empedoiag for the explanation of their purposive formation
of the fit.
clean thought of the survival
principleof natural necessityasserts itself
Lastly,the Democritic
in the system of Epicurus in his assumption that in the continuous
perishing

arising and

of

assemblages
form

of

the

worlds

which

become

formed

possible combination, and

world-construction, must
ultimately repeat

of

was

proved

the

theory

in

thus

atoms, every

which

manner

would

be

now

by

every

itself.
the

'put upon

the

This

basis

of

of

and
the result
of this repetitionwas
probabilities,
held
to be, that
considering the infinitude of time, nothing can
has
In this
not
happen which
already existed in the same
way.
doctrine,again, Epicurus agrees with the Stoics,who taught a plurality
'

of
and

worlds,
found

yet

not

co-existent,but

themselves

forced

divine

primitive fire,so
after

same

As

particular events.

to

the

it is each

predetermined period

maintain

world
time
and

another

one

that

last detail

to the

always completely alike,even

and

following

of

in

these

must

back
when

then

be

tion
particularforma-

proceeds forth
taken

time,

from

again
after

into

the

the
the

world-

conflagrationthe primitive power

begins the construction of a new
world, this (j"va-ii
(Nature) which remains eternallythe same, unfolds
itself again and
in correspondence with
again in the same
manner,
its own
and necessity. This return
of all things (irakiyrationality
or
sequence
conaccordingly,as a necessary
dTroKaToa-Tacrts)
yevmia
appears,
,

of

the

two

alternative

conceptions of

the

Stoics,\6yo% and

"iiw.p)x,evrj.
5.

The

theoretical

are

Hence

In

ideas

accordingly at
certain

these

one

two

only

in

main

schools

of

being completely

the

sense

difference

might

between

be

said,

Democritus

from

later

tiquity
an-

material-

standpoint of present
tive
Epicurus was
only a relaThe
former
one.
regards as an unexplained primitive fact the direction
which
each atom
has from
the beginning, the latter regards as
an
unexplained
primitive fact a voluntary deviation, taking place at some
point of time, from a
direction of fall which
is uniform
for all.
The
essential
difierence,however, is
that with
Democritus
this
with
primitive fact is something timeless, while
is expressly
Epicurus it is a single voluntary act occurring in time, an act which
will (cf." 16).
compared with the causeless self-determination of the human
2
Plut. in Euseb.
Dox. D. 581, 19 ; Us. Fr. 266.
criticism,that

it

of

the

and

"

Thought

Hellenistie-Boman

186

Period.

Ethical

[Part

II.

Aristotle
that
just ia oppositionto Plato and
Both
of
theirs.
maintain
they expressly emphasised this position
itself
in
action
manifests
it
and
real
that
the
{to.ovto), because
the
be only corporeal;
Epicureans
can
passion (ttoulvkoL Trao-x"!'),
it

istic,and

declared

was

only empty

went

so

of

tions

with

connection
'and

with

and
of

carrying

idea

First

and

as

"bodies,""
coming and

kind

from

view

of

which

the

mixture
inter-

resulted

reciprocalinterpenetration

all,in

of

held

the

which

the

removed

or

the

soul, and

the

two

Stoics

in the

"moist"

is the

Stoic

the

following
two

produced

doctrine

of Nature

only

not

essential

lines

in

for

centuries.

antitheses,which

were

conceptionof Nature as one, again

divine primitiveessence
divides
The
into the active
part company.
As force,the deity is fire
matter.
and
the passive,into force and
vital breath, pneuma
or
; as matter, it changes itself out of
warm,
moist
Thus
fire is
(air)partly into water, partlyinto earth.
vapour
be

to

identified

out

the

system

Epicureans

interesting

are

marked

during

Stoic

the

theory

contrary,the

having

as

world

of the

the

views,

new

also

but

themselves,
the

others,

mingling

on

new;
of

number

the

in

Anaxagoras,^ they regarded

materialistic

the

out

scarcelyanything
shows

of

us

relar

Si oXwv).
(KpSo-is

of all bodies
In

with

universal

the

reminds

which

real, are

or

properties in things

bodies

these

actual

as

with

of

eyen

se

yet

thought

change

theory of

the

of

and

homoiomerise

the

presence

things

mode

of

going

contrary,

{xaO'eavro),^and the Stoics

the qualities,
that even
far as
forces,and
to declare
in changing modes
things, which
present themselves
incorporealper

something

are

the

the properties of bodies

that

(Platonic)view

the

combated

they

incorporeal. On

be

to

space

the

form

single being,

attach

thus

themselves,

re-transmutation

and

characterisation

of

follow

also in the

Aristotle
and

structure

of

important thing

the

of

the
in

four

of

body,

identical
in

their

the

World-god;

within
doctrine

main

in

yet

itself.

While

of

tion
transmuta-

the

substances, to Heraclitus, and

elements

and

the

in their

principallyto Aristotle,and
their

expositionof

the

world-

purposive system of its movements, the most

their physics is doubtless
of the
the doctrine

pneuma.
God

creative

as

breath, the

is
(Xoyos inrepfiaTLKos)

reason

formative

fire-mind

which

penetrates

this
all

warm

vital

things and

is

Diog.

Laert.

Plut.

C.

which

similar

X.

67.

50, 1085.

materialising of the Platonic doctrine of Ideas (Plat.Phcedo, 102),

of Anaxagoras, was
who
us
out by Eudoxos,
apparently worked
the Academy
Alex.
Arlst.
Met. I. 9, 991 a 17, and also
(p. 103).

reminds

belonged
Aphr.

Not.

to

Sckol.

in Arist.

573

12.

whose

as

Thought : Ethical Period.

Hellenistie-Roman

188

heart

the

seat

Of

polyp."

seven,

"

particular"pneumata" the Stoa assumed

the faculty of speech,and the reproductive

such

five senses,

the

"

II.

regarded as extending its

whole
arms
body, like the

was

the

throughout

ramifications
particular
of

assumed,

was

[Part

Being dwells in the

lives in the body.
universe, so the individual personality
the
entirely adopt
It is characteristic that
Epicureans could
the

As

power.

this external
soul
is

unity of

"pneuma");

but

they

held

body from without, something

with
and
it, which
mechanically connected
scattered.
They also distinguish between
the

into

Here, too, their

theory.

doctrine

forthwith

is

and

the

to attribute

whole, insufficient

the

is,on

body

it acquired in the Stoic

metaphysical dignitywhich

the

former

to the

term

the

by

able

being

"

is introduced

rational

the

soul,without, however,

irrational part of the

fast

death

in

the

that

something

breath

this

in

see

finest atoms

likewise

(they apply

breath

them, too, the

consists of the

Democritus

accordingto
fiery,atmospheric
which

"

For

views.
psychological

of

apparatus

Primitive

divine

the

and

dependent.
with

accordance

In

7.

metaphysics

the

system,

of

theology,a system
tion,and
the

hymn

whole
"

that

task

and

superstitionwhich

of

poet

Epicureanism,

grown

depicts in

religionbrought on man,
scientific knowledge.^ It
theory

itself fell to
as

attach
idea

takes

and

the

the

It believed

universal

Stoics'

belief

on

as

is in its

the

of

fear

and

ignorance.

outlines

the

The

evils which

the

faith

in

that

certain

gods,^but

degree of

it found

was

interference

school, such

contrary,

disfiguredby false assumptions. These

of the gods
myths which feigned a participation
an

standpointof
overcome
by science,and
to put aside the phantoms

grotesque

sings

also

scientific demonstrar

throughout

out

form

the

glory of their conquest by

is all the more
amusing that the Epicurean
it rewhich
depicting a mythology of its own
garded

harmless.

to the

Stoics

on

on

religionhas been
triumph of wisdom
have

school

this

of

the

of

religionbased

anti-religious.It

nature

it is the

physics

poetic presentationsin

also

Cleanthes.

of

Enlightenment,"

that

and

natural

found

this

pantheisticpresuppositionof

the

their

part in the

course

of

that
it

truth

must

this correct

sought

in human

things;

in the

life,and
even

the

in Providence

appeared to them in this respect as but

illusion.
in
a refined
Epicurus, therefore, following Democritus
his doctrine
of the eidola,or
in the gods
images (" 10, 4),
saw
giant forms resembling men, who lead a blessed life of contemplation
and
in the intermediate
the
between
spiritualintercourse
spaces
"

"

Lucret.

De

Ber.

Nat.

I. 62 ft.

piog. Laert.

X.

123 f. ; Us. p. 59 f.

1, " 15.] Mechanism

Chap.

and

:
Teleology
Epicureans,Stoics.

189

{intermundia) undisturbed
by the change of events, and
unconcerned
to the destiny of lower
trine,
as
beings ; and thus this docis
also,
fundamentally only the attempts of Epicureanism to
put in mythological form its ideal of aesthetic self-enjoyment.
worlds

8.

It

in

was

entirely different

an

fitted into

popular religionwere
up

this

to

time

theology
indigenous

in

the

the

mythology,

ideas

of

the

metaphysics. Whereas,
Greek
thought philosophical

of

farther

and
for

here,

meet

we

the

Stoic

development

separated itself

had

that

way

farther

from

first

the

the

time,

the

and
positivereligion into
systematic attempt to bring natural
harmony. Accordingly,when the Stoics,also,yielded to the need of

recognising the
human

For

welcome

of

has

World-power

the

but

suggestions

universe

individual

that

teach

must

human

them

deity without beginning and end, which

of "gods
designatedas Zeus, a great number
Aristotle

they

their

the

natural

forces

to man,

reveals

how

extensive

an

in the

Stoic

primitive fire,and
in which

itself.

the
this

From

of

point

of

interpretation of myths

school, seeking

metaphysical system by

all

so, beside

the

Stoics, as

Plato

all the

ence,"
existand

stars, which

mations
especiallypure forof
personifications

Providence,
view

we

the

was

of

into

further, the
power

those

come

first of
already do^e, reckoned
honoured
as
higher intelligences and
of

divine

part they

that had

the

these

not

most

had

too

other

To

appearance.

the

and

; and

for the

one

made

that

forms

souls

them

the

determinative.

were

mightier

on

offered

doctrine

pneuma

evidentlytaken

life than

vigorous

universally present throughout

their

instrument,

consideration

more

ideas

(cf. " 17, 4),

race

only a

of

warrant

can

order

benevolent
understand
the

of

day

incorporatethe popular figuresin its

to this
kinds
of allegories. In addition
to

of the Euemeristic
theory, which
use
equally welcome
the deification of prominent men,
not only explained and
justified
the demons
but taught also to consider
sacred, as the guardian
spiritsof individual men.
Thus the Stoic world
became
peopled with a whole host of higher
of
and lower gods, but they all appeared as ultimatelybut emanations
there

the

one

was

an

highest World-power,

which, themselves
of

as

the

for
therefore,

represent, each

the

as

"

determined

by
ruling spiritsof
faith

in its

of

the

realm,

the
the
the

subordinate
universal
world's

Stoics,the

the

vital

force

powers

Pneuma,
life.

mediating
and

or

forces

were

ceived
con-

They formed,
organs,

Providence

which
of

the

in the
piety of the Stoics turned
forms of worship of positivereligion. The polytheism of the popular
faith was
thus
philosophicallyre-established,and taken up as an
integrantconstituent into metaphysical pantheism.

World-reason,and

to

them

the

Hellenistic-Roman

190

like

men

it awakened

where

system

of
justification

theoretical

the

stands

thought

Paneetius, who

itself

show

different
tion

to

therefore

and

soul

be able
of

capable

is

with

the

itself

be

of the

ancient

The

" 16.
The
views

of

forms

in which

the

and

world,
the

contrasted

thought, common
law

its relationship

interpretation

Stoicism

regarded

the

divination

of its younger

mechanical

sentatives,
repre-

of the World.

and

teleological
conceptional

in the

difference
to

of

The

extent, of Nature's

certain

developed,led, in connection
the
ethical
with
controlled
postulates and presuppositionswhich
the thought of the time, to two
from
the
new
problems, which
the problems oJ
beginning had various complications. These were
conformity

the

freedom

of

the

the- human

of

Both

world.
their

made

was

The
the

metaphysical
world

of

in his

duality,

an

reason

Without

the

moral

of

needs

formed

the

goodness

out

grew

been

for

of

to

formation

and

perfectior

and

whicl

contradictions
and

just
satisfythose
of

these

those

meta

needs.

problems

new

they may
as
necessarj
i
rreconcilable
deep
ultinjately
antagonism be
fundamental
art
principlesof the system. These principles

the

doctrine

had

home

system,

of

consequence
tween

and

between

which

proper
Stoic

will

been

problems

appearance

physicaltheories
1.

to

had

another.

the Perfection

the
especially

tions,
rela-

of Posidonius.

it seems,

and

rela^

delicate

by

all
philosophically

especiallytrue

of the Will

causal

divination,resting

basis

this

to

that
possibility

full

of

held

was

virtue

the

for

few

interconnection

one

by

science

On

was

of the

for

these

but
and

added.

particular,

definition

signs

as

art

as

Freedom

sharp

universal

in

the

another

Stoic

of

case

direct

no

II.

positive religion
in the

processes

in

one

understanding

This

world.

and

serve

to elaborate

strong enough

as

to

all-rulingPneuma,

experience,must

upon

to

revelations

ecstatic

of such

yet point

The

in the

"

stand

which

processes

another, may

one

human

and

things

the world's

of manifestation

form

one

as

"

of

in the

coolly.

more

[Part

divination

great interest,except

providentiallygoverned unity of

and

Period.

Ethical

tliis scientific reconstruction

with

connection

In

Thought

understood

the

and

and

monism

the

be

etJiical dualism.

Stoics,according to

fundamental

The

which

man

should

mora

th(

overcome

impulses by virtue,presupposes
an
anthropologica
in
human
nature
in
accordance
with whicl
opposition

stands

own

over

against

this antithesis

the

sensuous

whole

Stoic

nature

contrary

ethics is

metaphysical doctrine,however, by which

is to be explained,postulates such
in man

the
an

ready

to

reason

to fall.

command
unrestricted

of

Th(

reasoi

and

all

of the Will

Freedom

1, " 16.]

Chap.

controlling realityof

the

to

either

contrary

reason,

be united

cannot

then

in

have

in the

into consideration

that
in

or

man

From

this

never

ceased

all essential

investigation,although

the

reality of
of

course

of

more

view

less

or

2. The

voluntary

to

the

The

basis

the

can

come

clearlyillumined

motives
in

while

the

of

his

which

issue

at

dependence
double

meaning

and

view

"

clouded

know," therefore, what

involuntarily.^That
free.^

not

From

is,only

this

ethical

psychologicalconception
of

choice

be

carefullyseparated.

as

the

at all

events, it

man's

freedom

held

the

freedom
decide

by

fast to the

Socratic

i.e. is ethically not

involuntarily,

directlywhen

Eth.

Xen.

Cf.

According

me.
Mem.
Arist.

he

III.

develops the thought

this

since
forms.
from

he

acts

wicked

question

responsibility,
"

that
He

even

that

man

the

and,

at

wicked
connects

may

the

must

"

expressly

"

is

of freedom

motives

this is

did

does

acts

sense

conception

latter

doctrine

"

has

thus

who

still

it is here

proceeds

in

grounds,

free.

will

sink

affirmed

logical
psycho-

the

same

man

the
into

acts
two

the

1-8.

III.
Eth.
to

The

essentiallyethical

the

which

different

his

of

freedom, however,

Socrates

choice,'appealing to
on

of

between

Plato.

ness
conscious-

is free ; the

i.e. the

"

the

consequence

as

or,

He
and

man

conception

upon

develops
difficulty

action

doing,
wise

of

variously shifted

most

desires.

is

Whether

done

was

decision

time, he

of

abilityto

of

by
he

freedom

brought

ambiguity

in the

again

in

who

freedom,"

(iKovmov),an

of

man's

to

This

Socrates, all ethicallywrong

to

view

"

out,
through-

affirmed

only

Socrates,

of

brilliant

exclusivelypsychological.

reference

insight.

upon

in

the

Socrates

ethical

are

is doubtless

with

of

Aristotle

lem
prob-

on

by

essentiallythat

this

conception

repeated again

"

they

begun

is

move

the

reflections

thoughts

is hence

realityof

called, "voluntariness"

wrong

these

feeling,and

primarilyin the

According

of

responsibility,
dif"culty arises

complete

been

ethical

by

question
immediate

the

preliminary conclusion

at

of

in

were

intellectualistic

into

9, 4 ; Cyrop. III. 1, 38.

III. 7, 113 b 14.

Ma.
a

remark

in

tlie

Peripatetic Magna

Moralia

Socrates,indeed, had expressly sAid, "it is not in our power" to

According to this, therefore, he had denied psychological freedom.
6

tions
quescritical

presuppositionsfor

which

domain

choice,and

the

ready at hand
of wrongdoing,

investigation.^ The
and

form

lie

nature

brought

and

which

conceptions

of freedom

two

that

is

world,

man's

employ

to

-what

the

the

sourc^grew

points

were

case

the

191

time.

that

not

World-reason

therewith.

since

which

Socrates, Aristotle.

Plat. Bep. X. 617 ff.

Plat. Phaed. 81 B.

(I.9, 1187
good or

be

7)

bad.

192

Hellenistic-Roman

condition

of ethical

Thought : Ethical

non-freedom

Ms

by

Period.

[Pakt

I]

fault, and, therefore

own

freedom.
psychological

with

farther
from
the Socratic
separated himself
of
freedom
comes
oul
intellectualism,the psychologicalconception
from
the
positioE
more
clearly and independently. He proceeds
in general is applicableonly in the case
oi
that ethical qualification

Aristotle,who

With

"

voluntary

"

the

in

first
from

sustains,partly

voluntariness

this

which

discusses

actions,and

place the prejudices

external

force

{^la)

psychicalcompulsion, and partly from ignorance of the matter.

has its originin the
That
action only is completely voluntary which
the relations
and of which
The
are
fully known.
personalityitself,

and

investigation'

whole

lead

conception of

the

to

of external

the characteristics
the

of

be

choice

freedom

by

still further

be
can

man

unclouded

situation

it must

staiidpointof bility,
responsiis designed to
conception of voluntariness
within
itself
accountability. It contains

discovered

the

and

ends
by reflectingupon
ethical accountability.

for

avoided

motivation

and

to this

it ; and

held

ethical

that

only

upon

proceed

is the

means,

entrance

the

upon

of the

maintenance

actions

freedom

from

proceeds

condition

choice ; he

of

of

tents
con-

the

personality

are

ascribed

which

his

treatise

acts

psychology

of choice

composed

account,

of

to

school,and
his

own

on

fast.

this

On

3.

as

for the

reason

especially Theophrastus, who

freedom,

those

this

voluntary

of this
determining causes
establishing the position that

sufl"cient

itself is the

his

among

conception

on

the

upon
with

himself

farther

of

of choice,therefore, which
well

as

action,and

of

restricted,for

Freedom
(irpoai'pecris).'

Aristotle

the

deception. But,

any

accountable

held

from

is maintained

basis

same

considerations

find also the

we

concerned.

are

Stoics,in

far

so

Preciselythat

purely

as

livelyfeeling

of

which
characterises their morals
demanded
of them
responsibility
the recognitionof this free choice on
the part of the individual,and
this in every way.
they sought therefore to maintain
Their
of the fact
critical,however, by reason
positionbecame
that

their

drove

them

made
and

2'

metaphysics, with its

beyond this attitude.
like all other

man,

internal

Eth.

III. 3, nil

the reference

As

{Eth.

Nic.

formation

Nic.

1109

fate

since

73

in

all that

he

does

ol 17 i.pxh i" "iSti?eldSri

beginning

to

the

and

this

lb. 4, 1112

lb.

b 31

all his

and

koS'

ixatrra

right of punishment

eoi/ce

Jtj

AySfioiwosclvai ipx^

twv

rpi^eav.

fate

external

suffers,by

1.
:

of

theory

in

t4

providence,

34).

5, 1112

at the

For

of

creatures,determined

and

doctrine

the

iv ofs

clearly shows

of the Will

Freedom

1, " 16.]

Chap.

Stoics,Epicurus.

all-animatingWorld-power, personalityceased
actions,and

^is

of
(dpxi?)

predetermined

the

occurs,

but

of the

God-Nature.

extreme

heaped

these

consequence

of

determinism;

proof

proof

on

be

future

the

for this

this

to

can

necessary

be

and

of the

criticisms

the

"lazy reason"

the
and

did not

The

remains

from

the

the

the

how

time

same

best

known

the

accessory

of

or

his

them.

from

of

cerning
con-

truth
^

he

since

the

the

(which,

and

his

this

or

also
the

only

of

Stoic

tions
predicdoctrine

incisive.

rather
in

moreover,

of

environment,

conclusion

tions.^
distinc-

that

'

showed

just

of

it,

between

throughout

us

from

show

is to be

he

distinction

reminds

that

to

virtue

exactly by
sense

that

Chrysippus

forced

very

necessarily follow
but

able
unavoid-

themselves

the

basis

the

which

iwaLTiov) Chrysippus

indeed

of

fatalistic

aid of

Among

ignava ratio, or

claim

attack

the

perhaps

was

most

the

the

actions

On

causes

alnov

with

circumstances

for their

fulfilment

contrary, concerned

the

decision of the will does

man

that

judgments

so-called

"

cause

and

the

inactively, an
avoid
except by the

to

main

of

the

is the

draws

events

Stoics,on

Platonic

showed

undecided, the
minism
assumption of deter-

the

standpoint

them

responsible for

the

of

the

is still

experienced

system

at

made

of

this

it upon

; he

that

form,

adduce

that in spite of this determinism, and

man

from

based

criterion

necessary
to

scorn

future

await

know

He

which

that

not

operations

already determined

changed

(dpyos\oyos),which

necessity of
should

that

completely consistent,the opponents of the system

decided
denial
of freedom
of the will,and
of the

attacks

numerous

one

not

which

frequent

most

did

all else

argument.

course

since

ground

contrary, Chrysippus

correctness

is

makes

doctri"e,which,

logos,was

of

saw

gods

welcome

In this

even

the

the

on

the

matter

the

foreknowledge of
; he

could

argument

true

shrink

not

(cf.above, " 16, 2)

if the

known,

did

doctrine.

maintained,

falsityis given only

as

Stoa

fact, the

up

like

be^

to

the

unavoidably ^necessary

In

of sufiBcient reason
principle
only by presupposingthis

gave

appeared

and

to be

193

that
the

here

every

tion
co-operathe

outer

the assent
only the accessory
ceeding
procauses, while
this
from
the personalityis the main
and
ability
accountto
cause,
this
applies. While, however,
voluntarily acting i^efioviKov,
of
the universal
is
determined
from
rulingfaculty
Pneuma,
man,

this Pneuma

are

takes

in

on

^
Cic. De Fato, 10, 20.
also for ttiis reason
gave

So

far

up

the

25, 70.
2
8

Cic. De
Cic. De

every

Fato, 12, 28 ff.

Fato, 16, 36 ff.

as

separate being

concerns

truth

of

self-subsistent

disjunctivepropositions Epicurus
disjunction : Cic. Z"e Nat. Deor. I.

Thought

Hellenistic-Boman

194

they

than

other

been

point

quality
question

the

of
of

events, have

not.^

or

were,

II.

ethical

the

judgment pronounced on
and
of actions
characters, is quite independent
deeds
the persons
whether
or
might, in the course
as
responsibility,

that

the

prominent

make

Stoics

dpx'?-'^^ particular,the

proper

[Part

regarded as

this is to be

of others, and

that

from

different

nature,

Period.

Ethical

had
been
of the
will, which
problem of the freedom
experienced iu
already complicated ethicallyand psychologically,
logical
(in the Stoic sense) theothis way
still further
a metaphysical and
The

4.

the

complication,and
who

opponents of the Stoa

which
they regarded

were

of freedom

and

it into

brought

causal

this freedom

but

schools

The

choice

had,

since

the

ethical

and

"

this

tionless
excep-

will

free

were

decision

regarded in all
accountability.

Aristotle,been

opponents thought

the

the

capacity of

the

exclude

of

of

functions

the

even

to

by the
assumption

presuppositionof
indispensable

the

as

of

this account

On

which

to

nexus

conception
Stoic doctrine,

threatened

sharp definition.

subordinated, seemed

to be

as

the

to

turn

new

gave

the indeterminists

that

was

consequence

the

gave

versy
contro-

that
defending an ethical
they were
especial violence
that
of fate,and with
the Stoic doctrine
they combated
good when
if Chrysippus
the Democritic
principleof natural necessity. And
to establish this,
had appealed to the principleof sufficient reason
its

"

fact,did

this

of

of the

soul.*

causal

law

Therefore

and

conception

of

upon

line

of

denied

Alex.

lb. p. 106.

he

believe

the

invariable

and

determinism

Thus

such

slavery

validityof

the

the

causeless

between
and

uncaused

The

deviation

freedom
different

Aphr. De Fato,

of

the

will

of

indeterminism

that
possibilities

as

cic. De

Diog. Laert.

rescue

causelessness

Fato, 5, 9
X.

means

in

from

of the atoms

Epicurus thought thereby to

p. 112.

Stoic

in

function

the
the

under

chance

with

still

rather

would
in

so

formed

which

universal

together

metaphysical conception of freedom

Stoic

the

ideal,that

occurrence.

put

choice

by no causes,
responsibility.
This

universal

self-determination

freedom

(cf." 15, 4).

accordingly,

incontestable

an

was

opposition to
metaphysical conceptionof freedom arose, by

parallelwith
a

the

religionthan

he, too,

uncaused

Epicurus
fall

will

found

man's

of

subsumed

the

determinism,

He

his ethical

illusoryideas

the

of which

wise

the

essential feature

assume

question

still farther.

with

irreconcilable
the

in

the

principle.^

went

Epicurus

of

freedom

fear to draw

not

validityof

the

to whom

Carneades,

man

their
means,

is determined

moral

is not at

11, 23 ; 14, 31.

133 f. ; Us. p. 65.

196

Hellenistic-Roman

evils?"

And

if the

question

have

man

it should

permit

In

6.

the

had

in

able

resistance

the

spiteof

and
those

the

and

the

be

to

their

things,
should

abused, and why

Stoics

forward

came

Plato

and

back

to

respectively. In

boldly to

these

master

culties,
diffi-

thought, most

acute
,

periods theodicy has

at later

Aristotle,

evil

and

matter

without

light,not

to

of

or

their monistic

Stoics with

maladaptations

Not-being,"

in which

arguments

these

World-reason

than

case

worse

trace
"

brought

much

to

of the

this

thus

was

questionsthe

of such

presence

been

responsiblefor

n.

this abuse.

metaphysics were
who

which

freedom

[Part

spite of

in

occurred

almighty

the

why

arose,

will

free

make

to

the further

given

perhaps

Stoics, as

wished

determinism/

Period.

: Ethical
TliougTit

moved

of

again

again.

be
doctrine
of the perfectionof the universe
can
teleological
protectedagainst such attacks either by denying the dys-teleological
ant
attendthe indispensable means
or
as
facts,or by justifyingthem
whole.
methods
Both
result
in the
purposefully connected
The

pursued by the Stoa.

Their
psychologicaland ethical theories permitted the claim that
such
what
is called a physical evil is not such in itself,
but becomes
by man's assent, that hence, if diseases and the like are brought
of events, it is only
about
course
by the necessityof the natural
fault that makes
man's
evil out of them
an
; just as it is frequently
which
the foolish
makes
of things that
use
man
only the wrong
makes
these
while
ferent
in themselves
injurious,^
they are either indif-

were

or

of the

beneficial.

even

of

course

the

good

and

that

for the

but

rather

has

laid hold
the

ground
of

bad

the

of
of

is

the

on

wise

man

the

other

which
possible,

does

on

man,

and

hand, only
not

make

strengthensthe

injustice

in truth for

by the claim that

physical evils are no

other

hand, physical evils

they are the inevitable

that

in

objection based

evils at

sory
illu-

sensuous

him

trulyhappy,
which

disease

moral

all,

of him.'

which

fail of their

show

the

the

is rebutted

only aggravates

Nature

not

world

and

man

satisfaction

On

the

So

the

in

are

purpose,
of

themselves
"

as

diseases.

also

may

be

of

consequences

adapted

defended

to

their

on

the

arrangements
ends

and

do

Chrysippus,for example, attempted to

"*

particular,however, they have

moral
of serving partly as reformatory punishments
significance
"
Providence
partly,also,as a useful stimulus for the exercise
;
moral

our

case

powers.

Cleanth.

Seneca, Qu.

Hymn.
Nat.

In

v.

17.

V. 18, 4.
Seneca, Ep. 87, 11 ff.

1, 7 fE.

Gell.

N.

Plut.

Marc.

Stoic. Bep. 35, 1.

36.
Aurel. VIII.

A.

VII.

Criteria

1," 17.]

Chap.

evils

external

While

of Truth:
thus

were

Peripatetics.

197

justifiedprincipallyby pointing

purposiveness,it appeared for the Stoics an all the

which
difiB.proved also the more
more
urgent problem, though one
moral
evil or sin comprehensible. Here
the negative
cult,to make
of escape
was
quite impossible,for the realityof baseness in
way
of the great majority of men
the favourite
the case
was
subjectof
out their ethical

in the

declamation

the

centre

of

which

is the

whole

endowed

theodicy, namely,

considerations.

universal

only

not

Here, then,

show

to

does

showed

They
include

not

in

it,^and

excludes

even

morals.

on

how

in

the

was

this

world

is contrary to
product of divine Eeason, that which
in
the
impulses, dispositions,and actions of rationally
beings is possible. Here, therefore, the Stoics resorted to

reason

whole

Stoic discourses

that

this

of

how

the

perfection of

individual

all the

parts, but

their

substantiated

way

the

claim

that

the imperfection and

baseness
of
necessarilyallow even
it is only
In particular,they emphasised the point that
man.
through oppositionto evil that good as such is brought about ; for
God

must

were

there

no

And

while

vice is thus

the

sin and

Stoics give

as

ultimatelyturns

even

deduced

final

the

the

The

fulfilment

of

of
of all in

the
of

Analytics of

for

much

the

activityof

activityin

an

of

its

it but

an

ently
appar-

highest ends.*

own

post-Aristoteliantime
logic. Such a powerful

the

long time, and, in fact,did this until

Ages, and even
beyond. The foundations
firmly laid that at first nothing there was

"

in

good,

Providence

Criteria of Truth.

parts,

eternal

which
brought the principles
Stagirite,
Greek
science in so masterly a fashion
to the consciousness
a conclusive
form, must
naturallyrule logicalthought for

as

the

the
has

wisdom.^

and

foil for the

necessary

of
philosophical achievements
least important in the department

creation

virtue

no

consideration,'that

for

" 17.

were

as

be

the evil to good, and

refractorymeans

The

would

folly,there

the

the

schools

connection

artificial adornment

the

but

with

close

of

of

Middle

the

this

system
shaken, and
build

to

which,

characteristic

up
at

even

of

were

so

there

mained
re-

individual
that

time,

degenerate

age

displayeditself.
1.

The

Peripateticshad

alreadyattempted

to

develop the

lian
Aristote-

detailed
Analyticssystematicallyin this direction by a more
by partiallynew
proofs, by farther subdivision, and by

1
2

Plut. Stoic. Bep. 44, 6.

lb. 36, 1.

"

lb.

Cleanth.

35, 3.

Hymn.

vv.

18

f.

ment,
treatmore

In

formulatiou.

methodical

occasioned

the

and

judgments,

the

by

and

Eudemus
particular,

extension
of

appearance

[Part

II.

Theophrastus

hypothetical and disjunctive

the theory of the syllogism

the

investigationsconcerning

undertook

Period.

Ethical

Thought:

Hellenistic-Roman

198

of

and

judgments

these

premises.

these

forms
of
new
they
^
the
simple categorical
against
as
composite over
judgment (o^t"o/xa)
forms, developed into all their details the resulting forms of the
^
syllogism,emphasised also especiallythe quality of judgments,
The

efiforts;

these

continued

Stoics

set

In general,
thought in altered forms.
and
however, they spun out the logicalrules into a dry schematism
which
farther and
thereby became
genuine scholastic formalism
the
from
farther removed
thoughts of the
significantfundamental
and

of

laws

the

deduced

unfruitful
of

subtlety

in the

in

was

logiccreated

by

that

it retained

form

taken

the

consciousness

by

the

time

of

formulae.

real

meaning

was

The

the solution
cably
inextri-

forms.

schools

the

first took

of

mass

specialdelight in

the
of

contradiction

Aristotle

the

on

Kant.

that

the

purely formal
The

science of
character

pedanticthe
development of the particular features,the more
of the living thought, to which
Aristotle had

up

in the

took

which

elaborations

these

dead

this process

of

catches, in
sophistical

involved
It

became

Analytics,and

Aristotelian

to

more

of rules,
network
replaced by a schoolmaster-like
aspired,was
their formal
essentiallydesigned to catch thoughts and examine
legitimacy,but incapable of doing justiceto the creative power of
with
scientific activity. While, even
Aristotle,regard for proof
refutation
had
and
occupied the foreground,here it occupies the
field.
whole
Antiquity did not attain a theory of investigation;
for the weak
tigations
beginnings which we find toward this end in the invesof a younger
sions
Epicurean,^Philodemus,* concerning conclufrom
induction
and
and have
analogy, are relativelyisolated,
result worthy of mention.
no
2. In -the doctrine of the Categories,
the
of the elaboration
of which
"

Stoics made
Here

it

attention

was

to

much

account,

indeed
the

fact

more

that

quite correct,and
that

the

supreme

real

was

yet

not

was

very

to

be

expected.

fruitful,to call

category, of which

the

rest

Sext. Emp. Adv. Math.

VIII. 93.
Diog. Laert. VII. 65.
'
Epicurus himself, and his school also,as a whole, did not trouble themselves
to the principles of formal
as
logic. One might regard this as an evidence of
taste and
but it was
in truth only indifference
all that did
intelligence,
toward
not promise directly
practical advantages,
* On
of.
his treatise
Kal o-rj/ienio-eaii',
in Herculaneum,
ireplirrifi"iiai"
discovered
Th.
Gompertz, Herculanensische
Studien, Heft 1 (Leips. ISeS) : Fr. Bahusoh
(Lyok, 1879); R. Philippson (Berlin, 1881).
2

Criteria of Truth

1," 17.]

Chap.

Stoics.

representonly specialdeterminations,is
Something
least

the

regards

as

the

(rl); and

method

replaced by

plan,was

each

to which

following

of

their

be

to

was

What

"

of

that

of

the

Being (to ovY

categories which,

enumeration,

in

changing

latter,in

these

of the

Out

is," or

states

relations

Being,

(t6

to other

of the

doctrine

is,a metaphysicaltheory

substances

As

itself

destitute

which

are

of

substance, the

inherent

in matter

as

whole,

part (TTotoTTjTEsWo/tMs), are likewise

currents) which are commingled with
both

the

point of

substance

view

of the
in

thing, and
individual

and

on

it

attributes

latter

aspect

and
thing is essentially

of

consequence

ontology,that

an

relations

the

thoroughly
which

in

as

of matter

from

forces

(atmospheric

regarded,

it is

is in

particular

(Kpao-tshC oXuv).
are

alistic
materi-

qualitiesand

well

as

of

Stoics, agreeably to
is matter

general conception as

the

supporter
aspect is it

this

formal

kinds

"

connection

the

existent

and
properties (vA.i;),

all

is the

^^

thus

general

most

of

(to Trpos tIwui^ "X"'')-

categories grows
to the

as

^^^!
"X"''))

tus

the

by

abiding substrate

as

this theory in the system of

and
reality,
their general tendency (cf. " 15, 5), takes
character.

at

Aristotle's

was

exactly determined

more

possiblerelations,is substance
(inroKei;u,evov)
; this
(Trdger) of fixed qualities{volov),and
only in
involved

or

expresslysystematic succession, according

an

category

one.

co-ordination

199

as

that

emphasised

In

this

well

from

of the individual
that

distinguished
definitely

every

from

all

others.^
Besides

these
the

among
of
the

thought

categories
Stoics
to

subjective
from

growing

and

find making their appearBeing, we

ance
the relation
by which
conceptionalforms

those
is

Being
the

of

expressed, and

for
objective,

in these

which

the

separation of

preparation had

been

complete in the development of Greek

attains
definite
thought, now
expression. For while the Stoics
regarded all objects to which
thought relates as corporeal,while
they regarded the activityof thought itself,and no less its expression
in language ^ as corporeal functions,
still
to
obliged
were
they
confess

by

in Tim.
In
of

more

that the content

That

the
^

more

the

Peripatetics also busied

definition preserved
242 E).
contrastingthe
noun

of consciousness

and

verb

by Strato

first two
appears

such

themselves

with
here

as

tA

the
also

6v

ia-n

last two

with
Tb

Tm

{to Aektov)is of in-

category is proved
Siaiwvijs atriov (Proclus

this

categories,the language

(in Stoic terminology

ttwo-ls

and

tion
relaKarri-

y6priijia).
'

The

Stoics laid great weight

the discriminative
comparison of thought
upon
speech, of the inner activityof reason
pression
(\6yos iviideeros) and of its exthrough the voice (\6yos Trpo4"opiK6s).Hence, too, the assumption (cf.
" 15, 6) of the facultyof speech as a
ough
their thorpart of the soul ; hence
proper
and

of

treatment

of rhetoric

and

grammar

side

by side

with

logic.

Thought : Ethical Period-

Eellenistic-Boman

200

and

Being

between

drawn

problem
epistemological

question was,

This

3.

forward,

came

Being

thus

was

of consciousness, the

content

refers to

ideational content

distinction

the

since

But

corporealnature.

and

agrees

with

it,are

II.

sharply

fundamental
which

by

to be

the

thought.
ous
vigor-

the

by

home

brought

also

moreover,

relations

the

how

[Part

undergone, and
Scepticism had meanwhile
development which
it occupied as compared with
strong positionwhich
by the relatively
the dogmatic systems.
at all events
it matters
not, it was
Whether
by Pyrrho or Timon
the great school-systems became
time
the same
at which
at about
that all those
arguments were
dogmatically developed and fortified,
systematisedinto a complete whole, by which the Sophistic period
though
the naive
trust in man's
capacity for knowledge. Alhad shaken
holding
the ethical end of making man
independent of fate by with(cf. " 14, 2), this
ultimately decisive
judgment was

carefullycarried out theoretical doctrine.

its forms, the form
of knowledge in both
the possibility
It doubts
after it has
of judging thought, and
of perceptionas truly as that
destructivelyanalysed each of these two factors singly,it adds
Scepticism

still forms

their

this account

expresslythat just on

union

can

have

certain

no

result.''

relativism,and

Protagorean
jEnesidemus'

only

beings (1),not

their

(9) and
the

so-called

the

Tropes

whole
at

upon

the

individual

himself

with

regard

different
to

in which

relations

From

Laert.
2

IX.

by
two

in media

which

deceivers

we

such

as

able

not

are

combined

the

object spatially(5).
the states of the object

it is

deduct

only right

immediate

by

mediate
inter-

co-operatingelements

air,the
to

the

his

They alter,also,because of thef difference in

(7), and have, therefore, no claim to the value of an
their originationis conditioned
report of things, because
furnished

which

men

(4),and

states

in

toms
(2),according to their cusin the case
development (10),but even
different
times
(3),in dependence upon

different

with

bodily conditions
finds

ten

the

individual

same

in

of the

themselves

availed

scepticaltheory with very defective

ceptions
Pertendency still occupies the broadest
space.
different
the
not
only with
species of animate
forth

sets

arrangement, this
change

of

Sceptics

regards perception,the

As

to

(6).
expect

Man

no

is,theretruth.

Diog.

114.

Sext. Emp.

Pyrrh. Hyp.
by the ancient

I. 38

fE.

that .Slnesidemus
attached, not only
was
The
Scepticism, but also to the metaphysics of Heraolitus.
question whether
take,
this was
such
actually so, or whether
a relation
was
only ascribed to him by mishas
solely antiquarian significance. Por had the former been the case, it
would
been
but another
have
manifestation
of a real relationship in thought, to
Plato
had
which
already directed attention, TheKt.
152 E ff.; cf. p. 92, note 2.
8

to

It

was

said

writers

fore,in all
he

of

has

the

no

is

One

means

no

(So'^at).In
opposite

of Truth

condition

Sceptics.

to

know

valid
(oi/jloKKov)

than

201

things purely (8),and

tions
multiplicityof impressions so full of contradicof distinguishinga true^^rom a false impression.
a

with

this

themselves

assert

in

more

relative

Equally

the

not

ways,

face

the

in

Criteria

1, " 17.]

Chap.

man's

in

perceptions

the

aspect

influences

also

are

of

the

It is shown

Pyrrhonism.

be

another.
his

opinions

Eleatic

that

to

dialectic

opinion

every

with

opposed

equally good reasons, and this

tS)v \6ywv) does
not
equilibrium of reasons
{ia-oa-OevtLa
permit us,
of such
therefore,to distinguishtrue and false : in the case
a
tradiction
concan

the
(avTiXoyCa)

holds

One

no

than

more

the

other.

All

opinions accordingly stand

according to the phrase of the
and
tom
cusSophists,adopted by the Sceptics only by convention
not by their essential
Koi tdei),
(yo/iio
Tc
right and title (tjsvcra).
More
energeticallystill did the later Scepticism attack the possibility
"

"

of

scientific

and

syllogistic
procedure,
this.^

upon

up

that
of

In

its

this

of

methods

to have

seems

other
a

necessary

led the

proofs
in

regressus

the

difficulties
of

Aristotle

which

it presupposes

makes

premises,
that

the

Carneades

proof,since

every

by disclosingthe

knowledge,

had

built
ing
show-

way,

for the

ity
valid-

infinitum

an

"

completely in place for the Sceptic who did not,

did Aristotle,
as
recogniseanything as immediately certain (a/xedov
;
cf " 12, 4)
The
carried
further
same
was
by
Agrippa,
argument
who
formulated
more
Scepticism in five Tropes much
clearlyand
He called attention
comprehensively than jEnesidemus.
again to the
of perceptions(3) and
of opinions (1) ; he showed
how
relativity
argument

was

every

proof pushes

often

it occurs,

infinity(2 : eis airapov iK^dXKiDv),and how

it is in the process
of proof to proceed from
unjustifiable
premises
that are
only hypotheticallyto be assumed
(4), and finally,how
ground

of

the

on

even

into

in

premises which

syllogismin question (5:

was
a

also

called

to the

is

the

were

valid.^

be

outset

Since the

essential

only

proved by
the

latter

fact

that

of

in

on

the

one,

of

means

aspect

thus

general
that

condition

things is

postulated

the

inaccessible

would

as

the

tion
atten-

deduction
syllogistic

the

general

justifiedonly
nature

be

to

be

must

8iaXA.r;Xos)In

particular proposition from

from

that

science, that

of

yet

particular
to

human

Sext. Emp. Adv. Math.

VIII.
316 ff.
Sext. Emp. Pyrrh. Hyp. I. 164 ff.: (1) The
conflict
of opinions.
(2) The
endless regress in proving. (3) The
possibility
relativityof all perceptions. (4) The im^

of other
'

Sext. Emp.

corrected

in Chr.

than

hypothetical premises.

Pyrrh. Hyp. II. 194 ff.

Sigwart, Logik,

I.

Renewed

" 55,

3.

(5) The
in

J.

circle in the

syllogism.

S. Mill, Logic, II. 3, 2 ;

Thought

Hellenistic-Boman

202

should

that man
knowledge,!the Scepticsdemanded
can
far as possible(ettox^).We
so

to

seems

opinion than

of

man

vocal,

of

Scepticism

the

from

of

motive

Soeratic

they

held

schools

dogmatic

the

knowledge,

of

sign

sure

most

was

announcing

(as

order

to

avoid

of

conceived

be

as

"more

the

rather

withholding

assigned

such

criterion

is

uni-

If,therefore,

truth.

of

no

even

edge,*
knowl-

impossiblewithout

scepticalposition
defending it against the

them

and

is

origin,there

reality of knowledge,

the

to

virtue

that

in
sharply concentrated
the
deceptions to which

criterion

no

fast

task

the

found

states

(Paris,1877).

principle' that, in the presence of

is exposed in all his ideas of whatever

the

so

positiveassertion.

as

attack

The

(in

knowledge,

as

Broohard, Les Seeptiques "recs

Cf. V.

4.

than

belief

of
profession

as

the

Even

appears

tenance
scepticalmain-

should

proved)

that

negative character, at least,

and

maintained

be

of

something

here

that

contradiction

n.

suspend judgment

momentary

own

of knowledge
impossibility

the

[Part

nothing concerning

say

this and

that

can
only assert
; we
things {a.^a.(TU)
in so doing we
report only our
or
so, and
the Cyrenaics had already taught, " 8, 3)

of

Period.

Ethical

by

of

this

also by the
done
Epicureans and
scepticalobjections. This was
Stoics,although their materialistic metaphysics and the sensualistic
them
with
it prepared for
serious, and,
psychology connected

difiiculties.

ultimately, insurmountable
In
that

fact,it
the

content

explained by
theory

character

this

between

bodily

the

and

solelyfrom sevr
sense-perceptionthe Epicureans

of

theory
illusions

the

arises

knowledge
of

origin

image
to

even

gave

all ideas
The

perception.

suous

on

of

schools

these

of both

psycho-geneticdoctrine

the

was

of

(" 10, 3).

Democritus
the

to

senses,

This

dreams, etc.,the

the constructions
perceptionscorresponding to reality; and even
of the combining fancy or imagination could be explained
had
already taken place objectively
theory by unions which
of

the

process,

the
(totojo-is),

evident, in

But

images.

view

as

the

impression

an

possibilityof
of

Stoics

the

which

universal

of

also

regarded perceptionas

outer

things

seemed

commingling

to

the

upon

them

to

be

of all bodies.

soul
selfThis

which
The
of Scepticism, finally,was
brought
that
simplest formulation
Agrippa's five Tropes together into two ; there is nothing immediately certain,
ever
and
just on this account
nothing mediately certain; acoordiDgly nothing whatSext. Emp.
that is certain.
Pyrrh. Hyp. I. 178 f.
2 Cic.
VIII.
Acad. II. 9, 28 and 34, 109 ; Sext. Bmp. Adv.
463 fE.
Math.
8 Sext.
Math.
VII.
159.
Adv.
Emp.
*
Diog. Laert. X. 146 f K. A ; Us. p. 76 f., on the other hand, Pint. Stoio.
Hep. 47, 12.
1

the

predilectionfor appealingto
all men,
to shake

by pointing to

the

therefore,not

in

It was,

Eclectic

literature

and

Cicero

that

these

gentium

consensus

validityit

whose

argument

an

"

Period.

Thought : Ethical

Hellenigtic-Boman

204

of

negative instances
the spiritof the

common

in

especiallysaw

ideas

were

them

not

that

called

that

Nature
equally to all,but also that which
time
originallyimplanted in every one at the same
Cicero maintains
this,not only for the fundamental

of

and

knowledge,
doctrine

of modern

under

of knowledge

While

traced

back

all the

genetically,it

consistent, inference

that

solelythe feeling of

the

itself

of

with

Nature

deity has
his

reason.

the

Stoic

theories

Koival Ivvoai the

into

on

the

alistic
ration-

beginnings

the accessory
in innate

ideas.

the

as

to

Epicureans originally
sense-impressionspsycho-

drew
this the
from
Epicureans who
the sign for the recognition of truth is
a
necessitywith which
perception forces

the

consciousness,

upon

the

or

knowledge consists
ideas

(innatoe),

which

it retained

means

well

as

contents

only

was

this

by

Stoics

and

of

name

Sceptics

conceptionsof
in the deity and
in the
God
especiallyis held
origin.^ This doctrine

propagated

was

that rational

the

now

Stoic

Just

philosophy.

psychologistic
meaning
6.

the

of

in the later

innate

teaches

morality and right,but also for the belief

immortality of the soul : the knowledge of
of his true
recollection
to be only man's
formed
the best bridge between
the Platonic

for the

experience.^

Stoics

only

II.

the consent

"

easy

was

[Pakt

irresistible

the

clearness

or

vividness

(ivdpyaa)conjoined with the taking up of realityin the function

of the senses.
Every perception is as such true and irrefutable ; it
of the world
of consciousness,
exists,so to speak, as a self-certain atom
free

from

whatever.'
of

the

And

refers

fact of

their

them

them,

to

and

difference

unmovable

by any reasons
and mutually contradictoryperceptions
lies only in the opinion
exist,the error

if different

objectsseem

same

which

doubt, independent, and

in

not

the

that

prove

perceptionswhich

different

is
; relativity

outer

causes

by the very
correspond

rectness
accordinglynothing
point against the corof all perceptions.*
Meanwhile, opinions (So^at)
constantlyand necessarilygo beyond
this immediate
of sense-impressions
the
knowledge
: for
presence
needs
for
also
is not
of
which
that
requisite
acting
knowledge
immediately perceptible: it needs to know, on the one hand, grounds

to

Cic.

"

Id. De

cordetur
'

The

ethical
*

De

Nat.

Leg.

ac

Dear.
I.

8, 24

in

I. 23, 62 f.
:

ut is agnoscat

...

deum, qui

unde

ortus

sit

quasi

re-

noacat.

parallelism of
Atomism

Sext. Emp.

of the
Adv.

this

epistemologicalAtomism

Epicureans

Math.

VII.

203

is obvious.

ff.

with

the

physical and

of

Criteria of Truth

1, " 17.]

Chap.

and
(oiSijXov),

phenomena
that

the future

of the

from

hand

205

the

expectationas
But for
(irpoo-/iei/ov).

them

there

psychical mechary.sm

to

all

ing
is,accord-

Epicureans, no other guaranty than perception again.

are
conceptions (TrpoXiyi/feis)
only sense-impressionsretained
the

to
if

For

functions

farther

these

the other

on

inferred

be

may

Epicureans.

in the

of

vividness

these

their

have

they

memory,

own

impressions,

certaintyin the clearness

certainty susceptible neither

or

of

both with
regard
proof nor of attack; and hypotheses (viroX'^i/fas),
to the imperceptiblegrounds of things and also with
regard to future

events, find their criterion

at least

by it,or

verified

of

the

is therefore

the

among

we

It is evident

for

when

only

from

this

at

former

holds

said

they

as

for

the

theories.^

of

the

event

an

actual

are

diction
pre-

There

independent

an

expectationof any

our

the

that

far

so

explanatory

belief ; whether

or

principleany attempt

on

6.

latter

; the

Epicureans nothing

know

can

refuted

not

future, the

facultyof conviction
is correct

solelyin perception,in

Thus

occurs.

event

they

nounce
re-

theory of investigation.

Epicureans might regard

their

Atomistic

metaphysics as a hypothesis not refuted by facts,but

that they were
not permitted to regard it as
a
hypothesis that was
a
proved. It was
hypothesis,indeed, of which the essential end, as
seemed
to displace other
they employed it,was
hypotheses which
to them
ethicallyobjectionable. Their dogmatism is accordingly
own

their

only problematical, and

has to do with

rational
In

scepticism.

so

as
sense-perception

far
"

so

far

such

that

which

facts

it

as

strongly permeated

they recognise only

but regard
fact,''

in

knowledge,

is very

knowledge,
as

of

doctrine

with
with

passes

tain,
completely cer-

as

their

standpointis to be designated as that of Positivism.

This positivism was
consistently,
developed in antiquitystill more
and in a form
of
freed from
the ethical and metaphysical tendencies
Epicurus,by the theories of the later schools of empirical physicians.
These
of all that

schools

is

with

went

imperceptibleby

the

the

Sceptics as

senses

theories ; on
the other
hand, in their
evidence of perceptions,they went
with
is here
(TT^prjo-Li)

portrayed

retained

the basis

as

in memory

is

and

treated

As

the

the

with

this is the

conception of

final criterion

pleasure, so

the

even

criterion

vividness {Evidenz).
2
Sext. Emp. VII. 211.

regards

recognition
the

regarded

as

circumstance

all rational

the

of

Epicureans.

of the

theory ; setiological
explanationsespeciallyare
Connected

as

regards knowledge

sensuous

Observation

physician'sart,and
the

sole

essence

rejectedon
that

the

later

of

servation
obhis

principle.
Sceptics

causality in searching investigationsand

for tlie
of

suous
intellectuallygood is,with Bpicui-us,sentruth
of conceptions is only sensuous

the

Thought

Hellenistic-Boman

206

its difficulties,

discovered

had

^nesidemus

and in Sextus
Empiricus
aporise,^
broadly and comprehensively.^ With

more

theories
setiological

of

defects

to the

known

are

which

unknown

[Part

II.

already propounded

of such

series

the

Period.

Mhieal

find

we

him

them

oped
devel-

only such
designated as, that they reduce
that they
is just as inexplicable,
not

sufficient reason,
without
a
possibilityamong
many
examine
that they do not
experience carefullyenough with a view
that they after all explain
to possiblenegative instances,and finally
sort of a scheme
to perceptionby some
that which
is inaccessible
therefore
is especiallysimple and
known
from
perception,which
maintain

one

in itself ;
apparently intelligible
all the general difficulties which
idea
(picturate)
of

thing

one

thing

be

qua'

of

non

of
passing over
neither
intelligible

motion
the

on

clear

of the

process

acts

nor

The

the

made

gaining

from

us

out, also,

action

from

one

assumption
the opposite

(as force) is immaterial, nor on

which
is assumed
a
does
as
contact
(oEc^ij)
the causal
(as had been already
process

which

assumption
sine

another,

upon

prevent

relation.

causal

the

another, can

to

that

that

of

searches

these, he

besides

conditio
done

by

explicable. So, too, the time relation

The
most
effect is extremely difficult to determine.
and
of cause
important thought in these discussions,however, is the pointing out

Aristotle)make

of

the

it any

relativity
of the
of

effect ; each

the

more

causal

relation:

is such

two

only

correlative
iratrxpv are
The
postulated or asserted.
and

atnov

efficient

with

in itself

reference

which

must

not
of

(Stoic) conception
conception of a creative deity,is

the

cause,

terms

nothing is

to

cause

the

or

other ;

be

absolutely
essentially
then
thereby

an

excluded.
The

7.

substitute

direction a
Academy sought in another
certaintyof rational knowledge which they also

Sceptics of
for

the

out

Since
given up.
a
as
principleof

for

action

the

view

had

assent,

are

in

practical life

conduct

yet

able

to

himself

move

with

according to which
(wMTTis),
others

be

life,and

1
2

s
4

regarded

carried

be

as

the
a
some

action

is

will,^and
certain
ideas

that

kind
may

in

of
in

practicallife

confidence

or

greater degree

probable {f.v"uoyov),
adapted

to the

one

trust
than

purpose

of

reasonable.*

Sext. Emp.
Math.

Adv.

chischen

and

cannot

suspense

indispensable,and since
Arcesilaus
determining ideas are requisite,
brought out
that
refuse
his complete
them
ideas, even
though one

content

must

the

I. 180 ff.
ff.; of. K. Goring, Der

Pyrrh. Hyp.
IX.

195

Philosophie (Leips. 1874).

Plut. Adv.
Sext. Emp.

Col.
Adv.

26, 3.
Math.

VII.

158.

Begriff der

Ursache

in

der

grie-

The
in

Criteria

1, " 17.]

Chap.

Probabilism

theory of

define

to

attempt

an

is that
(irtSavoTijs)

of

clearness

sensuous

that

idea

stands

in

belongs
probability
without
which

it

where

vividness
farther

that

system

to

least

an

and

207

by Carnead.es

which

other

ideas

in

connected

ideas

single
of

(dTrepioTrao-Tos),
connection

belief

of

highest stage

the

to

higher degree

be united

can

'"

logicalrelations,
degree of probability
imperfect form

ivapyaa) belongs

connections.

idea

of such

The

indistinct

"

Lastly, the

belongs.

whole

(as

contradictions, with

any

farther

out

belief."

"

which

no

to

carried

exactly,according

this

or

Stoics.
Sceptics,

was

more

of

particulardegrees

the

of Truth

with

is

reached

is examined

to its

as

complete harmony and verification in experience (TTEpuoScvixivrj).

the sensuously isolated
rises,therefore, from
Empirical confidence
But
to the
though in the
logicalsystems of scientific research.
it may
be completely sufficient for practicallife (as
latter form
Carneades
certain

conviction.

8.

contrast

In

efforts to
to which

gain

with

of

and
the

doctrine

ethical

and

of

the

the

by

Stoics

the

be

characterised

no

most

strenuous

metaphysics,

considerations

from

internal

of ethical

was

held

predicated only

when

Judgment, nevertheless,

or

virtue

or

that

Truth

false.

(d^tw/xara)have

denied

as

to the

of

is conceived

by

the

it

is

not

to

falsitycan

be

of ideas.^

relation

Stoics
in

and
important position,which,
they take a new
by no means
degree
only the Scepticsapproach in some

this

theoretical

recognised, as
of

act

process
the

of ideation

essential

and

characteristic

in

of

and

in

antiquity,
as

ideas.

They

the

peculiar

judgment,

and
of approval",
((TuyKaTaBca-n)

assent

of

combination

"

merely

"

the

in

formed

been

the

whole

perception

in

and

and

tions,
presenta-

that

son;^
rea-

between

sensuous

hand,

is contained

judgments

is asserted

something

of

his

by

"

between

out

other

the

true

man,

dualism

or

to grow

on

of

logos

knowledge

parallel distinction
Although, therefore,

whatever

either

as

demanded

ideas.

pointed out,

knowledge

such,

completely

for their

World-reason

antagonism

sensuous

knowledge

as

the

made

value

impulses required

knowledge

which

high

so

of

Logos

the

sensuous

material

Stoics

to

the
spiteof psycho-geneticsensualism, to rescue
On
the principlethat like is known
of science.^

external

the

lead

to

in

character

by like,their

this, the

attributed

they

able

not

yet

epistemologicalsubstructure

an

interest,and
rational

it is

assumed),

being convinced,

with

1
2
'
*

which

the

mind

makes

the

lb. 166 ff.

Erkenntnisslehre
Cf. M. Heinze, Zur
VII. 93.
Sext. Emp. Adv. Math.
VIII.
10.
Sext. Emp. Adv. Math.

content

der

of

Stoiker

the

idea

its own,

(Leips.1880).

grasps

Thought

Eellenistie-Roman

208

in

it,and

takes

certain -way

its

makes

impulses,which

arisingof ideas, like that of the excitations of feeling,is

which
is of natural necessityand completely independent
the
the assent
will (d/couo-iov)
by which we make
; but

in the

now

the

the
the

idea

which

called

that

such

idea

do

evidence

class,

one

of

sciousness,
con-

identityof
only in

appears

soul, therefore, in

the

clearness.

or

activities of

intellectual

the

assent

forth

call

must

of as
(a-vyKaTaOems)is conceived
but individual
perceptions appear
as

the

human

an

of

reasonable

Hence

hending
appre-

Such

these

an

immediate

with

true

of

(KpiW)
of the

virtue

by

logos, this

are

process

ideas, apprehends reality.

and
they were
^vraala KaTaX.r]TrnK-^,^

of

content

Stoics

conviction
assent

ideas

of those

case

world.^

man,

individual

the

decision

outer

wise

of the

case

with

universal

the

the

from
(IkouViov)

free
But

other, passions,is

the

and

judgments,

n.

This
(KaToXa/x^avetv).
an
independent function of
as
they regard the
way
in passion. The
appearance

apprehensionthe Stoics regard as

in the
same
consciousness
(ijye/iowKoV),
to the

[Part

it

possessionof

act of

assent

Period.

Mhieal

assent

the

man's
itself

activityof the thinking soul,

the objectsof assent as truly
as
ing,
conception,judgment, and reasonah

individual

perceptions.
that
by the ^avrao-ta KaTaXip-TiK^
the mind
idea by which
lays hold of reality,and which, therefore,
illumines
that this,in its assent, makes
the mind
so
realityits own,
indeed
the correct
this was
expression for the requirement which
based

If

they

set

which

Stoics

the

thus

adapted

the

upon

for

up
to

to

the

the
end

understood

but
idea,''

true

for which

recognise truth.

For

the

framed

it

was

as

the

the

definition

be

subjectivemark, assent, might

of a multitude
of evidently false
case
Thus
the anthropologicaldiscord in the

lb.
In

the

of,

39, 7.
interpretation of

all

is,for

Sceptics'very
shown
as
a psychologicalfact

in the

at

sign by
justlyobjected,

that

not

was

ideas.
Stoic

manifests

doctrine

VIII.
the

sources,
that
now

it

seems

which

now

as

this term
if the

apprehends
again

the

there

idea
real

were

is

wide

intended

fact, now

that

divergence.
which

by

the

which

According to
lays hold

mind
the

mind

hends
appre-

the mind
lays
that the mind
must
assent
to
it.
It has
hence
been
supposed that the Stoics
all
the expression in this ambiguous
purposely constructed
as
form, inasmuch
relations
these
would
in it,and
harmonise
perhaps E. Zeller (IV.s83) [Eng. tr..
to repeat this ambiguity by his translation, " concepStoics,etc., p. 89] intended
tional idea or perception" (begriffliche
Vorstellung),which, however, has an
that the Stoics certainly did not intend.
logicalsense
accessory
' It is worth
while
the fact that
to point out
in their
designations for the
relation
of the knowing mind
to the external
t
he
Stoics
employ, for the
reality,
most
part, expressions from the field of the sense
of touch
hending,
(impression,appreor
grasping, etc.),while formerly optical analogies had been preferred.
Cf. " U, 2.
*
Sext. Emp. Adv. Math.
VII. 402 ff.

reality,and

now

that

which

on

its

part

so

hold

of

1,

itself

even

the

under
to

given

ultimately
in

actual

ordering

become

much

vdjiios
into

be,

as

well

opposition
was

the

problem

that

The

in
of

their
the

is

is
the

doctrine
future.

metaphysics

equally
certain

Stoics

agreed

the

normative

stances,
circum-

it

sides

two

of

freedom

Herathe

and

for
at

was

however,
with

had

was

fall

impossible

difficulties,

Reason

which

knowledge.

should

conceptions

these

antithesis,

this

their

under

Both

separated.
as

it

metaphysics

although

clearly

And

"^uo-ts.

strenuous

theodicy,

things,

of

World-reason

so

ideas.

their

theory

should,

ground.
in

more

should
and

of

false

to

209

with
the

assent

common

identifying

clitus

which

their

impulses,

sensuous

even

of

from

theoretical

how

be
have

of

Stoics.

accordance

arising

soul

mastery

understand

in

explained

be

not

Truth

of

conception

central

individual

the

how

this

in

could

it

As

Criteria

" 17.]

Chap.

the
of

meanwhile
them

same

which
and

that
time

came

their

II.

CHAPTER

E.

Essai

Matter,

[J. Drummond,

Judxus,

and

Development

die

Georgii, Ueber

f.
philosophie (Zeitschi:
Deutinger, Geist

A.

Ritschl, Die

Chr.

Baur,

der

der

in

VAcademie,

VEcole

etc.,sur

alexandrinisehen

der

Beligions-

1839).

1850-51.
Ueberlieferung. RegensMrg,
2d ed., Bonn, 1857.
Kirche.
altkatholischen

christlichen
der

Christenthum

der

drei

Tubingen, 1860.

Jahrhunderte.

ersten

Patrologie. 3d ed.,Freiburg i. B. 1876.

Boston, 1884,]
Continuity
of Christian Thought.
[A.
Zeit.
Alb. Stockl, Geschichte
der Philosophic der patristischen
Wiirzburg,

J.

Alzog, Grundriss

der

G. Allen, The

v.

J.

Munich, 1859.
Philosophicder Kirchenvdter.
die
der
Ueber
Overbeck,
patristischen Litteratur
Anfdnge

1859.

Die

Huber,

Fr.

its

Berlin, 1836.

Auffassung

ITieol.

hist.

Entstehung

Das

Philosophy

Cfegensdtzein

E.

ff.

1888.]
par

Christenthum.

und

Vogt, Neuplatonismus

Paris,1846

Alexandrian

ouvert

Paris, 1845.

d'Alexandrie.

ft.

vols..Lend.

le Concours

Bartliglemy St. Hilaire, Sur

K.

Completion.

1840

Jewish

the

or

ff.

d'Alexandrie.

Critique de VEcole

Philo

Paris, 1843

Paris,

d^ Alexandrie.

VEcole

sur

Sistoire

Vaoherot,

E.

W Alexandrie.

deVEcole

J. Simon, Eistoire

PERIOD.

RELIGIOUS

THE

{Hist.Zeitschr.

1882).
Lehrbuch

A. Harnack,

[J.Donaldson,

ethical

Critical History of Christian

to

the

how

between

little able

of the

the

its

of

the

systems extended,

philosophy

was

to

in

time.
the

in this

causes

the

imperious

the

For

farther

task

which

mands
dethe

evident

it became

more

fulfil the

1886-90.

pMlosopliyfrom

its inner

occasion

i. B.

Doctrine.^

and

Hellenistic-Roman

external

felt need

Freiburg

Literature

religiousstandpoint had

philosophy itself,and
made
by the
contact

3 vols.

Dogmengeschichte.

gradual transition

The
the

d^r

it had

set

namely, that of educating man

by a sure insight to a state
While
of virtue and happiness,to inner independence of the world.
the sceptical
mode
of thought, which
and more,
was
extending more
of the
virtue
consists rather in the renunciation
already taught that
itself

attempt
more

and

man,

so

to

know,

more,

than

even

in
among

the
knowledge itself,
the

Stoics,that

sharply and rigidlydrawn,

910

was

not

view

their

forced

its way

ideal of the wise

entirelyrealised

in any

212

"sicklied

o'er with

the

pale

intellect,and
This
it.

The

is true

true, victorious

in the

sure,

fact

force

youthful
that

was

that
of

civilised
; and

over
own

be

able

as

world

take

to

against

the

ideas

the

only by taking

its own,

Jesus

be

it

lay,to

old

the

of the Roman

to

philosophy
in order
thereby

the

build

to

its

up

working
shaped

it

strong as

so

of

the

conquer

world

world

the

convictioii

and

also in

state,so

it made

with

itself

into

it up
with

conflict

able

was

thereby ultimately became

and

possession

ancient

of

decrepit,blasi world

; but

trine.
doc-

true
precisely

religiousfeeling,and

death

in its external
^

indeed

religionof

the

this

high,

pure,
to

constitution

of

power

its life into

to transform

and
Christianity,

it entered

courageous

ancient

its

of

even

IL

come
thought," so deeply had it befor knowledge, that each of
need
only the feelings but also the

anxious

therefore

was

[Part

of

cast

permeated by the feeling of a

religions desired to satisfynot

the

it

Thought.

Hellenistic-Roman

to

its defence

that
own

philosophy's
dogmatic

system.
Thus

the needs
of the

solution

of science

problems

and the latter

religion,
its religiouslonging or

at

of life met.

and

it had

which

desired

The

been

former

scientific formulation

conviction.

and

vain,in

basis

this time

from

Hence

soughtthe

labouringin

for

on, for

centuries,the

history of philosophy is grown

together with
and the period of religiousmetaphysics
that of dogmatic theology,^
begins. The thought of antiquitydescribed a peculiar curve, separ
rating itself farther and farther from religionfrom which it proceeded,
many

reaching its extreme

again steadilydrawing near
within

separation in Epicureanism, and then

to religion,
to return
at last entii'ely

it.

Under

conditions

these

it is

possible to

understand

that

how

and
the sensuous,
separated the supersensuous
divine
from
the
of
view
of
value, as
looking upon them,
point
the
constituted
and
earthly baseness, respectively,
perfection
movement.
common
religious-philosophical
ground of the whole
had already,indeed, been introduced
This view
by the Pythagoreans

Weltanschauung

which

"

'

"

(cf." 5, 7), and

without

doubt,

metaphysics.

had
found

It was,

been

maintained

its most

even

forcible

therefore,this

by Aristotle,but

formulation

latter

had,

Platonic

in the

system which

it

formed

the

controllingcentre for the religiousclosingdevelopment of ancient

is the fundamental
thought. A religiousdevelopment of Platonism
of this period.
character
1

Cf. K. J. Neumann,

Diocletian

Der

romiscke

Staat

und

die allgemeine Kirche

understood

of course
matter
a
that the following
as
side all specifically
dogmatic elements, except where
with philosophical
principles.
quite inseparably interwoven
2

has

It will be

left at

bis

auf

(Vol.1. Leips. 1890).

one

exposition
tiieyare

The

2.]

Chap.

Religious Period.
of

geographicalcentre

The

the

213
is found

however,

movement,

in

city which, by its history,as well as by its population,represented

most
distinctlythe mingling of peoples"and of religions,

that

"

of

treasures

worship crowded
metropolis to seek
and

Pythagoreanism,

within
the

all

museum

religionsand

all

garnered,

were

of

forms

great throngs of the commercial

the

the

of

feelings

that

them.

Alexandrian

mode

work

scientific clarification

of

active

the

together in

stormed

first line

The

in

culture

Grecian

of

surged

where

Here,

Alexandria.

the

of

is the

philosophy

so-called

Neo-

from

thought which, proceeding

the

only an
religiouspractice of the Pythagorean mysteries, makes
of the number-mysticism of the old Pythagoreans after
external
use

writings,while it finds the theoretical

ethics in a transformation
setting for its world-renouncing, religious-ascetic
became
of the Platonic
.of the prometaphysics, which
in the
foundest
value
for the conception of the spiritualnature
itself and

it calls

whom

its

regarded as typicalrepresentativeof

is to be
Not

in its

from

Empire, brought out

theory of the world,

dualism
of

influence

without

of the

of

the

system

of the

school.

In

so

become

Stoic doctrine

of

religion,

school.

this

school, the Stoa, also,in

the

time

elements
the religious
energetically
that not only did the anthropological

sharpened, but
substituted

like

:nen

this

more

thought gradually became

the

founder

the

following period. Apollonius of Tyana,

Epictetus,and

Seneca,

became

completely

revived

again

Marcus

Aurelius,

of deliverance

philosophy

mode

originalpantheism

the

for

theistic

more

or

redemption.
Even
as

Cynicism

rude, populalr preaching

for its best-known

Scarcely to
and

Apamea

and

separated

of

Nicomachus

Jewish

fusion

of the

two

while,

in all these

the
very
the

ascendency
much
sect

of

Apuleius
and

Christian

over

passes

Neo-Pythagoreans
of

our

era,

Later

Madaura.

influences

as

such

appear

as

the

are

of

Plutarch

of

Numenius

stand

besides, already

Gerasa, who,

forms,

the

Essenes

Pythagoreanism
attempts

religiousgarb,

witnesses

of

element

ever

complete

tendencies.

with

of learned

the

Hellenic

Oriental, the

stronger force
of the

the

from

first centuries

of the

under

But

Demonax

renunciation, and

of

representative.

be

Eclectic Platonists

Chaeronea

in

this time

about

in the

latter

Jewish

makes

maintains

philosophy of religion.

probably prpceeded from a contact

the
Hebrew
religious life,so the

Jews

to

draw

in

its appearance

nearer

Cf. E. Zeller V.s 277

to

ff.

Greek

science

of

As

Neo-

various
in

the

Thought.

Hellenistic-Boman

214

and

formation

their further

thought influenced

of

of Philo

fermenting

of these

originalelaboration

whose

of Alexandria,

the doctrine

ultimatelyto

led

of their dogmas,
presentation

[PartII.

bodies
in the

movement

important points.

most

first centuries

for these
'philosophyof Christianity,which
unfolded
Patristics,
usually designatedby the name
The

with

gospel begins
belief

the

as

only

Christianity in

sought

Apologists,who

the

philosophy,with

true

the

cultured

of the

eyes

of them

important

and

Justin

are

the

purpose

world

from

this

adapt

to

began
persecution,and therefore
faith to the conceptional forms

and

of

ligious
re-

tecting
pro-

contempt
of

content

science

Greek

of

of the

present its

to

is

analogous

an

secularisation
philosophical

This

larger scale.

upon

manner

in

the

ligious
re-

most

Felix.

Minudus

into knowledge or wisdom

(Trto-Tts)
itself vigorously in the Christian
asserted
communities,
(yvSo-is)
The
first
ever,
this
without
even
attempts, howpolemical tendency.
which
the
to create
Gnostics made
an
adequate view of the
for the new
world
religion,
proceeded from the excited phantasies
the

But

of

need

faith

changing

Syrian mingling of religions,and, in spiteof the employment of

Hellenistic
philosophemes, led to such grotesque constructions,that
of

the

Church

rejectthem.
the

as

best

known

and

against

An

bius.

of

Gnosticism
It
these

This
the

is to be
of

By

the

in

regarded

in the

of the

named

forward

came

also

to

by

beginning of
that

the

which
to

School

and

Hellenising Apologists,
discipleHippolytus.

third

for Oatechists

century,

at

Origen.

the
philosophically

theless
never-

related

the

his

positive Christian

and

Arno-

one-sidedness

and

after

theology,a

complete conceptionalform, was

school, Clement
as

and

return

this

older

Irenceus

in Christian

all
tem
sys-

established.

Alexandria, through
The

latter

especially

most

important representative

from

the Alexandrian

in this
Christianity

his

period.
side,however, there went

school

tendency
"

thus

part

time,

Tatian, Tertullian,and

Without

until

about

leaders

its

on

combated

dogmatics

came

like

men

anti-rationalism

preceding attempts,
of

to be

are

to

of

in, for

set

philosophy.
approximation to the

was

not

was

of

faith

Greek

closer

Valentinus

obliged

was

religiousfantastiphilosophicalinterpretation

all

toward

it necessary

found

with

writings

express

doctrines

definitive

.more

over-hastyattempts

Christian

of

in the

such

aversion

adjustment

literature

and

of this class.

violent

calness, a

stronger

Saturninus, Basileides,and

reaction

In

it grew

as

of

the

man

who

philosophyto

Plotinus, the

an

out

undertook
issue

greatest thinker

to

bring the

philosophic
religion-forming

solelyupon the Hellenistic basis,

this period. His
attempt to

of

The

2.]

Chap.

systematiseall

science

religiousteaching,and

such

which

the

as

of the

the

heads

system

Thus
of

which

returned

appear,
the

of

no

religionto

osophy
phil-

Neo-Platonism.

in

finallyto

of

state

of

the

of

leader

of

Christianity,

forms

of

dissolution.

school

Athens,

of

worship

After

this

Neo-Platonism,

Proclus, and

methodical, scholastic

the

dogmatic theologyof polytheism,

to revive

Athenian

Plutarch

is termed

as

Damascius

development

of

of Plotinus.

Hellenistic

the

science

Hellenistic

political
opponents

Julian, hoped

miscarried, the

who

it into

and

religions,then

had

attempt

Jamblichus,

the learned

Emperor

heathen

and

and

transformed

SyrianNeo-Platonism,
with

Greek

thoroughly constructed
tem
systhat
antiquity produced. His disciplePorphyry,
himself
a
already inclined to make
religionout of

however, showed
this

of

definitive

is the most

doctrine
of

doctrines

main

215

religiousprincipleis designated as

the

under
His

the

ReligiousPeriod.

efforts

remained

without

church.

On

complete

the

and

to attain
result

in

other

to

this

hand,

form

the

strengthen itself in

religion by

new

need
a

the

means

scholars

felt

scientific

covered
dis-

by positive
doctrine

did

goal : the Church created its dogma. And the great course
of historyin this movement
Hellenism
in its
was, that the defeated
of
powerful death-strugglestill created the conceptions by means
which
the new
religion shaped itself into a dogma.
attain

its

While
the Pythagorean mysteries had
maintained
their existence
through all
after
its
vanished
school
as
a
antiquity, scientific Fythagoreanism
proper
until
It is not
incorporation into the Academy
during the first
(of p. 31)
that
noticeable
become
century b.c.
specificallyPythagorean doctrines
again :
in the
they appear
Pythagorean writings, of which
Diogenes Laertius
(VIII.
24 ff.),following Alexander
that leads
to infer
us
Polyhistor,gives an account
an
essentiallyStoic influence.
expressly by Cicero's learned
They are renewed
friend,P. Nigidius Figulus (died 45 e.g.),and find approval also with other
in Rome.
Cf M. Herz, De P. Nig. Fig. Studiis atque Operibus (Berlin,
men
1845).
But
first presented in literary form
by
was
Neo-Pythagoreanism
proper
the great number
the
at about
of writings which
became
public in Alexandria
of Pythagoras, or Philolaus, or Archytas,
beginning of our era, under the names
other older Pythagoreans, the fragments
culties
or
of which
give rise to so great diffiin forming a conception of genuine Pythagoreanism.
Cf. the lit. p. 31.
.

Of the personalities of the new

school, on the contrary, very little is known.
life and
nature
the
of Tyana, of whose
only distinct figure is ApoUonius
rhetorician Philostratus
(ed. by C. L. Kayser, Leips. 1870) gave a romantic
The

the beginning of the third

to portray in it
century, in order
of ApoUonius
himself, who
Pythagorean life. Of the works
lived in the first century a.d., fragments of a biography of Pythagoras and of
treatise on
in
a
Sacrifice
Christus
Cf. Chr. Baur, ApoUonius
und
extant.
are
Drei
Abhandl.
d. alt. Philos.
Gesch.
zur
(Leips. 1876). [Tredwell, Life of
His
ApoUonius
temporary,
cona
of Tyana, contains
1886.]
good bibliography, N.Y.
of Gades, might perhaps also be mentioned.
Moderatus

representation
the

ideal

of

at

the

Neo-Pythagorean
of

Alexandria,

who

and
was

Stoic

L. Annaeus
Seneca
the time of the Empire.

his tragicfate,and

doctrines

appear

mingled

in

the

Eclectic

Sotion

the
Sextians
affiliated with
(cf.p. 163). His disciple,
in
of Cordova
of the Stoics
the leader
(4-65 a.b.), was

also

He
as

was

instructor

tragic poet

of

unfolded

well known
Nero, was
the rigid conceptions

because

of

of life held

by

his

[Eng.

tr.

from

and

his

Of

school.

are

lot

Thought.

Hellenistic-Roman

216

writings

number

considerable

[Pakt

of mainly ethical

II.

tises
trea-

preserved besides his Epistolx (ed. by Haase, 3 vols.,Leips. 1852-3)

from
this
1614, Selections
(or rather paraphrase) by T. Lodge, Lond.
L'Estrange's Seneca'' s

series].
Besides

Cf.

him

Chr.

mention

we

in the

Paulus

chief

(Phurnutus), a

Cqmutus

Annseus

L.

of Abstract, liOnd. 1888, Gameabove.

JJrei Abhandl.;
see

by Way

Morals

S. und

Baur,

sentative
repre-

of the Stoic interpretation of myths

(Ilcpit^s tu"v Seav (pweus, ed.
C. Musoniua
the moralist
the
satiric
poetPersius,
1844),
by Osann, Gottingen,
Rufus, and especiallyEpictetua, who lived at the time of Domitian, and whose
doctrines

the

in two
works, Aiarpipal and 'Eyxfip^Siov
(ed.
by J. Sohweighauser, Leips. 1799 f.)
Simplioius
commentary
Bohn's
library; also by T. W. Higginson, Boston, 1865]. Cf.

H.

und

together
[tr.by G. Long,
A.

Bonhofler
With

the

Anlan

published by

were

with

of

noble

die

Staa

1890).
(Stuttgart,
mounted

Stoa

the

Antoninus

Aurelius

Marcus

the

Roman

Stich,Leips.
(1^1-180).
of this
characteristic
eclectic-religiousStoicism.
the
monument
1882) are
The
Thoughts of the Emperor, M. Aurelius Antoninus,
[Eng. tr. by G. Long.
and
N.Y.
1888 ; M.
lib. ; W.
the Epicurean, Lond.
Lond.
Bohn's
Pater, Marius
Arnold
in Essays.]
In the ancient
Grecian
dering
wanperiod, an originalfigure,that of the monkish
preacher Teles, had gone out from the Cynic school (cf.v. WilamovitzMoUendorf, Philol. TJnters, IV. 292 ff.). In the time of the Empire this quaint
ridiculous
to the most
creature
was
frequently copied and exaggerated even
of Gadara, Demonax
extent.
Fritsohe,Leips.
1866),
Demetrius, Oinomaos
(of.
and
through Lucian, belong to these figures. Cf.
Peregrinus Proteus, known
J. Bernays, Lukian
und
die Kyniker (Berlin,1879).

(ed.by

tA, eis avrbv

reflections

His

imperial throne

J.

who
kept at a distance from
religious Platonism
and
the eclectic commentators
Eudorus
theory, may be mentioned
editor
of
the
works
of
Plato
and
the
Arius
Didymus,
Thrasyllus,
Democritus,
and
of Ghseronea
especiallyPlutarch
(about 100 a.d.),from whom, in addition
of other
to his famous
biographies, a great number
writings are preserved,
especiallyphilosophical treatises of dogmatic and polemical content
{Moralia,
ed. Diibner
III. and
IV. 1855) (cf.R. Volkmann,
Lehen,
; Paris, Didot, Vols.
Schriften und Philosophie des P., Berlin, 1872). [Plutarch'sMorals, trans, ed.
by Goodwin, 5 vols.,Boston, 1870 ; also tr. by Shilleto and by C. "W. King, both
in Bohn's
1888 and
1882 resp.] We
of
mention
further
Mazimus
lib.,Lond.

Of the representativesof

the

number

Tyre

of

the

time

of

the

Antonines

; his

who

belongs in this series not only on

by A. Goldbaoher, Vienna, 1876) but

contemporary,

also

Golden

"The

romance,

Ass"

of

account
on

of

account

(cf.Hildebrand

in

of

Apuleius

Madaura,

philosophical writings (ed.

his

the

allegorico-satirical

his

introduction

to

his

lected
col-

works, Leips. 1842) [The Works

of Apuleius, Bohn's
nent
lib.];the oppoof Christianity,Celsus, whose
treatise
i\ri$iisX67os (about 180) is known
of Origen, Kari K^Xo-ou (cf.Th. ICeim, O. " wahres
only from the counter-treatise
and
died about
lastlythe physician Claudius
Wort," Ziirich, 1873);
Galen, who
patetic
classed as a Perieclecticism be likewise
200, and might, to be sure, with his broad
and
also as a Stoic (cf.K. Sprengel, Beitrdge zur
Gesch. d. Medicin, I.
the same
117 ff.). From
circle of ideas arose
also the writings circulated under
of Hermes
the name
Trismegistus, which belong to the third century (French
tr. by L. Me'nard, Paris, 1866 ; partiallypublished by G. Parthey, Berlin, 1854).
the Platonists
of the second
bia,
in Araof Gerasa
Among
century Nicomachus
of whose
and
writings arithmetical text-books
(through Photius) an extract
from

'ApiS/iijTiicd
9eo\o-yoinepa are

work

extant, and

our
instruction mainly
we
owe
concerning whom
Cf. F. Thedinga (Bonn, 1875).
Pythagorean.

to

The

entrance

the

middle

of Greek

of the

philosophy

second

into

century b.c,

Biblical explanation of Aristobulus

to

Jewish

theology

where

; it appears
is already much

it

then

of Apamea,

Numenius

Eusebius,

in

may

be

can
a

are

strongly Neo-

be

traced back

recognised in

the

particularlymarked

sphere of
but weak
pseudo-Solomonic Book
Yet
these
are
of Wisdom.
forerunners
of the important creation
life
of Philo
of Alexandria, of whose
little more
is known
than
that in the year 39, when
advanced
in
already
age, he
of an embassy from
his native community
was
a member
Caligto the Emperor
manner,

thought,

and
in

in

the

form

that

nearer

the

Alexandrian

His

ula.

The

2.]

Chap.

writings,

numerous

ReligiousPeriod.
which

among

there

217
is

also

much

that

is

not

edited by Th. Mangey

; [Eng. tr. by C. D. Yonge,

(Lond. 1742), Leips. stereotype ed., 8 vols.,

4 vols.,Lond., Bohn's
1851-53
lib.].
Die jiidiscli-alexandrinische MeligionsphUowphie
F. Dahne,
(Halle, 1834).
und
die alexandrinische
Theosophie(Sta.ttga,Tt,1835); M.
A.Gfrorer, Philon
Qesch.
des
Wolff, Die philonische Philosophie (Gothenburg, 1858); Ewald,

genuine,were

Israel, VI. 231 ff.

the Christian
Apologists
Among

Volkes

whose
writings are collected in the Corpus
secundi
the
sosculi, ed. by Otto (Jena, 1842 ff.),
Apologetarum Christianormn
of Sichem, who
lived in the middle
of
most
Martyr
prominent is Flavins Justin
defensive
Two
the second
writings and a dialogue with Trypho the
century.
Ch. lib.,ed. by Roberts
and
son,
DonaldJew
are
preserved [Eng. tr. in Ante-Nicene
K. Semisch
Edinburg, T. " T. Clark, 1867"].
(2 vols.,Breslau, 1840-42),
Further
and B. Aubfe
Apologists from the Hellenic
(Paris,1861) treat of him.
Aristddes
in the Armenian
circle of culture
are
(whose discourses,discovered
printed with a Latin translation,Venice, 1878),Athenagoras
language, were
Aurelius
about
to Marcus
of Athens
irepiXpurTtavwv addressed
(irpeo-^eia
176),
to Autolycus about
(a treatise addressed
180), Melito
Theophilus of Antioch
others.
Latin
literature
of Sardis, ApoUinaris of Hierapolis, and
presents
written
about
200
was
Felix, whose
dialogue Octavius
especiallyMinucius
C.
in
the
ecclesiasticorum
Halm,
Vienna,
scriptorum
latinorum,
Corpus
by
(ed.
Laotantius
1867). The rhetorician, Firmianus
(about 300), is to be placed in
"

the

series.

same

His

main

treatise

lib.,see

in Ante-Nicene

authors

is the

Institutiones

[tr.of

Divince

the

above

above].

comes
essentiallythrough their opponents,
ed.
yvilxriuis,
(140-200 ; his treatise "E\e7xos xai dvarpoiriittjs yj/evSwviiJov
by A. Stieren, Leips. 1853), Hippolytus (KoTi iraffQv alpiaeav eXcv^os, ed. by
Duncker
and
Schneidewin, Gottingen, 1859), Tertullian
(Adversus Valentilib.,above]. Of
ni'anos),etc. [Eng. tr. of the above writings in Ante-Nicene
Gnostic
treatises
author, is extant, HIittis
only one, and that by an unknown
representatives of this
"To(t"la
(ed. by Petermann, Berlin, 1851). Of the main

Of the

Gnostics

information

our

Irenseus

doctrine

there

active

were

in the

first half

Basilides, a Syrian, and

of the
century Valentinus,

Antioch,
middle

160);

and

toward

the

end

of the

of

the

second
in

Carpocrates
the

of

important

most

of

century Saturninus
Alexandria

of

; toward

them

the

(died about

sitions
Expoof the Gnostic Systems by A. W. Neander
(Berlin, 1818) [Eng. tr. by
Torrey, Boston, 1865],E. Malter
(Tubingen, 1835),
(Paris, 1843), Chr. Baur
A.
der
letzte Gnostiker
Hilgenfeld (Jena, 1884), same
author, Bardesanes,
A. Hamack,
des Gnosticismus
Zur
(Leips.1864).
Quellenkritik der Geschichte
(Leips.1873); [H. L. Hansel, Gnostic Heresies, Lond.
1876].
The
radical
of Greek
science
most
was
an
Tatian,
Assyrian,
opponent
whose
treatise Upbs "EXXrjras
himself
later became
about
an
arose
170, but who
of the Valentinian
adherent
Gnosticism.
The
passionate Apologist Qu. SepBardesanes

century

Mesopotamia.

"

"

timius Florens
Tertullian
likewise in opposition to
His works
A.

have

Reiffersoheid

(165-220,
the

been

edited

and

Wissowa

Catholic

for

time

Presbyter
in

Church,

the

sect

Carthage)

in
of

the

ended

Montanists.

Oehler
(3 vols., Leips. 1853 f.),recently by
(Vol.I. Vienna, 1890, in Corp. script, eccl. lat.)
lib.]. Cf. A. W. Neander, Antignosticus, Geist des
lib., 1851]; A. Hauck,
Berlin, 1849) [Eng. tr. Bohn's

by Fr.

[Eng. tr. in Ante-Nicene

Tertullian,etc. (2d ed.
T.'s Leben
und
In the
same
series, but from
Schriften, Erlangen, 1877).
a later time, is the African
rhetorician
whose
seven
books, Adversus
Arnobius,
about
300 (ed. by A. Reifferscheid
in Corp. script, eccl.
Gentes, were
composed
lat.,Vienna, 1875).
Of the writings of Clement
of Alexandria
(died about 217) three treatises
"

are

by

preserved, A6yo! irporpeTTiicbsirpis"EWiji/as UatSayoiySi

"

J.

"

Srpu/iaTeis (ed.

his school (cf.on

Potter, Oxford, 1715) [tr.in Ante-Nioene
lib.].From
the Alex. Catechetical
school, Guericke, Halle, 1824 f.,and Hasselbach, Stettin,
mantine.
the Ada1826) went forth the founder of Christian theology, Origen, surnamed
Born
185 a.d.
in Alexandria, equipped with
of the
the full education
forward
time, he came
of his
early as a teacher, fell Into conflicts on account
doctrines with the Synod, was
later lived in
from
his office,
and
by it removed
Cfesarea and Tyre, dying in the latter place 254.
Of his writings, aside from
the above-mentioned
treatise
against Celsus, his work
mpl
ApxHv is of chief
importance ; it is extant almost only in the Latin version
of Rufinus
(ed. by

Thought : ReligiousPeriod.

Hellenistic-Roman

218

[Part

II.

lib.]. Cf. J. Keinkens, De

Redepenning, Leips. 1836) [tr. in Ante-Nicene
0., Darstellung seines
Al.
Redepenning,
Olemente
(Breslau,1851);
Preshytero
Christian
Platonists
The
Bigg,
Lehre
[cf.
und
seiner
1841-46)
Lebens
(Bonn,
in Snc.
Brit.^.
of Alexandria, Oxford, 1887 ; A. Haraack, Art. Origen
writers
of this period has been
for all the Church
A collection of the sources
1840 ff.).
Oursus
(Paris,
Computus
J.
P.
issued by
Migne, Patrologice
Saccus

Ammonius

certain

appears
is known
to

in

old

traditions

justifythis

but nothing
belonged Plotinus, Origen, the rhetorician Iionginus
Origen.
book Ilepi iii/'ous
was
ascribed, and another

Neo-Platonism,

the

as

founder

To

his

(213-273), to

whom

tradition.

of

pupils
the

in Lycopolis
Plotinus
school was
of the
founder
(204-269). Bom
of
member
he
became
an
expedition
a
in
educated
Alexandria,
in Egypt, and
his religious studies, made
a highly
in
to
order
Persians
the
promote
against
The

true

successful
in

estate

Campania.

disciplePorphyry,

teacher

as

appearance

works,
arranged in six
His

old age, were

by H. Miiller

in late
Ed.

enneads.

died

244, and

about

Rome

in

written

on

country

published by

his

(Leips.1878-80),

1787, 1794,
[Eng. tr. in part by Th. Taylor, Lond.
by Bouillet,Paris, 1857-60]. Cf. H. Kirchner, Die Philos. des
A. Eichter,
(Halle, 1864 ff.)."
Neuplatonisdhe Studien
PI.
(Halle, 1854).
Art.
NeoHarnack,
Studien
1883).
[A.
(Ueidelherg,
H. Y. Kleist, Neupldt.
in Enc.
Platonism
Brit.'\

with

translation

German

1817, French

tr.

"

"

the

To

Neo-Platonisra

Alexandrian

are

further

reckoned

Gentilianus

lias
Ame-

the extant
of Ameria,
Tyrian Porphjrry (about 230-300). Among
and
be
Plotinus
to
of
are
aside
from
the
Pythagoras,
biographies
writings,
mentioned
'A(popiml rpbs tIl votiTd,an aphoristic abridgment of the system of
of Plotinus, Paris, 1855),the
ed. of the works
Plotinus
(printedin Creuzer's
of
tUv
On Abstemiousness
i/i'f'Cx'o'',
important on account
treatise
(irepiairoxiji
Berlin, 1866),and
of the irepleia-epdas of Theophrastus ; cf. J. Bemays,
its use
the ^l"rayoiyiiils t4s Karriyoplas (ed.by Busse, Berlin, 1877 ;
of the commentaries
Berlin
ed. of Aristotle, Vol. IV. )
also
in
the
and
in Coeleof Chalcis
founded
Neo-Platonism
was
by Jamblichus
Syrian
of Porphyry.
His
principally
writings were
330), a hearer
Syria (died about
Hellenistic
and
Oriental
commentaries
following are partheology. The
tially
upon
toO
Paris, 1850),
Westermann,
HvdayopiKov plov (ed. by
preserved : Tlcpl
els "t"CKo(ro(j"lav
(ed. by Kiessling,Leips. 1813), Hep! t^s koii^s
A670S irpoTpeiTTi.Kbs
iTria-T-^p-ris
(ed. by ViUoison, Venice, 1781) [Eng. tr. Life of Pyth.
lw.eriiw.TLKrii
Chiswick, 1821].
1818, Egyptian Mysteries, by same,
by Taylor, Lond.
the Aristotelian
commented
on
Of the disciples of the school, Dezippns
wrote
a compendium
Categories (ed.by L. Spengel, Munich, 1859), Sallustius
Themistius
of metaphysics (ed. by Orelli, Zurich, 1821), and
(about 317-387)
Aristotelian works.
made
commentator
himself known
a paraphrast and
as
upon
circle comes
the treatise
De
From
the same
Mysteriis JEgyptiorum (ed. by G.
1858).
Parthey, Berlin, 1857 ; cf. Harless, Munich,
had
transient
This
movement
a
politicalsuccess
by the accession of the
who
its
the
to
old
renew
hoped
help
religion and displace
Emperor
Julian,
by
edited with a
have
been
Christianity. His writings against the Christians
translation
German
by K. J. Neumann
(Leips. 1880). Cf. A. W. Neander,
Kaiser
J. und
sein Zeitalter
D. Pr. Strauss, J. der
TJeber den
(Berlin, 1812).
Throne
der Cdsaren
aufdem
Abtrilnnige, der Romantiker
(Mannheim, 1847).
J. nach
den
A. Mucke,
Quellen (Gotha, 1866-68).
and

the

"

"

The

founder

of

with

Athenian

hart's

Art.

The
the

1826

last

commentaries

his

works

Kirchner,

head
of

of
a

the
upon
; cf. E. Heitz

and
upon

Platonic

by
De

GrUber's

the

All
and

More

these,

(died

Athens

of

Plutarch

was

Hierocles.

part preserved.

works

in Erschund

beginning

in

are

whose

(411-485),among
BeoXoyias (ed. of
Taylor]. Cf. H.

Neo-Platonism

pupils Syrianus

his

430),
following, composed
writings, which
after

well

as

Aristotelian

important

or
was

as

the

rean
PythagoProclus

important is Ilepi t^s xard XlKdrwrn

Cousin, Paris, 1820-25) [Eng. tr. by Th.
Metaphysica (Berlin,1846). K. Stein-

most

V.
Prod.
Enc.

of whose
writings
Damascius,
Academy was
mentary
of a comTrepiTfiv irpiiravipxuv, and the conclusion
extant
a. M.
Parmenides
Frankfort
are
(ed. by J. Kopp,
the

Platonic

treatise

in Strass. Abhdl.

fur Philos., 1884),and

also

biography of

inclination

Peripatetic,the

and

founder

teaching of the
the

forward

later

time,

which

were

we

of

order

the

could

get

the

Aristotle,a Plato, or
it

the

to

conceive

of

stamp
them.

they

could

in

the

of

that

heroes

sanction

good
opments
devel-

of

wisdom,

the

this,the

civilisation,by deriving

ancient

the

as

or

later

their

to

of

bearers

that

might

read

even

Greeks

from

the

into

believed

philosophy,as

it

cern
con-

established

traits

them

chief

livelybecame

more

themselves
all

of

appeared

be

to

than

way

halo

the

vere

for within

with

in

only

as

better

no

with

therefore

sought

were

acted

part

thoughts

ture.
litera-

doctrines,evidentlybelieved

authorities

these

give a higher

entire

most

works

one

interpolations

Alexandrian

religiouscharacter, the

contented, however,

their

to

such

as

Not

that

the

doctrine

new

religious revelation,and
them

old

convictions

the

more

bore

manner

need
a

as

the

But

in this

great

felt in the

Pythagoras. This phenomenon

the Ifeo-Pythagoreans, whose

their

invest

to

was

wisdom.

of

countless

their

their
of

name

extensively among

most

the

hearing for

to them

by assigning
an

of

cantinuations

and

be

to

whole

the

in

regarded

faith,since they themselves

they

day

authors, who, perhaps, for

Their

that

brought

that

or

by

conflict

been

this

come

the

from

recogniseeven

may
the

authorityhad

for

need

strongly the

How

all the

never

because

believed

be

must

works, yet

principlehad

the

was

in

the

fostered

it.

said

had

man

something

that

treasure

[Part II.

maintain

and

preserve

his

upon

truth

criteria of

the

to

unassailable

an

as

commenting

of

custom
to

as

Thought : ReligiousPeriod.

Hellenistic-Boman

220

well

Oriental

did
hesitate
that
not
maintain
to
religions: thus Numenius^
of the
Pythagoras and Plato had presented only the old wisdom
As
of this,the
result
Brahmans, Magi, Egyptians, and Jews.
a
of literaryauthorities
extent
increased
extraordinarily;the later
and
Neo-Platonists, a Jambliehus
not only on
Proclus, commented
Greek
but
also
the
entire
barbarian
and
philosophers,
Hellenic
upon
tales
theology,^ and credulously adopted myths and miraculous
from

these

In

sources.

quite
for

esteem

similar

Oriental

manner

literature testified also to its

Hellenism.

Among the predecessors of Philo, Aristobulus

especiallyappealed to verses
which
were
interpolatedin
and Hesiod
Philo himself,
Orpheus and Linus, in Homer
with
; and
the

great

Jewish

side

appear
The

side with

by

felt need

in the

theologian,the
of

unconditional

In

Eus.

Prxp.

the

great

Old

men

Testament, as
authoritynaturallyasserts
faith in religious
records.

Ev.

IX.

7.

of

Greek

bearers

philosophy
of wisdom.

itself most
Here

Marinus,

Prod.

strongly

the Old

Vit. 22.

Testa-

Authority

2, " 18.]

Chap.

ment

the

from

was

of

and

Christian

in the

But

in which

writings

with

the

If

2.

of
the

of

took

the

from

arose

Where

extent

also
the

in

period

their

of

are

well

as

instrument

This

in

appearance
and

defined

gradually

was

the

with

New

Testament

already appear

with

longer

no

that
all

might

we

quence
conse-

in

from

for

authorities

This

lines,of extracting
the

the

yet

was

in

itself credit

gave

suppose.

reading into them,

which

thought,

of

nowise

bound

relation

rather

the

authoritative

scientific doctrines

which

found

in

the

entire

polations
inter-

literature

of

Neo-Pythagoreanism, they employed

of

method

first in

less

or

those

expressly to

resort

not

more

in

as

the

did

as

allegoricalinterpretation.

theology. It had its prototype

the allegoricalinterpretationof myths, which
made
its
was
employed by the Sophists,
earlyin Grecian literature,

meets

indeed

then

of

scientific

even

doing they

so

be

tion
collec-

religiousmovements.-'

new

which
the

and

religious institution,it

to

form, along
and

sources,

should

truth, subjected itself voluntarilyto

antiquityand
thereby to the

science

establishinga

Testaments

scepticaldisintegration

power

the

ity.
(orthodox)Christian-

of

conclusion

both

for

validityof churchly authority.

this way

in

now

of

need

Marcion,

and

221

foundation

of faith

system

TertuUian

and

the full value

the

Philo.

also for that

with

completion

and

Irenaeus

firm

Church

certainty,first developed
satisfied in the

the

beginning

philosophyof Judaism

and

Revelation

and

us

Jewish

documents

Stoics.

the

extensively prosecuted by

by Aristobulus,

but

it

It

ious
applied to relig-

was

Philo''

was

carried

who

it

conviction
that a distinction
the
through methodically,proceeding from
the
be made
in Scripture between
the literal and
must
its body and its soul.
In order to teach
spiritualmeaning, between

his commands
nature

to the

unable

are

revelation

the

mature

sought

in

great

of

mass

the

apprehend
anthropomorphic form,

man

to

penetrates

to

the

divine

been

This

which

philosophicalconceptions
historical husks.
Accordingly, since Philo
has

purely,
which
only

sense.

the

directed

their
God

behind

true

in

who

men,

lie

the

sensuous

the

sense

of

ually
spiritis to be
in

hidden

task

to

gave

the

theology

toward

into a sysinterpretingreligiousdocuments
tem
this
for
Greek
of scientific
doctrines; and if he uses
philosophy
and
finds in it the higher meaning
of the Scripture,he
purpose,

as

Even

he

would
into

man

the

like Plutarch
revelations

the teaching of
view.
religious
2
Cf. Siegfried,Philon
(Jena,1875).

his

of

of
a

Chseronea,

who

follows
does

religious document,

his master

Aristotelian

and

Stoic

the
not

writings of
scruple to

doctrines

as

Plato
duce
intro-

well

own

v.

Alexandria

als

AusUger

des

alten

Testaments

as

Thought

Hellenistie-Boman

222

explainsthis

[Part
of

thinkers

the

that

ground

the

on

II.

Greece

documents.^

Mosaic

from

drawn

have

relation

ReligiousPeriod.

Following his example, the Gnostics then attempted to transform

interpretation,
Oriental myths into Greek
conceptionsby allegorical
the
of
Apostolic
and
thought thus to develop a secret doctrine
of
Christian
the harmony
tradition, the Apologists maintained
"

doctrine

with

the

Irenseus

and

TertuUian

who

Gnostics

like the

first
the

distinguished between

New

the

Testament,

great Alexandrian

The

like

men

and

"

philosophy of Christianity

bring the

to

even

"

upon

its documents.

with

accord

into

worked

how

knew

finallyOrigen

philosophy,

Greek

of

dogmas

theologian,

attempted to create a Christian theology,

carnal (somatic),psychical,and
spiritual

(pneumatic) conceptions of the religious records, corresponding

ideas
of the time
(cf." 19 f.).
to the
metaphysico-anthropological
"

Christianity
yields only a
and it is the task of
o-(Dju.aTiKos),
(xpt^Tiavtcrjiios
according to the flesh
at which
theology to lead out of this,through the moral significance
the
psychical readers stop, to the ideal content of the Scripture,
truth.
self-evident
the reader
then illumine
which
as
must
Only he
this last belongs to the pneumatic
who
or
spiritualreaders,
grasps
literal

the

him

For

"

tradition

historical
"

"

"

the

to whom

in

is found

fullest

practisesit, in

extent

that

with

accordance

the

from

truth

the

religioustradition

Neo-Platonists.
Stoic

mythology,

veil

myths

the

among

itself.

reveals

philosophicalmeaning

Occidental

and

Oriental

and

model,

in all such

But

from

sensuous

doctrines,the interest
of

accommodations

are

at this time.

authority,felt

of

; it obtains

in such

all artifices of
it.

rescue

of

declares
are

essential

This

the

scientific doctrine

the

conviction

but

are

that

as

of

that

need

pressly
ex-

not

tian
Chrisfaith ;

religious

of

identityof authority and

the

fundamental

degree, that just where

content

(in the

over

allegorical
interpretationare
confidence,nevertheless,with

develop its own

ultimatelyupon

rested

The

to

and

forms

who

men

science

philosophy to

knowledge obtains,therefore,as

of rational

to

all

on

Proclus, too,

teachings, yvGo-is)
ultimatelypredominates
they

Jamblichus

of it.^

worthy
3.

of

extraction

This

disclosed

gospel thus

eternal

of the

that

both

it

sition
presupposeems

attempted
which

ened,
threatin order

science

ceeded
pro-

religiousdocuments,
historical authority

different revelations

of the

same

divine

Power.
We

have

seen

of the felt need

Phil.

that

the belief

of salvation

Vit. Mos.

657

a.

and

in

authority in

help. Another

(137 m.).

Procl.

this

period grew

psychologicalroot
In

Hemp.

369.

out

of

Revelation

Authorityand

2, " 18.]

Chap.

the

Origen,Justin.

enhanced

itself in the

importance of personality. This

for the great men
livelyexpression of admiration

past,as

find

this belief

we

in

less

was

it in

Philo

in
which, especially
of

veneration

the

in

and

unconditional

the

223

of

trust

later

all lines
the

of

schools.'

disciplesin

grandestform as a power in
overpowering impression of

the

This

world's

of the

o^Platonism,and
their

Neo-Platonism, degenerated

heads

shows

to

history,in

masters,

exaggerated

motive

same

that

and

life,as

the

the

stupendous,

the

admired

revelation

personalitywas

of the

divine

and

and

epistemologicalbases for
Attachment
especiallyin Stoicism.

that

knowledge

is

recollection,with

Cicero that right knowledge

is

within it,the

carrying

of

idea contained

in it that

stantial

emanation

regarding

in man.^
the

small

It

was

the

from
form

every

out

the

the

from

point

this

relationshipmaintained
and at the
Christianity,

rational
his

nature

image, as
of

has
^

his

he

creation;

the

impulses.

From

revelation

the

point

which

of

So

is set
man
"

also

by

likewise
forth

the

Stoics
to

as

Apol. n.

On

the

philosophyfrom

of

be

the

the

cure

of

sermon

Ev.

8 ; of. Min.
other
hand,

of

the

XL
Fel.
to

Jewish

be

tion
revelaof

world.

philosophy
superiorityof
internallythrough the
the

who

of

this

retarded

has

the

the

deification

aimed

(ib.I. 36).
In Euseb.
Frmp.

in

to

kindling

is created
the

externally through

of

entire

to the

history of civilisation
Roman
Emperors.

only

in

Moses
Justin

race, the

human

we

and

ployed
help, em-

science.'

Greek

more

demons

man's

not

in

tion
perfec-

universal,

evil

by

appeared

men

is extended

view

parallel in the boundless

them

also

led

old

has, therefore, for

specialrevelation,which

the

consub-

divine

the

the

man

development

God

of

all this

"

illumines

himself

himself

the

is

of

conceived

revelation, is

prophets,but

calls the

'

but

actual

sensuous

the
and

revealed

soul

kind

between

time

revealed

in

conceived
Justin, especially,

him

same

doctrine

soul,is innate

said,'the

of
{a-n-ep/m
Xoyov tfnt^vrov)
has

potential than
man's

indeed

that

by

in the

World-reason,

great light which

of view

Platonism

Platonic

of the

the

physical
meta-

logos doctrine, and

rightknowledge as
knowledge is,as Numenius

All

God

God

part

divine

in

and

already expressed

turn

of

lightfrom

the latter.

Stoic

rational

of the
and

the

implanted by
the

the

to

The

given

were

him

in teaching

regarded,

World-reason.

this

in

appears

Faith
in
personalityof Jesus.
the uniting bond
which
held together victoriously
the various
was
manifold
tendencies
of early Christianity.
this psychological motive
But
justifieditself to theory by

consideration

not

may

notice

the

of the

time

of

for

sick

the

Empire, philosophy,

souls

which

(Epictetus,Dissert.

deity himself, through

the

mouth

among

III.
of

23, 30),

the

wise

18, 8.
Oct. 16, 5.
Justin
sni'e,

religion,as

as

well

as

borrowing.

Philo

derives

the

Greek

Period.

Thought : Beligiom

Hellenistic-Boman

224

in

has
appeared
But that wMcli
(Tmpii.a.Ti.K6%.
A"Jyos
dispersedand often obscured, is not the full truth

on
prevails,

this teaching there

In

effort to set forth

the

and
that

worth

by

the

such

as

repressed,and

more

with

the

gists,
Apolo-

highestphilosophy,
of

abiding

Christ

philosophy.
is Eeason

teacher

is

itself.

brought

means

as

possibleto
knowledge made

of

this
religion,
conception of

as

near

had

yet

at

the

same

the

religiouscontent
gists,
stronglyrationalistic with Justin and similar Apolothe specifically
Felix:
Minucius
religiouselements
that

consequence,

itself became

appear

this

that

essentiallyequivalentto
time

God.

teachings^

philosophy,and philosophy'sprincipleof

rational

time, so

was
^Christianity

While

this

n.

entire,pure

and

the true

earlier

the
second

hand,

one

in itself all

and
(SiScto-KaXos)

teacher

the

called

the

the

in

discovered

be

can

God,

Christianityas

it unites

that

to show

of

Christ, Son

in

revealed

been

logos has

former

and

[Part

which

in

moralising deism,

the

Christianitytakes on the character of a

it acquires the greatest similarityto

religiousStoicism.^
other

the

On

in

hand,

Christianityspeaks out,
kinds

all other

of

this

for with

its

revelation,universal

self-consciousness

the

relation

it

perfect revelation
well

as

as

of

regarded

as
particular,

fluous
super-

of itself
point the Apologetic doctrine became
here,
especiallyin Athenagoras. Revelation
polemic, as is shown
too, is still regarded as the truly reasonable, but juston this account
osophers
Philis not to be demonstrated, but
the reasonable
only believed.
the SvlW truth, because
have
not found
they have not been
; and

at

willing or able

this

to

Thus, although

4.

God

in

the

from

oppositionbetween
from

themselves
^

Irenoeus
more

himself.

Apologetic

revelation

and

Gnostics, in developing their

the

God

doctrine

supernaturallyrevealed, there

as

the

learn

is

the

rational

is

garded
re-

gradually preparing an

The
more
knowledge by the reason.
theologicalmetaphysics, separated

the

of Christian
faith, the more
simple content
warned
against the speculationsof worldly wisdom, and
violently Tatian, with Oriental contempt of the Greeks,

delusion
of the
Hellenic
was
rejected every
philosophy which
each would
always at variance with itself,and of whose teachers
exalt only his own
opinions to the rank of law, while the Christians
to the divine revelation.
uniformly subjectedthemselves
This oppositionbecomes
still sharper with
Arnoand
Tertullian
bius.

The

Apol.

Cf. Min.

II.

former,

as

Tatian

13, fitraTrapd

irairt

had

koKws

already done

in

part, adopted the

eipjiratTjfiuv 'K.piimavutvitrnv.

Pel. Oct. 31 ff.,

the Christian
where
of philosophers.
Stoic world-state
as the
Bef. II. 25 ft.

fellowship

of

love appears

cisely
pre-

carried

was

that

out

the Platonic

combat

left

man

and

in

and
here

knowing

the natural
the senses,

the

more

far

as

The

tum

in

nothing

is unbelief

their

by

become

lost.

The

quantity of

in this time
decide

to

could

be

not

because

the

line of

of

sought

in

itself very

the

be

Stoic

example,

natural

as

knowledge.

itself
it

rational

to
lation,
reve-

as

sable
indispenfor

criterion

the

such

for

threatened

who

This

Hellenistic

the

regards

this

knowledge,

thereby injured.
all

of theology into

division

phy,
philoso-

philosophy.

truth

noticeable,especiallyin
for

Hence

enough

presented

would

revelation

thought. Plutarch,

viz. of

of

individual's

in the

turn

necessary

with

natural

and

right revelation,and

principleof

revelation,follows

as

occasions

so

quia inep-

est

do

to

only

understood.
in

Christian

no

which

to

in

quia absurdum.

revelation

that

to be

Philosophy

criterion

lower

reason,

agitation in religion,made

such

the

on

dif"cultymade

Athens.^

the

to

credibile

nothing

found

The

is not

is also

but

credo

is therefore

identification

sensualism

appear.

activityis
:

elation,
rev-

it is limited

more

contrary

with

between

So

of revelation

content

has

also

this.

revelation

view,

theory

in

it needs

reason

the

"

the

destiny of

and

sense

main
re-

Since

or

for orthodoxy.

discernment

; there

boundaries

defining of

For

for this

knowing

to do

vocation

basis

man,

certain

to his

rationalistic

But

as

does

worldly

would

on

impressions of the
absolutelyincapable of

in faith

est,quia impossibileest

Jerusalem

5.

of

natural

according
Christianity,

knowledge

Just

only

birth

the

any

only incomprehensible,

with

certum

est;

also

not

contradiction

of

Tertullian,the

man's

by reason
gospel is

deity,or

necessary

but

reason,

power

faculty

Accordingly,with
above

own

first time

itself for the

shows

its

its salvation

finds

his

solely to

this life.

transcends

that

limited

of

from

gain higher knowledge.^

not

of the

acquiringknowledge
own

isolation

complete

is therefore

it

senses,

its

Platonising theory of knowledge, he showed

mentally empty, and

soul is by nature

human

225

metaphysical aspect, but drew from it only

of a purely sensualistic theory of knowledge.
in an
interestingway lofArnobius, when, to

logicalconsequence

This

Tertullian,Plutarch.

in. its

Stoic materialism
the

Revelation

2," 18.]Authorityand

Chap.

knowledge
kinds,

three

philosophers, and
law-givers,and
would
decision
to
as
concede
to science
or
philosophy the supreme
religious
truth,' declaring himself
vigorously against superstition'
"

Am.

TertuU.

Adv.

his polemic
He
no

the

poets, of

also

Came

and

of natural
Isid. 68.

Ohr.

5 ; De

expressly against

is the

to revelation.
De

the

"

Gent. II. 20 ff.

De

compromise,

'

of

extreme

with
In

who
of

opponent
his hot-blooded

still

knowledge

more

7.

PrcBscr.
those

Gent.
*

De

latter

the

present

the

Stoic

Hellenising

nature

popular

{Adv.

In

demands
Arnobius

manner

II. 74

ff.).

Superst.

14.

of

he

passage
or

dogma

tianity.
Chrisknows

; he

unconditional
sets

directs

Platonic

forth

der
surren-

the

lessness
help-

226

(Seto-iSai/xovta)
; but
credulous
of

Thought: Religious Period.

Hellenistie-Boman

his

as

tales

of

Proclus
result

of

since

time,
which

which

renunciation

the

up
; and

respect,

renunciation

the

of

of

the

his

the

writiags

absence

the

as

of
and

consistent

discernment,

own

revelation

and

all kinds

Jamblichus

itself

shows

naiVe

incredible

thinker's

of' the

need

into

Neo-Platonists,

later

this

ultimately as

be

to

takes

he

miracles

the

in

proceeded

himself

shows

prophecies and

with

criticism

he

[Pakt II.

with

brought

"

it from

the

beginning.
the

Here

development

in with

organisation, set

of

accredited

authority.

and

Testaments

New

that

assumes

in

always

and
spirit,-'

finds
of

agreement

in

the

this

verification

truth

reason,

but

therein

contained, and

with

essentiallyin

the

in the

of

the

of

divine

this

the

purposeful

the

to

Old

of

the

human

which

prophecies

connection

were

in

from

It

divine

origin, not

derived

knowledge

fulfilment of

the

highest truth,
relation

their

process

historically

alone, inspired.

as

this

recording

in

and

tradition

also

receptivityin

pure

then

was

religious documents

the

entirely,and

authors,
of

principleof

its

regards

as

the

state

It

which

Church,

are

their succession

in time.

The

proof from prophecy, which

extraordinarilyimportant
development
theology,arose
accordinglyfrom
criterion
for
finding a
distinguishing true and fake
Since
is
denied
man
knowledge of the future through

for the further

the

need

of

revelation.
natural

marks

as

propounded
To

the

the

man

the

; to the

In

Just.

Bef.

1'he

in

has

revealed

of

divine

the

Old

and

prophets
they have

added.

point

law

According
in the

himself
purer

of

the
love

strict
and

succession

tion
following connec-

in

the

to

of

course

law

to

are

be

the

entire

of

Moses

freedom

which

of prophets
regarded

time

corresponding to

manner,

plan of education, according to

Testament

trine
doc-

supported chieflyby

was

stand

to the

race

nature, which, to be sure, may

Israel,in

connected

the

Apol.

of the

of which

means

receptive capacity :

the

this

as

used
be mis-

entire

; to

Jesus

there

which

he

nounced.^
an-

is thus
the

lations
reve-

preparationsfor

I. 31.

III.

12 ; IV.
Alexandrian

gospel,"

on

in the rational

people

now

this

Testaments

God

man's

humanity again,

of

which

is

constantlyhigher
of

himself

developed

inspiration,by

second

New

one

degree

reveals

and

same

in

Church,

Irenaeus,^Old

the

doctrines.

this argument
of

to

cognition,the fulfilled predictions

of

their

so

of

of

processes

serve

became

which

Testament.

Cf.

the Human

Race.

11 ff.

theology added,

is to
the

he

sought
carrying out

in
of

fourth phase of revelation, the " eternal

the pneumatic
interpretation of the New
these thoughts in Lessing's Education
of

as

standpoint of his
All thought,
world.
ecstasy; for thought

the

in

himself

raised

is then

Ecstasy

entire

loss

unity of
How

But

all that

abstract

his

with

own

relations
to this

is to

put

; he

is to

turn

according

grace,
And

prayer
if these

with

God,

all acts

and

do

always

not

deity,they yet
the

when

at

secure

is,in all

appear

lower

deification.

worthy
and

nature

multitude

but

individual

with

the

Platonism,

Plot.

lb. V. 3.

'

An

26),

that

the

soul

into

rapture.'

As

lead

the

to

least,as

highest
'

Apuleius

had

revelations

forms

for

forms

symbolic

of

of

the

of the

revelations
before
lower

worship

that

immediate

are

posed,
sup-

gods

and
Neo-

later
had

taught

ecstasy of

supreme

of

this

to

union

the

Neo-

of

the

inspirationdiverged,in Christianityand NeoIn the former, divine

wholly different forms.

two

VI.

expression

7.

which

is found

Plotinus

also

Plat.

I. 24

Procl.

Theol

"

Jambl.

in Procl.

De
Myst. JSg. II.
Apul. De Socr. 6

'

finds its

of

theory

which

it is

God.

Ennead.

and

ways

faith ; but

and

preparationfor this operationof divine

of religiousworship are
commended.

preparatory

exercises

all will

individual

of

of blessed

peace

of this

^
the
(an-Xwo-is)
;

nature

the

finite into itself.

himself

the

the

For, ultimately,all

Platonist

Thus

and

an

giftof

cases,

helpful
demons, of saints and guardian spirits. So, also, in
the
Stoics
Platonism, the raptures of prophecy which
as

with

essence

the

up

all reason,

and

comforting

of

possessionof the deity,a

all description,
all perception,

sensuous

from

and

he has

divine

make

all his

transcends

share

the

takes
to

back

effective aid in the

most

has

man

Ecstasy,

self-consciousness

the

Proclus, love, truth,

to

last,which

in the

of

particulardeterminate-

It

simple,essential

his pure,

are,

off

state

frame.^

can

will, has

free

his

complete unification
the

thought

He

to

this

to

of the

all

at

Infinite,which

the

of

boon

mocks

be attained

to

it is

which

him,

deification.

ground

know;.

to

him

in

rest

into

sinking

self-consciousness

of

man,

only

It is

is this state

deity, a

desiring

"

transcends

which

life with

and

motion,

object transcends

its

(cf." 20, 2)

ness

the

with

essence

teaches, is inferior

Plotinus

state

individual,as

the

in

or
only
contemplation (Aristotle)
ecutpia,
entirelyto the deity.

divine

the

certainty of God, blessed

is

however,

II.

spirits(Tn/eu/xaTa)
so
from
"deification"of man

this

of

oneness

is

[Part

divine

and

conceive

Alexandrians

the

too

Religious Period.

human

of
consiibstantiality

to the

of

Thought

Hellenistic-Roman

228

Tim.
11
ff.

even

employs
f.

64 C.

(96).

with

(Unn.

VI.

Marcus

Aurelius

7, 35).

(Jlpis^o"t.

IV.

is fixed

revelation

in which

process

Matter:

Spiritand

2, " 19.]

Chap.

sinks

into the divine

Ages

the

of

the

proceeds from
attain

can

the

'

help

that

of

the

this

in

of

what

is contrary to
the

between
and

the

the
of

The

identification
of

nowise

All the

limited

been

the

and
spiritual

and
(yei/eo-is),

however
Being (ovo-t'a),

much

in the

and

doctrine
as

set

of

thought
and

Epicurus

the
and

psychical nature
On

the

strongly as

other

against

over

the

sharply accentuated,
more

it

of

the

same,

the

outer
more

the

to

knowledge

of

in the

telian
Aristo-

to

animal

regard
from

soul

(cf." 15, 1)

at

however, in the doctrines

materialising
which

became

it took
the

on

the

marked

off

into

itself,as

withdrawn

world,

of

expression.

its strongest

of

way

incorporeal

made

been

dualism,

theory

the

opposed

be

crossed

conscious

nature,

in

was

phenomena

of

theory

had

It was,

ethical

the

of

world

might

Peripatetic

inner

pressed, also,toward

the

which

attained

the

distinction

contrary, were

world

School

the

that

and

the

of

Stoa

sensuous

reason

self-consciousness.

the

the

partly

of

ever

principle,entering

activities

forms

are

prepared

on

the

to

attempt

again.

possible,man's

he

man,

from

and

aside

hand,

roots

Platonic

divine

rational

the

vols, the

the

development

this

excluded

ethics

immaterial

without, the
once

of

an

of

antagonisticmotives

while, in the

Reason

of

interest

natural
super-

which

immaterial, which

the

belonging

thus

of sense,

antithesis

the

which

only by

remains

to the

activities

remained

sensuous

with

although

Aristotle

by Plato, as

regarded, even

Its

ops
devel-

that

as

in the world

Stoic

the

which

Plato

mental

incisive

so

period.

spiritualand

by

revelation

always changing.

is

with

complete

made

it,had

for

the

of

religiousdualism

world,

Middle

Mysticism.

higher spiritualworld

which

world

sensuous

is

is united

supersensuous

of

is the

relation,

is for the

need

ensnared

man,

view

reason

all eternal

f or"er

felt

none

anthropological,
partlymetaphysical
and

latter,it

Matter.

the

is shown

mode

fundamental

the

premise

the

latter,that

and

Spirit

philosophy/

knowledge

to

The

; the

in which

arguments

Alexandrian

in the

man,

Scholasticism

in

frfeed from

originalGround.

" 19.

Among

authority;

individual

the

source

historical

as

Stoics,Neo-Pythagoreans. 229

and

more

more

the

religious form,
world

made

that

as

this

opposition its metaphysical principle.

"mind"
Geist," corresponding to both
sometimes
to
to one,
period leans sometimes
In view of the prevailinglyreligiouscharacter
of the ideas
it in this section
usually rendered
by " spirit," sometimes
^

used

"mind

[The
in

German

or

and

"

this

spirit."]

of

"spirit,"

as

meaning.
period I have

other

the

the

by

the

alternative

Thought

Hellenistic-Roman

230
1.

of the

it

strongly that
of

Stoics

questioned by Posidonius, when

opinion,that the passions could
must

from

come

''

find in Seneca

we

and

breath

or

all the

rational

In

of the

the

Now,

makes

however,

it,it

is

the

retains

looks

only

matter

upon

yet his

in

the

the

soul

man's

to

arate
septhe

proper,

incorporeal

an

find in all these

marks

of

psychical

intention

as
Stavota),

intellectual
as

and

latter

this,we
the

elements

distinction

material

from

with

constituent

two

coarse

animates

changes

in the

Stoa

men

from

principleopposed

its motives
the

By

system.
soul

of

ethical

adherents

and

due, perhaps,to

are

which

Neo-Pythagoreanism,

of

Tj-yejuoviKoi/,but

an

the

to the

idea
Stoic

deity,

to reason.^

These

with

the

Aurelius

correspondence

conception, and

of

body

and
intelligence(i/oBs

deity,that

hostile

and

sharply

more

spirit or

being.'

it

which

pneuma

already
Platonising

the

soul.'

parts of the

nature,

been

the

from

physics
meta-

"

between

nature

not

indeed

expressed
arise

man's

so

soul and
"flesh ; the
oppositionbetween
is a fetter,a prison for the mind.
So, too,

Marcus

though

sensuous

oneness

the

bald

body is only a husk,

Epictetus calls reason
man,^

he

irrational

other

the

of

hitherto, had

taught

had

of

idea

with

contradiction

palpable

The

school.

the

the

which

into

comes

II.

emphasise anthropologicaldualism

Stoics,who

later

[Part

form, perhaps, in the expressions

in clearest

relation appears

This

ReligiousPeriod.

first made

at

and

the

the

risinginfluence

Platonic

religiousvalues, the

of

this

doctrine

the

dualism,

centre

essential

of its

difference

is

emphasised in the strongest manner,* and with

body
are
intimatelyconnected,' on the one
hand, the doctrine
which
will
have
God
a
worshipped only spiritually,
as
purely
spiritualbeing,'by prayer and virtuous intention,not by outward
this

most

acts,

and

"

aims

to

back

to

free
its

the

on

the

other

soul

from

spiritualprime

certain

Cf. Galen, Be

Senec.

Epist. 65,

"

Epict.

Dissert.

Marc.

Aur.

Senec.

Claud.

'

In

in

morals

matter,

and

which
lead

it

Hipp,

et

source

matter
it

is regarded
(v\rj)

the

as

peculiarsin

of

the

as

ground

of

man.

Plat. IV. 3 ff.

22 ; 92, 13
; Ad
I. 3, 3.

Marc.

24,

5.

II. 2 ; XII. 3.
Med.
65. 24 ; Epict. Diss. II. 8, 2
; Marc.
Mam.
De
Stratu Anim.
II. 7.
far as
here, too, man
is

Ep.

Aur.

Med.

XII.

2.

regarded as a microcosm.
Ps.-Pythag. in
249, p. 440 a.
ApoUonius of Tyana {weplevaiuv)in Eus. Prmp. Ev. IV. 13.
so

Cod.

completely ascetic

its ensnarement

by washings and purifications,

by
foods, especiallyflesh, by sexual continence, and
sensuous
impulses. Over against the deity,which

avoiding
by mortifying all
is the principleof good,
all evil,propensity toward

Phot.

the

hand,

We

this

meet

Matter

Spiritand

2, " 19.]

Chap.

couception ethically,
among

same

in

theoretically,
everywhere
the

between

nature

of

the

of

man.'

and

body,

its seat

has

organism

salvation

all

in the

in

that

its

since

this

sensuous

form

to

as

time, has

the

them

created

the

; for

which

has

evil is

world

of

out

of

and

man

of

the

religiouscharacter
purity :

of

In

Plutarch,proceeding

to

certain

dualism

good

the

same

from

in

but
religions,

he

found

might

of the

spoken

this

also

in

the

Here

have

same

the

to

God

has
is not

the

ground
the

on

part

appears

in its

of

and
plete
com-

ent
indiffer-

an

its

by

use

Platonists

in
a

the

myths
passage

like

formless

as

rather

deity about

lect
intel-

ethical

matter

it,but

ent.
yet differ-

the

"

referred

deity

the

pure

only through

in

the

the

matter

good deity,^

thought

this,

tion
extirpa-

that

Hellenistic

the

with

as

freedom

time

evil

evil not
to

God

yet here
of

conception of

opposition

this and

something

manner

the

degree, contends

or

at

principle,but

as

in

in the

which,

of

the

regarded

is rooted

is therefore

to

him.

of

nature

sensuous

doctrine

use

in the

imperfection.

the

matter

seduce

principleof

Plutarch

matter.

had

the

standing

power,

the

becomes

spiritualpowers.

with

perverted

who

itself is

matter

nature, which

being, sought

in the

demons

of

independent

an

but

nation
ema-

essential

arranged by

conception

shapeless

as

rather

sought

been

tinguishes
dis-

bodily
as

imprisoned

matter

is related

united

is

the

true

sought only

indeed

Aristotelian

the

the

body's

him, too,

Apologists'idea

of

which

sinfulness^

of evil and

ground

He, too,

pneuma,

the

Essenes, and

Philo.

latter

be

must

desires

regarded immediately
of

this

universal

spirit(volsrtXetos)is

or

that

unfolding by

man's

the

Christian

With

the

purposive, good world,

remained

The

2.

of

vital "force

as

blood, and

sinfulness

corporeal substratum,
so

teaching

soul, which

He, too, finds

from

of

the

231

the

purely spiritualdeity,constitutes

retarded

SO
(ata-Bemi)
,

Fhilo, Plutarch.

Not-

force

force

which,

formation
of

or

of

different

where

Plato

oppositionto the good.*

Meanwhile, the tendency to identifythe antithesis of good and
evil with that of mind
itself here too,
asserts
(or spirit)and matter
in the fact that the essence
of evil is sought again in a propensity
'

In

this connection
and
with

occur

evil world-soul

Philo

Platonists
him

again

telians,
the Stoics, AristoirveSfiathat which
among
is called voCs ; cf. Zeller V.^ 395, 3. Yet there
expressions in which, quite in the Stoic fashion, the

of the
other

calls
time

of
air, in the sense
Siebecli,Gesch. d. Psych. I. b 302 ff.

pneuma

appears

as

in

most

refined

physical reality.

Cf.

H.

2 It
is also characteristic
which
doctrine
that the sinfulness
of all men,
a
is completely at variance
of the ideal
with
the old Stoic faith in the realisation

of

the

wise

is generally acknowledged
by the Stoics of the time of
for the
regarded as motive
necessity of supernatural help.
Seneca, Benef. I. 10 ; VII. 27 ; Epiot. Dissert. II. 11, 1.

Empire,

man,

and

Plut.

Plat. Laws,

De

Isid. 46
896

ff.
E.

the

Cf.

232

Hellenistic- Roman

toward

the

the

on

This

mentioned.

in

the

also,in

love

feature

fundamental

only a

it is found

but

"

sought

is

contrary,

other,'

he

the

above

the

is the

body
working of

from

reception of

Platonists

the

when

life,and

also

yet

the

seeks

of

seat

soul

evil

the

divine

Numenius

theory further,by teaching that, as in

two souls,one
good and one evil,contend

also in man,

so

good,

purely spiritualdeity.
earlyChristian morals,

among

human

the

the

his

out

of

the

Plutarch, too, liberation

For

preparation for that

the goal of
which
forms

carried

to

[Part II.

; while

matter
the

form,

same

necessary
grace

ReligiousPeriod.

toward

fleshly,

and

sensuous

is not

Thought

universe,
with

in the

each

body

and

its desires.

everywhere emphasised, not only

and
the pure
incorporealityof God, but likewise the
spirituality
Plutarch
this
With
incorporealityof the individual spiritor mind.
In these

is shown

and

the

Irenoeus^

in the

more

once

rational

find

doctrines,also,we

form

would

he

that

separate

which
from
the xjivxn^
spirit,
possesses
to move
passions togetherwith the power
distinguishesthe psychical breath

the

the

vols,the
nature

sensuous

the

body. So, too,

life

of

(ttvo^^""^s),

mating
temporal nature and bound to the body^ from the anispirit(nvevfrn^wottolovv)which is in its nature eternal.
with the
These
views
of course
everywhere in connection
appear
doctrines
of immortality or of the pre-existence and
transmigration
of souls,of the Fall through which
or
as
a
punishment for which
has been placed in matter, and of the purification
man
through which
is of

which

is to free himself

he

it

question is completed

in

Eternal

immutable

the

from

again

In
of

in the

these
the

connections

two

the

the

characteristic
As

Aristotle, so now,
the

(the Platonic
perishableand changeable in matter.
find developing gradually a separation

we

characteristics

conception of

in the
side

just in this,too, the synthesis

inasmuch
more
as
effectively,

remains

is recognised in spirit;the
ouoria)
3.

and

and

more

which

soul,
"

which
the

had

and

scheme

had

by

side with

same

originallyunited

been

physiologicaland

of vital force
that

the

ever

the

"

the

ical,
psycholog-

sciousness.
activityof conalready been employed by

that

soul

of

"

the

which

moves

the

body,

"

and
spirit as self-subsisting
independent principle,
and in this spiritis found
ity,
no
longer merely a general rational activbut the proper
of the individual
essence
(as also of the divine)
into body, soul,and spirit
personality. The tripledivision of man
appears

is introduced

Jambl.

Iren.

Of

which

"

in all

in Stob.
Adv.

the
these

Hmr.

various

lines,in

Hcl.
V.

the

most

various

modes

of

expression,'

I. 894.

12, 2.

in
terminology (^t'ux'i,
anima, iroeC/ia,
spiritus,animus, etc.),
examples have already been
appear,
given above, and

doctrines

easilyunderstood

it is

and

soul

between

hand

one

soul

between

degree

the

plays here
spirit.

that

and

and
of

part

immediate

An

Matter:

Spiritand

2, " 19.]

Chap.

Plotinus.

in this
and

body,

of this

consequence

boundaries,

other

to a

the two

that

was

extremes,

and

new

the

on

still greater

fluctilating
; for

very

between

mean

the

the

on

were
spirit,

case,

233

the

soul
and

matter

deeper

idea

"mental"

now
as
gained of the activities of consciousness, which
the
or
"spiritual" were
separated from
physiological

functions

of the

be

could

soul.
the

corporealworld,

influences,either

activity
;

and

while,

in

be

not

its

in

thought

dependent

as

in

activity or

from

essence

the

upon

of

object
philosophy, cognition had

all Greek

the

its

been

perception and taking up of something given, and

of thought as
attitude
the idea of
essentiallyreceptive,now
or
spirit as an
independent, productive principle forces its

regarded
the
mind

the

as

through.

way

The

4.

beginnings

doctrine,in

far

so

for

this

in

it the

as

first maintained.

was

the

The

Ideas, appear

elements

for

determining,they

they

archetypes of

inward

which

nature

belongs

entire
mind

to

of
the

as

world

of Platonic

physics,
meta-

self-subsistent

intellectual

of

Neo-Pythagorean
immaterial

or

spiritualactivity;
God}

original thoughts of
of

ova-ia.or

which

immaterial

taken

experience are
is

reason

given

cognition something

human

world

but

essences,

world

the

up

into

longer merely something

no

is

Thus

only

is

akin

to

recognised as

it, it

is the

the world

of

spirit?

correspondence

is defined

by

i.e. in
itself,
in

the
mind

itself ; the

oucria

or

In

become

the

substances

longer

still remain

and

the

immaterial
no

in

already

of the
spirituality

content

while

bodiless

lie

constitutingthe

and

but

in

removed

once

spiritcould

sensuous

as

when

For,

itself

this,the rational spiritor

with

Plotinus^

as

the

unity

which

has

intellect

(voSs)

pluralitywithin

by unity
metaphysical language, as duality determined
in
indeterminate
anthropologicalIan(cf." 20), and

easily be multiplied. This doctrine

was
developed in an especially
is treated
"soul"
the
III.
where
interesting
by Origen (Z)e Frinc.
way
1-6),
the spirit,
while
and
of
ideation
partly as motive power,
desire,
as
partly
faculty
hand
the contrary, is presented
on
the
as
principle of judging, on the one
between
this
and
false
in
and
alone,
true
good
evil,on the other hand between
;
then
teaches Origen, consists
freedom.
like triple division
man's
The
appears
with
Enn.
Plotinus in connection
with
his whole
metaphysical construction.
might

very

II. 9, 2.
Cf. " 20.
'
Cf. Nicomachus,
2

With

Arithm.
Intr. I. 6.
this change the Platonic
doctrine

because Plotinus, and with him

take place without
opposition.
as

Porph.

his

disciplewrote

Vit. Plot.

"Plot. ^jin. V.

all

of

Longinus

at

treatise of his own

18 ff.

9, 6; 3, 15; 4,2.

to the future,
passed over
accepted it. Yet this did not
phyry
protested against it, and Porri,
vo-qri..
r
oi)
i^iiariiKe
e|"i)
vov

Ideas

Neo-Platonism,
least
Sti

Thought: ReligiousPeriod.

Hellenistic-Roman

234

carried

activityof

psychology
as

upon

passive,but

of various
synthesis (o-wSecris)
cognition refers to what is given by the
the

upon

passive,while the
is active
and
irapaKoXovO-qm's')
feelings and passions. Thus
which

is

this ; the

of

of

also

the

between

is made

the

is

as

While

of

thus

was

Philoponus,

to

Plutarch

was

there

also,
"

regarded
^

elements

as

the
can

tially
essen-

it is

senses,

where

even

only

is true

same

the

the

body
(o-vi/atcrflecr

conscious

of the

field of sensation

sensuous

and

back

distinction

conscious perception

the

receptivestate of the body (or

even
already in conscious
ception
per-

the
of

Plotinus
higher soul, which
reflection.*
thought
"

conceived

states, functions, and

own

principleof
higher soul

latter

bending

consciousness

mind's

tonie

of

kind

the

passive or

is an
act
(dvTi'A.iyi/'is)
describes

and

Neo-Flatonists

rests
intelligence(o-weo-ts)

becoming

in the

soul); the

lower

in

of excitation

state

former

soul

be

must

its

All

the

to this,the

according

in all its functions.'

active

the

view

under

cognition

of

For

consciousness.
be looked

longer

no

the

out

of

general point

this

From

higher unity.

of its

produces pluralityout

which

syntheticfunction

the

as

guage,

[PartIJ.

contents,

carried

out

"

with

this

of the

noting

theory, which,

especiallyby

from

resulted

active

the

as

the

cording
ac-

Neo-Pla-

Plotinus

the

His conception
kavria).^
{irapaKoXavdtiv
conceptionof self-consciousness
of this was
that
the
intellect,as thought active and in motion
has
for its object itself as
a
resting, objectivethought
(vmyo-ts),
: intellect
(i'or;T-oi')

knowledge,

as

intellect

and

as

Being,

are

in this

identical.

case

takes
also an ethicoon
conception of self-consciousness
The
with the thought of the time.
religiouscolouringin accordance
edge,
knowlis at the
time
same
conscience, i.e. man's
(TWEcris
o-wciSj^o-ts
and
not
states
acts, but also of their ethical
only of his own
the
of which
worth, and of the commandment
by the fulfilment
But

the

"

estimate

of this worth

is

and

governed;

for this

reason

the

doctrine

developed in the doctrine of the Church

ance
Fathers, not only as man's knowledge of his sins,but also as repentin activelycombating them.
(/xeTai/oia)
6. The
creative principle
conception of mind or spiritas self-active,
self-consciousness

of

did

not

with

Porph. Sentent.

Plot.

'

lb.

of the
"

stop

Enn.

IV.
Koivbv

is found

IV.

its

is

for psychology, ethics,and theory

significance

10, 19

besides
4, 18 f. The term ffvmlaOrjais whose
us
meaning reminds
in Aristotle,and
184 f.
thus ultimately of Plato, Themt.
alaBtjTitpiov
in similar
III.
V,
use
already in Alexander
Aphrodisias, Quxst.
"

177, and so, too, Galen

of the
becoming conscious
itself.
change
p.

Plot.

et al.

3, 26.

Enn.

I.

4, 10.

employs the expression Jid7"'wir" to designate the

with that
contrasted
change in the bodily organ
as
6

ii,. m.

g.

236

the

recognisedalready in
cosmology, as
the
that

the

total
the

is

to follow

the

into

universe, even

in

Form,

pure

the

the

under

between

between

the

scale

united

with

the

forces

This
the

the

it

relation

divine

stars

The

the

This

book

arisen

to

in

saw

spheres

ever-lessening

macrocosm

appears

relations

in

of

workings

of

as

mutual

God, partly by

descends

from

the

doctrine

pneuma

is

God, by conceiving

of

of pure

the

reconcile

Aristotle

this

had

to that

mover

became

more

materialisation

dualism

matter,
the

transformation

of

the
a.d.

which,
the

not

clear

satisfied

raise

the

doctrine

allied to

to the

as

the

with

divine

in the

doctrine

of

being
direction
the

writings of Aristotle, 391 ff.)may

Apuleius worked

it

over

trasting
con-

sphere with

supersensuous

Aristotelian

the

(cf." IS.).*
religiousdualism

the

to

the

moved

was

as

tendency
the

become

not

of

constitute

to

was

which

severe

followed

first century

of

The

which
spirituality

Even

(printed among

in the

Aristotle

eternallyunmoved,

power

earth.

pantheistic immanence, a transformation

been
treated
above, " 15, 1.

have

deavour
en-

Spirit.'
difficulty
already inherent
of the action
of the
deity upon the
of
regarded as consistingin the motion

spiritwith

as

as

the

the

the

increased

pure

unmoved

rather

Stratonism

Stoic

outermost

workings, which

the

was

pronounced,

sensuous,

the

itself with

conception

as

hard

was

problem
more

above
especially

here

the

and

the

to

doctrine

deity.

of the

God

has

the

Aristotelian

with

of the

became

essence

this action

action

essence

2.

the

fixed

Aristotelian

and

here

"

of

power

turn, however, but

matter,

for

things existing

of IS'ature's life

For

divine

of

the

world.

sum-

distinction

of

(as

nant
supra-mundane God is domivaried
forms
the principleof life.
most
The
as
theism
and
pantheism is gained, partly by the

the

graded

spheres,

the

doctrine
the

power

communicating

individual

in which

heaven

and

whose

only by longing

lower

of

sympathy,
mediation

Nature

himself, while

God

as

revolution

"

system

Stoics

II.

through the entire

While, accordingly,the world was

detail.

every

revolution

perfectionto

of

far

set

of the divine

working

the

among

set

were

the

above

living being, purposefully moved,

in

be

Aristotelian

the

With

particularthings which are moved),

of earthly existence, is connected

of all

regarded

the

must

[Part

'

regarded.^

of God

essence

ReligiousPeriod.

mingling of Peripateticand Stoic

cerning
pseudo-Aristoteliantreatise,Con-

eclectic

of which

type
World

mutation

it

Thought

Hellenistie-Boman

into

Stoa,

perhaps

Latin.

Cf. principally Ch. 6, 397 b 9.

difBoulties in Aristotle's case
became
condensed
in the
a0i5. For since the " contact " of the mover
with
the moved
was
of motion, it was
condition
"
to
also of
contact
necessary
^

These

speak

and

the

account

received

heaven
of
a

relation ").

the

of

the

fixed
and

Cf. Arist. De

of the

regarded as
"

between

the

God

liable to objection on
This, however, was
of the deity, and
the o0i} in this case
transformed
intellectually
("immediate
meaning
Gen. et Corr. I. 6, 323 a 20.
stars.

purely spiritual essence

restricted

concept

Chap.

2, " 20.]

above

all that

whom

among

as

now

has

One

derivative
second

One,

image

of the

already

world

"indefinite

Form,

all

above

matter

from

One

of

itself

numbers.
to be

impure,

the

as

is
of

"cause

primordial being

the

of

opposition
this

In

matter.

h)
{irpuiToyovov

the

as

the

as

lurks

One, however,

also

duality,of spirjtand

first-born

dualism

as

evil ; the

"

above

maintained

duality" are

reason,

forth

proceed

to

of

symbolism

spirit,now

as

God

Neo-Pythagoreans,

stadia

the

in

also

tlie

various

always means
imperfect and the

and

the

the
with

237
definite content,

every

indeed

lies

caused

above

is above

between

the

pure

which

causes"
which

the

Neo-Platonism.

expression

and
latter

the
principles,
the ground of
treated

of

"One"

the

When

who

is found

mode

their

behind

Ood

This

wavering

World

experienced and

the

spirit.

or

the

and

be

can

to make

and thus
mind

God

the

case

the

as

appears

the

perfect

highest One."

spiritwas thus made a product of the deity,

though the first and most
perfect product, this effort led to raising
the conception of the deity even
to complete absence
of all qualities.
This had been already shown
in Philo, who
emphasised so sharply
Inasmuch

the

expressly

exalted
finite
This

or

between

contrast

God

mind

as

above

as

God

and

devoid

of

all,it

be

can

predicates known
of

type

aqiong

those

Christian

of him

human

later

among
The

considered

that

that

called

for
he

no

he

has

and

Justin,'

is

of

none

name

the
him.

names

infiuenced

were

God

since

"negative theology,"

Apologiststhat

designated

we

find

in

their

ceptions
con-

in

part

likewise

also

Gnostics.
meets

same

form,

only

intelligence;

by Philo, especially with

the

finite

') :
qualities {ottoios

said

to

thought,

everything

if

us

also
As

possible.

all

which

exists

Being,
until

as

the

in

Neo-Platonism,

in the

infinite and

as

above

in

Hermetic

writings

incomprehensible, as
ground

created

of

by him,

so

still

Being
for

and

fied
intensi-

more

God

had

nameless,
Reason,

Plotinus, the

been

exalted

neither

deity

of

is the

transcendent
absolutely

primordial being, exalted as a perfect unity

above mind, which, as the principle that contains
pluralityalready
in its unity (" 19, 4), must
have
proceeded forth from God (and
not
have been
eternal) This One, to h, precedes all thought and
lectual
the intelBeing; it is infinite,formless, and "beyond" (eTrcVetva)
.

as

well
and

1
2
8
^

as

the

without

world,

sensuous

and

therefore

without

sciousness
con-

activity.*

Nioomachus,

Theol. Arithm.
p. 44.
Phil. Leg. Alleq. 47 a ; Qu. D. S. Immut.
Just. Apol. I. 61 ff.

301
4

a.

Poemand.

It is easy to understand
how
of ecstasy devoid
a state
and raised above
appeared
requisitefor man's
reaspn,

rational

God-Being, exalted

above

all

action,will,and

4 f.
of will and
relation

ness
conscious-

to this

supraC.

thought. Cf. above, " 18,

238

Hellenistic-Roman

Finally, while

Plotinus

as
{to TrpuiTov)

the

Being, and

the

as

even

this

Jamblichus

set

pass,

ineffable One
3.

In

Good,

did

the

New

this

patristictheology,and
the

problem

Hellenism
it may

be

which
finite,
admit

in

sees

conceived,

only

world
demand

in the

of

as

of

thought

If,therefore,the

the

divine

conception

psychological
in

the

supporters

of

all

of

of

the

Christian

solutions

from

characteristic

of

ner
man-

of the

the

Supreme Being,
Christianity,as a living
the

to

man

personality,and

supreme

reasoning,

purely spirituala

and

relation

It

religion.

restriction

personal

conceived

of

energy

is breathed

against the Hellenistic

keep at a distance
the particulargods.

for

in this.

faith

limits

in however
personality,

it would

religion,demands

the

and

its

This

by

are

philosophy

him

livingbelief of the

consisted

this

this

just by

in the

higher, completely

followed

the

to

defended

is

school.

spiritualpersonality.

as

history.

everywhere defined,as

chief

and

world's

to

comes

the

preserved its impressive

in

II.

the development
subtilisations,

attachment

just

the

Testament;

doctrine

of

philosophicalreflection

of

and

community,
strength,its power in

all that

still

Proclus

conception of God

of its immediate

Church

of

members

later

[Part

inexpressibleFirst
thought and of all

all

end

Plotinus

of

Church

result

the

as

cause

dialectical

such

of

absolute

apx^ '),and

in the

thought

virtue

by

the

ev

this

designates

satisfythe

the

ReligiousPeriod.

is the

.as

not

above

oppositionto

this,not

but

which

One,

holding fast to the

did

still

(iravTi;
appiyros

of Christian

by

Thought

sonship

of

ground of

it expresses

the

this

man.

of

personalityas intrinsic spirituality

the essentiallynew
(geistigerInnerlichkeit)expresses
result,to
in Greek
intertwined
yield which, theoretical and ethical motives
and
Hellenistic
entered
thought, then it was
Christianitywhich
this

upon

inheritance

back

turned

of

product
essential

regards
the

the

to

feature
the

of

old

ancient

idea

that

life which
of

the

as

the

in

saw

whole

Christian

and

person

thought,

of

Neo-Platonism

personalityonly
is

of

to

persons

world

the
one

It

impersonal.

conception

relations

while

tory
transiis the
that

another

it
as

of

reality.
4. In spiteof this important difference,
all lines of the Alexandrian
confronted
philosophy were
by the same
ing
problem, that of placthe deity,thus taken
from
the sensible
relations
in
those
world,
which
For
the more
religiousneed demanded.
tion
deeply the opposiessence

between
the

longing

should
should

God
to

and

out

world
it

overcome

understand
return

the

"

the world
of

the

world
1

Damasc.

felt,the

was

to

to God.
De

ardent

became

by a knowledge that
through God, and by a lifethat
it

overcome

also

more

Princ.

43.

God

2, " 20.]

Chap.

tlie dualism

Hence

of

and

matter, is but

the

the

presuppositionof

World

the

and

and

God

it is anxious

well

in its

Plutarch, who

not

with

the

side

of the

ground
"

world.

for

the

throughout by
mental

character

of view

of

and

will,the

with

its

goal

cleft which

beside

Form

though

from

of

set

by

their

is

it finds

of

Bardesanes
"

has

the

with

world

in

the

evil

"

side

world

is yet

matter,

as

his

the

with

as

the

from

fundar

the

point

eternity;

the

evil,and

deity (cf.6, below)

the

of

earthly

fulness

"

the

as

Satan,

world

tioned,
men-

fallen

So, too,
God's

against

ary
bound-

contested

spiritsstrive
the mythology

evil

and

good

of

matter.

over

as

entire

an

above

"

work

into

similar

from

appears

nature

the

and

manner

the

placed beside
receptivepower in the

the

ruled

was

deity (TrpoTrarajp)
poured

good

regarded

in
which

arranged,

deity

in

domain

; and

this,that

the

the
the

possession

man

upon

theology

original

inner

the

regarded

themselves

redemption, and
in

matter

of spiritualforms,
{to TrX-^pw/ia)

formed

builds

world-

ophy
philosconceptions of Greek
religions.
myths of Oriental

the

been

who

was

female

the

of this indifferent

consists

matter, beside

for whose

action

sin and

self -unfolding of

light,and

province

of

God,

Christian

fulness

or

appears

(cf. " 21)

realm

of

relation

corporeal

Saturninus

beside

likewise
{t6 Kivwfj.a),

Void

spiritual world
the

at

ruling thoughts

the

theories

formation

Gnosticism

Pleroma

the

appears

the

Valentinus,side by
the

also

assumed

thoughts

in

put

into

Life

philo^phy:

so

attempt

of

these

were

MoTi

and

"

systems present
part of the Gnostic
especial consideration.

first fantastic

This

also

principlein
A

here,however,

out

feelings

to vanquish this
practically,
peculiarityof this period, that

the

itself

evil,but

third

as

Thus

spirit

fixed
predominantly as to become
basis.
Here
like
belong primarily Platonists
as
an
original principleside
only treated matter
the deity could
in nowise
be the
deity,because

immovable

their

into

the

of

as

produced

sure,

asserted

dualism

soul

be

period,to

which

by

in

that

as

239

feelings.

This

as

consists

well

as

taken

Alexandrian

close,in knowledge

to

world,
"

the

in this

Just

the

starting-point

everywhere, theoreticallyas
dualism.

Gnostics.
Christianity,

of

"Father

formation

of

the

world.
But

dualism
in the

arose

reached

third

combined

with

chmism,}

The

The

two

its culmination

century
return

under
to

realms

of

victim

the

good
240-280

to the

Persian

persecution

of

the

as

of the

Gnostic

evil,of light and

a.d.), regarded
revelation

systems

mythology,

Persian

and

religionwhich

mixed

influence

old

founder, Mani
(probably
of Christianity
and

consummation
a

the

in

of

priests,but

the
his

his

"

Mani-

darkness,

doctrine

Paraclete.

religionsoon

as

He

the
fell

became

240

Hellenistic-RoTnan

of peace
and

God
as

and

strife,stand

Satan.

mixture

of the
to the

and

both

causes,

the

that

of

of

maintains

itself lead
In

to

the

the

of

universe

the
be

regarded

it may

be

to

as

that

of the

soon

motives
ideas

that

were

which

through

material

man

and

the

object of his religiouslonging, the

of bringing about
again, by intermediate
thus

to render

was

of the

these
between

of

the

utilise,in

their

the

greater the

theoretical
free

the

power

the

Supreme

methods

physical
meta-

in

must

distance

between
the

need

links,a

union

more

this

significanceof

objections the action

to him
and
unworthy of him ; practically
significanceof serving as mediators

God, having

to

the

and

alien

had

antithesis

The

separated.

links

vileness

suggestive

the

and

world,

matter

and

man

sharper

comprehensible

deity upon

the

as

peculiarlyits
it prepared its own
between
the spiritual

the

was

fully

most

and

what

also

ethical,this

God

of

have

eternity(owta).

For

the

these

dualism.

from
of

different

two

other

as

the

to

came

only one of
positiveand

aspect the

seen

things,

thinkers

back

judgment,

completely adapted

series

manner

men,

these

bad,

or

theoretical

relation

clearest

which

with

and
metaphysical originality

to

was

divided

should

in

in the

overcoming.

itself

belonging

darkness,is
completely separate

shall

that

is shown

good

as

sense

fact, dualism,

asserted

tion
viola-

arising from

in accordance

thus

removal

produced

by

soul

of

essentiallyupon ethico-religious
point of view for theoretical explanation

their

good,

this

about

good

princes,

is conceived

rested

worth,

deity,but

from

expected

period it

time

proper

relation

own,

of

its claim

even

6.

the

originof

In

name

is

brought

"

conflict of

evil soul

an

characterised

are

the

causes.

But

of

judgment

to trace

the

of the

close

relations

and

man

of

By adopting as

the

elements,

world

II.

again.

dualism

motives.

of the

[Part

their

eternallyas

as

formation

the

redemption

realms

the

; in

light,and

at the

Thus
that

boundaries

ReligiousPeriod.

opposed

evil

and

good

of

here

too, the

Here,

of

realm

assumed,

Thought

from

religionof Nature,

the

interests

Stoics

the

of his

out

man

Both

Being.

by which

lead

to

had

popular

alike

were

how

known

faith

suous
sen-

in the

to

lower

deities.
This

mediation

plan by Philo, who

close
of

relations,on

Ideas,

on

the

greatly extended,
We
for

are

system

best
time

and

gave
the

it its definite

hand,

one

other

hand

maintained

instructed
an

first attempted

theory was

adherent

with
of

with

itself

regard
it.

with

to

Cf. F.

Mani
(Tubingen, 1836); O. Flligel,

in

largeand

thorough

by bringing it into
Neo-Pythagorean doctrine

direction
the

the

it

on

doctrine

vigour

far

on

of

into

through Augustine,

C. Baur, Das
und

seine

angels
the
who

manichdische

Lehre

in

Ages.

Middle
was

his

himself

Religions-

(Leips.1862).

Crod and

2, " 20.]

Chap.

religion. The
mind

mediating

the

more

of

changing point
actingforces,or
the

connected
in God

him.

from

but

to be

the

at

according

matter

this

in

appear

immediate

relation

again

between

senting

it.

and

designated

as

haXi

other

of

are

God,

Finally,
the

on

qualitiesof

the

and

just in
these

of

This
the

of
and

the

mythical
doctrine

this

angels

was

motion
there

of

itself

in

ruled

related

of

the

to

of

turn

of
the

sense,

the

so

forces

the

world

The

with

him,

Logos is, on

the

Stoic
this

one

the

find

hand,

the

must

its

divine

in

general
all the

with
of

tific
scienwhich

therein.
Philo

cluded
con-

pluralityand

changeless deity
As

highest

general

conception

account,

that

be

of

the

Idea

the

related

of

be

must

unitary

to

the

related

Logos.

the

wisdom^

to

in

world,

This

wavering, changing

divine

the

world

conclusion

activity in

is

Ideas

its activities in the

to

in

must

of

the

so

itself

Ideas, forces, and

link.

Ideas,"

is related

sum-total

on

of

which

unmoved,

one

knowable
un-

fundamental

the

which

in

intermediate

the

angels

the

reveals

important

of

world,

and

whole

twilight in

with

fulness

World-force

of

archangel. This
Philo designates by

the

of

force

rational

an

appears

The

phenomena,

"Idea
as

as

sides

contents

and

inference,

higher

essential

rejire-

consequence

indefinite

this

entire

an

individual

"

last

it and

still

themselves,

is the

thought.

the
(to ye.viKWTa.Tov),

Ideas

thought,

the

between

need

was

of

times
some-

the "messengers,

furnished

time

same

by
all

world,

just this peculiaramalgamation

and

remains,

line

the

forces

mythical forms,

by

the

are

that

different

it the

dom,
wis-

dered
unor-

and

which

but

significance of

at

the

it is true, is

depth,

Neo-

his

the

essence

nature, conditioned

are

is true

same

its

part

the

shape

ambassadors,

which,

always

avoided, and

the

as

archetypes

real

indeed

are

they represent

the

modes

is

the

intelligible

an

of

divine

itself,brings with

have

personality ;

entire

The

double

yet

the

to

essence,

system

conceptions,and

the world

servants, the
hand

divine

ideal forces

marks

attached

the

of

independent

preservation

and

inexpressiblein

them.

thought

and

angels they

as

as

which

so

to

in

hand,

if these

powers

the

different

are

content

thought,
and

yet

one

and

of

have

purposeful meaning,

as

God

something

as

God

God:

their

to

formation

the

of

the

on

this is

members

active forces

the

sometimes

case

them

assigning

time

same

with

and

in

Ideas, now

as

; but

to God

Platonic

by

created

archetypes,

of God

regarded,

old

the

had

explanation

intermediate

thoughts

Philo

designates according

they belong

are

as

the

investigation,now

these

that

after

he

angels

that

Ideas

fashion

again,

of

held

the

the

as

world,

So

his

241

considering which

world,

of

thought

Pythagorean
world

ag*n

in the

as

view

Philo.

significanceand

the

upon

in

powers,

theoretical

God

of

influence

the World

also

light.

resting within

Thought: ReligiousPeriod.

Hellenistie-Roman

242

"

rational
Reason

is the

he

second

and

able, while
the

world.

Thus

the

of

the

within
world.

is the

world,

for abstract

the

is not,

difficult the

more

which

form

richer

the

thought,

the

the

of

"

and

he

Logos,

as.

the

separate
the

God

without

God

relation

in which

remains

life-principle
as

this

imagery

men;

is know-

divide

of God

immanence

dwelling-place

"

the

forms

God

as

He

deity.

determination,

all

united, nevertheless;

remain

The

who

son,

intercession,creates

his

and
above

far

so

and

transcendence

potencies,to

first-born

the

man

exalted

in

is God

he

unknowable:

image,

between

himself, as

God

hand.

deity {\oyo"i7rpo"^optKos,uttered

high priest,who, through

relations

preserves

producing

other

yet has he arisen,as have we

origin,nor
the world,
Ood}
Through him God formed

also the

is in turn

II.

"

the

from

the

the

is, on

it

Being;

Supreme

self-subsistent

the

Gtod, without

is

the

forth

coming

as

Reason"),
as

of

power

1), and

note

200,

cf. p.

((ro(^ia \oyos "v^iABtTo"i;

itself

[Pakt

the

assumes

it is set forth

Philo.2

by

this

With

6.

doctrine

Logos

first

the

step

taken

was

toward

by a definite
of forms, descending, with
gradual transitions,
graded succession
from
unity to plurality,from unchangeableness to changeableness,
the spiritualto the senthe immaterial
suous,
from
to the material, from
cleft

fillingthe

from
and

the

as

there

causes,

cosmogonic

process,

divine

At

the

by

time, the

same

stages of this process

as

the

reunited

path

with

is broken

be

Connected
world

and

the

the

divine

X47o0,

with
of

is to be

material

and

with

all these
the

again

up

13, 1.

voOs of

Logos (even

the

man,

from

derived

was

members.

distant,that

far

in their

the

order,

reverse

of sense,

world

the

becomes

which

the

are

and

aid

found

Plato
the

of the

oldest
number

his

latest

cians
Academi-

theory.

stronger emphasis

somewhat
in

in

Justin, Apol.

I. 32 ; Dial,

fact, that with Philo the spiritual

the immaterial
position between
the facultyof thought and will, is a part of

doctrines

demons

expositionof

overcome.

mind,

With

conceptions

experience occupies

of at

the
and ipractically,
theoretically

they sought,

VII.

bad;

again were

intermediate

also

in the

so, both

dualism

to the

conceived

was

sense

not

was

regarded

good

new

all these

in

in Eus.
Prcep. Ev.
these
personality,
same
upon
c. Tryph. 56 f.
2

of

had

Philo

in the

world

ensnared

man,

thus
taken
problem was
Pythagoreanising period had

well, when

this

thought

as

from

of

should

which

on

the

means

And

God.

the

eflfects which

and

causes

resulted

other

which

stages by

world

imperfect,from

of

in which

essence

sensible

the

arranged by rank,

system

themselves

the

the

series,thus

time

same

and

God

perfect to

this

when

the

between

is the

doubtful

designated after

are

yet it is again characterised

as

finest pneuina.

the

Stoic

analogy

as

Thought

Hellenistia-Boman

244

[Part

or
system of the "^ons,"
spiritualworld (Trk-^prnfm)
unfolding of the dark
is developed first as an
essences,

eternal

mysterious primitiveDepth
second
The

place as
mythical

by side

with

(/SS^os)to

descending productionof

highest pair

the

In

originalGround

the

in the

syzygy

there

male

and

side

appears

which
is also called
(o-iyi)),
of the
Original Being with
"

union

the firstborn the

proceeds as

there

conscious

capacityof becoming

or

Silence

this

{tvvoia).From

"Thought"

"

pairing of
"

"

and

imperfect forms.

more

Oriental

is the

this

in

schema

deities.

female

self-revelation,and

U.

the

the

here

the

Religious Period.

Spirit(here called voBs)which in the second syzygy has as its object

world, the realm of Ideas. Thus, having
Truth," i.e.the intelligible
takes the
itself come
to full revelation,the deity in the third syzygy
"

i^utv),and in the fourth

(\070s) and "Life"
Ideal Man
as
the principleof external revelation
becomes
syzygy
the descending
church). While
{inKXrjcria,
(avOpunroi)and "Community"
still farther
has thus already'begun,it is continued
process
by the fact that from the third and fourth syzygies still other Mons
proceed, which, together with the sacred Eight, form the entire
form

"Reason"

of

"

It is the

original Ground.
that,by
the

sinful

longing

separationof
Void,

farther

stand

which

but

Pleroma,

this

farther

removed

the

"(o-o"^io),

gives occasion

the

lead

to

from

.^Eons," Wisdom

these

originalGround,
of its being cast
and
Longing

there
KeV"o/ia,

the

of

last

after

and

"

to

the

for

into the material

formation

the

of

earthly

world.
lie back of
philosophicalthoughts which
highly ambiguous myth-constructions,it is easy to understand
the school of the Valentinians
diverged into various theories.
If

in

other

no

of

emanation,
the like

that

almost

Plotinus

In

so

Eleatics

far
and

of

evolution

and

the

well

as

as

that
For

motives

monistic

and

doctrine

the

other

transcendence

direction
and

to

find

from

that of

the

the

mythical apparatus,
such

Plotinus,yet

in

principleof

emanation

two.

and

sought by

is

immanence

of

essence

God

as

bility
unchangeable, while pluralityand changeahis workings.' Of the
is exalted
First,"which
"

the

here, coined

Heraolitus,

also determined

of

of preserving the

predicated in
we

from

completed

as

out

freed

all finite determinations

be

can

which

system

in the

absolutelyone
belong only
above

in the

also

in

appear

entirelycrowds
synthesis of

The

dualistic

are

system

conceptionally,

motives

manner

the

time

these

intricately
mingled.

so

Clarified

7.

that

of

system
kinds, from

both

the

at the

look

we

with
nature

which

and
strict

into

oppositions,nothing
sense
(cf.above, 2).

theologicalform,

Greek

of Platonism.

metaphysics

ever
whatIt is

problem of the
a
problem
began,
the

"

God

2, " 20.]

Chap.

only in an improper
the
be designatedas
Power

Force

or

and
not

parts

"

in

this

analogy of

light,

essence

own

and
in

intensitymore
of itself
finally
One

their
more

mind

first

itself

the

point

darkness.

in

become

they

as

imperfect

and

sphere

of

this

which

spirit (roCs),in

preserved

the

unity

eternal,pure
of like

of

is identical

the

darkness
decreases

into

which

is its source,

likewise
and

the

and

workings

separate from

more

with

itself.

Being (oio-tain

and
the

Being' is
as

the

perception, ever

unity

Being,

tiates
differenthat

of

deity

is

i.e. into

of

essence

it

not

regarded

with

were

of its

same,

its

the

as

this

activity

an

objects,but

the

as

content, which

own

this

content, the

Platonic

sense)

But
the

sublime

Plotinus,

to

thought-function (i/otjo-is)
; for

with

changing

ceases,

essence

the eternal

all in its

brightness that

the

and

or

an

activityis,according

divine

consciousness

that begins

the

influence

spheres, become
change suddenly into the dark,

duality of thought
its objects. In mind

thought which

employs

also

individual

itself into the

as

itself,even

the

more

last

at

so

overflowing

as

sufferingat

So

the

Power

matter.

"

rational

or

more

Good,

more

opposite

The

loses

from

highest
tions
ramifica-

as

Plotinus

shines

of

atmosphere

an

this

can

essence.

without

motion,

of

substance

in turn, has

Light,

into

the

it

divides,and

rather

the

that

as

not

First

figurativeform

proceeding through

source,

and

evil

and

in

entering

and

but

necessityof its

conception.
itself

regarded,
of the

change

the

workings

sense,

analogy which,

itself

or

produces about

of the

from

an

his

determining

in

proper

nowise

relation

"

be

to

are

world,
and

Good,

the

245

the

to

the

as

the substance

in the

though they proceed

express

One,

universe
which

into

by-products which
To

its relation

infinite

the

emanations

"

as

in

sense,

Flotinus.

and
(wpdrr)SuVa/Ais),

constitute

which

the World

and

world

of

Ideas,

contrasted

as

is

with

world
time
at the same
phenomena, is,as intelligible
(xocr/^ios
vo-rjTd?),
the principle
of plurality. For
the
Ideas
not
are
merely thoughts
and
time
the moving
forces
archetypes,but are at the same
(vol
Swa;u"s) of lower
reality. Because, therefore, unity and variety
united

are

and

of

in this

world
intelligible
and

occurrence

change, and

are

conceptions (categories) of

Being

or

Existing (to ov), Rest

and
Identity(ravToTi/s),

function
within

which

has

is
itself,

Well

known

the

from

Difference

the

through

B.

ff.

damental
yet again separated,the funthis world
these
are
five,'viz.
or

Change

(ctepott^s). Mind,
and

contents,
which

the Sophist,
dialogue,
B
F
,
,

254

principlesof persistence

Motion
(crTao-is),

determinate
form

the

as

the

deity

of the

carries
causes

Corpus

(kiVvo-is),

then,

as

plurality
empiri-

all

Platonicum.

Cf.

Thought : ReligiousPeriod.

Hellenistic-Roman

246

itself

realityto proceedforth from

ground of the world, is mind
to shine out
But spiritneeds

cal
as

world

the

in

this

and

The

this, that

in

the

of

world

of

Ideas,
with

strongly emphasised
Being,
into

the

blissful

the

soul

proper,

formative

power,

the

that

the

ipvx^ in

it is the
thc

Stolcs)
apply

poreality.
cor-

consists

content

the lower

and

into

divided

of

thought

it is the

narrower

so

and

sunk

as

higher soul,
the

of

sense

this

is here

doubled

out

Ideas

the

into

principle.And

and

out

sovl,

word;

to
^uVts (equivalent

as

the

the

on

hand

one

other

the

on

"

individual

the

to

universal

the

to

souls

it has
proceeded from it as the particularforms which
therefore
souls.
The
to human
the formative
on, especially
"j"v(ns,
of Nature, is distinguishedfrom
the pure, ideal worldpower

which

have

taken

soul

higher

spirit

the

duce
pro-

the

therefore

receives

soul, the

lower

determinations

these

soul

active

"

of

the

(world-soul Plato),and

soul

"

just as

"

to

forms
archetype (eikoIi/)
creative spirit,it is the

the

the

matter,

contemplation

\oyos (TTTtpfuxTiKoi of
All

with

soul, for Plotinus, is

the

so

immediate

after this

and

toward

relations

the

in order

manner

product is
activityby shaping matter

Contrasted

sense.

productiveprinciple,

as

similar

peculiar positionof the

it, perceiving or beholding,

receptive,contrasted
duality of

in

II.

spirit.

"

world

spirit,the

its

evinces

turn

rational

or

itself ; its most

from

God

[Part

the

from

Beneath

man's
stands

home,

in the
which

the

latter emanate

soul, which

knowing
the

vital force

characteristics

which

this

connection,

turns

forms

of the

developed materiallyfrom
formally by the connected

In

gods, from

former

back

to

the

concept

the

soul

of the

demons.

its
spirit,
the

ration
sepa-

separation

"

(cf." 19, 3)

whole

the

Thus

body.

of the

dualism

this

the

is here

"

manded
de-

metaphysical system.

is of
matter
working
upon
of as purposive,that is,as appropriate or adapted
conceived
course
for ends, because
it ultimately goes
back
to spirit and
reason
since
but
it
is
work
of
a
the
lower
it
is
(Xoyos);
soul,
regarded as
undesigned, unconscious
which
direction,
proceeds according to
natural necessity. As the outer portionsof the
of light penetrate
rays
into

illumine
the

the

darkness,

matter

with

so

its

of

it

belongs
glory which

the

to

soul

the

arises

soul to

of the

nature

spiritand

from

from

One.

This

matter, however,

"

and

this

is

one

points in the metaphysics of Plotinus, must

a
as
corporealmass
subsistingin itself beside

of

not

"

itself without

body,

immaterial.'

Bodies

Atriiimroi: Ennead.

are

the

the

III. 6, 7.

be

One

indeed

essential

most

looked
; it

upon

is,rather,

formed

out

of

it is itself

it,but

for

But
(otTToios).
the

absolute
of

darkness

as

to

Platonic

the

does

thought

with

space

find

In

the

it is

empty

of

and

of

the
the

farther

world

phenomenal
lower

the

of

Good,

As

evil.

the

One

and

want

Being,

of
But

manner,

for

argument

and
justified,
that
For

This

Good, Non-being.

welcome

empty

doctrine

also, space
Ideas

reason,

with

office it is to

shine

this

is

it follows

so

all that

from

Being
into

into

over

and

Good;

it has

far

part in

KaKov); and

good

matter

good;

Ennead.

for the

III.

existence

minateness
lb. III.

negation

out

predicate

it is lack
Plotinus

gave

be

not

mined
deter-

so

"

Evil

corporeal

the

nature

of the

far

so

the

in

it

in

to

forms

as

can

evil
be

or

souls

the

only

if

so

the
far

[has

(wpSiTov

called

evil

of

comes

God

it is not

secondary

light

mixture

true

world

it is

belongs

part

itself

in

hand, it is evil in

proper,

6, 18. Universal
empty space
bodies, while, on the other

by

because

presents

other

of matter
evil

but

; i.e. in

Evil

"

is not

senses

it has

as

the

the

the

here
conception of yeVeo-ts

of

is conditioned

9, 1.

itself

is not, it need

it thus

far

on

the

or

itself

so

it is; and

it is formed
the

conception
is not

conceptionsas

of

real, positive existence].

only because

the

evil

of

negation

formed

evil

world

Platonic

(the

it is

as

KaKov), is matter,

the

deficiency
;

or

sheer

because

darkness,

anew),

i.e. so

the

the

it is in

Non-being

force

want,

if the

the

is, is good.

than

more

any

also

special form

theodicy;

Plotinus, therefore,

passes

ancient

of

this

once

the

introducing

by

it receives

it

conceptionthus

the

'

is

as
(irma TravreXT/s),

of

no

of

Por

^uVis, whose

v\rj of

in

Neo-Platonism,

; it is

as

far

identification

sense.

absolute

ayaQov.

affoucria

evil in this

evil

This

multiplicationwhich

of

soul, or

So

the

to

Stoic,but

extension

in

the

full.

space}

Eleatic

Plato, extend:

it is related

the

or

empty, dark

indeterminateness.

the

to

something positively existent

qualities

any

privation (o-tcjojjo-is),

Non-being

Aristotelian

presuppositionfor

it is

negation
of

by

while
the higher
principle of divisibility,^
the indivisibility
which
is akin to the rational spirit.
possesses
this pure negativity lies a ground for the possibility
of determining
this matter
thus" devoid
of qualiby a predicate of worth
ties

the

determined

spiritualnor

matter, is the

upon

soul

neither

negativity,pure

working

Plotinus,also,the
out

247

metaphysical

the

and

the

in

of

light,as

Non-being,
the

as

serves

it is thus

be

absolute

the

Democritus

by

since

Being,

is not

the Neo-Platonists
more

Flotinus.

Plotinus, this epistemologigalindeterminateness

him

complete absence
One

and

time, the force

same

is for

Matter

body ;

no

its nature, it cannot

corporealin
has, at

the World

Grod and

2, " 20.]

Chap.

evil

{htvrepov

they give

possibility(^vToxdiievov)

hand, the particularspatialdeter-

bodies, II. 4,

12.

themselves

forms

the

'

of

continuation

the

its

into

forth

conceived

from

forth

soul

the

deity
is,therefore,

evil

be

is to

of

II.

matter

itself ; the

soul

shining

necessity which
own
proceeding

natural

[Pakt

entrance

participationin

this

matter, and

soul, a

the

which

in

sphere

into

over

passes
for

that

this

sure,

characteristics of

the essential

just

BeligiousPeriod.

be

To

matter.

to

over

belongs to

Thought

Hellenutic-Boman

248

the

of

as

rational

spirit.'
was

able

For

since

the

spirit. In

soul and

itself

corporeal world,
characteristic

element

The

is but

material

active

reality,are

is the

copy

which
It

and

such

body

which

in

held

of

shining

likewise
in

Here
this

the

conception

the

ideal

individual

for

us

conceptions of a theory of
a
metaphysical aesthetics.
appeared only in homonomy
mild
which
for

were

the

aesthetic
the

to

attempts

it has

science

fragment

of

by

life must

run

with

is

the

the

Plotinus
restricted

the

Aristotelian

its entire

religiousperiod, must

be

course,
it were,

the
make

were

now

as

it

effects
that

which

completed,

is

its archetype.
I.

6)

fundamental

first

attempt

had

at

always

perfect,and the
it independent,
taken up again

theory of art, to which

appeared most clearlyin

Poetic, considered
and

of

the

even

its ethical

to

the

and

good

itself

sensuous

senses

after

beautiful

Symposium,
; for

element

streaming
the

the

among

it

world;

Hitherto

in Plato's

life,that internalising,as

the

of

its

itself to

beauty (Ennead.

on

first time

the

this

thing, formed

Plotinus

had

essentiallyaccording

shaped

through

separate the conception and

contained

first time

of

truly

corporeal substance

or

essence

the

Plotinus.
the

as

spiritualor intellectual
in the image seen
by sense.

the

treatise

meets

by

which,

By virtue of
phenomenon that beauty consists.
the
entire
world
the spirituallight into matter
beautiful,and

forms

is this

phenomenon

Nature

spirits. A
Idea

which

universe,
behind

the

of

the

husk,

outer

essence

as

appears
is in

the

souls

its true

matter;

is

conception of

in the

shadow

or

this

reallyexists or is,is evidently

rooted
the spiritualisation
of the

sense

idealising of

the

matter, Plotinus

in phenomena.^
positive element
works
through spiritand soul upon

of

matter, all that in the world

from

sense

the

also,to
justice,
originalpower

do

to

of

of the world

distinction

this

By

to

the

(cf." 13, 14).

beautiful
Ancient

the inner
turning toward
this life experienced in the

bring

about

the

scientific

in
Therefore, though Plotinus in his ethics emphasised strongly freedom
of responsibility,
the great tendency of his metaphysical thought is
sense
shown
this freedom
just in this, that he did not make
trary
conto the
of "power
"
his explaining principle,but
the transition of the
sought to understand
world
into evil as a metaphysical necessity.
2
Very characteristic in this respect is the treatise {Ennead. II. 9) which he
wrote
of Nature
against the barbarian
shown
contempt
by the Gnostics.
the

Grod and

2, " 20.]

Chap.

the

forth;

essential nature, and

own

which

designated

be

must

and
psychicallife,

side

products side by
whole

science

oldest

The

other.

is

of Nature

Plotinus

this

by employing

But

things

and

connections

causal

of

sympathy

all

forces

this world

whole

in

process

deity appears,

beginning or

speaks

end.

forever into the

forth

as

soul
the

as

rule

of

the

the

sobriety and

place

and

itself

of

mode

of

the

demons,
in

in

and

higher

of

ual
spirit-

relations

strange

miracles,
and

regarding Nature,
but

regular,

unconscious

divination,astrology, faith

which

the

also

darkness,

which

of

one

he

man

mysterious
him

like

from

the

souls,embraces

God

countless

body

to

the

does

not

of

out

succeeded

it has

deity.

the

The

to

"purify"
in this

can

proceeded
first

hope

forth

to

the

to

ing
stream-

the

traverse

into

account

material

body.
backward

deity,and

so

exaltation

all-

is cast

it is

vain, and

and
from

and

this

shine

the

from

unfolds, it

that

the

to

personalityvanishes,

is void

from

positive step

light

Released

body

same

without

pre-existentstate, on

what
the

the

of matter.

out

itself again from

it

of

exist without

individual

purer

toward

of

nature

world

in which

estrange itself from

general,and
which

forms

necessity,and

eternal

itself is yet for him

to

the

creates

forth

periodicalreturn

belongs
so

proceeds

timeless,

of

world

lifeof spirit the

guilty inclination

its task

by

In

gods

full
by spirit,

it

As

universal

sensuous

it has

Nature's

Neo-Platonism

all

subordinate, particular phenomenon.

of its

in

with

this

of

one

the

to

extreme

as

of

this antithesis

to

sense,

end.

an

particularformations, the world-process

In

in terms

mysterious, dreamily

accordingly,as

Plotinus

though

for

of

by nothing

created

Nature

circle.

magic
The

surrounded

be

to

seems

of
this

into

naturally stream

world

things expressing

forms

All

them.

among

the

appears

its

only in so far as it is soul.

ual
principlefor explainingindivid-

is at

world-soul, the

of the

weaving

the

the

of view

point

one

only
"

idealistic
in

from
soul

of

apprehended

takes

others,

real

as

research

natural

in

clearness

the

comes

triumph

reference

course

many

processes

with

it

world-principle.

that

knew

regarded

out

its

with

as

this

on

enjoyed is
externalisingits

at last

interpretationof

described

thought

ancient

it

is

and

the

as

it turns

so

is

Grecian

which

spiritin

has

conceived

has

fftm

also

conception

the

place

created

of

power

of

takes

had

regards the phenomenal world,

As

Greeks

249

content

this

its activities

unfolding

in

which
spirit,

highest

development

the

This

Plotinus.

which

victorious

the

phenomena.

sensuous

in

the

which

beauty

recognisedas

now

for

characteristic

account

and

conception

the

world; and

finest

this

of

consciousness

the World

essence

Only
the

when

stages

to return
is civic

to

and

Thought

Hellenistic-Roman

250

which

politicalvirtue,by
force

tive
itself

in reference

only

himself

asserts

man

world

phenomenal

the

in

the

as

virtue

this

II.

evinces

dianoetic

the

senses,

[Part

rationallyformar

since

; but

objectsof

to

ReligiousPeriod.

virtue

the virtue

by which
its own
into
soul
sinks
the
spiritualintrinsic life. As a help
stimulating to this virtue, Plotinus praisesthe contemplation of the
finds

beautiful,which
the

sensuously beautiful

this

dianoetic

world

ecstatic

individual

of the

is his

Neo-Platonists,

sinking

even

rapture with

unity

and

the

All-One.

the

into

And

into

salvation

The

(" 18, 6).

of

self-beholdingof the

that

for

thing

matter, rises from

toward

and
aesthetic 6to)pui

preliminary stage

of the

ground

the

the

in

individual,losing all consciousness, enters

the

which

the

Idea

the

beautiful.
spiritually

the

to

of

inclination

the

virtue, this

is only
spirit,

(cf.Aristotle),"

it

presentiment

overcoming

in

and,

sense,

far above

stands

of knowledge

with

ness
blessed-

"

and
Jamblichus
first,and, still more,
than
Plotinus, the
emphasise, far more
the individual finds for it in positivereligion and its acts of worship.
help which
of different
For these
men
largely increased the number
stages through which
the
the fprms
identified them
with
the world
One," and
proceeds forth from
ethnic
trary
less arbiof the deities in the different
or
religionsby all kinds of more
therefore
of the
with
the return
natural, in connection
allegories. It was
later

The

Proclus,

in the

"

of

case

Porphyry

"

exaltation

this

"

it must
traverse
the
to God, since
deification, to claim the support of these
soul

of

Neo-Platonists

the

degenerated

8. On

into

whole, therefore,the
by Plotinus, in spiteof

of Nature,

follows

streaming

forth

the
of

necessity,founded
working,
at the

But

physical

things

in the
but

For

just as the Idea is

the deity is related

origin in

is

logic,in

the

content

the

in

must

this

the

of

this

which

concept

of

and

the

the

sensuous

world,

of Ideas

of

of

to

extension

sense,

posive
pur-

poorer
increases

the

metaphysical
or

formal

in

contents

so

that

all content.

then
intelligible,

determination

in

the

versal
absolutelyuni-

oo, the

of

of

law

so

particular.

the

to

become

logicalprocess
of
view,
point
according to which the more
regarded as the higher,metaphysically more
to

is

class-concepts.

as

things

according

this

eternal

an

play here, which

into

First," void

proceed first the

is

design.

extension

"

This

processes.

universal

concepts
their

to

the

as

spiritualising

; creation

comes

individual

to

universal,
with

Power

without

Ideas, as

to

natural

God

from

idealisingand

character

related

world

original Power

and

Platonic

of the

of

the

essence

correspond

First

finallythe

from

proportion as

is also the
if from

old

absolute

accordance

intension

all its

time, a logicalmotive

same

its

God

derivation

schema

unconscious

has

turn

ecstatic

I.

the

set forth

and

of

state

ics
gods : and thus as the metaphysmythology, their ethics degenerated

lower

theurgic arts.

into

or

the

to

stages up

same

But

psychical,

relation

sponds
corre-

partition. This

general is throughout
while
primitivereality,

Thought

Hellenistic- Roman

252

unfolding of
but

as

fact in

however,

of the

that

was

these

regarded

occurred

not

eternal

an

The

all.

H.

of

process,

conception,

became

thought

[Part

in consequence

as

for

once

of

motives

freedom of

of will,and

act

an

was

that had

time

which

in

as

of the world

creation

this the

but

his essence,

ReligiousPeriod.

concentrated,

the will.
first the

meaning (with Aristotle)

of conceding to the finite personalityacting ethicallythe capacityof
decision
between
different given possibilities,
a
independently of
external
influence and compulsion. The
conception had then taken
This

with

on,

of

quality

beings.

of God,
of

thought

it is

because
willed

God
it

tonism

be.

to

so

and

For

the

the
other

of

"

theories

evil in the

theodicy

of

world

in the

the

each

finds
responsibility,

assumption
he

that

their

guilt evil

This
in

the

created
consists

This

by

God

rather

its way

of escape

it is because

God

between

is
has

Neo-Pla-

at this.

of

the

will

resulted

from

is

it.

forces

God

omnipotent

more

faith, supported

provided

came

into

the

their

difficulties in the

these

the

matter
in

which

souls

through

that

good world.'

of the

toward
cannot

of

out

feeling of

the

by

spiritsand human
analogous to his own, and

thinkers

in

world

God's

But

freedom

inclination

with

caused
un-

urgently than in the

the realityof
problem how

the

"

other.

guilt,the

still

; the

freedom

the

an

Every attempt

aside

contrast

the

of

the

perfect goodness. The

doctrine
volved
of creation, and, the pessimism inthe
theoretical and the practical,
of redemption,
the ethical momenta
of religiousfaith strike

God

created, with

forward

united

doctrine

as

into

the

in

feltneed

against

of

activity

regarded

Qod.

of

as

is the

activityof
"

causeless

philosophy

difficulties which

universe,
be

can

metaphysical and

hard

it is such

very

creative

involved

optimism
the

the

overcome

the

thereby put

principle

same

unlimited

problem

into

Christianitysharper than

this

to

is

point

no

Christian

the will

from

world

it,and

At

orthodox

Meanwhile,

employed

the

willed

has

of

absolute, and

nothing,"

the world

of

explanation

an

of

out

the

to

in the

developed

production of
at

Applied

creation

"

at

metaphysical meaning

the

Epicurus,

individual

had

had

conception

itself

rebellion

Church
or

be

find not
the

against

for

sensuous;

evil.^

The
the

properly

to consist

sin
will

of

of

matter

spirits

free

God,

as

in

their

is

of Alexandria
expressed abstractlyby Clement
(^Strom.IV. 13, 605)
that evil is only an
fore
and
that it thereaction, not a substance (oijla'),
cannot
be regarded as the work
of God.
2
Just for this reason
the metaphysical dualism
of the Gnostics
be in its
must
principle heterodox, and that, too, no matter
whether
it bore
the stamp rather
of Oriental
mythology or of Hellenistic abstract
thought
even
though in the
in the

form,

"

ethical consequences
of the Church.

which

it drew

it coincided

in

great part with

the

doctrine

Crod and

the World

an

unliniited

power

the

fact that

2, "20.]

Chap.

after

longing

secondarilyin

the

creations,toward

world

too, therefore, there

evil the
the

but

whole

itself in

of the

absence

that

this

with

of

of

the
spirit,

and

as

evil

the

pneuma
who

demons,

ensnare

thereby

ethics,also,no

either
God

is the
this

purely

permeated
reduced
here
As

to

the
the

and

which

of God

spiritand

be

Origen,

into conflict with

the

stronglyas
and

of creation

that

thought
too

which

strong

In this

"

Tatian, Orat.

sense

to

even

ad

is for

its

intrinsic

it
In

Origen

the

idealising of

the

completely

as
even

much

as

Plotinus

is relations

; but

of

will.

physical necessity,

is not
God

tween
be-

spirits;

finitewill.

yes,

is not

of

the

opposition

with

case

world

creation

last

for

the

streaming

punishment

developing these thoughts, took

in

as

to

allow

him

Origen

could

Qrcec. 4.

thought

of divine

action
to

call the

in

the

this

the

motive

Church.

divine

goodness,

grounded

regard

up

which, brought

motive

conception of

free act
see

of

mode

fast to the

desires

in him

world

lation,
reve-

without

of sin.

current

he held

to

the

Neo-Platonism,

to

in

appears

functions

material

soul, but

allied

was

so

these

into

the

overcoming

sure,

in

are

the

spirits,''

; and

the

"

element

over

infiniteand

is the

the

natural

fallen

by spiritualfunctions,
as

of

animated

are

the

and

corporeal world

"

there

internalising or

spiritual functions,

freedom,

for the

To

maintained

essential

but ethical

it the

the

possible.

not

God

in

with

philosophy completed through

In

senses.

passing

forth of

antagonism

which

being

as

as

and

these

"hylic

necessary

is

between

spiritualisingand

and

It

life
"

nature

regarded

world,

flesh,

soul

asserts

involved

of universal

of the

of the

the

contradiction

sensuous

rescue

that

the

'

God

merely

eternal

pursuits

voice

original.

or

Christian

metaphysical

the

is not

matter, but

direction

world- of the

dualism

inner

the

from

necessary

and

In

special revelation

early Christian
nature

of

not

and

the

of

of will.

act

is filled with

sense

stifle in him

them

still this

Here

conception

of

deeply

and

in their

departure from
But

God

man

and

the

God

indeed

contrasted.
of

make

of

transitorylife

world

by hostilityto God,
and

dualism

world.

the

himself.

is conceived

matter, become

world

God's

fallingaway from
religiousconsciousness

the

the

the

of

content

only

love toward

toward* God

positive,perverted

here, too, sharply enough

divine

the

their

departure and
of

this

spiritand
Christian
theory

of

fallingaway

but

good,

accordance

In

of

earnestness

this,that

in

253

and
self-determination,
turned

instead

prevails

element

negative

of

have

they

Origen.

in

evil t4 oix iv

personality

as

(in Joh.

.For

the scientific

yet

was

essence

creation

him

II.

causeless

7, 65)

254

taking place

act

eternityeven
that

he

to

creates

to

eternal

manner,

him

through

blessedness

unchanged

negligent,and
of

regarded

from

into

that

one

which

Real

in

this

pride
for

and

of the

spirits

Creator

remain

become

weary

vainglory,are,

this

itself,

So

purpose.

in
and

for

ishment,
pun-

arises

the

is, therefore, nothing self-subsistent,but

of

spiritualfunctions.
the

it is not

which

spiritualIdeas

in

within

Those

that

those

; but

created

eternalisation

as

him

him

matter

sense,

symbolic

with

turn

cast

world

limited

which,
of free spirits,

realm

deity as an ever-livinggarment.
love of the
in the knowledge and

continue

that

creating,

(oicria).In

spiritualworld

the

to

be without

Origen teaches, God begets the eternal Son, the

of
his world-thoughts (I'Sea(8c"uv),
and
sum-total
the

the

surrounds

Being,

from

is creator

is, therefore, only

will

eternal

he

that
can

never

II.

eternal, unchangeable

The

thought

he

[Part

so

the

as

the

of

eternal

relates

Logos,

eternity,that
timelessly.'
all

creation

this

But

the

rather

Religious Period.

time.

all in

for

onee

demands

of God

essence

Thought

Hellenistic-Roman

individual

what

bodies, but

connected

present,

are

For

and

be

may

rather

changing

the

within

them.''
with

So,

will.

creative

the

of

the

the

and

"
2

The

their

arises

Edition

the

Platonic

of

his

of

model, by

the

spiritsis

the

theory of
eternal product
the temporal
the
spirits.
vanish
again

the

The

principleof
changing will of
their

will

sin,and

treated

was

most

(331-394).

works

of

with

purification.Thus

10 ; III. 4, 3.
world
of sense

fathers, Gregory of Nyssa

tlkSs.

and

improvement

the

will.

account

on

Orig. Be Princ. I. 2,
This
idealisingof the
to

divine

world

is
(yei/eo-ts)

sensuous

united

becomes

eternal

changeless

Corporeality
with

Platonism

Origen,

His

will,and

main

relor

great detail,quite

in

important

the

of

treatise

the

Oriental

is the

X670S

cording
ac-

Church
xarrixv-

by Morellus

(Paris, 1675) [Eng. tr. in Vol. V., 2d

and
Post-Nicene
and
series, Lib. Nicene
Fathers, ed. Sohaff
Oxford,
Wace,
N.Y.
Lond., and
und
N.
Leben
1890]. Cf. J. Rupp, G. des Bischofs von
This
of Nature
transformation
into psychical terms
Meinungen, Leips. 1834.
found
the Gnostics, particularlywith
the
an
extremely poetic exposition among
most
them, Valentinus.
The
of sense
ingenious among
origin of the world
follows
is portrayed as
in his theogonic-cosmogoniopoetic invention
When
:
lowest
of the
the
in over-hasty longing, would
fain
iEons, Wisdom
((To"j"ia),
have
and
had
her
been
back
plunged into the original Ground
to
brought
again
place by the Spiritof Measure
("pos),the Supreme God separated from her her
lower
Wisdom
passionate longing (irdflos)
as
a
(kAto)"ro^la),called Achamoth,
and
banished
it into the
"void"
(cf." 20, 4). This lower "ro0(a,nevertheless,
of
and
impregnated by Spos for her redemption, bore the Demiurge
the world
"

On

sense.

forms

this

and

; her

phenomena
From

her

tears

before

the

divine

of

this

word,

ether, which

invention

is farther

Gnostic

ardent

world

pressure
have
come

light and

ao(pla in the

that

account

shapes

the
in

carried

longing of o-o^fa expresses

feelingsthat constitute

; it is her

and

complaint thrills through

fountains, streams, and seas

rocks

and

mountains

reconciliation
out

with

treatise,n/cms

the

stretch

; from
above

lamentations

(To"j)la.

all the
; from

her
the

and

itself
the

in

all

essence

of

life of Nature.
her

benumbing

hope of redemption,
This
earth.
poetic
songs of
penitential

Philosophyof History.

2, " 21.]

Chap.

lion

to
of personalities

the

infinite

sealed

thus
a

made

were

of

ultimate

Universal

religious ethics

is
by Christianity,
which
of

which

something

finite to

and

deepest

History.
physics,
cosmological meta-

over

connected

number

the

of

emergence

of

important attempts
philosophy of history.
a

the
is in
view

Greek

the

against

over

as

of

"

Here

1.

Problem

problem, to solve
the problem

farther

the

as

of the

"

The

triumph

this

particularthat

reality.

" 21.
With

in

recognised

personality,are

of all

meaning

another,

one

255

principlenew

its
of

the

world.

forward,

comes

For

Greek

science

to the
beginning directed its questions with reference
of stating
the abiding essence
(cf.p. 73), and this mode
"^uo-6s,
the
need
of
the question, which
proceeded from
apprehending
influenced
the
had
of
so
conceptions
forming
Nature,
progress
of events
had
strongly that the chronological course
always been

had

from

treated

the

interest

regarded

of

something

as

all its

its

the

only

not

race, with

of

secondary importance, having

individual

itself forever
This

is

according

had

of

the

living,that
of

process
had

indeed

had

investigatedthe

asked

politicallife ;
as

whole, for

never

once

of the

for

but

repeats

it has

forth
the

into

succession

Aristotle

assumed

forms

art

Plato

(Stoa).

same

the

of

the

ing
unchang-

earthly life,and

of

end

of

the

from

in

remained

thought

projected plan

sprung

again

ultimate

regular

anthropologicaltendency
the

for every

cosmological beginnings

the

in

philosophy

flow

must
an

which

by

the

history taken
inquiry for a meaning in human
connected
plan of historical development, had

been

in

life,as

Nature,

world-process

after the

even

background

human

the

human

ultimatelybut

experiences, as

plain grandeur

mastery

theoretical

as

of

whole

like laws.

; and

thought

obtained

force

with

expressed

of Greek

to

and

the

also

science

Greek

connection
but

man,

fortunes,deeds,

episode,a specialformation

an

this

In

own.

physical
meta-

no

put forward,

old thinkers

to

see

in

still less

and
this

it occurred

had

intrinsic,essential

the

to
nature

any
of

the world.
The
of

Neo-Platonism.

motive
turn
the

characteristic

most

as

its

when

it

perfect

the human
to seek

as

Its

guide

; but

regards
an

eternal

individual

salvation

the

alone

also

in

procedure

just

metaphysics, also,
it

gives

this

finds

of

his

by himself by

follows

motive

procession of
process

this

the

return

and

genuine

imperfect

necessary

place

respect is that
the
religious

sees

to the

Hellenic

forth

from

nature, in which
it

as

his

infinite.

destiny

for

external

it

the

faith

in

development

added,
of

of

process

flow

of

drama

universal
this led to
the

as

instead

so

universal

of the

of

historyas

activities of free will,became

were

true
an

an

ward
on-

the

tent
con-

metaphysics.

perhaps no better proof of the power of the impression

had
the personalityof Jesus
left,than the fact
of Nazareth
however
of Christianity,
wise
all doctrines
widely they may otheror
mythically,are yet at one in seeking
diverge philosophically

There
which
that

in him
the

that

of events

of Christian

the

Nature,

of

further

the

redemption. All
of redemption

regarding the history of the fall and

metaphysical import of the world's reality,and
eternal

as

consciousness

deep conviction

common

essence

especiallyof the relation of the

and

person,

race, the

human

the

sinfulness,and

to

the

for

theatre

the

II.

experiences of personalities:

to this were
deity. And
the principleof love, the

spiritto the
determining power,

finite

solidarityof

but

was

of person

relation

the

nature

[Part

beginning

the

the

in

world-movement

whole

the

ReligiousPeriod.

from

Christianity,however, found

2.

of

Thought

Hellenistic-Roman

256

is

the

his appearance

and

conflict

between

good

of

centre

and

the -world's

light and

evil,between

him

history. By

darkness, is

decided.
But
in

its Saviour

him

those

days

regarded
and

this

Alexandrian

to

rather

evil

as

him

the

the

of

this

this

conflict is the
man

great complex

raised

far

above

the

had

as
by
religions,

Christian

realityof
fallen

of

mode

order

of

gods ;

had

to

means

thought

heathen

the

spiritswho
in

no

been

it

seduced

prevent

his

which
conflictof religions,
in

process,

the

the

of

eyes

the

powers

the

importance

took

place in

the

thinkers

Christian

struggling forms the

and the history
gods of the various religions,
inner
since
of all reality. And
significance
with
his ethical
life-work is implicated in

the

individual

every

the

demons,

period, acquires

history are

other

evil which

God.'

true

thought

the

to

Christianitybelieved

which

worship them,

to

metaphysical significance:
world's

For

denying

persuaded

returning

By

element.

the

far from

was

them

side

also

belonged

important

its least

victorywith

still another

had

by

overcome

man

of

this consciousness

life of

sense,

whose

into

of

the

individualitybecomes

sphere of metaphysical

reality.
3.

With

almost

all Christian

history appears
the origin and

fortunes

takes

for

place once

as

So

of

course

all.

even

of

the

It is

thinkers, accordingly,the world's

inner

events

world

of

which
sense,

"

draw
a

course

essentially
only Origen who

Origen ;

cf.

Cont.

Oels. III. 28.

after them

which

holds

fast

to

fundamental

the
far

so

by making

and
of

succession

the

with

the

find

their

that

by holding

and

God,

he
these

fall of

with

the

redemption

^dn-oKarao-Tatns )

the

as

worlds

and

ch.

1).

Between

forth

take

the

of escape

way

from

immediate

of free

number

proceed

temporal

and

faund

worlds

regarded

declension
end

he

257

(cf.p. 27,

world-process.

Greek,

temporal

world, which
spiritual

eternal

science

eternityof the

the

teach

to

as

of Greek

character

motives, the Christian

two

of

Philosophyof History : Christianity.

2, " 21.]

Chap.

the

creation
their

origin

and
spirits,

restitution

of

thought,

the

to

are

the

same

'

fundamental

The

point
In

with

contrast

placehut

lower

fall and

and

once,

of
the

character

resolve

of free

of these

contrary,

all,which
has

sin, and

conceptions

the realm

as

on

redemption

for

once

spiritsto

naturalistic

the

conceived

historyis

of

redemptive revelation,the

the

in

of

drama

taking place

events

decision

free

historical

of

series

connected
with

the

portray

to

was

of Christian

tendency

as

begins

its

turning-

of

divine

freedom.

of

Greek

thought,

of personalities,
taking

acts

acts, agreeably

the

to

entire

essentiallyreligioussigniiicance.
how
in the
to
4. It is highly interesting now
see
mythicoof
of the
Gnostics, the peculiar relation
metaphysical inventions
is brought to
expression in cosmogonic
Christianityto Judaism
consciousness

In

garb.

of the

the

time,

Gnostic

is of

circles

is" predominant, the

the

tendency

to define

desires

which

Christian

Gentile

so-called

dency
ten-

the

new

against Judaism, and this

sharply as possible,as over
tendency just through the Hellenistic
philosophy grows to the most
against Judaism.
open hostility
The
mythological form for this is,that the God of the Old Testar
religion as

ment, who
world

of

sense,

Demiurge,
forms

and

"

him

most

well

that

in

as

in accordance

who

was

that

in

Jesus

God

not

the

defiled

by

contrast

had

\ Orig.De

with

brought

Princ.

III.

they proceed, are

variety; lb. II. 3, 3

the

any

at

contact

These

in the

yet
115

that

a.d.)

hierarchy of

cosmic

universe,

the

which

the

pronounced opposition.
guished
distinalready

of

had

the

from

the

Supreme
had
of

God

Supreme

worlds, on account
one
another, but

all like

of the

name

matter, and

with

given by
of

of the

function.

Demiurge,

as

"law"

of
are

God.^

the
of

taught

the

Jews,

So, too.

freedom
the

God

most

from
fold
mani-

f.

distinction which
Numenius
Cf Euseb. Prcep. Ev. XI.
.

this

fashioner

Platonic

history of

is not

revelation

1, 3.
not

place

the

as

the

under

(about

Jews

the

regarded

the

with

Cerinthus
of

is

part

assigned

as

certain

the

is

law,

the beginning this relation

A

which

Mosaic

for the

"

jEons,

or

belongsto
At

the

gave

also
18.

adopted, evidently

under

Gnostic

ences.
influ-

258
with

Saturninus,

the

from

their

in

realm,

world

it the

of sense,

In

this

the

conflict the
God

Supreme

may

free

from

the

also

"

great Archon

"

of the

world

Supreme

of sense,

God's

belongs to
world, completed

the

spirits and

by

their

in

Gods,

the

object, even
In
further
the

humanity,

The

purposeful

Philonic

Jesus

employed by
life in

against

the

Jesus,^ and
1

Cf.

The

strongly

Marcion's

and

God
of

name

by the

brought

as

of

"

and

to

the

founded

arate
sep-

subordinate

the

the

in

Cerdo

and

its

as

the

great

the

the

determinations

the

of

vealed
re-

the

"

sharply defined

more

conceives

and

regards
God

God

God

good

who

discipleApelles even

that

prophets,as the
justice is accessible

conception;

Supreme

Syrian

from

the

of

unknowable,

the

Jesus

Testament

God

Stoic

manner,

has

Plato.

Old

(about 150),
for

Carpo-

form

to

revelation

Moses

as

the

which

Judaism

the

by

ascetic
and

with

reverenced

made

against

same

Marcion'

Demiurge

he

spirits

tremble

to

caprice,and

own

before

and

is

conception.

his

the

Testament,

religion

announced

knowledge

through

that

by
particular religionsare, like
conflict,the Supreme Deity reveals

God

World-fashioner

natural

to

even

polemic

God

until

these

Pythagoras

distinguishedthe

New.

men.

world-seed, as head

made

Old

themselves

while

already

decided

more

their

to

universal

had

under

Jesus,

in

of the

of mutual

true

he

as

of

But

one

as

of

in order

angels, who, commissioned

thej^got

state

God

fallen

men.

him

kingdom,

race

and

exaltation.

according

it

divine

salvation

the

in which

realms

educators

of

manner,

crates,

Jesus

represents

message

similar

and

him

the

But

of the Jewish

redemption

of

form

to

powerless

prove

Demiurge

introduces

of the

it.

over

"hylic"

II.

spiritual

of his

part

Saviour,

as

the

same

efflux

an

for his undue

repentance
In

as

lower

voCs

likewise

This

this

Demiurge

^on

and

men

the

of the

the

of Satan.

power

and

demons

sends

back

the

matter

guardian

as

head

of

portion of

man

to conquer

prophets

pneumatic

set

taught by Basilides, who

is

the

his

against man

sends

emanation

away

[Part

the

as

appears

lowest

as

and

Satan,

ReligiousPeriod.

Jews

to rule tore

desire

conflict arises,since

are

the

of

God

who,
planetary spirits,

seven

in

Thought

Hellenistic-Roman

of
it

the

as

warfare

through

revealed

treated

the

tian
Chris-

God

Jewish

Volkmar,

unci
Philosophoumena
Marcion
Jahrb.
Tubingen,
( Theol.
author, Das Evangelium Marcion's
(Leips. 1852).
2
An
extremely piquant mythological modification
of this thought is found
in the sect of the Ophites, who
to the
Hebraic
fall the
narrative
of the
gave
interpretation, that the serpent which
edge
to eat
of the
of knowltaught man
tree

1854).

Same

in Paradise
to

who

man

had

man

had
desired

on

had
this

made

fallen

beginning
under

is the

of

true

in

Jesus.

salvation

bringing the

dominion

experienced

account

appeared victorious
to teach

the

the

wrath

For
of

man.

of

this

the
of

revelation

of

Demiurge,
the

Demiurge,

knowledge

the

and

which

true
that

the
the

God
after

tion
revela-

serpent

tion,which
ended

in

had

short

by

as

Crucified
the

time.

made

means

no

would

metaphysics ; for the philosophy

the turning-pointof the world's history
Jesus
its slighestsupport, the expectation that the
again to judge the world, and to complete

return

victory of light
with

become
however

time

darkness.

over

with

and

these

ideas

of

first

hopes,

disappointment

the

of

dualism

of the

also, by conceiving

here

varied

However

tendencies

the

strongly

themselves

II.

early Christian

of the

history which

had,

[Part

the.appearance of the Saviour,would be

The
hopes are an essential
eschatological

with

begun

very

constituent
of

Thought : ReligiousPeriod.

Hellenistic-Roman

260

the

and

last

monism

assert

either

Judgment

as

separationof good and evil,or as a complete overcoming

with
of the latter by the former
TravToiv
Origen),and
(diroKarao-Tao-is
however
much
material
and a more
ness
a
more
spiritualview of blessedand unhappiness, of heaven
and
hell,interplayhere also, in
a

definite

"

the

case

every

last

redemption, and
The

6.

points of

consummation

view

thinkers

Christian

by

the

so

within

them.

posiveness

of

thought

could

that

course

that

the

with

not

whole.

Nature,
service
a

the

and

the

latter

of

tion.
salva-

and

depth

the

an

thought

new

life also has

of

appears

the

as

pur-

religious
rises here

ing
purposeful mean-

becomes

history

the

which

energy

completely

in human

former

reflected upon

raised

above

higher in worth, in

is

employed.^
possibleonly

back

the

for

time

vivid

that

from

ripe

of

a
upon
great development
memory
history. The universal civilisation of the Eoman
found
of its own
inner
dawning in the self-consciousness
in that
presentiment of a purpose
working together of

the

national

destinies

and

idea

the

continued

through

of

this

tradition

of

Greek

religioustheory of
ancient
civilisation,
gave
historical

for the

civilisation themselves
is

it had

process

literature

to that

of man;

and

felt that

comprehensible

Cf.

had
the

time
that

that

existence,

peoples
their

they

from

the

this

meaning

of
preparations

in the

of

Irenseus,Ref. IV. 38, 4, p.

developed
form

sought

since the

the

into

come

yielded especiallyby the

embracing a thousand
years.

thought
to be

was

itself

was

the world, which

movement

salvation

complete, it

which

mighty

The

God

plan

of

world's

Empire

"of the

divine

the work

world's

philosophyhad

teleology

conception was

looked

the

The

the

the

of

history is regarded
indeed
exclusivelyreligious
; but the
historical
teleology gains recognition

surpass,

of events

of

result

life

Nature

Such

in

Greek

conclusion

of

which

thus

are

While

as

whose

was

from

general principleof

more

the

forms

Judgment

of

the

ancient

efficient working

believed

702 f. St.

they

saw

the

before

historyimmediately

end of

Patristies.

Philosophy of History:

Chap, 2, " 21.]

where

them,

the

261
of

sun

their

day

sinking.

was

in hand

hand

But

with

this
the

history goes

in human

exalted above

and

space

the salvation

as

divine

for

plan

plan, the

this

the

of

the

and

of

that

is that

human

among

race,
isation,
civil-

common

becomes

is made

race

the

unity of

redemption

it appears

in

complete

of all

much
Inas-

men.

the

import

of the

the

provisions of

to which
fellowship (cxKXijo-ta)

called,by sharing

are

race

of

boundaries,

whole

important

most

systematicallyplanned unity

consciousness

national

world,

of the

all members

The

revelation

common

of

thought

time.

breaking through
the belief in

idea

in faith the

work

same

conception of the Church, shaped out from the

with
the
in this connection
life of the Christian community, stands
tive
its constitureligiousphilosophy of history,and accordingly,among
is one
of the most
marks
or
notes, universalityor catholicity
of

The

redemption.

important.
In

7.

this

universe.
view

This

of the

and

man

way,

his

essentiallyfrom

the

indeed, assigned a high metaphysical positionto

held
it even
nature
psychico-spiritual
purposeful connected
; it regarded the

whose
deification
also from

it

was

part

to be the

appears,
Just

(Stoic)point of
Neo-Platonism

would

never

for

the

the

of

is the

this,however,

him

as

sake

knowing

the

being

rest, the whole

is the

that
of

"

man,

but
who

efficiency

divine

whole.
case

According to Irenaus,^ man

Nature

of

declare

to

of

capable

be

for man,

which

in

phenomena

of the

end

consented

have

ual,
individ-

whole

its usefulness

of

view

latter,

human

to

the

Christian

The

Neo-Platonic.

the

of

centre

distinguishesthe

anthropocentriccharacter

world

the

destiny becomes

God

in

philosophy

the

has

of

been

Fathers.

the

creation

created

; he

it is to
his

for

himself, and

reveal

would

Nature,

aim

and

end

of

it

is, also,

revelation
farther
granted him, made
by abuse of the freedom
all
sake
for whose
and redemption necessary
; it is he, therefore,
Man
the highest unfolding of psychical life
historyalso exists.
as
of creation,its master
is,as Gregory of Nyssa^ teaches, the crown
who

and

king :

taken
are

back

it is creation's
into its

just those

have

been

fallen

clothed

account

of

process

has

their

contemplated by him,

be

to

with

originalspirituality. But
who,
spirits,
with

the

sin, and

attained

destiny

its end

world
it will

punishment

for
of

sense

the

and

Nature

again

cease

through

Origen, too,

return

JRef.V. 29, 1, p. 767

St.

Conf.

only

the

of all

spiritsto

Mor.

on

historical

when

I. 60-60

men

improvement,
exists

Good.

and

the

Thought

Hellenutic-Boman

262

Thus

into

the

anthropological
science

Greek

the

period

Eoman

the

world

the

took

"What

and

history

arises

only

the

of

of

and

in

its

far

as

unity

salvation

as

in

away

passes

so

of

it

is

taken

its

the

and

space

into

up

time

the

from

the

all

has

religious
gained
and

finite

its

relation

in

which

has

race

of

way

change

connection

measure

II.

Hellenistic-

with

human

historical

its

principle

league
The

metaphysics.

of

possession

in

last

at

as

the

during
real

[Part

forced

interest,

the

the

more

first

at

developed

and

more

considered,

consciousness
the

as

of

shifting

problem,

be

to

was

it

need

only
the

of

statement

which

movement,

Period.

Religious

things.
cance
signifi-

true
of

gards
re-

his

to

man

God.

Being
at

the

its

Becoming

and

beginning

human

race.

the

were

conceptions

the

problems
with

which

of

it

ancient
closes

philosophy
are

God

and

PAET

PHILOSOPHY

THE

Eousselot,Etudes
Haurfiau,

De

B.

Haur6au,

Histoire

A.

Stockl, Geschichte

la

de

Philosophie

der

defend

in

also, was

of

danger
the

sceptre

understanding

for

the

for the

light

that it seemed
Thus

the

breaking

the

Inaccessible
abstract

all the

process

from
of

Europe
new

the

the
of

world

the

North

future

the

centuries

Christian

Church.

fine

of

its

What

the

had

the

not

which,
of

goods

subversion.

of

could

not

aesthetic imagination

of

were

laid

hold

gospel,which

the

of

and

State

the

given

achieve, religionaccomplished.

workings

Germans

midst

bowed,

during
not

been

spiritualpower

new

them

could

its school.

in

of

their

worked

upon

and

deepest
them

grand simplicity.

religiousexcitation,therefore, could the

science
by the peoples of
appropriation of ancient

this

point

of

to-day begin
enter

however,
the

of

the

the

to

preaching

power

if in

ilisation
civ-

broken,

so

was

have

for

still for the

the

and

philosophy

into

rescue

science

thought,

feelingsby
Only

the

and

art

how

victors

rescue,

of

sons

vital force

spiritwould

of

world,

the

preserve

was

hope

of

mind

withal, ancient

And,

rude

Greek

less

the

for

out;

structures

art.

the

taking
the

old

knew

hand,

power

do, what

of

of

beyond

of

down

firm

Grecian

its
disintegrated,

so

conquests

and
civilisation,

the

of

strong, to which

grown

now

incapable of

destruction

to

the

Mainz, 1864-66.

completely crushed
passed brought still

finely elaborated

forms

in itself

was

with

Paris, 1872-80.

Mittelalters.

des

becoming

tribes to whom

This

Paris, 1850.

Scholastique.

Philosophie

la

the
migration of the peoples broke in devastation over
Empire, and the latter lacked the political strength to
itself againstthe northern
barbarians,scientific civilisation,

Eoman

with

Age. Paris, 1840-42.

Moyen

du

AGES.

the

When

over

MIDDLE

Philosophie Scholastique.

B.

than

THE

OF

Philosophie

la

sur

III.

of

intellectual

the

only

school

this relation
content

of

at

of
was,

the
the

old.

that

ancient
263

hand

of

the

natural

The

at first

Church

only

civilisation

that

remained

could
quence,
conse-

portion
alive

Philosophy/.

Mediceval

264
had

which

which

that

all

authorityrigidlyexcluded
opposed

was

her.

to

this

By

means,

of
of

be

only
of

the

European
of

beginnings

religious society

had

it

worlds

they
the

to its

grown

kinds

many
whole

great task of becoming

from
nations, first of all, because

had

Church

The

not

could

conflict.

toil and

again long after,by

forth

drawn

sure,

would

and

able to

been

cially
espe-

be

to

comprehend and elaborate much

wisely guarded against; but thereby
material, was
which
to the depth from
the intellectual life sank

have

Church,

else,and

nations, which

these

of

youthful mind

the

in

confusion

the Christian

of

doctrine

the

into

up

teaching

that the

and

taken

been

III.

[Part

educator

the

invisible

with

developed

steadily

organisation,which amid the dissolution

that was
firm and
life presented itself as the only power
of political
And
since this organisation was
of itself.
supported by the
sure
the means
of bringcalled to become
was
ing
thought that the Church
cation
of redemption to all humanity, the religiouseduthe salvation
task
nature.
of the barbarians
was
a
prescribed by its own
growing

Church

But

the

her

inner

unified

all the

was

life

she

able

more

of

completed system

take

to

with

had

proceeded
deviating paths, and had

numerous

and

to

power

this

the

doctrine.

this

To

the

circumstance, that at the

especiallyfavourable
the sum-total
presented with
epoch she was
worked
of

into

out

first

the

order,

Augustine
the

do

the
need

of

the

thought

salvation

and

this

of

form

But

science.

of

doctrine

the

of

great

task

of

the

mind

thought,

this

the

Germanic

the

the Christian
which

system

entered

the

church

Church.
became

peoples,and

European

peoples

trated
concen-

about
the

by

of

ideas

also

energy

need

philosophy of
unity, the

he

only

Not

Ages.

creative

of

trainingof

the

practicalneed,
Middle
Ages begins with
the

convictions,

system by

Middle

with

fulfilment

and

itself,and

ends

new

in
the

upon

Greeks.

reason

of

of the

her

philosophy,but

his time

is the

scientific

the

Neo-Platonic

in his

Middle

path which the Greeks

In antiquityscience

knowledge

to the

of

the

Romanic

for this

the

in

the

the

inheritance

and

of

given, in pregnant

was

basis

teacher

true

Plotinus, unite

His

of

the

added

threshold

scientific

thorough

in

Augustine.

"

entire

community.
Herewith

of

Christian

of

of

and

form

the

was

threads

Origen

the

further

was

since

certainty amid
goal of a unified

same

attained

hand,

in

of

had

had
had

in the

retraced
over

in

their

arisen

from

the

pure

only
tasks,and

the

faith ; it
to

conscious
sees

make

reverse

gone

gradually entered

ethical

intellect

Ages

of

relations to
aesthetic

into

the

in science
to

at

the

itself

of

joy

service

religiouslongings.

subordination

clear

tion
direc-

The

knqwledge

beginning only
and

express

in

Mediceval

that

thought

abstract

feeling and

in

knowledge itself

But

in

the

wakes

anew,

at

first

ever-increasing force

with

and

science

victoriously when

hers

faith,philosophy

265-

surely
midst

of

unassailably

this work

lie

to

the

define

to

unfolds

far

end
her

breaks

to

itself

distant

limits

against theology,and

the

joy
uncertainly,

self-certainty
; it

begins

as

and

timorously and

in fields which
seem
scholastically,
unassailable
sphere of ideas, and at

at first

faith's

it possesses

conviction.

in

then

which

Philosophy.

from

through
against

as

assume

scious
con-

independent position.
The

education

philosophyof
point

the

scientific

the

brought
at its

The

spirit.

close,and

Ages

for

its

intellectual

peoples

develops

the

in

history of

then

for

the

goal
form

gradually the

its

the

starting-

development

of

of

antiquity

is

which

it assumed

civilisation

religious

them

in

the

forth, has

sets

and

doctrine,

to modern

peoples, which

European

Middle

Church

the

the

of

for properly

maturity

scientific work.

education

of this
connected
and

conditions

such

Under

with

awakens

the

fruits of

disciplemay
of

ancient
when

in

and

forging out

the

Greek

regards
as

and

its

education
the
not

era

the

worth

presents

In

the

spiritof
in

the
the

the

system

of

their

its labours

of

whole,

investigation
a

thought,

new

discover

can

but

which

the

of

the

Hellenistic-Roman,

between

the

two

is that

been

coming

Ages, given

definitive.

and

into

what

existence

regarded

as

in
amid

only

and

remain
or

of

in

disciples,
the

most

the

to

of

the

be, on
ing
depart-

spirit,solely
essential
of

struggles was,

for

something

as

intellectual

first centuries

the

of

gently germinating

an

continuation

and

Highly

themselves

show

Ages

mediaeval

not

"

the

appropriationof the world of thought

antiquity. Mediaeval
philosophy is,in its entire

had

peoples,

solutions.
for

ceptions
con-

conceptions

of

detailed

and

pedantry

philosophy,

regards

the

fine transformations

philosophicalthoughts,

as

of

Middle

with

new

tion
appropria-

new

"

Middle
and

also

interest

problems

emulously

within

but

the

terminology

Hellenistic-Roman

estimate

beginningsof

the

the

contend

history

an

than

European peoples,its highest achievements

last instance
just brilliant productions of scholars
of masters,
only the eye
productions in which

refined

the

new

enclosed

the

and

therefore, find many

into

up

the

peculiar personality
there;

may,

Latin

often

problems,

must

we

and

its fundamental

insipidity
; but in
philosophy remains
the

here

taken

depth

and

acuteness

the

philosophy

thus

interest

philosophicalinsight.

itself

assert

that

rather
civilisation,

material

presented

understand

to

psychological

history of

the

independent
of

it is easy

in the

main

tinction
disour

the

complete

lasted

full

thousand

addition
which
and

of

scientific theories

the

at

was

grow

the

up

and

of

the

eses
antith-

of

problems
philosophy,
amplifiedgive the form

prevalent in

world

the

Out

culture.

of

conceptions taken

ancient

the

material

in this material

appear

to-day

III.

school,
and
as
planned
systematically
science
toward
by the successive
proceeds

years,

ancient

of

[Part

if in

its education

pedagogic steps

of

humanity

the

which

period, in

This

to

Philosophy.

Mediaeval

266

the

Middle

Ages.
Neo-Platonism

between

in this tradition

exists

originaldiscord

An

which
a discord
by Augustine,
indeed
not equally strong at all points,since Augustine in very
was
under
the control of Neo-Platonism,
essential points had remained
which
amounted
to an
and yet a discord
opposition with reference

The

in

science

as

the

contrary, takes

the

as

become

Mystics

background.
in

more

would

task

of
of

present the

to

and

establish

The

develop it :
philosophy is the

Neo-Platonic

tendency,

the

individual,

guiding
life with

the

part

may

be

of the

Scholastic

the

Throughout
than

the

Middle

in this

see

two.
; but

in

system

Scholasticism

to

erroneous

entirelyorthodox
diverge widely

the

presuppose

system,

the

an

only

do

treatment

the

it is

cism.
Mysti-

each

other

the

Mystics

Scholastics

its

as

Ages, therefore, Mysticism

of

becoming

essential

Scholasticism
not

of

so

proclamation of

the

so

in

deity:

sets itself this end

Ages

to faith.

conception of

and

danger

between

the

main

mediaeval

oneness

Middle

the

about

to

direction

to blessed

philosophy

Mysticism accordinglysupplement
exclusive.
As the intuition of
being reciprocally

without

the

the

of the

science

Scholasticism

may

system,

prosecutes this task

schools, Scholasticism.

through knowledge,
far

scientific

of

relation

the

it

as

of

the

on

far

so

of

Augustine is concentrated
its
for it philosophy has as

doctrine

Church

"

of

system
Church

the

character

fundamental

to the

defended

doctrine

Church

the

and

mark

is, no
the

of

heterodox

theories

dogmas

of

it

ing
distinguish-

for

doubt,

; but

is

in

the

which

the

main

Scholastics
are

still in

of

in
of the Scholastics, even
formulation,but many
the scientifipinvestigationof the doctrines which
were
given,proceeded
to completely heterodox
which
of
the
theories,
expression
less severe
and within.
or
brought them into more
conflicts without

As

process

regards Mysticism, the Neo-Platonic

theoretical
the
1

background of the secret or

monopolising of the religiouslife on

Cf.

H. Keuter, Oeschiohte

der

tradition
open
the

Geschichte

forms

the

opposition offered to
part of the Church;'

religiosen Aufkldrung

(Berlin,1875-77). Cf. also H. v. Eicken,

(Stuttgart,
1888).

often

im

Mittelalter, 2 vols.

der mittelalterlichen

anschauung
Welt-

Philosophy.

Mediceval

268
of

amount

in

literaryproduction,and

[Part

passionateagitationof

III.

tific
scien-

controversies.

everywhere
living variety in form has as yet by no means
of literary-historical
full justiceat the hands
received
research/ but
tinctly
us
lines of this development lie before
clearly and disthe main
enough for the history of philosophic principles,which
field in this period for the reasons
finds but a meagre
nevertheless
Such

We
already adduced.
the complex
reduce
all too
and

of

elements

the
in the

have

that

relations

negative

of this

movement

of centuries

course

multitude

the
and

tradition

that

to formulas

process

come

ancient

guard against aiming to

our

on

against overlooking

simple, and

between

must, indeed, be

in

gone

which

are

of

positive
shiftingforms
their

found

trance
en-

into mediaeval

by irregular intervals

thought.
general, the

In
the

Middle

The
the

profound

doctrine

direction of its

Neo-Platonic
limited

the

among

European

following lines.
not
Augustine had its first efficiency,

of

but
philosophicalsignificance,

the

of the

doctrine

Mysticism

peoples of

the

Ages proceeded along

presentation of
a

science

of

course

an

Side

Church.

by

authoritative
with

side

this

scientific

itself,and

maintained

as

in

schooling
fragments of the

and

to
unimportant compendiums,
Aristotelian
logic. Nevertheless, a logico-metaphysicalproblem of
elaboration
of the
the
developed from
logic,
great importance
of
this
about
and
a
problem arose
highly vigorous movement

was

to

"

thought, which, however,

in consequence

of the

of

thought. In contrast
began graduallyto assert

first effects of
science
toward

to which

contact
the

employment

threatened

with
West
with

lack

with
its

in
this

mighty

Arabian

degenerate

to

into barren

malism
for-

knowledge to form the content

the
Augustinian psychology

force

; and

science

at the

disclosed

owed, primarily at least,a

and
realities,

further

time

same

the

themselves,

stimulus

certain

complete widening

grounds for this lie,certainly in part, in the hut gradually vanishing

of a just appreciation of the
Middle
long stood in the way
prejudices which
stantial
Ages ; hut in no less a degree they lie also in this literature itself. The circumand
the
yet for the most
part sterile prolixity of the investigations,
schematic
uniformity of the methods, the constant
repetition and turning of
the arguments,
the lavish expenditure of acuteness
sometimes
artificial and
upon
all these
absolutely sillyquestions, the uninterestingwitticisms of the schools,
features
which
are
of learning, approperhaps belong inevitably to the process
priating,
and
mediaeval
practising,which
philosophy sets forth, but they bring
with
the consequence
them
that in the study of this part of the history of philosophy
the mass
of the material, and
the toil involved
in its elaboration, stand
in an unfavourable
relation
that just
to the real results.
So it has come
about
those
into
investigatorswho have gone deeply, with industry and perseverance,
mediaeval
philosophy have often not refrained from a harsh expression of illhumour
to the object of their research.
as
The

"

Mediaeval

of

transformation

and
main

attached

to

system

of

entire

acquaintance
in

This

acquaintance

gained

that

the

of

help

and

in

influence

Neo-Platonic
elements

in

vigorous

confirmation

in

energetic expression,
Thus

tendency.
scientific

separation
a

in

medicine

new

East,

of

and

hand

in

the

among

the

development

far

from

the

interwoven

the

this

loosening

and

such

with

became

are

so

and

the

at the
two

by

relations

the

two

sections

the
of

movements,

its

began

the

in

in

from

also

of

psychology

and

favoured

direction

the

rise

to

current,

the

research

way

domain

cleft

widened

now

which

And

separating

the

deeper,

the

cannot

subject

reception
1200.

which

led

while
all

on

the

period

in

the

be
matter.

support
the
;

their

thus

sides,

the

into

way

are

second.

retardation,

or

of

thoughts

but

the

ancient

important

most

of Aristotelianism,
This

in their

and

first

form

front,
Ages

year

interests

divisions,therefore,
in

the

about

that

time

of

Middle

doubtless

was

into

related

differences

the

through

complete

same

it

mutual

of

changes

numerous

turn

field naturally

more

web.

move

decisive

made

of

Neo-Platonic

became

already finding

were

found

form,

Empirical

also

were

I^eo-Platonic

expression

metaphysics.

tradition

beginnings

new

cleft

logic

strong

Aristotelianism,

Augustinian

Aristotelian
of

various

such

philosophy
and

of

the

their

under

the

This

conquered

with

and

movement.

Aristotelian

threads

filaments

With

the

it

also

sharper

its

its

Arabians

elements

finds

jected
proall

specific

into

Aristotelianism
;

the

upon

had

the

the

against

which

science

churchly

fine

lean

this

was

Augustinian

reaction

complicated

from

of

the

of

conceptions.

was

means

forced

sides

peoples

assistance

this

philosophy.

with

European

without

not

and

which

directions,

produced,

natural

hand

but

in

even

violent

is

less

not

translation,

by

were

both

theology

and

by

while

thought

from

while

metaphysics

wrought

accepted

; and

the

in

out

metaphysical

interpretation

various

doctrine

the

with

consequence

carefully

been

in

was

by-ways

Church

their

in

such

by

of

Latin

previous tradition,

Augustinian

development

fundamental

their

269

immediats

and

had

in

only

not

commentaries,

in

his

Aristotelianism

(and Jews)

the

structure

style

grandest

the

Meanwhile

the

horizon.

Aristotle, and

was

the

with

parts

the

its

Philosophy.

divides

the

which
whole

philosophical import

problems,

repeated
The

antitheses

the
in

broader,

relation

generally designated

in

of
this

and

these
case

CHAPTER

(Until

line

The

of

which

in

thought

in which

and

moved,
of

1200.)

about

Kaulich, Gfeschichte der scholastichen

W.

PERIOD.

FIRST

I.

Philosophie,

I. Theil.

Prague, 1863.

mediaeval

it continued

the

philosophy essentially
principlesof the philosophy

of Augustine.
prescribed for it by the doctrine
He
had
nioved
the principle of internality {InnerUcKkeit) which
had
been
closing development of ^ncient
preparing in the whole
science, for the first time into the controllingcentral positionof

antiquity,was

and

philosophic thought,
the

the

position

which

to

he

is entitled

in

line of
philosophy is that of the beginner of a new
development. For the bringing together of all lines of the Patristic
well
the
Hellenistic
as
as
he comphilosophy of his time, which
pletely
accomplished,was
possibleonly as these were
consciously
united
in that new
the germ
of
thought which was itself to become
the philosophy of the future.
But
distant
future :
only of a more
his philosophicaloriginality
his contemporaries and the
passed over
centuries
effect.
without
the circuit
immediately following
Within
of

history

old

the

of

civilisation

extinguished,

and

the

the

new

creative

power

peoples

could

of

thought had become

only gradually grow into

scientific work.
In

the

cloister

and

court

schools

which

newly beginning civilisation,

permission
by

the

side

of the

arts most

formed
for

for the

the

of this

seats

instruction

in

trainingof

dialectic

the

clergy
conquered step by step. For this elementary logical
instruction
they possessed in the first centuries of the Middle Ages
only the two least important treatises of the Aristotelian Organon,
De
in a Latin
with
Categoriisand De Interpretatione,
translation
had

to

the

introduction

the

Neo-Platonic

material

pendiums
Marcianus

necessary

be

of

of

Porphyry,

time,

knowledge

in

and

number

particular those

(of

the

of
of

Boethius.

Quadrivium) they

of

departing antiquity, which

had
Capella, Cassiodorus, and Isidorus
270

been
of

of

commentaries

used

For
the

the
com-

prepared by

Sevilla.

Of

the

First Period.

1.]

Chap.

great original works

toward

mainly

directed

formal

logic,and

something

formation

and

division

conclusions.
into

the

doctrine
of the

Meanwhile

this

of

West

Orient

appropriation

of

ancient

the

main

phasis
em-

the

upon

syllogistic

correct

school

logic had

development

this

now

given

was

the

process

and

Damascenus,

unassailable,

arrangement,

the

of

according to

rigidly articulated

took

of
in

place

also.

pursuit,which
not
only the

tradition,had

in the

service
John

this

was

regarded

what

and

class-concepts,
upon

the

by

the schools

of

its contents

formal

upon

indeed

was

forms
In

schools

edge,
parts of knowl-

setting forth

logic.

in

Already

in

the

Platonic

schematism

material

which

and

by tradition,in

necessarilyfall

must

the

of the

and

elaborating

the

practisingthe

even

Aristotelian-Stoic

rules of the

put

of

down

handed

Church

treatment

essentiallycomplete

direction

the

been

the

and

learning

the

known.

was

particularof religiousdogma

in

and

philosophy, only

of Chalcidius

in
circumstances, scientific activity*

these

Under

took

ancient

in the translation

TimoBus

as

of

271

had

in

its basis

didactic value

material, but

of

the

also

the

conditions

mental

of

exercise
that

consequence

the

begimiingsof independent reflection necessarily took the direction

of an
inquiry as to the significanceof logicalrelations,and so we
find emerging early in the Western
literature,investigationsas to
the relation

of the

the other

the

The

to

thus

problem

the

By
tolerated

and

formed
side

half

the

the

fifth

Areopagite,and
translated

were

made
a

in

the

main

in

basis

of

point was
with

In consequence

century,
it
the
his

ninth

in

of these

other

this
Amid

which

wider

of

there

of

writings

to

to

extension

when

these

In
of

Scotus

this

the

Platonism

incitements

the

in

question

became, during

Dionysius
writings
and

doctrine,however,
grades

different

and

had

Erigena,

metaphysical reality,which
older

tianity
Chris-

which

ascribed

John

on

plication.
peculiarcompersisted,half

were

century by

significance
of logicalgenera
the

back

It went

and

word,

transmission

mystical

identification

the

doctrine

doctrine.

own

the

to

strengthened by

but

hand

one

Church

gained

stages

alreadypropounded
(cf."20,8).

the

form.

that

the

of

became

condemned,

in Neo-Platonic
arisen

the

conception on
thing.

had

of

straction
ab-

been

Neo-Platonism

as

to

the next

the

physical
meta-

centuries,

About
this were
grouped the
philosophic thought.
given to
logicaland metaphysical problems, and the answer
thinkers.
the
question decided
party position of individual

centre

the

of

great variety of decisions

three
universals,

tendencies

are

given

in

this

controversy

prominent: Realism,

which

over

main-

Anselm

Platonists

which

Nominalism,

has

which

been

the

called

the

to
principally

is attached

Sermonism,

or

of

is

Chartres

in
apply commonly, is defended
Eoscellinus; finally a mediating theory,

which

Conceptualism

III.

prominent ;
only designations or terms
this period principally
by

universals

in

sees

and

Champeaux,
of

Bernard

whom

proper,, among

of

[Part

species,is the doctrine

and

independent existence of genera

of Canterbury, of William

tains the
of

Philosophy.

MedioBval

272

of

name

Abelard.

conflicts

These

to

came

University,which

Paris

at the
the

followingperiod formed

and

these

this

upon
the

of

disputes

consciousness
circles

was

sfeized

were

desire

by

beyond

thirst for

part
the

such

in

of

of

forced

here

popular

there

as

and

sionate
pas-

intellectual
had

tradition, the
to the

its way

wider

by

clergy,who

the

the

exercised

unwonted

scientific

awakened,

dexterity,

once

knowledge,

hitherto

circles

narrow

thus

knowledge,

and

thought,

feverish

transmitters

the

been
toward

to

take

to

Par

games.

awakened

Europe;

life of the

unreflectire

the

there

into

on

which

that

had

circles

Socratic

as

Here

Greeks.

the

like

power

tations
dispu-

and

period

arts of dialectical

all the

and

Sophists

endless

scientific life in

of

fascinating

age

this

for

centre

with

battles,conducted

exercised

upon

the

the

in
principally

issue

an

viously
pre-

impulse

surface.

vigour in dialectical development found at the

ous
manifold
time
same
opposition. In fact,it hid within itself a seriabstract
thought
danger. This brilliant performance, in which
tinctions
proved its power, lacked all basis of real knowledge. With its disexcessive

this

But

in the

juggler'sgame
windings, could
like

men

studies
the

Church.

were

more

such

the

the

the
a

tasks

The

result

to their

dogma

spiritit

also
was

but

which,

material
had

of

went

out

and

turn

piety of

Church's

the

the
to

careful

and

gent
intelli-

from

from

admonition

the

to

faith

that

the

faith,and

strife about

and

ical
empir-

abandon

examination

the

should
the

in the

power

consequences

come

this

more

into
was

the

Church.

attacked, sometimes

with

the

extreme

of

which
any

the
repeated,
simply pious

the

of

over

contradiction

only superfluous for

interests

of the

at first without

"

; and

dialectic met

logicalworking

universals,
"

appeared not
dangerous to

information

mainly unheard,

inevitable

Church

all its turns

Hence,

mental

formal

the

spiteof

extent

practicalcivilisation.

religiousbearing,
of the

in

certain

set

knowledge.

received

in the

was

to

on

indeed

call still echoed

resistance

dialectic

mind, but

no

schools

metaphysics of the
developed in the

reference
with

to

air,which

Arabians,

the
of

and

forcible

to

carrying

was

motion,

Gerbert, who

of

while

But

the

lead

formalism

of Nature

more

open

into beneficial

powers

it

conclusions

and

In

violence, by

this
the

First Period.

1.]

Chap.

the

Clairvaux, while

dialecticalarrogance
rich

the

out

whom

Mystics, among

orthodox

Victorines
to the

the

metaphysical to

of

back

was

from

the

Bernard

of

excesses

of

Augustine,^nd sought to bring

experience which

fundamental
the

combative

most

turned

study
inner

of

treasure

by transferringthe
from

the

273

his

thoughts

of

writings

his

tained,
con-

psychology

empiricalsphere.

and
educated
at Thagaste in Numidia,
Augustinus
(354-430),bom
in Carthage, passed through in his youth
juristthere and also in Madaura
scientific and
all phases of the
of his time.
He
almost
religious movement
in
Manichseism
relief
for
his
then
fell
first
at
religious
burning
doubts,
sought
he had
from
into the Academic
Cicero, passed
Scepticism which
early absorbed
from
this gradually to the Neo-Platonic
at last won
over
doctrine, and was
by
to become.
Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, for Christianity,whose
philosopher he was
later as bishop at Hippo
unwearied
in practical
As priest,and
Eegius, he was
and
Church
and
literary activity for the unity of the Christian
doctrine; his
and Pelagian controdoctrinal
versies.
developed especially in the Donatist
system was
works
his
16
collection,
vols.,
Paris, 1835 ff. [tr.
Among
(in Migne's
ed. by Dods, 15 vols.,Edin.
1871-77
and
Post; also in Schaff' s lib.,Nicene
Nicene
for
of chief
Fathers, Vols.
1-8, Buffalo, 1886-88] ) those
importance
Contra
Academiphilosophy are his autobiographical Confessions, and further
Arbitrio, De
Vita, De Ordine, De QuantitateAnimce, De Libero
cos, De Beata
Cf C. BindeTrinitate, Soliloquia,De Immortalitate
Animoe, De Civitate Dei.
Fi. Bdhiingei, Kirchengeschichte in
Der.
hlg. A. (3 Bde.
1844-1869).
mann,
A. (Berlin,
Biographien, XI. Bd. in 2 Thl. (Stuttgart, 1877-78). A. Domer,
1873). W. Dilthey, Einleitung in die Geisteswissenschaften,I. (Leips. 1883),
Aurelius

for

"

"

"

"

pp.

322 fE.

Elsayuyyiiels ris Karrryoplasof Porphyry (ed. by Busse, Berlin, 1887), in

for the controversy over
occasion
by Boethius, gave the external
influence
universals.
Boethius
an
upon
(470-525),aside from this, exercised
the
the
two
and
commentaries
early Middle
Ages by his translations
upon
The

its translation

Aristotelian

his books

treatises,and
there

upon
still others

were

of Cicero's

number

which

circulated

writings.

under

the

name

In

addition

to

of Augustine.

critiques
Cf.-Prantl,Gesch. d. Log. im Abendl., II., and A. Jourdain, Becherches
latines d''Aristotle
I'Sge et Vorigine des traductions
(Paris,2 ed., 1843).
Capella
Among the scientificencyclopedias of departing antiquity,Marcianus
fifth century), in his Satyricon (ed. by
of the
(from Carthage, the middle
De Nuptiis Mercurii
introduction
Eyssenhardt, Leips. 1866),after his whimsical
liberal arts, of which, as is well
et Philologice,
the seven
treats
known, in the
formed
the Trivium,
dialectic
activity of thfe schools
rhetoric, and
grammar,
and
arithmetic,
music, including poetics,the Quadrivium.
geometry, astronomy,
A valuable commentary
written
later by Scotus
Erigena (ed.by
on
Capella was
B. Haurgau, Paris, 1861).
LeeThe
Divinarum
et ScBCularium
Institutiones
Castionum
of the Senator
and
De Artibus
Liberalium
ac
DisciplinisLitterarum
siodorus (480-570, Works,
Paris,1588), and the Originum sive Etymologiarum,
Libri XX.
(inMigne) of Isidorus Hispalensis (died 636) are already completely
Damascenus
theologicalground. John
upon
(about 700) in his 117)7^)yvilxrem
of the
(Works, Venice, 1748) gave the classical example for the employment
ancient school logic in the service of systematising the Church
doctrines.
While
nent,
the storms
the contiof the national
migrations were
blustering upon
scientific study had
fled to the British Isles,in particularto Ireland, and
sur

"

later flourished
Bede.

From

to

here

Alouin,upon

the

certain
learned

inducement

extent

in

education
of Charles

the

school
won

was

the

Great

at
back

under

York
to

; beside

the

Venerable

through
episcopal and the

continent

the
the

the
cloister schools
fixed
the palatinal school, whose
seat
was
arose
by Charles
and
Bald at Paris.
of Fulda
The
those
most
were
important cloister schools
Tours.
At the former
worked
Rabanus
(Ehaban) Maurus
(of Mainz, 776-856 ;
De Universo, Libri XXIL),
it went
and
Eric
out,
(Heiricus) of Auxerre; from
at the

end

of

the

ninth

century, Remigius

of Auxerre

and

the

probable

author

MedioBval

274

Philosophy.

[Part

III.

the commentary
(printed in Cousin's Ouvrages Inedits
Super Porphyrium
followed
Alcuin
Tredewas
by the Abbot
d'Abelard, Paris, 1836). In Tours
letter,De Nihilo et Tenebris, is preserved (in Migne, Vol. 105).
gisus,whose
a principal seat
Later
the cloister at St. Gall (Notker Labeo, died
1022) formed
of

of scientific tradition.

Cf
.

also for the literaryrelations,the

writings

The
among

ascribed

those

which

to

of chief

Upapxias oipavlov(in Mi^e

of

mixture

same

Litteraire

Histoire

de

la France.

the Areopagite (cf.Acts

of the Apostles,17 : 34),
importance are irepliivaTiKijsBeoXoylas and ireplrijs
by Engelhardt, Sulzbach, 1823), show the
; German

philosophywhich

Neo-Platonic

and

Christian

appeared

quently
fre-

Origen's influence)and in an especially

in the Bishop Synesius (about 400 ; cf. R. Volkmann,
S. von
characteristic form
above-named
writings of the Pseudo-Dionysius,
Gyrene, Berlin, 1869). The
first mentioned,
in the fifth century, are
which
532, and their
probably arose
defended
this
is
there
was
contested;
nevertheless,
by Maximus
genuineness
Loots Patrum
Confessor
Dionysii et Qregorii,
(580-662 ; De Variis Diffioilioribus
ed. Oehler, Halle, 1857).
this Mysticism
In
connection
with
develops the first important scientific
of
the
Middle
John
Scotus
Ages,
personality
Ibigena (sometimes Jerugena,
life it is certainly known
from
that he was
Ireland, about
810-880),of whose
school
to the
court
for a time
called by Charles the Bald
at Paris, and
was
translated
active
there.
He
the
writings of the Areopagite, vfrote
against
in

Gottschalk
main

work,

works

form

Orient

the

treatise

De

in

the

122

the

pro
tableau
de

temporel

au

William

in

PrcBdestinatione, and
Naturae

(German

collection.

Migne's

the

treatise
latter

two
of

11'^
of

monastique

Deus

edited

Gaunilo

monk,

Insipiente, and
la vie

Cur
are

the

reply

et de

la

of

put his

own

theories

into

his

by Noack, Leips. 1870-76). The

Cf. J. Huber, J. 8. E. (Munich, 1861).

Canterbury (1033-1109) came

cloister at Bee, and
was
1093.
Of
his works
(Migne,

refutation

Liber

De

of

result

Norman

Canterbury in
philosophy besides
The
Proslogium.
with

(the

Divisione

Vol.

of

Anselm
time

the

from

for a long
Archbishop of
Vol.
155) the most
important for
the Monologium
Homo?
and the
are
by C. Haas
(Tubingen, 1863), together
near
(in the cloister Marmoutier
Tours),
Anselm.

lutte

du

Aosta,

called

Cf.

pouvoir

siecle (2d ed., Paris, 1868).

Champeaiiz
(died 1121 as Bishop

of

to

was

active

become

Ch.

Rgmusat,
spirituel avec

A.
le

de

C,

pouvoir

was
a
Chalons-sur-Mame)
in Paris, and
established
studies
there
in the Augustinian cloister at St. Victor.
We
are
chieflyinformed
to his philosophical views
Abelard
as
by his opponent
; his logicaltreatise is lost.
Cf. E. Michaud, ". de Ch. et les ecoles de Paris
12""
siecle (Pari3,1868).
au
of the earlier Middle
The
Flatonism
attached
itself essentiallyto the
Ages
Timceus, and under the influence of the Neo-Platonic
interpretationgave to the
doctrine
of Ideas
form
which
did not
a
completely correspond to the original
The
most
sense.
important figure in this line is Bernard
of Chartres
(inthe
first half of the twelfth
De
Mundi
Universitate
sive Megacentury). His work
has
et Microcosmus
been
edited
cosmus
by C. S. Barach
(Innsbruck, 1876).
William
of Conches
{Magna de Naturis
Philosophia ; Dragmaticon Philosoof Montagne
of
phice) and Walter
are
regarded as his disciples. Ad^lard
also wrote
Bath
in the same
et Diverso
spirit(De Eodem
Naturales).
; Questiones
of Armorica
Roscellinus
in Brittany came
forward
teacher
at various
as
where
Abelard
places, especially at Locmenach
his
was
hearer, and was
obliged to retract his opinions at the Council
at Soissons.
Of his own
writings
is extant
only a letter to Abelard
der bair. Akdd., 1851) ;
(printedin the Abhandl.
the sources
for his doctrine are
of Salisbury.
Anselm, Abelard, John
Abelard
(Abeillard) the most impressive and energetic personalityamong
the thinkers
of this period, was
born
1079
at Pallet,in the county of Nantes,
and
of Champeaux
was
a pupil of "William
and
of Roscellinus.
activity
His own
teacher
as
a
was
developed at Melun
and
successfullym
Corbeil, and most
Paris
cathedral
at the
The
at
school, and
the logical school
St. Genevifeve.
misfortune
into which
his well-knovm
and
Heloise
to
him,
plunged
relationship
the oonfiiots into which
his teaching brought him
with
the Church
authority,
chiefly at the instigation of his unwearied
of Clairvaux
prosecutor, Bernard

teacher

who

was

much

heard

at

the

cathedral

school

276

Period.

First
:
Philosophy/

Mediceval

guished himself in a less scientific polemic against the

Quattuor Labyrinthos Francim).

[Part in.

heretical

dialectic (In

beginnings of a Humanist
reaction
of Salisbury
schools, iix John
writingsPoii(Johannes Saresberiensis,died 1180 as Bishop of Chartres),whose
valuable
a
for the
and
source
craticus
Metalogicus (Migne, Vol. 199) form
und
Cf. C. Schaarschmidt, J. 3. nach Leben
scientific life of the time.
Studien,
Schriften und Philosophie (Leips.1862).
close

the

At

against

of

presented

in

the

of

Inner

his

works

as

Experience.

teacher

great Church

the

of

any

of

Metaphysics

philosophy of

The

appear
work
the

of

The

" 22.

the

period

this

one-sidedness

the

complete system

is not

Augustine
;

rather,it

with
literaryactivityin connection
the
various
for
most
of
the
treatment
subjects,
part theological.
whole
receive
the
this work
But
from
a
we
as
peculiar impression
in
motion
in two
rich masses
of thought are
that these
difPerent
the
and are
held
directions,
together only by
powerful personality
of the man.
As
gations
theologian Augustine throughout all his investi-

develops incidentallyin

all his

keeps the conception of the Church in mind, as criterion ; as

all his ideas
about
the principle of the
centre
philosopher he makes
absolute
and
immediate
certainty (Selbstgeioissheit)
of consciousness.
By their double relation to these two fixed postulates,all questions
into active
flux.
of thought is like an
come
Augustine's world
is constructed
about
two
ellipticsystem which
by motion
centres,
and this,its inner duality,is frequently that of contradiction.'
It becomes
the task of the history of philosophy to separate from
this

his time
became

and

have

of

the

their
immediate

Under

from

had

the

sphere
conceptions had
factors
to

noMiNE

of the

become
of

outer
the

place

bring

full

accomplished

It is unmistakable

the

and

the

Church
look

Aug. De

that

emphasis of
over

centre.
his

own

and

of

comes

Noli

It
use,
and

Plotinus.''

forward
ire ;

the

fundamental

the

for

reserved

was

course

and
with

more

Psychical

life.

inner

this, which

Origen

foras

with

physical, as

world.

the
literaryactivity,

Ver. Bel. 39, 72.

habitat Veritas.

ciple
prin-

imperceptibly shifted

the

Augustine himself in
his personality more
This

the

experience {selbstgevnssen

almost

conscious

fact in

in

ideas,

ness,
complete clearstarting-pointof philosophy.
ical
religiousinterest,metaphys-

the

of

these

union

inner

inner

that

to

All

thought.

and

gradually and

the

taken

as

ethical

into

an

backward

used

conception of the

transferred
to

ground

in the

become

modern

certaintyof
and

influence

interest

the

Augustine first expressed

formulated

the

by which

scended
Augustine far tranimmediately following centuries,

founders of

ultimate

which
Innerlichkeit)
,
and

ideas

likewise

and
of the

one

however,

those

complicated system

of

had

his

from

tine
Augus-

already

development

the

cal
philosophi-

especial distinctness

in his

Betractationes.
in te

ipsum

redi

: in

interiobe

Metaphysicsof Inner Experience':Augustine. 277

1, " 22.]

Chap.

inner experience even

tendency toward
literary quality. Augustine is a virtuoso

This

and self -analysis

; he

has

states,which

is

reflection and

lay bare

for this

Just
he

So

this

which
there

self-observation

poatrayal of psychical
abilityto analyse these in

elements

deepest

with

views

universe.

the

the

in

his peculiar

the

is his

as

it is from

reason

the

draws

admirable

as

in

mastery

constitutes

of

feelingand

impulse.
exclusivelythat

almost

source

his

metaphysics seeks to comprehend

against the Greek
begins, as over
indeed, during
development, which

of
course
philosophy, a new
the Middle
Ages, made but little progress beyond what was
by Augustine in his first cast, and the full development of
found

to be

not

1. This

until

makes

doctrine

of

the

its

indomitable

strikes

down

thirst

doubt

his

ardent

scepticwho
at

least

internal

but

of this

external

the

leaves

it

existence

the

with

fact,Augustine
He

certainty.
there is given not
direction

or

this

points

only

certaintywhich

he

says,

I know

that

contains

within

itself the

being.
for in order

to

Even

of

I, the

I must

fundamental

together

which

truth

of

am

as

the

even

perception,
doubt

the

of

all

basis
the

with
to

tenting
con-

sensation

doubt

in

follows

or

since

thus, just
the

else,I

rious
victo-

to

one

perceiving subject,

itself

doubt,

and

in

err

that

doubter,

regarded

in

this

the
in

has

In

bility)
proba-

no

instead

is liable

reality of

valuable

if I should

err

that

doubt.

of

of

But

just from

the

possession

positivistic
interpretations

or

consciousness

the

such.

as

he

that

involve

forward
out

also

all from

act

yet

not

its content,

another, but

very

content

with

sure,

happiness,

is to be

the

can

be

is also

realityof

relativistic

presses

there

shows

sensation

the

the

he

undecided,

of

for

therefore

sceptical

process,

to
first,

nature

emphasis

greater

this

At

which

happiness, and

with

denies

himself

This

in

postulatethat

Socratic

the

by

requisite for

attainable

and

of

(without the presuppositionof

is

or

Augustine's
respondence
philosophicalknowledge. In corhis personal development he seeks

certaintythrough doubt, and

themselves
break
the path.
must

theories

truth

of

course

is

in

clearly already

appearance

the

which

period.

to

way

the

modern

starting-pointof

with
the

the

achieved

doubt,

this

realityof
cannot

first of

err

4oubt

the
in

scious
con-

this ;

exist.^

certaintyextends

equally

to

all

states

of

con-

Augustine attributed
fundamental
to tliis line of argument,
importance
which
he frequently worked
Ver.
out
Vita, 7 ; Solil. II. 1 ff. ; De
(De Beata
Bel. 72 f ; De
Trin.
X.
not
completely
14, etc.). That
was
it, however,
unknown
to Greek
literature
6 f.)of the
also is proved by the
.

passage

compilation
source

Cf.

on

under
the
current
of this passage
has not as

this E.

Heitz

in Sitz.-Ber.

name

of

yet been
der

Berl.

(III.

The
of Herennios."
"Metaphysics
discovered, but, is probably late Stoic.
Ak.
d. W., 1889, pp. 1167 ff.

278

First Period.

Philosophy:

Mediceval

[Part

ni.

that all the

Augustine sought to show
in the act of
states
are
already included
he lives,but also that
knows
not only that

and
{cogitare),

sciousness

various

kinds

doubt.

He

of

doubts

who

he

remembers,

of

his doubt

these

that

he

ideas

his former

rest upon

that

and

knows,

wills

he
; in

for

the

grounds

estimatingthe

momenta

developed thought, knowledge, and judgment ; and

the motive
is only this,that he is strivingafter truth.
of his doubt
Without
particularlyreflectingupon this, or drawing farther conclusions
from
it,Augustine proves in this example his deep insight
into the psychicallife,since he does not
regard the different kinds
of psychicalactivityas separate spheres,but
the aspects of one
as
the same
and
another.
The
soul
act, inseparably united with one
and by this he rises far above
is for him
Aristotle,and also above
the Neo-Platonists
the livingwhole
of personality,whose
life is
is certain
a
of its own
unity,and which, by its self-consciousness,
of

the

doubt

are

"

"

reality as
2.

the

But

truth.

surest

from

this

first

at
certainty Augustine's doctrine
leads farther,and
it is not
only his religious conviction, but
that makes
him
a
deep epistemologicalreflection,
regard the
of

God

as

consciousness
of

fact

doubt

has

is of

doubt

force themselves

upon

criteria
these
for

we

and

did

does

possesses,

the
in

with

us

of
He

he

by

In

sensation

in

the

and

which

to

must

know

should

external
power,
from

continues
reality,

{sensus),the

vidual
indi-

also,it

we

come

world

which

asks

tine,
Augus-

other
and

measure

the

idea

fundamental

this case,

How

these,

doubts

the

the

also

sources,
examine
for

only
philosopher,
higher capacityof
truth,

the

{intellectus,
poreal
ratio),i.e. of the immediate
perceptionof incorthe latter Augustine understands, not only
truths;^ under
of the good and
logicallaws, but also the norms
the beautiful;
requisite to elaborate

of

truth.

elementary

besides

who

too,

importance ;
full

truths

general, all those truths

are

Here,

such

doubt.^

besides

certainty which

perceptionsof

possess,

perceptions?

man
reason

not

the

the

itself.

implicitlythe

standards

its sake

of

in

authoritative

already contains
to question and
if

involved

immediately

once

not

and

to

be

judge

by sensation, which
given, the principles

attained

what

is

"

judging.^

Ver. Bel. 39, 72 f.

Aspeotus animi, quo per se ipsum non
Trin.
intuetur : De
verum
per corpus
XII.
2, 2. Cf. Contra Acad. III. 13, 29.
" The
apprehension of these intelligible
was
truths
consciousness
by human
at the first designatedby Augustine quite
dox
orthoIt was
Platonioallydi-d/ii/i/o-is.
scruples against the assumption of the pre-existence of the soul that led
him
to regard the reason
the intuitive facultyfor the incorporeal world.
as
Cf.
also J. Stortz, Die Philosophiedes hi.
Augustinus (Freiburg i. B. 1882).
2

De

Metaphysicsof Inner

1," 22.]

Chap.

Such

of

norms

doubt

in

all

activities

which
who

of

consciousness

it

But

individual

the

function

consciousness

something universallyvalid

to

belongs

the

to

of truth

essence

their

nature,

after

the

thought

be

can

Neo-Platonic

of

norms

truths, since

universal

of those

mode

atque incommutabiles,
determinations

truth

{umim,

of

content

highest

; he

is the

that

of

the

in the

earthly life.

of him

is

the

idea
truth

of

which

highest

the

is the

the

real

unity.

far
(essentia)

belong

to

to him

as

3.

human

do

as

the

Christian

by

the

that

reason

De

deity as
the

Lib.

the

whole

Arh.

sum

Forms

"

and
stabiles

rerum

mind.

the

the

even

the

him

they

unity,the

all-

highest Good, perfect

knowledge
of

is denied

to

human
in

elements
him

in

and

category

of

idea

our

quate
ade-

no

divine

of
form

to

changeless

relation

mately
ulti-

insight

have

particular,we
united

is

God, indeed,

element

different

of

In

absolute

incorporeal and

as

is

the

these

and

thoughts

yet preserved
religious idea

personality is inseparablyfused
the

in.

essence

association
substance

the

that

applies

rest.^

character

fact

in

are

all forms

Directlyconsistent

their

his

thought

little

God

in

continentur)and

negative

the

beholds
For

the

and,

which

in

transcends

ancient,
existence

or

Ideas

Complete knowledge

certain

reason

tine
Augus-

the

changeless

rational

All

Perhaps only
way

of

Being

the

divine

highest Being,

God.

completely

exists.

vel rationes

accordingto Augustine's admission,

even

of

intellectu

; he

union

bonum).

verum,

reaching.^

or

the

in its

in

knowledge

but

absolutely incorporeal

are

as

divino

it is

But

in

quae

the

of

all contained

Beauty

only

far

conception

they are
reality (jprincipales
formm

all

embracing

they

and

that

proceeds from this fundamental

theory of knowledge.
every naive

of

of

judgment
they

itself attached

sees

also

are

of

as

Thus

worth.

as

standards

as

into
something higher, the individual consciousness
of time : they are
the same
for all
they enter in the^course
in this their
think
rationally,and
experience no alteration

transcend,

own

in

as

themselves

assert

reason

Experience: Augustine. 279

essence

Augustinian

with

the
of

are

with

Neo-Platonism,^

in

Augnstine's presentation

of

the

deity

as

absolute

philosophicalconception

all truth.

metaphysics

is

But
built

just for
up

upon

this
the

II. 7 ft.

thing in this is the insight, that the categories acquired in

of spiritualsynthesis
knowing Nature
are
inadequate for the peculiar nature
The
new
categories
should te thought).
(accordingto which the divine essence
Of internality
into
of
in
the
coining
with
however,
only*
process
Augustine
are,
existence ; cf the following.
^ In
with
the
of Plotinus
fact, Augustine seeks throughout to identify the vom
the emanistic
Xi7os of Origen ; but by dropping from
doctrine
the Neo-Platonic
derivation of the raBs and its acquirement of independent existence, he abrogates
the physical schema
of the psychical.
of the world
potencies in favour
^

The

essential

280

Philosophy:

Mediceval

Period.

First

[Part

III.

the fact of
is,upon
; that
self-knowledge of the finite personality
inner
experience. For so far as a comprehension of the divine
be gained only after the
it can
is at all possiblefor man,
essence
of

analogy

self-knowledge.

human

composition

fundamental

of

shows

This, however,
inner

the

life:

the

the

lowing
fol-

permanent

of its content
spiritualBeing is given in the sum-total
and
of consciousness, or reproducible ideas ; its movement
living
separating these
activity consists in the processes of uniting and
of

existence

in

elements
the

judgments

^hus

the

three
and

judgment,
expressly

his

which
bodies

spheres

or

the

its

substance

existence
soul

thus

recognisedin man's
gain an analogical idea

to

also,in
tions

of

all

reality,and

the

itself.
mental

accordance

life,Augustine

of the

of

mystery

esse, nosse,

In

and

velle the

in

omnipotence, omniscience,

deity encompasses

the

the

Augustine
of

tioning
func-

diiferent
indissoluble
with

these

then

not

of

strata

unity

relations

only seeks
Trinity,but recognises,
determinar

willing comprise
perfect goodness,

and

is

properties

fundamental

and

reality. Being, knowing,

is

(Vorstellung),

modes

the

personality, as
little do
as
they mean
in their
; they form

Just

the

of

these

of

motion

highest blessedness,

peculiar to

are

of

this

of

guard against conceiving

conceived.

are

of

attainment

in

psychical realityare idea

and
voluntas,^
memoria, intellectus,

aspects
will

on

the

toward

will, directed

force

impelling

the

; and

all
the

universe.

The
outspoken opinion of the inadequacy of the physical (Aristotelian)
us
categories reminds
only seemingly of Neo-Platonism, whose
gories
cateintelligible
(cf. p. 245), as well as its entire metaphysical schema, are throughout
is first in earnest
in the
physical. It is Augustine who
attempt to raise the
of rfjationcharacteristic
of the
inner
peculiar forms
nature, to metaphysical
from
in the track
this, his cosmology runs
principles. Aside
laid by Neoon
Platonism
without
The
doctrine
of the two
peculiaritiesworthy of mention.
its anthropological correlates, forms
worlds, with
here
the
presupposition.
world
The
of sense
is known
world
through perceptions, the intelligible
through
the
and
these
two
of knowledge are
given constituents
reason,
brought into
relation
with
each
other by intellectual thought (ratiocinatio). For apprehending
Nature, the teleology conditioned
by the doctrine of Ideas presents itself.
The
corporeal world also is created out of nothing by divine power,
wisdom, and
goodness, and bears in its beauty and perfection the sign of its origin. Evil
evil, yet of. below) is here, too, nothing properly real ; it is
(includingmoral
not
a
thing, but an act ; it has no causa
but
efficiens,
only a causa
deflciena;
its origin is to be
sought not in the positiveBeing (God), but in the lack of
Being of finite natures ; for these latter,as having been
only
created, possess
and therefore a defective reality. Augustine's theodicy stands thus
a weakened
essentiallyupon the ground of that of Origen and Plotinus.

4.

upon

central

The

Stoics.

farther

and

essential

consequence

of

placing philosophy

consciouslyanthropologicalbasis is,in Augustine's case,

positionwhich he assigned in his theory of the universe
same

triple division

Cf. p. 187.

of

the

psychical

activities

is

found

among

the
to

the

Metaphysicsof Inner Experience: Augustine.

1, " 22.]

Chap.

Tlie

the will.

experience; himself
its inmost

in all

element

his

On

core.

in the

that

fact

positionof

seeks

to

analysis of
act
an
essentially

the

the
of

act

of will

the

will

all sides

the

essential

especially

the

controlling

and

knowledge.'

Neo-Platonists

corporeal stimulation

(inientio animi).

had

and

demonstrates

this

as

sunt.

of ideation

seeing,that

ined
exam-

the

upon

own

he

will,as

cjtme

Augustine

same,

man's

this is shown

perception
of

the

is for him

on

process

state

in

voluntates

forth

set

sense

the
of

exact

will

quam

entire

to

between

conscious

becoming

strong

theory of knowledge

reference

distinguished

the

account

the will in the

with

While

he

and

personalityhe

nihil aliud

in his psychology and

this is doubtless

ardent

own

this

omnes

in

nature

scrutinised

and

motive

leading

281

the

by

an

becoming conscious is
And
as
tion
physical atten-

is

upon

of the will, so
the activityof the
too
accordinglya matter
sense
a
(^sensusinterior) shows
quite analogous dependence
the will.
Whether
actions
we
states and
bring our own
as

such

to

inner

consciousness

our

reflection

belongs

does

as

to

our

the

intentional
and

as

toward

memory,

fantasywhen
of

the

not, depends

or

directed

truly

as

consideration
does

the

definite

of

voluntary

upon

which

something

activityof

the

combining

Finally,the thinking

goal.

intellect

(ratiodnatio) with its judging and reasoning, is

of the will ;
completely under the direction of the purposes
,

formed
for

the

which
the

will
the

data

the

assumes

world

and

to

grounds,
active

of

as

the

superior,can
the

for

human
in the

Here,

it lacks not

Augustine

main

be

only

from

Cf.

the
principally

especiallyW.
ScotUs

as

und

Descartes

This

is true

even

to

on

given

the

scheme

to

the

Being (Sein).

The

belong
is

passive one.

outer

cal
philosophi-

metaphysical
must

this

to

be

cannot

relation

truth, which

more

tion
rela-

metaphysically its
The

of

knowledge

"

regarding

the

book

of

the

Primat

(Strassburg,1886).

the

even

intuitive

presence

of its

treatise
des

De

Willens

tor,
crea-

receptive initiative.
knowledge

independent production

possibly an

vom

in the

stands

creative,but

Lehre

mind

fundamental

relation

Augustine also,essentially illumination,

the mind

eleventh

Kahl, Die

to

under

brought

for in its relation

human

efficient

more

this

the

the

connection

to

where

truths
intelligible

the

mind

only

is far

and

is for

according

insight the

rational

form,

world.

causal

higher

the

world
intelligible

revelation.

'

the

be

to

of its intellectual

case

according to
in

end

insight.
involved

inner

own

the

and

experience are

activityof

in the

its

'part

universal

the

direction

cognitions of

more

truth

play as

same

inner

or

these

somewhat

the

of rational

of

case

higher divine

the

of outer

general truths

In

the

determine

must

Trinitate, and
bei

of

the

of

the

besides,

Augustinus,

Duns

282

mind

of its

out

nature

own

{intentio)that he
inner perception:

must,

on

[Part

ascribe to it the

even

directing its

consciousness

the

empiricalcognitionsof

the

contrary, regard
the

by

the

truth

divine

III.

as

outer

and

illumination

an
essentially

the individual
of which
sciousness
con(cf.below), in the case
purely receptive attitude.
occupies an
expectant and
might also have been
metaphysical considerations, which

of

act

t6

cannot

of

or

consciousness

individual

of the

ascribes
he

indeed, he

attention

of

spontaneity

same

First Period.

Philosophy:

Mediceval

grace

These

possibleupon the basis of Neo-Platonism, experience in Augustine's

case
a powerful reinforcement
by the emphasis which he laid in his
of the truths
of reason
Knowledge
theology upon the divine grace.
is

in

element

an

will,but

own

blessedness, and

to that

blessedness

for

will

the

of

the

revelation
effected

; he
not

his

teaches

conception, presupposes

in

the

factor

of

importance
not
only in
earthly
which
means

Thus

in

the

in the

of the

rational

5.

and

eternal

most

or

of its

the

by

belief.

without

object,but

Faith
the

intellectual

no

act

contains
pulsion,
com-

affirmingjudgment. The
Augustine's opinion,that

things,but

also

in

the

human

important things,i.e. in questions of

faith

"

which

and

dictated

by

appropriatesand

insightis

all

these

conception of
of

assent
not

these

idea

far, in

so

upon

and

indeed

first in

salvar

tion
in the tradi-

in its appearance

must
precede
goodwill
it
intellectually.
comprehends
in revelation
but
faith
dignity,

the

"

first in time.
In

is the

act of

extends

not

good morals, i.e. through

is determined

fact

He

of his truths

through faith

the

divine revelation

Church

knowledge

is the

this

divine

even

Full

assent, which

first.

operation
co-

and

tion,faith
the

indeed

certain

temporal things,this conviction

produced immediately
will yields the original elements
of thought.
The
insight
conceives
and
of
these
elements
out
comprehends grows
by
of the combining reflective procedure of the understanding.

the

by

of

at

plus assent, though

original volitional

an

the

ideation

of

and

worthy subject for this

appropriationof divine truth is

by insight,as
as

save

revelation

himself

also that

much

so

belief,however,

or

will, shows

to

least

individual, at

only emphasises that God bestows the

him
only,who through good endeavour
qualities of

to his

not

owes

of God.

Augustine here, too, sought

Nevertheless

the

man

the

considerations
the

freedom

of

of

will,independent of

conditioned

motives

by

without

motives

grounds

Augustine faithfully
exerted
against various

of

objections.

Augustine,

the will, as

the

functions

cognition,but

in

to

addition

of

the

point

ing,
understand-

the

determining

rather

maintain
to

central

decision,choice,or

consciousness

himself
In

the

for

its acts, and

this

conception

consciousness

of

Mediceval

284
the

one

of

freedom

the

has

nature

will

been

{non posse

whole

into

that

world

for

that

exception,are

the

receive

this

be

in

seen

has

of

means

grace
the

fact

claim, not

any

known
demands
Adam's

that

fall

no

ception,
ex-

this inherited

in the

this

only
the

on

another

; and

deserves

to

no

it is

one
never

divine

the

justice
punishment for

the

men,

of

to which

grace,

hand,

and

injusticecan

no

some

some

it follows

redemption

as

upon

other
of

case

of

this

Augustine,

bestows

God

But,

should

is

and

from

need
little

as

thinks

all, but

upon

least

that, at

sin

brings
longer

man

which

Just

in

One

grace.

whom.

upon

Every

nature

originalsin.

therefore,

than

without

Church's

human

applies without

freedom,

or

III.

of this

whole

otherwise

do

freedom

strength

own

abuse

the

Adam.

capable of good in its

sin is the punishment
all men,

first man,

arising from
this corrupted

[Part

the

By

it cannot

loss of

This

race

the

the

of

part

corrupted

peccare).

nan

him

the

sinned.

had

humanity

on

so

to the

with

all

Adam

man

Period.

First

Philosophy:

be

permanently maintained, that these men,

remain
excluded
from
the working of grace
and
therefore, should
from
in consequence
of their corrupted
redemption. Since, finally,
alike sinful
and
nature, all are
incapable of any improvement of
it follows

themselves,

that

the

choice

place not

according

before

working of grace),
God.
whom
Upon him

the

decree

of

revelation
he

"

with

make

even

and
In

the

from

of

doctrine

the

in

the

and

same

the

good

all

unsearchable
he

bestows

he does

in his

worthy

none

an

redeem

he whom

Man

absolute

either

not

his

choose,

strength cannot

own

good

who

causalityof God
latter

is

spontaneity of

his nature

by

opposition.
man

The

also all

Augustine's system

violent

will

are

from

comes

of predestination,accordingly(and this

individual.

independence
determined

he

takes

ones

God

him.

element),the
will

favoured

(for there
according to

but

redeemed.

beginning toward

only

be

the

worthiness

its irresistible power

in nowise

can

their

to

of

two

It will

to

sin

powerful

always

founded

his

or

by

the

to

grace

an

individual
the

good.

thought come
astonishing fact

philosophy upon

the

free

metaphysical

of

streams

remain

both

sophical
philo-

the

suppresses

refused
action

is its

absolute

is
So

into
that
and

independent certaintyof the individual conscious

threw
mind, who
the plummet of the most
acute examination
into the depths of inner
experience and discovered in the will the vital ground of spiritual
personality,found himself forced by the interests of a theological
controversy

to

the

the

acts

of

either
Individualism

theory

of

the

individual
of

and

doctrine

will

of

salvation

unalterably
general corruption or of

universalism

as

in the

which

determined
the

conception of

divine

regards
quences,
conse-

grace.

psychicalreality

Chap.

1," 22.]

stand

here

MetapKysicsof Inner Experience: Augustine.

bald

in

scarcelyconcealed

opposition,and
by the ambiguity

line,is defended

in the

one

in the

other, according
of the

however,
side
of

to

motives

two

light of

In the

the

in the

and

manner

and

colours

dark
the

of

course

play of

in

lie side

of

predestinationthe grand picture

humanity, which Augustine drew

of

and

taken

as

all

puppets,

its thirst

whose

for

result

whole,

but

also,

salvation, sinks

is

to

fixed
infallibly

from

beginning.

spiritualworld throughout the whole

apart, for Augustine, into two spheres, the
of the

realm

fallen,and

devil.

the

the

To
whom

men

the

evil

predestinedto redemption, but

guilt: the one is the kingdom
The

two

different

which

races

they
home

no

in the

occupy

realm

are

left

are

of

and

heaven,

little able

so

Augustine
of

sinners

another.

one

this world

divine
The
is

so

kingdom,
conceived

The

the

of

that

in

; the

who

other
not

are

of sin and

of the world.
that

of

two

action, while
of the

divine

elect has
The

grace.

within

ternally
in-

itself

illusory worth

the

stage

of

by
of

development

kingdom

is for him

enters

world's
we

the

fact,the

Church

which
the

not

world, that
realitypresented by
historical states only the provinces of a community
to quarrel with
hostilityto God, condemned

him,

the

have

like

is divided

this

that

that

community

at

the

in the state

higher unity of

thought

and

men

other

for

God

grace

all those

the

history falls

find

the

the

God

is still not

saving institution

temporal
history under
division

of

of

of
the

life.
these

presuppositions

entering between

the

two

of history,
sharper and sharper in the course
ultimatelyresults in the complete and definitive separation of
In six periods,which
same.
correspond to the creative days of

realms, which
and

For

; and

course

in

his

the

master

in the

sees

angels

history a relation
mingled only in outer

Christian

to

of

of

; it lives in the

rule.

for

by God

community of the condemned, however,

discord; it fights in earthly kingdoms
power

the

chosen

demons,

strictlyseparate.

are

earth

on

course

belong

has

God

with

embraces, together

former

of

course

"

here

by
the succeeding development
Ages.

The

is

freedom," which,

individual
is to
position which
every
previously fixed by divine decree, one
tional
voligloomy impression that all man's

the

self of

shadows

is

the

history, with

life in

contradiction

which

thought

salvation

of

been

it,has

rid one's

cannot

the

history

the

within

occupy

"

spiritof the old patristicphilosophy,takes on

Por
if not
peculiarlystiff,inflexible forms.
only

Augustine's system,

in

as

clashing

the word

Middle

doctrine

development

historical

of the

the

of

influence

philosophyuntil long past

6.

of

according to its psychological meaning,

its ethico-religious
The
meaning.
sition,
oppo-

had
irreconcilable,

so

their

285

becomes

the

Mosaic

and

cosmogony

attached

are

the

[Part

of

dates

to

world.

of the

Augustine constructs his history

combines
a
depreciatoryestimate of

he

Period.

First

Philosophy:

Medioeval

286

Israelitic history,
this process

In
world

Eoman

III.

with

slight

The

Grecian.
decisive
understanding of the essential nature of
of the
point in this development is for him, also,the appearance
chosen
not only the redemption of those
by grace
Saviour, by which
the children
is brought to completion,but also their separationfrom
the

world.

be the

Judgment
the

this

With

of the

then

of the

peace

the last

begins

of conflict

after the stress

Lord

but

"

world-period,whose
shall enter

end

will

the Sabbath,

only for the elect ; for those

be completely separated from

peace

predestined to salvation will then

the saints,and entirelygiven over
to the pain of their unhappiness.
without
attendant
However
spirituallysublime
(though never
physicalimagery) the conception of happiness and pain here presented,
and this sublimity is especiallynoteworthy in the thought
not

"

unhappiness as a weakeningof Being, due to the lack of divine

ably,
causality, the dualism of the Good and the Evil is yet unmistakfor Augustine, the final issue of the world's
history. The man
assailed by so many
powerful motives of thought has not overcome
of his youthful belief; he has
taken
it up
into
the Manichwism
doctrine.
the
Manichaeans
the
antithesis
of
Christian
Among
good and evil is held to be originaland indelible : with Augustine
of

"

is

this antithesis
as

benevolent
his

has

God
realm

own

and

world

has

into

being,and yet
omnipotent, omniscient, supremely

The

created
that

that

one

come

which

is divided

forever

into

of Satan.

7.

the complicated problems and

torical
ideas of universal hisAmong
importance which
Augustinianism contains, there is still one

be

brought

to

in which

forward.
of

in

the

convinced
found

its

that

only
is the

God

in

he

the

it

All

vision

Christian

of

of

in

mysticism

of the

energy

of

human

stress

urging is to

of the
"

above,

comes

will is to be silent in
to remain
over

quiet when

it.

opposition to individualism

absolute

causalityof God,

Neo-Platonists.

be

highest good is God ; but

by beholding it and resting in
will is but the path to this

revelation,

from

and

The

last task

divine

common

idea of the

all this

truth.

The

truth, produced
united

motive

the

enjoys truth
urging of the

ceases.

the

are

inmost

strivingafter happiness as the

psychical functions,he yet remained
firmly

one

graciousworking

Here

the

beholding divine

the

of

will

satisfaction

truth, and

in which

his

conception of blessedness itself

thought cross.
For, strongly as Augustine

penetrated

of all

contemplation.

peace

It lies in the

all motives

recognised
nature, deeply as
impelling motive

the

as

is ineradicable.

that

one

regarded

From

both

and

the

of will,
plative
contem-

sides,the

same

is at work

tendency
cation

as

the

by

of
purification

justin

dispositionand

is shown

from

life,sets
as

in the

man

which

midst

beckons

this

activity of

the

temporal life,Augustine
of

prospect
indeed

the

designates

resistance

this

love

love

is

no

earthlylife,
"

conduct

breadth

of

of

his

life,
"

personal

with

of

energy

doctrine, which,

far

moved
re-

its weariness

between

rest of
the

Good

of
and

acting soul ;
absorbed

of

blessed

the
in the

sinful

of the

and

never-resting

for eternityhe
in

divine
the

as

eternal

truth.

the

where
be

to

be

must

than

He

of

highest

longer

no

that

longer any want

longer anything other

offers the

blessedness

will is

no

For

contemplation.

full

becoming

and

has

the

demands

state

world

in the

world-battle

will,but

but
(charitas),

of the

where
there

'

love

virtues,as

of

peace

in the

Neo-Platonism

struggling and

the

have

ethical

the

infinite

one,

But the highest

heavenly kingdom.
fighterfor God is yet, for Augustine, not

the

the

the

illumined

the

restless

of

sanctifi-

develops the vigorous

an

of

the

exertion

should

He

of

fighterfor

brave

reward

asceticism

the

man's

quences
forciblythe practical conse-

comprehensive
into

of

filled and

becoming

strictness

spiritualvision.
nature

conception

out

of grace

the

287

contemplationiof

worked

the

combative

own

as

will-less

working

his

the

him,

the

this

and

nature

Evil

in

Augustine, indeed,
which

his

of God

highest truth, as

Being.

and

bring about

to

working

Universals.

Controversyover

1, " 23.]

Chap.

the
come,
over-

satisfied,

God-intoxicated

contemplation.
In

this

duality,also,of

close together.
for the
so

as

With

the

earthly life,and
it apply
to make
; but

appears

in the

the
tense

with
to

of

energy

the

inner

the

lies in

conception of

individualism
Neo-Platonic
unfolds

Augustine's
of

the

the

element

itself in the

" 23.

doctrine

will,here

at

maintains

formation

The

will
of

transfer

the

the

ethical

judgment

modern

man

of life the ancient

victory.
point

this

problems

Controversy over

lie

new

is demanded

with

contradiction

decisive

itself,and
of the

which

highest goal
itself

and

the
disposition,

ideal of intellectual contemplation retains

Here

ethics,old

Augustinian

Aristotelian,

an

internal
of

the

the

opposition

Middle

Ages.

Universals.

Johannes

Saresberiensis,Metalogicus, II. cap. 17 f.

und
zwischen
Nominalismus
Lowe, Der Kampf
alter, sein JJrsprung und sein Verlauf (Prague, 1876).
J. H.

The

the

upon
'

schooling in

In

above

formal

scientific movement

logic
at

which

the

the

Bealismus

peoples

beginning

of

the

hi^ system the three

Christian
virtues, faith, hope, and
practical and dianoetic virtues of Greek ethics.

the

Mittel-

im

entered

that
Middle

love,

are

Ages
placed

288

to

it would

But
(ujiiversalia).
question had only

be

didactic

the

grave

mistake

value

of

it is

and

well

as

in

as

the

Occident

held

"

as

rules

subject for

conceptional
turies
impressed for censcholars.

of

the

to

that this

On

Middle
in

independently

fast

species

of

of the

science

occurred

this

that
significant

the

which

question

and

genera

serving

thought, division,judgment, and inference, were

and
ever
new
increasing throngs
upon
contrary, the tenacity with

the

to suppose

the

which

with

drill,in connection

mental

[Part III.

with

obligedto undergo, developed in connection

of
the logicaland metaphysicalsignificance

were
as

Period.

First

Philosophy:

Medioeval

the

Ages

the

elaboration

"

Orient
of

this

problem in endless discussions,is rather in itself a proof that in this

question a very real and very difiicult problem lies before us.
In fact,when
beginnings,made the
Scholasticism, in its timorous
in Porphyry's Introduction
to the Categoriesof Aristotle
passage
formulated
this problem, the starting-point
of its own
first
which
'

attempts
the
the

at

problem
great period of
same

to science

the

which

task

instinctive

it hit with

thought,

had

Greek
of

formed

the

After

philosophy.
the

thinking

sagacityupon
of

centre

world

precisely

interest

Socrates

had

during
assigned

in

conceptions,the question
how
the class-concepts,or
generic conceptions,are related to
of philosophy. It
reality,became, for the first time, a chief motive
produced the Platonic doctrine of Ideas and the Aristotelian logic;
and if the latter had as its essential
content
(cf." 12) the doctrine
in which
forms
the particular is dependent upon
versal,
of the
the uniit is easy
and

Ages,

new

the

also.

race

understand

that

of this doctrine

fragments

Middle

to

as

problem

same

question worked
upon
untrained
in
Ages,
thought, in a
this

upon

its

prove,

connected
Nevertheless

were

the

as

the

with

social

the

minds

similar

phenomenon

and

question
the

naive

as

doctrine

problem

in

tie

formulation

of the

Middle

in which

that

it

problem

only

in the debates

latter,too,

of

numerous

as

realityof universals,which
Ideas,played a leading part.

to the

of

was

these

renewed

less favourable.
When
essentially
wealth
Greeks, they possessed a
of

The

to

old

the

the

under
this

proper

in the translation

conditions

question emerged
scientific

of Boethius

generibus et speciebus
sive subsistant sive in solis nudis
posita sint, sive subsistentia corporalia an
incorporalia, et utrum
sensibilibus an in sensibilibus posita et circa hcBC consistentia.
."
"...

for the

that
of

earliest

fact,the delightin logicaldispute,as

eleventh
century at the schools of Paris,

the

counterpart

understand

manner

the

In

philosophers at Athens,

anecdotes
was

Greeks.

after

developed

finds
the

the

the

of

all its power

to

easy

remains

scanty

so

service

arise with

must

enigmatic
worked

at the

were

it is likewise

And

from

even

"

that
for

experience

is

as

follows

intellectibus

separata

and

yet

for the
their

in

and

part

discussion

just this
long

most

the

on

circle with

the

whole, prevented
with

the

lErigena.289

attempt

its

account
to

purely logicalconsiderations.
the
Middle
That
Ages, however,

once

them

from

ing
mak-

of

formal

beginnings, lacked
obliged

was

its

construct

always,

if not

abiltractions

especiallyin
this

on

Scotus

knowledge, which,

game

science,

counterpoise,and

and

solely a

medieeval

But

logic.

of

of real information

store

Universah

Controversyover

1, " 23.]

Chap.

move

so

metaphysics

locked

more

to

out

its teeth

so

had previously been waged

pertinaciouslyin this controversy which
Plato
and
the Cynics, and
between
afterward
principallybetween
the

the

Academy,

fact

that

in

the
those
the

of

consequence

thinkers

earlier

of

debates

the

doctrine, found

bearers

of

surged

also

liveliest

tribes

in

thought, conceived
connections,

the

the

The

with

these

of

peoples
reality,in the
doctrine
they

Church

identified

of

calm

things

to

Greek

lie in universal

stages of

the

new

same

coloured

measured

the

the

become

to

of

the

nature

which

strongest sympathy

called

richly

with

essential

the

hearts

in

But

metaphysics

and

were

youthful delight

philosophy which,

echo

which

living,particularappearance.
received

nothing of
feelingof

as

deeper ground.

tions
tradi-

their

of

civilisation;and
the

yet

of

good

as

the

solelyto

character

knew

Ages

due

not

had
gained so
personality,which
Christianityand especiallyin the Augustin-

the

precisely those

among

Stoa, was

defective

Middle

worth

in

powerful expression

the

the

; it had

peculiar,intrinsic

ian

and

Lyceum,

logical

In this
universalitywith intensities of Being of varying worths.
in Auguswhich
lay an inconsistency
covertlyasserted itself,even
tion.
for philosophicalreflecstimulus
constant
a
tinianism,and became

1.

The

question

from

Christian
the

the

for it

mysticism.

contradiction

of

consistencywith
thoughts
has

individual's

thought

mediaeval

just at
metaphysics still

Platonic

of

which

natural

more

to

as

maintained

natural

which

of the
more

never

beginning

Nothing
a

expressed

its

Scotus

in

itself

could

be

metaphysics which, from

Socratic-Platonic principlethat the truth, and

is to be
with

sought

those

of

in the
the

universal,identifies

intensityand

the

priority of

the

to

the

than

Perhaps
than

stages of

as

contains

out

pher
philosothe

also

final
of

the

Being,

universality

The

the

mental
funda-

the
no

he

therefore

(the class-concept
or
logicalgenus) appears here
which
originalreality,
produces from itselfand

of

call

standpoint

Being.

Neo-

high degree

through

the

the

veil

adapted

frankly

of the

consequences

the

under

Realism.

tence,
exis-

or

free, was

proportion as

Erigena carried

clearly and

Being

became

more

individualism

Neo-Platonic

of

ground

universal

essential
within

and

itself

Philosophy:

MedicBval

290

Period.

First

[Part III.

the

individual).The
substances
universals
{res; hence the name
are, therefore, not only
"Eealism"), but, as contrasted with the corporealindividual things,
stances
primitive,the producing and determining subthey are the more
particular (the species

tlie

they

the

are

ultimately

and

substances, and

Real

more

they

universal.

the

are

more

this

In

conception,
of concepts immediately become
therefore, the logical relations
cance.
arrangement contains real signifimetaphysical relations; formal
becomes
changed into a production
Logical subordination
and
inclusion of the particular
by the general; logicalpartitionand
into a causal
transformed
become
determination
by means
process
Real

of

in

proportion

particular.
The
pyramid
the

which

last
has

in

which

we

too, this

thought

form

and

raised

to

on

concept

of

the

abstraction,the

of

determinations
with

identical

becomes

the

product
no

more

of concepts, thus

culminates
But

the

takes

universal

the

which

they are

as

the

unfolds

itself

in

the

metaphysical significance,

deity as the most universal.

absolutelyuniversal, is that

this doctrine
(cf. p. 250). Hence
old "negative theology," according to

predicateof God only what he is not ; ^ and yet here,

with
the
highest Being is designated, quite in accord

can

of

Plotinus,

the

as

"uncreated,

but

self-creatingNature."

Being produces out of itself all things;

its manifestations, and
these, therefore, contain nothing else than
related
to it as
to the
are
are
particularspecimens or instances
of appearance.
class; they are in it and exist only as its modes
The
result of these presuppositionsis thus
a
logicalpantheism : all
things of the world are
theophanies ; the world is God developed
this

For

universal

most

"

"

the

particular,
proceeding out of himself
form
{deus explidtus). God and the world
"Nature"
(^wts) is,as creative unity,God, and

into

the

take

to
are

on

definite

The

one.

created

as

same

plurality,

world.

unfolding (egressus)proceeds
at
logicaluniversality. Out of God comes

The
of

world
of

of

process

as

"the

Nature

universals,of

the

are

grades of

connection

in

In

the

V.

11

carrying
concept
-"""-

which

forces

in

with

this

out

already employed
to

Ideas

is created

(as vol

and

first

itself

in the

sense

creates,"the realm
of

Plotinus) form

The
phenomena.
built up as a heavenly hierarchyaccording to their various
and therefore also of intensityof Being, and
universality,

working

Ideas

which

graded scale
the intelligible

the

in

of

this

as

the

world

sensuous

thought

Philonio
of

course

God

the

Christian

of

Mysticism

thought (of.p. 237)

the

Church

constructs

Fathers

had

proceeds by successive abstraction

Alex. Strom.
undetermined.
Cf., e.g., Clement

thought which

Philosophy:

Mediceval

292

place, the

[Part

explains,in

It

Ages.

Realism

which

doctrine

important

most

Middle

the

of

metaphysicaltheories

Period.

First

is the

if God

being,

absolute

only

Eeality

; that

which

is,a Eeality than

Eeal

most

absolutelyEeal
to the

greater

tion
concep-

and

also

higher

perfection

was

of

degrees

line of

this

which

thought
the worth-predicateof
find that
the
with
conception of Being.
anything
perfection; the more

development

antiquity,we
inseparably fused
Being are those of

taken

already

The

is also the

comparativelygreatest Eeality,but

the

whole

the

through

But

terbury
of Can-

thought.

be

cannot

had

not

him,

of

the

this it follows

has, therefore,according

He

realissimum.

ens

he

Anselm

is also the

being,he

absolutelyuniversal

is the

if he

being,

universal

most

the first

produced,

argument for the existence of God which

ontological
brought forward.
the more
The
Eeality. From
more
universality,
that

III.

in

perfectanything
perfect it is,and, vice versa, the more
fore,
The
it is}
conception of the highest Being is,there-is,the more
absolute
also that of an
perfection; that is,of a perfectionsuch
is,the

more

be

it cannot

that

thought higher
with

accordance

In

perfect and

most

But

existence.
his

most
to

he

Monologium
assumed

be

itself

is

there

because

that, from

Being

only

from

perfectissimum.

ens

is

perfectly

conception of God
real Being, it must
be possibleto infer
this he attempts various modes
of proof.
the

follows

which

from

exists

do

greater :

presuppositions,Anselm

these

in his conclusion

correct

and

at

the

mere

cosmological argument
highest and absolute
Being

all else that

exists has

itself,according

to

its

its

his
In

that

old

all,a

as

must

Being, and

which

essential

nature

own

be also
entity can
the realityof its essence
thought as non-existent,and therefore owes
but to another
not to itself,
(the Absolute),the most
perfectBeing
be thought only as
can
being or existent, and exists accordingly

(aseitas). Whereas

individual

every

existent

God's
nature.
essence
only by virtue of the necessityof its own
his existence.
of this arguThe
nerve
ment
(and only God's) involves
is thus ultimatelythe Eleatic
basal
thought, eo-rtv eW, Being
be
and
cannot
otherwise
than
thought
is,
as
being or existing.

Anselm, however, involved

while
in itself.

In

he

the

the

both

Being

of

other

existent

truly existent.

entered

maintains

things,the

lies at the

is held

to be

eo

same

thought

simplifyit

he

called,which

principle which
the

to

Proslogium

properly so
to

intended

this

mere

and

upon

in

render
the

ment,
ontologicalargu-

that without

conception

plication,
peculiarcomit independent

of

any

reference

the

most

per-

Augustine's theodicy, in so far as with

ipso good, and the evil,on the contrary, as not

basis

of

over
Controversy

1, " 23.]

Chap.

Universals

Anselm.

293

its

involves

this conception is
as
Reality. Inasmuch
it
the
most
perfect being is as
thought, possesses psychical reality:
in
consciousness
in
But
if it existed
content
intellectu)*
{esse
a

Being

feet

in

only as a content
reality(esseetiam

in

consciousness, and
re),

thought, -which should

be

reality; and

still

belongs,
being possible.
most
being
(quo majus
perfect
that

It is obvious
in

proof but
to

awkward

very

that

see

Anselm

perfect being),

he

cannot

cal argument

of the

that

The

God,

of the

this

argumentation

of

could

with

conception

mere

exemplifiedin
which

basis

Keality.

from

reason

For

it takes

did

stood

the

fast

of his

for

in

this

little acuteness

faith,but

also

When

he

the

psychicalto

thought.

the

that

he

of

the

existence, he

idea

of

Eealism,

their

to

of

he

that

help

his

regard

any

only

cosmological

believed

character

alone

ground

remotest

be

the

by

fundamental

the

mind,

this

on

the

personally, not

presuppositionand with
arrive
the proof of
at

God

human

was

in

even

Anselm

Monologium.

this

of

the

the

attained

perfect being, must

most

show

not

typical manner
to conceptionswithout

in
It

expression.

fortunate

not

was

him

the

ascribed

and

formulation
before

Proslogium

conviction

dispense

perfect

conception of the
potest)that it possesses
reality.

hovered

i.e. that

necessityfor

because

the most

proved only that if God is thought (as most

be thought also necessarilyas
must
being or
be thought as
non-existent.
But
the ontologi-

existent,and
degree

what

this

evidently
also metaphysical

the

also absolute

in

be

not

cogitarinan

but

Anselm

that

shift,and

his

would

accordingly,to

only realityin thought,

not

metaphysical

could

psychical,but

only

not

the former

It

in

perfect being

more

possess

thus

also

not

genesis
i.e.

of

attempt

to

truth,

could

metaphysical realityof

the

tion
concep-

of God.
The

polemic

of

Gaunilo, therefore, in

vulnerable

point.

Anselm,

in

e.g. that

of

quite the same

an
island,if

within
not

by

be

the

real

be

the

mark

proved.

For

instead

of

that

the

in

showing

arbitraryfiction,or
contradiction,while
and

argument,
be also in

not

the

that

latter

in

contradictory,Anselm

of

might
is

only
in

most

included

in

were

of

; the

Being.

been

pected,
ex-

essary
completelyunnec-

real

the

it

marks

have

being

expatiates farther

perfect being is

of

perfection

conception contains
the

the

whatever,

attribute

the

perfect island
this

idea

other

same

rejoinder,as

conception

that if the most

re.

the

hit

methods

surpassed

possess

the

to

perfect island,if

most
be

his

respect

realityof any
perfectionwere

evidently
the

conception of

of
the

should

inferior to

according

the

manner

island,which

would

that

argued

reallyin existence,would

former
But

it,might

He

certain

an

is
upon

it
intellect,

inner
sary
neces-

his
must

"

slightthe

However

does

who

him

conception of

the

an

does

absolute

Being

the

own

essential nature, and

of

being proved

of

sets up

3. When

belongs

senses,

mediaeval

quite

similar

to

The

Realism.
at that

of

thought

period had

former

kind

relation

their

to

as

the

to

as

to the

difficulties

in

questionarose

universals, and

to

known

things

the

now

standard.

the

universalityas

of

owes

conception alone, is the natural conclusion

the Being of things of perceptionback to
traces
conceptions,and again within the conceptions
of reality,
employing the degree
a graded scale

participationin

themselves

which

the

of

sketched

by

to be

born, was

of

dogma

the

the

the

Platonic

world, which
received

indeed

now

as

posed
religiouslydis-

attitude
of the

toward
divine

the
mind.

only,as

Trinity, but

metaphysical conceptionsout

construct
done

was

also
of the

whose

Timaeus,

his brother

to

source,

not

Platonic

find with

we

same

undertook

which
the

the

itself involved

faced

had

individual

mythical mode
favourable
to this
of
conception, Bernard
of fantastic
imaginative cosmogonic work

an

grotesqueness, and

the

second, higher, immaterial

of the

pattern

presentation was

Chartres
"

realitywhich

found

Realism

those

of
to

doctrine, and
complete and almost self-evident
thinking could be only sympathetic in its
Neo-Platonic
conception of the Ideas as contents
Following

of

its

from

which

doctrine

feature

expression.
its realityonly to its
realitymust be capable

this

therefore

that

the

consistent

the most

highest being

the

that

thought

For

characteristic

the

as

it forms

of which

Realism,

mediaeval

necessityof thought,

as

yet valuable

is

III.

attempted proof remains for

without
acknowledging it,regard

Anselm

ontologicalargument

[Part

this

of

cogency

not, as

First Period.

Philosophy:

Medioeval

294

to

Theodoric, attempts, suggested

of numbers,

symbolism

in other

instances,to develop

develop

further

elements

of

fundamental

unity,likeness,and

unlikeness.'
addition

In
the

to

it had

taught
the

appears

It

been

the

full

universal

essence,

was

question concerning

in the mind

Ideas

of

God,

to them

is to be conceded
as

this

the

in the

maintained

at

question is
created

the

outset

of the
substantiality
is

present

in

all

the

archetypal realityof
also,what significance
"

world.

by

Extreme

William,

Realism,

of Champeaux,
also;

in this world
class-concept

its individuals

as

the

undivided

everywhere identical with itself. The class accordingly

the unitary substance,and the specific
viduals
of the indias
marks
belonging to it appear as the accidents of this substance.
Abelard's
objection that according to this theory mutually

contradictoryaccidents
1

Cf. the

extracts

would

in

have

HaurSau,

to be ascribed

to

Hist. d. I. ph. sc,

I. 396

the

ff.

same

sub-

first forced

stance, which

positionand

extreme

defender

of

himself
in

Realism

to the

the

Realism.

give

to

defence

295

of

this

up

the

tion,
proposi-

individuals)*mdividwaZifer;*
clothes

essence

itself

in each

i.e.

particular

in touch
This view was
particularsubstantial Form.
the conception of the Neo-Platonists, which
had
been
tained
mainby Boethius and Augustine and also occasionallymentioned
in

example
with

of the

literature

in the

universal

in

individuals

conceptionis

The

the

as

appears
itself

realises

intervening period,and

Aristotelian

the

readily in

the

exists

universal, identical

its

that

the

restrict

class

the

that

Universals

Gontroversyover

1, " 23.]

Chap.

then

which

substratum

common

expositionmoves

the
terminology, according to which
indeterminate
more
possibilitywhich
of their
by means
peculiar Forms.

longer

no

its

substance

takes

in the

proper

different

on

but

sense,

forms

in

ual
individ-

instances.
Walter

species,and
the

the

of

states

realiter

In both

these

held
difB.culty
in nowise

within

of the

the

the

ens

in the

in

substance

Eealism

by

of

fail to cast

here

states,

in either

abstract

line the

universals

fundamental

an

dogmas,

and

only

at the

Porms,
case

of

with

first

Neo-Platonic
there

instrument
therefore

world

the

descent
; and

the

in the
not

face

lation
re-

the
its

as

ulti-.
idea

of

modified

only
the

and

was

the

one

blood

of

always

like Abelard

of Eealism.
to

come

hand,

lay

individuals,

in

opponents

or

came

whose

inhered

Pantheism

and

one

species,and

genera,

pantheism did
period; on the other

found

the universal.

conceptions to

phenomena

this consequence

in this

of

was

or
self-realisations,

realistic

maintained

of

which

individual

whose

its

entering

yet regarding

Eealism

into

of

seen.

to

its orthodox

"

is to be

did not

the

substratum

line

genera

or

the

another

supporters. The
particularmight be regarded as

the

in all

reason

things,as

consequence

of

that

its appearance

of

to

descending

making

Meanwhile

final

individual

doctrine

classes

and
(^status),

states

purpose

generalissimum,

i.e.to the
divine

ascending

states,formed

the

thought, however,

from

specialisationinto

mately

of

universal

of
self-realising

individual

in
di"B.culty

determinations
specialising

lines

back

the

remove

individualising of

different

into

as

to

species to

substratum

these

the

the

by designating

way,

sought

of Mortagne

Eealism

be
in

expressly
its theory

of the
establishing some
rejoicedin the approbation of
for

cal
assumption of a substantial reality of the logimake
to
not only seemed
tion
possible a rational exposigenera
shown
of the
doctrine
of the
by
Trinity, but also, as was
Anselm
and
Odo
(Odardus) of Cambrey, proved to be a fit phil1

op.

Church.

l^or

the

cit.,
pp.

The

reading
49

ff.

"

indifferenter,"which

It Is diflHoult

to

support, of. Lowe,

[Part III.

sin

inherited

of

doctrines

the

for

osophical basis

Period.

First

Philosophy:

Mediaeval

296

and

vicarious

satisfaction.
On

4.

the

Nominalism, which
stifled.

this

during

beginnings^

Its

find at first the

grounds, we

same

remained

period

befalling

repressedand

more

It grew

enough.

harmless

were

lot

reverse

of the

out

logic,in particularout of the treatise De

nated
desigCategoriis.In this the individual things of experiencewere
the
here
and
first"
the
true
logico-grammatical
substances,
as
could
be predicatein
not
that
"substance"
rule was
propounded
the logicalsignificance
a
judgment : res nan predicatur. Since now
that of aifordingthe predicatesin the
is essentially
of universals
of Aristotelian

fragments

"

to follow
syllogism),it seemed
that
Super Porphyrium had already taught

judgment, (and
commentary
could

What

in

the

"

this

sals
univer-

"

be

not

substances.

they,then

are

It could

in Marcianus

Capellathat
particularities
by one

be read

comprehension of many
word
name
{vox); but a word, Boethius
(nomen), by the same
"motion
of the air produced by the tongue."
defined
a
as
a

universal

the

was

of

this all elements

universals

thesis

the

multiplicityof substances
what

degree

form

extreme

period

or

With

given:
designations

serve

signs for

as

accidents.

even

the

determined.^

But

real
and

for such

occasions

defended

the

in this

which

Nominalism,

actuallypropounded

was

had

were

common

names,

formulated

ignored

longer be

no

can

their

thus

have

must

collective names,
^

the

Nominalism

extreme

{flatusvocis),which

for different things, sounds

In

of

collective

but

nothing

are

the

during

metaphysics of

that
vidualism
indi-

corresponds to such a theory of knowledge meets us

things are to
clearlyand firmlywith the claim that only individual
be regarded as substances, as truly real.
This
doubtless
most
was
he presented it in a twofold
sharply expressed by Roscellinus,when
the
under
individuals
aspect : as the comprehension of many
is only a human
name
same
designation,so, too, the distinguishing
substances
is only an
of parts in individual
analysis for human
;"*the truly real is the individual thing,
thought and communication
which

and

that
1

alone.

Cf. C. S. Baraoh,

Qeschiohte

Zur

des

Nominaliamus

vor

(Vienna,

BoscelUn

1866).
2

tiiat this did not

It is certain

(with Eric

of

Auxerre,

with

as

the

yet

author

occur

of the

in the

beginnings

commentary

of Nominalism

Super Porphyrium,

find at the same

with
these writers
we
time the expression of Boethius
is suhstantialis
similitudo
diversis speciebus in cogitationecollecta.
ex
genus
s John
of Salisbury says (^Policr.
VII.
12 ; cf. Metal.
II. 17) that this opinion
vanished
again with its author Roscellinus.

etc.),for

that

Ined.
that

The

example

of the

471),he employed
could be
of Greek

house

and

in this

thought of.
thoughtl

How

Its wall, which, according

connection, was certainlythe

inferior such

considerations

to Abelard
most
are

(Ouvr.

unfortunate
to

the

nings
begin-

individual,however, is

The

hence

only

in the

in the train

only by

Anselm,

on

This

but

the

doctrine

out

became

contested,in

Abelard

their

theory

retained
the

of

the

of

the

of

in

substances, agreeing only

the

certain

their

assured, not

these

men

were

logical
theo-

applicationto
The

one

the

of
possibility

former

accidents
the

that

looked

allowed

Eoscellinus.

consequence

be

to

its

and

while

the

were

consists

learn.

not

Sacrament,

substance

Trinity

do

we

of

appeared

are

who

but

Tours

the

reached

second

divine

who

men

through

momentous

of

world

fhis^ensualism

were

by

doctrine

the

transmutation

is given in the

That

senses.

questions by Berengar

297

metaphysics, knowledge

that there

also

carried

they

which

Nominalism.

entirelyin corporeal images, we

to go

how

that

this

Nominalism,

of

thinking
and

for

reality;
experienceof

sensible

Universals

Controversy over

1, " 23.]

Chap.

qualitiesand

were

persons

three

as

upon

three

the

different

workings (tri-

theism).
In the

5.
current

Platonic, Nominalism

as

we

consider

we

themselves

in

with

the

Of

As

of

the

"

of the
and

the

substratum

"

concepts (the

Platonic

and

the

re,"

in

One

the

ultimately the

thing supports

essential

itself

qualities

and

of

supported

states

to

ceive
con-

of

one

realityis,in

Socrates.

the

As

regarded
it

versal,
uni-

the

therefore

was

others

The

states.

groups

separate

the

made

vidual
indi-

truly existent, these

thing, but

the

determinations

individual
of

qualities which

its

own

it has

in

similarity {consimilitudo)is the

indifferent ("not different")element
in all these
individuals, and
common

thus

the

others.

as

real

Greek,

when

Nominalism

to

individual

with

of

that

itself

absolute

realissimum

ens

supporter of these
latter thinkers
conceded, is the
certain

the

Eealists

moderate

the

nature

of

mention:

the

of

asserted

same

being, man,

the

states

within

of

^'^^
x""/o"^/*os)

tendency

and

status,"animate

significantconcession

selves
them-

thinkers

great

doctrine

stages of universalityas

of these

thrust

of Abelard.

substratum.

its different

which
introduced

two

but

material,

Indifferentism, from

so-called

nation
desig-

former,

transmitted

chieflyworthy

are

the

different

same

two

the

abandoned

universalia

the

the

tendencies

harmonise

the

than

passed

latter

The

Nominalism

and

attempts,

Eealism
the

of

mediating

to

of Eealism

as

existence

only

endeavour

the doctrine

soon

the

Eealism

Aristotelian.

nature

Realism

such

party

Nominalism

that

antitheses

distorted

more

defective

between

the

antiquity.
from

the

understand

can

as

evidently much

was

when

of these

literarydevelopment

genus

is

This

present

real

in

its

species,the

examples, indifferenter.Adelard
chief

supporter

of

this

line

of

of

species in

Bath

appears

thought, yet it'must

have

vidual
its indias

had

the
a

Philosophy:

Mediceval

298

with

extension, perhaps

wider

First Period.

somewhat

[Part

HI.

stronger nominalistic

accent.^
6.
the

it

But

vigorous

and

of

William

he

now

from

side

one

the

merely a convenient
but
then prevailing,

for

weapon

in

use

The

of

his

not

fail

sitely.'
oppo-

and

tinct
dis-

Eealism^ the
is

must

we

of

judged
clear

of

each

weapons

Eealism

pantheism
in

see

ecclesiastical

the

and

other, it could

kinds

pupil

Eealism

interpreted and
this position are

of
logical consequence
frequently and energeticallythat

so

the

the

the

that

formed

Eoscellinus
and

takes

polemic against all

his

In

us.

of

both

be
of

outlines

activitywho

universals.

over

Nominalism

since

position should

yet

before

returns

the

his

And

thought

other, and

the

from

result that

to

opponent

fought

he

Champeaux,
of

by means
polemic now

the

time

same

all-sided

his

with

the controversy

in

centre

the

at

Abelard

was

it,not

conditions

viction
expression of an individualistic conin the case
of a personalityso energetic,
easy to understand
had
But
this individuality
self-conscious,and proudly self-reliant.
in clear, sharp, intellectual
its inmost
time
essence
at the
same
its no
less powerful
in genuine French
rationality. Hence
activity,

the

rather

sensiialistic

oppositionagainstthe

of Nominalism.

tendencies

just as little
The
word
words.
can
{vox) as a complex of sounds,
they be mere
is indeed
something singular ;'itcan acquire universal meaning only
mediately,by becoming a predicate (sermo) Such an employment
of a word
for a predicate is possible only through
conceptional
of percepthought {conceptus),which, by comparing the contents
tion,
which
is
its
that
become
nature
to
a
by
predicate
gains
adapted
Abelard

Universals,

teaches,

cannot

be

things, but

is then the
.* The universal
est proedicari)
(quod de pluribus natum
conceptualpredicate(Sermonism), or the concept itself (Oonceptttalfirst in
such
as
ism).^ But if the universal
gains its existence
thought and judgment, and in the predicate which is possibleonly
and
exists
entirely
only there, it is not therefore
by this means,
relations

without

to

indispensableforms
if

there

not

were

According

to

the

S.

Cf.

M.

Jahrhunderts
8

Thus

Cf. Arist.

It

treatise De

gloss

on

Indlfferentism

Abaelard,

ein

Oeneribus

et

Isagoge.

It seems,
at the last.

kritischer

Theolog.

Spedebus

and

liam
too, that Wildes

zwolften

(Leips.1883).
makes

Ritter

seems

toward

Peter

Deutsch,

the

in his

inclined

Champeaux

of
2

in

statements

of Abelard

communications

the

be the
could
not
reality. Universals
of all knowledge, as they in fact actuallyare,
of things which
we
something in the nature
absolute

De
that

alternative, sometimes
in accordance

him

Realist ;

Interpr.7, 17
Abelard

at

the
with

different
two

Nominalist.

the one
times
emphasised sometimes
ently
perhaps his school also developed differlines of thought.

other, and

these

Haurfeau,a

39.

in his

far

it

as

controversy

over

free

of

real

toward

that

with
of

limits of

the

possiblewithin

was

the

of

ideas

the

controversy,
He

his

is,so

time, the

science,the prophet of the newly awakened

Abelard
(and
and
independent knowledge.
of all

Gilbert)is first

is for him

rationalist;thought

to

fested
mani-

attitude

time.

that

HI.

due

universals,for he

life
spiritual

and

mental

the

that

expressedin typicalform,

and

person,

own

in

spokesman
him

the

[Part

significancethan

dialectic,unfolding in connection

the

occupied

still greater

positionin

this central

which

has

Abelard.

7. But

First Period.

Philosophy:

Mediceval

300

the

pulse
imwith
norm

true
distinguishingbetween
He
and false.
indeed, subjecthimself to revelation preserved
may,
believe divine revelation only because it
in tradition,but, he says, we
longer reallythe
dialectic has, in his case, no
Hence
is reasonable.
of

which

the

content

its

Fathers

Church

the

of

views

treatise

the

in

Thus,

intellect ; he demands

the

doubtful

right of deciding in

critical

rules.

own

comprehensiblefor

faith

of

for it also the

to

following Augustine, prescribed it,of making

Anselm,

task

of

task

the

has

Dialectic

truth.

"Sic

other

in order
disintegrationdialectically,
is capable
worthy of belief only in what

rocal
recip-

their

to

the

set

what

is

proof. So, too, in

his

find

to
of

according
he

Nan,"

et

against each

over

cases

at

last

the various
judge over
summation
Abelard
while
and
regards Christianityas the ideal conreligions,
there
of the history of religions,
are
expressionsin his
the content
of Christianityto the origihe reduces
works
in which
nal

Dialogus,

cognising reason

the

appears

as

law,

moral

a
as

view

free, unbiassed
he

of

knew

may

Greeks

an

like almost
son

as

first

to

in
win

its

purity.
more

once

interpretationof antiquity.
admirer

of

the

Greeks

; he

Little
in

sees

before

and
regarding men
Christianity,
the thought
inspired,he asks (reversing

"

civilisation than
be

Cf. the

cf. p.

223,

note

of the

"

"

Enlighteners

Church.

But

of

if this

the
fact

Middle
were

to

Ages,^
put

us

significanceof his personalityin the line just

significancerather for the history of religionand
it
as
producing something philosophicallynew,
"

sufficient to

evidence

M.-A.,l.\83n.
2 A.
Harnack,

all the

the

to

as

mentioned,

Plato

Fathers,

obedient

error

would

an

the

Jesus

democratic.

made

Abelard,
in

was

was

by

tion
religioustradi6) whether
not
phers.
perhaps have been partly created
by these philosois
him
the
as
Christianity regarded by
philosophy of the

Church

the

was

the

he

them,
and

like Socrates
of

for

philosophers Christs

their

re-established

was

standpoint,too, Abelard

this

From

which

for

take

what

into

account

follows

Dogmengeschichte,

in

the

attacks

Renter, Qesch.

III. 322.

der

which

he

met.

Aufklarung

im

and

of Body

Dualism

1, " 24.]

Chap.

fact,his controversy with Bernard

with
knowledge with faith,of reason

of

In

power

on

the

even

aside

"

of the

what

faith,
"

only means

did

the

the

felt herself

she herself

of

We

hear, indeed,

have

; but

of

will

staying

be

bered,
remem-

which

to

power
been

century

inferior

the
the

to

the

evil

and

prove,

how

to

dispute

are

said

even

the

names

been

preserved,
in proper

immediate

to

say

in the

ness

of

only

to which

while

again vanished

from

its

"

of the

Zeitgeist,

they can comprehend

impudent dexterity,know

deniers,"

who

alists
ration-

from

dialectic

direct

without

exhausted

became

this

all

all its zeal and

spite of

in

not

just

the

that

reason

but

"

And

doctrines.

the

was

own

descriptionhave

this

to

their

of

nihilists

and

answer

Abelard,

and

out

what

with
the

who

prince was

dialectic

disillusion
desire for

Cf. Th.

widely

as

it to

true

knowledge.
in

men

and

philosophi."

the

extended

as

this

Anselm,

of

of

under

Ethica, in Strassburg. Abh.

z.

to

indicates
the

subtilties of

laid itself

part,

impulse

that

side

the

in

unfruitful-

the

tendency
the

and,

feverish

the
A

with

twelfth

feeling

period by
had

Soul.

and

in the

find

we

Discontented

Ziegler,Abaelard's

Body

knowledge.
in

like

221.

of

explicable that

century,

is manifested

which, even

Dualism

The

eleventh

through

Pun

part

nothing

these grounds it is

1884), p.

This

results.

even

attain

tradition

criticism.

rationalism

materialists

men

of

material

" 24.
On

content

problem which,

never

growing

over

become

the

acuteness, ran

that

to

the

out

carry

it,has

believe

contra,

of

whose

movement,

to

the

; and

just

"

the

will

have

to

solve

over

et

pro

owed

herself

set

Sophists who,

the

over

dialectic

"

who

men

of

its fulfilment?

for

possess

peoples.
disturbingpracticesof those who would
only scientifically; complaints multiply

everything treated

'^

and

the

the

after the time of Anselm

with

twelfth

its intellectualistic

she

to

European

rules

strength

able

not

it then

with

material

called

was

memory

the

as

have

must

exhibit, it

to

science lacked

its

such

external

"

hollow

had

science

it rebelled

lack

the

attained

against which

over

science

from

means

were

this

which

the

contest,^it

conflict of

science

if it had
not been
strength of faith,even
supported
great and high a personality. Eor that bold postulate,so full
mine
future,that only unprejudiced scientific insight should deter-

so

she

is the

inward

mighty

Its

that

had

time

at that

Church

by

hand,

Clairvaux

ultimatelythe weight

of

other

301

authority,of

to prevailin such
personality

offer

could

lacked

if Abelard

And

Church.

Soul.

ardent

dialectic,

obligationto

Philos.

(Freiburg,

First Period.

Philosophy:

MedicBval

302

[Part

III.

place the ultimate mysteries of faith upon a rational basis,some

life, in das Kauschen
plunged from unfruitful theory into practical
"

der

Rollen

Zeit,ins

"

of

rush

the

into

Begebenheit,"

der

time, the

others
plunged into a revelry in supra-rational
rolling of events,
in empirical research.
into diligentwork
Mysticism ; others, finally,
intellectual
All the opposites,into which
activitythat is predominantly
an
logicalcan pass over, develop by the side of dialectic,and
less firmly concluded
or
take
their positionagainst it in a more
league, Practice, Mysticism, and Empiricism.
relation to
this at first a peculiarlydistorted
from
There
resulted
known
Aristotle
was
scientific tradition.
only as the father of
of this ignoand in consequence
of dialectic,
formal
rance
logic and master
"

"

the

regarded as
considering the world.
was

hero

of

the

Plato, on

intellectual

purely

the

contrary,

mode

known

was

of

partly

(unwittingly falsified in
with
Neo-Platonic
accordance
processes),partly,by virtue of the
of a philosophy of
preservation of the Timoeus, as the founder
found
the
liest
livewhose
fundamental
Nature
teleologicalcharacter
the

as

of

creator

in

assent

doctrine

the

not

some

Nature,

which

to

Arabians,
bent

he

which

and

toward

of

the

antiquity makes
in

knowledge
Renaissance
a

living

with
and

the

of

like

him,

ancient

were

Here
his

to

half

Nature.

that

Here

this

(about

the

in

1050) the

been

the

case

the

source

of

in the

with

the

material

first weak

gain

to

(died
followingperiod,

of

powerful

the
of

an

Theodoric

brothers

William

main

Africanus

Platonist

Conches

stimulus

active and

of the

one

the

to

intimately associated

was

Constantinus

also

return

disciple,Fulbert

school

Italy formed
monk

an

of

vigorous

seats

of

this

worked, who,

Adfilard

of Bath,

especiallyactive
Orient, and was
of medical
effects
The
treatises by Hippocrates and Galen.
this cloister are
in the
shown
also
but
in
not
only
literature,

learning on

activityin

founding of

Cassino

deavour
en-

this, were

aims
naturalistic,

worked

; from

stvdy of

Thus

"

knowledge.'
of Chartres,which,
Platonism

of

aid

dialectic,

Gerbert's

Chartres

have

translation

the

as

Aristotelian

humanistic,

the

in

researches.

its first appearance

the

the

approval for this

working toward

who,

and

at first

had

example of the
vigorous practical

own
on

tendency. In their writings

antiquityunites with the interest

is known

gathered
of

of

study

movement.

in the

of

seat

count

poise
counter-

the

by

his

to

himself

he

school

cloister Monte

The

of

half

Gerbert,as

commended

his

classical

as

the

Bernard

received

of

could

who,

oppositionto

content

the

stimulated

been

results

which^

the

had

information,

here

1029), opened
became

attempts,

men

material

appropriating

successful

life,he

among

when

dialectic in which

corresponded

active

only
extension

very

Ideas

Hence

religiousthought.

against the pride of

made

of

famous

his

school

journeys

in

of Salerno

the

in the

middle

of the

twelfth

century.

of

knowledge
that

ings
of

have

science

the

to

of

of

Platonists

which

the

from

Middle

life,and

unfolded

analysisin
the

directed

Ages

the

field of

well

that

as

and

the

results.^
of the
such

as

of

those

Chartres,

makes

of

gaining

at its hand

observation

real

in

"

the

filled
piety was
in opposition to

with

mental
acute
This

is
the

practicallife
substantial

the

the

attained

Ages
of

of

and

psychology.

Middle

the

still another

yet

as

the

with

already

this,the experience

itself

of

contrasted

as

experience

in which

In

is

science

empirical impulse
investigationof the

the

energy

sublimest
set

than

activityto

of inner

science

natural

Bernard

Incapable

science, the

work

is

dialecticians,assumed

results

fuU

domain

scientific

valuable

most

its

startingternal
knowledge of ex-

reality,which

valuable.

Greek

transmitted

of

ideal

the

mediaeval

there

conspicuous

the

more

of

and

the

as

as

The

as

concrete

of

Plato

associates.^

their

experience better

outer

the

in

much

far
"

Ages

former

period

So

peculiarshift-

most

latter appears

Platonists,

and

Middle

was

the

303

literature.

Nature.

this

Plato.

high-soaringmetaphysics
form,

of

in

us

Conches,

the

of

history
:

the

conceptions,the

meets
of

of

one

roles

dispositiontoward

this

But

of

name

of

William

the

knowledge

in this age, it is that

of

here

their

exchanged

point for a concrete

realitythat
attached

in

School of Ohartres.

see

occurred

abstract

an

We

Nature.

have

Aristotle

Soul

and

Body

1, " 24.]

Chap.

dialectical

as

tent,
con-

of

play

conceptions.
1.

natural

^he

views

exercised

his views
in

mastery that

the

proportion, also, to
the

system

complete

Just

of the

for this

soul

from

The

But

as

he

reason

procedure

principleof

new

monistic

This

humanistic

the

Migve,

account

Vol.

of Nature
^

H.

Cf.

as

for

Siebeck

also in Vols.

could

the

standpoint of
which

could

unfold

had
itself

natural

of

science

adoption
Walter

of
of

and

in Vols.

for

what

I.-III.

of

the

St.

soul

gain

to

took

thus

of Conches

terial
imma-

an

and

knowledge

with

arisen

full

from

undisturbed

sciousness
con-

physical
meta-

long

so

Peripateticschool

early Middle
; so, for
the
extracts

Victor

as

his

experience.

inner

tradition

ancient

190, p. 1170), William

capable of union with
this

of

the

of

in

substances, body

two

body, and

the

to

Aristotelian

maintained

had-

expect

not

metaphysical psychology

in its
discriminating
trust

of

method

presuppositions
the

union

the

which

to

regarded the

which

psychological
proportion as

religiousconviction,and

current

Augustine

dualism
man

stronger in

the

was

the

its relations

of his

Augustine,whose

was

slightextent

known.

was

substance, and
soul.

with

interwoven

were

psychology
"

in this field

leader

(in
regarded

an

Ages was
example,
made
atomistic

not

if

we

as

re-

at

all

may

by Bulseus,
conception

his Platonism.

follows

(as

the

Archiv

93, 94, Zeitschrififur

Fhilos.

also

for

articles by
Philosophie, and
(1888-90).

" 27, later) the

fur Oeschiohte
u. philos. Krit.

der

this salvation

salvation,and
activities

through

toward

higher

who

sought

to

world.
the

out

spy

It

of the

those

soul's

transcendent

the

from

body, strives
therefore, principallythe Mystic

soul, estranged

the

which

III.

emphatically
psychology.

to

purpose

just in

found

was

Ages

the

for

soul

of the

sought knowledge

Faith

[Part

furthered

was

Middle

the

brought

which

needs

those

by

this unfolding

And

unknown.

mained

First Period.

Philosophy:

Mediceval

304

was,

life,and thus became

inner

of the

secrets

psychologists.
than
more
significant
Weightier and philosophically
often
were
doctrines propounded in this line,which

hazy, is

and
the

dualism

in

its full

fact that

the

of

the

strength,and
monism.

metaphysical

influence

formed
it

But

till later

of

theories,
maintained

was

destined

in
first,

at

fantastic

very

strong counterpoise to the

not

was

anthropological dualism

the

worlds

super-sensuous

thus

individual

and connected

of these

means

and

sensuous

Neo-Platonic

of

by

the

the

and

body

exercise

to

this

limited

more

soul,

it

form

became

the

for psychology as the science of inner experience}

starting-point
that
the
It is, therefore, a very
noteworthy phenomenon
of
it

as

this

psychology

exerting themselves
available

to

material.

natural

precisely the

called,are

later

was

"

as

gain

turned

of the
from

away

the

of

who

men

same

knowledge

Having

science

outer

inner
are

world

porters
sup-

sense,"

faithfully
from

dialectic,
they

all

seek

experience,a philosophy of Nature;

but they divide this into two
completely separated fields,physica
the preference
Among the Platonists
corporis and physica animoe.
is predominant, among
the Mystics
Nature
for the study of external
of

knowledge

for the

that

But

2.

only to

not

them
their

of

the

as

Nature.^
the
characteristic,

empirical psychology, the endeavour,

classifythe psychical activities and states, but to apprehend
in the living stream
of mental
life,and to comprehend

for

These

men

in

their

pious feelings,in

the

history;
Cf.

new
essentially

this

enjoyment of divine grace, were

experience,of a history of the soul, and were

inner

mark

development.

struggles
this

internal

regard

must

beneficial

and

of the

study

we

in

is real

what

while

and

in

so

doing they

used

conscious

their
of

an

impelled to write
Platonic,Augustinian,

also

K.
MitWerner,
Naturlehre
scholastischen
des
Kosmologie und
Entioickand
Der
Conches
specieller Beziehung auf Wilhelm
von
;
der mittelalterlicheh Psychologie von
bis Albertus
Alcuin
Magnus

telalters,mit

lungsgang

from
(ofi'-prints

SUzungsberichten (Vol. 75), and DenJcschriften (Vol. 25)

Acad., 1876).
^ Nevertheless
It must
be mentioned
that Hugo
of St. Victor not only shows
that he
an
encyclopEedic knowledge in his Eruditio Didascalica, but also shows
cine,
mediis acquainted, even
to the most
exact
w
ith
of
ancient
the
detail,
teachings
particularlywith the theories of physiologicalpsychology (explanationof
perceptions, temperaments,
etc.).
respectivelyof

the

the

Vienna

Neo-Platonic

and

Soul

and

Body

1, " 24.]

Chap.

conceptions

facts,the essential

Mystics, who

These

in

possessedone

later

which

be

soiil should

important, of

so

the

soul

body highest in

human

enigma
shown, and
of

Instead

to

racking

their

brains

this

dualism

for

the

(unio) remains

an

him

con-*

very

nothing

and

world,
are

this

tion
ques-

is indeed

fact

yet

so

prehensible
incomhas

God

impossible.

is

this
dialetically
point,the
upon
in order
to
as
a
presupposition,

scientific consideration,and

for their

the

two

in

already

duality of body

immaterial

world,

that

but

by

Victor

the

union

that

this

St.

of
in

thinks

troubled

how

material

their

show,

assume

soul

isolate the

he

; but

desired

Mystics rather

the

that

constitution

oppositein

Hugo

is lowest

metaphysics

much

not

understood.

though

scions that
the

point is
inner lif^

seeking

not

faith,were

became

dividual
designate inthat they undertook
to

decisive

and

were

their

305

mixture

motley

exhibit the development of the

to

and

in

Vietorines.

its

observe

to

life.

inner

life,however, is,for Mysticism, a development

This

and

God,

of

this

so

firstform of

the

psychology of

in the individual

salvation

soul

to

tory
is the his-

sense

soul

Mystics regarded the

The

soul.

the inner

of the

and feeling,
as-Gemiith
essentially
["heart," the seat of sentiment
rather than
intellect].They show the development of its vital process
their
in
their
out of the feelings,and
virtuosoship
literary
prove

depictingof the states

the genuine successors
of this

the

process,

decisions

of the

and
of

Augustine

motive

will,by

in

forces of

examining,

in

also

are

their

analysis

will,in investigating

the

faith

of which

virtue

feeling. They

of

movements

the

conditions

the

course

knowledge, and finallyin the fact that they ultimately regard as

the mystical contemplathe highest stage in the soul's development
tion
of

of

Such,

God, which,
least,was

at

Eichard,
while

who

in the

sake

even

for

activity
of

with

same

love.

Vietorines, Hugo

two

sustained

completely
of Bernard

case

the

of

the

to be

held

by

Clairvaux, the

as

spiritof science,
practicalfactor of the

is unwearied
strongly emphasised. Bernard
heathenish
that pure
impulse after knowledge for

which

him,

ecstasy

of

eternal

essence,

comports
the

last

deification
"

as

of

with
the

with
the
which

drop

9,11the
twelve
the

of water

and

virtues

stages

of

individual
in

and

the

more

denouncing
own

the

were

will is much

sure, is here

to be

cask

vices,and

humility

in
its

yet,

is that

disappears in

the

of wine."

psychology of knowledge, also,is built up with the Vietorines

the eye of
Augustinian lines. Three eyes are given to man,
upon
himself
to know
flesh to know
the corporealworld, the eye of reason
the spiritual
in his inner nature, the
eye of contemplation to know
world
and
the
deity. While, then, according to Hugo, cogitatio.
The

"

meditatio,and

the

III.

[Part

stages of intellectual

the three

contemplatio are

Period.

First

Philosophy:

Medioeval

306

ity,
activ-

co-operationof the

emphasises
ination
imagis
kinds
of
knowledge
interestingand
(imaginatio)in all
Even
of his personality.
characteristic
contemplation is a visio
the

degree

which

to

he

undistorted, while

truth

and

Old

most

observations

acute

The

functions.

the

and

the

doubtless

too, into the danger of leading to Schwdrmerei,^

but,

the

on

breaks

up

marks

off the

3.
from

the

field

which

This

new

quite

another

universals

science

universals

modern

in

them

of

ideas

arise

in the

directlyto
indeed

of

in

the

human

empiricalstudy

the

sublime
and

of the

poesy
but

dry,

of the

the matter
in hand
For, just because
origin of purely subjectivecontents
the

explained as
could

products

become

of man's

only a

above

all,it

likewise

its aid.

to

came

"

the

over

doctrine

these

that
genera

fell

themselves

with

thus

results

valuable

sent

required
of

which

thought,

development

contribution

to the

in

were

account.
of the

exhibition

an

plemented
sup-

which

that

on

on

universal

development of ideas, and

more

it

own,

controversy

which

found

Mystics

all the

its

species and
mind, the duty

by

They

asm
enthusi-

the

knowing

mind.

the

combated

process

here,

is to grow.

result

declared

themselves, and

the

sober

side-result
worst

chical
psy-

falls

enrichment

and

Conceptualism

of

future, and,

support

intelligiblethe

making

the

fruit

psychology

the

that, too, not

subjectivecreations

be

much

of

received

and

exist

research

direction

and

"

on

Nominalism

When

to

soil for

the

it wins

hand,

other

the

the

ecstatic

or

the

amid

way

portrayalsof

of self-observation

method

writings'of

their

delicate

most

highest

of this.

force

mystic rapture

the

grasps

in

variously mingled

of

Fantasies

Victorines.

alone

capable

is not

thought

thus

are

new

-which

beholding

mental
a
intellectualis,

to be

were

time,

this

psychology

tigation
inves-

of inner

experience.
The

very

occasion

to

Abelard

thesis
treat

led to

of
the

extreme
relation

Nominalism
of word

to

afforded

thought,

its

opponents

in the

and

of

case

searchinginvestigationof the co-operatingactivity

that belongs to language in connection
with
the
developnient of
thought. The question as to the meaning of signs and designations
in the

deeper

by

the

of

movement

ideas

into the

entrance

investigationwhich

between
It is here
enters

intellect and

shown

into

the

how

was

by

this

heart

of

theoretical

is conducted

perceptionin

as

the

sensation, as confused

perception
1

raised

means

psychology

to

the

Cf. Kant,

necessary

treatise De
idea

{imaginatio)which
Anthropologie,"

was

still
made

tion
connec-

Intellectibus.

(confusaconcepHo),
grasps

4.

anew.

and

holds

it

308

in this
and

of

Its

very

here

title,Scito

for

Ipsum,

Te

its

first time

the

is

ethics

consciousness

Christian
it strives

to

it says,

at

go

consist
Nor

cause.

solelyin

in

resolve

the

of

here

Good

and

evil,

in

the

decision

the

the

to

But

action's inner

thoughts (suggestio),
feelings,

precede

consent

fact.

matter.

act, but

in the

consist

or

its fundamental

as

heart

which
{delectatio)

this

on

the fact that

just in

consists

based

again treated as a proper philo^

from
dogmatic metaphysical efforts.^
the
although it, too, proceeds from

outward

the

they

do

the

to

science

as

is

sin

of

once

not

yet

desires

and

freed

this

of

true

it

announces

importance

ethics

and
sophical discipline,
This

III.

notice

experience,and

inner

[Part

Abelard's ethics as a peculiarside-phenomenon

finally
of making more
rigidthe contrast of outer and inner,
process
transferringthe scientific first principleto the inner nature.'

We

4.

First Period.

Philosophy:

Mediaeval

deed

of

the

will,but

(consensus). Por the

natural
dispositionand

founded
in the whole
(voluntas),
lead toward
in part in the bodily constitution,which
good or
may
sense
evil, is not itself in the proper
good or evil. Fault or error
inherited
sin
reduces
becomes
sin
(vitium) to this Abelard
But
if this is present, the
(jpeccatum)only through the consensus.
sin is fully and
completely there with it, and the bodily executed
its external
adds nothing ethically.
action with
consequences
The
of the moral
is thus placed by Abelard
essence
solelyin the
resolve
of the will {animi intentio). But
what
is the norm
now

inclination

"

"

according
good

evil ?

or

this

which

to

Here, too, Abelard

solely within
agreement
action
that

good

only

is bad

what
as

moral

(in accordance

men,

which,
in

clearness

new

through
Cf.

on

this

human

Th.

accord

contempt

the

known

in

Christian
sin and

the

the

of

norm

it consists

ment
judgin the

(conscientia)

agent's

Abelard

ancient

Abelard

Ziegler in

the

That

conviction;

own

this.

dialectician

as

finds

conscience

with

Where

with

law, which, though

he

as

all external

rationalistic

and

the

contradicts

is conscience

the

is for him

rejectswith

with

is in

which

is to be characterised

by a
;
deciding individual,and

the

which

will

law

non-agreement

or

is

And

to

of the

objectivedetermination

and

all

resolve

that

he

teaches

as

conscience

there

was,

pher,
philoso-

example, Cicero) the natural

to
varying degree,is common
was

convinced,

after
religion,

weakness

wakened

was

it had

become

(cf.above, " 23, 7).

Strassburger Abhdl.

z.

Phil.

scured
obBut

CFreiburg,

1884).
2

It throws
a surprising light upon
the clearness
of Abelard's
thought when
incidentally separates the metaphysical conception of the good (perfection
=
reality)carefully from the moral conception of the good, with which alone ethics
has to do.
He
shows
in this that he had
lems,
penetrated this complication of probhe

one

of the

most

intricate in historv.

moral

natural

is

individual
to

his

The.

law
decide

to

of

knowledge
ethics

and

the

of

divine

command.

which

which

will,

its
its

beyond

and

itself

to

bounds,

the

of

out

way

of

head

the

the

for

the

the

of

of

ism
individualof

system

the

great
in

operation

fruitful

to

of

enhancement

an

and

against

is, according

the

by
be

act

resort

that

God.^

of

import

only

presented

will

to

the

whejje
the

the

God;

obey

internalisation

of

forces

with

conscience,

was

proves

principles

teacher

Church

to

Peripatetics

Augustinian

the

his

according
the

to

doubtful,

wise

any

intention

of

dialecticians

in

is

309

identical

But

God.

despise

to

is

therefore,

means,

is

conscience

the

Abelard.

naturdlis

lex

conscience

the

follow

To

this

theologian

the

for

Soul

and

Body

" 24.]

1,

Chap.

the

future.

far

In
as

theory

to

will

divine
"

his

The

theological
reduce

practice

of

content

{Commentary
important

and

the

Abelard

metaphysics

cannot

Epistle

the

on

here

contrast
be

brought

occasionally

seems

moral

the

to

law
the

Romans,
in

presented
out

to

here.

the

various

to

arbitrary
II.

have

gone

choice

of

241).
directions

to

Church

so

the

(After
Karl
Karl

Der

hi

"Werner,

Die

Scholastik

of

satisfaction

civilisation which
shock

had

and

the

But

it than

did

extent

of

superior,and
the

preserved

the

latter.

brought
Rather,

the
principles,
than

the

these

as

matters
now

and

much

richer
than

in

the

learned

of

science, the
over

into

Eome
new

was

which
the

East

cover
dis-

Middle

breadth

material

of

passed

of

philosophy

of

stream

that

more

Only,

Greek

over

regards thoughts

Oriental

compass

in

treasures

not

made

completely than

more

Cordova

European.

the

information

and

and

'

of

tradition

the

the

worlds

new

Jewish, science

stronger

Bagdad

Oriental

and
was

and
in
far

possessionof

the

Christian

Erom

chief

had

the

peoples of Europe

to

soon

victoriouslyagainst

in its train

over

former

tradition,in

of

to the

West.

the

is still poorer

quantity

the

poured

establish

or

Ages

of

material

itself

science

very

with

Contact

extent.

1881 ff.

Western

past, was

was

fi.

Vienna,
vols.,

mastered

immediately

more

and

They

knowledge

York.

with

Arabian,

Paris.

cloisters

scientific

the

into

entry

thought

for dialectic

unsuspected

1858

vols.,Regensburg,

which

knowledge,

first maintained

at

life.

of intellectual

Mittelalters.

spateren

Crusades, disclosed

of the

their

des

1200.)

about

Aquino.

von

first enthusiasm

after the
find

for real

felt need

The

and

Thomas

Werner,

PERIOD.

SECOND

II.

CHAPTER

The

peoples.
point of view
that
importance was
the

author

believes

of

the

philosophy,however,

Parisian

science

matter

of

acquaintednot

became

and
tion
ought to decline to give a full exposimay
philosophy of the Middle Ages
ought to, in so
far as he is here in great part excluded
from
penetrating to the originalsources,
and
would
therefore
find himself
forced
others'
to reproduce
expositions at
second
that which
hand,
however, because
may,
passed over with fructifying
influence into European
science
from
this large literature
it is only this
and
that could
be treated
element
in this presentation of the development
of philosophy
whole
is found
to be, with
as
a
small
exceptions, the spiritual
very
the
possession of antiquity, of the Greek
Hellenistic
or
philosophy. On this
there
will be given only a brief survey
account
and
Jewish
of the Arabian
losophy
phiin the Middle
will be found
at the close of the introductory
Ages, which
of this chapter, pp. 316-318.
material
of the

Arabian

and

that

he

Jewish

"

"

"

"

310

Second

2.]

Chap.

the

only with

entire

philosophy that
"

fresh

logic

the

while

faith

by

task

there

for

and

of that
which

most

itself

brilliant

period

in the

brought

about.

had

at the

with
first,

only to strengthen the

victorious
pride,was mastered
only in

form

thought

of the

in which

and

those
in

the

and

largest

the
and

most

that,too, without

the

philosophicalprincipleas
It

stddt.

its

owes

and
codification,
and

finds its

But

broke
of

forth

Arabian

its

consequence

Master

from

heterodoxyof

an

Hence

it is

This

tendency

the

papacy
Arabian

swiftness

dialectic

to

bent

to

and

elements

of

possible

Augustinian
decided

in

In

this

ponderance
preof

was

way

of

toward

the

system

in all

formation
Albert

was

Comedy.

Divine

Christian

being

the

faith

seemed

Under

involved

in

potentialbecame

after

Thomas,

scholastic

Boll-

be

to

oppositionbetween

violently.

pantheism

of

Aquinas,

Dante's

Thomism,

of

directions,its literary
Thomas

more

developed

idealistic

faith.

designation,to
and

immediately

Eckhart,

sion
impres-

consequences,

gained

this

of

all the

doctrines,the

circles,and

the

of

courage

of

impulse

science

at once

of Eealism

problem

world-moving thoughts
imposing scale that history has seen,
creative
activity of any properly new

brought into complete harmony

them

the

This, indeed, was

arrangement

its historical

Hellenistic

held

rial
mate-

Neo-Platonic-

admirable

doctrine

poeticalexposition in

while

world

of

its naturalistic

organic completion

thus

the

immeasurable

The

Church.

intellectual founder

The

system.

his

"new

completely systematic development

now

and

of

development

Neo-Platonism

to

to
philosophy conformed
completed an adjustment

upon

this

of

technique of thought,

almost

the intellectualistic

allied

this

with

of the

system

view

rationalistic

seemed

service

By

abundantly ready for

the after-workingof

it under

Aristotelianism,which

the

the

an

solved

III.

Innocent

time

parts

already dying dialectic,and

matured

all

metaphysico-religious
system.

showed

thought

enhanced,

the

with

same

in the

arrangement

Mediaeval
thus

the

presented at

was

and

anew

also with

knowledge.

into

rationallyexpounding

attacked

was

material

infused

was

of

311

logicof Aristotle,but

furnished

blood

Period.

the
the

actual

ence
influ-

logical
in

tended
ex-

ican,
his fellow-Domin-

intellectualism

to

the

Mysticism.

the
also encountered
comprehensible that Thomism
resistance of a Platonic-Augustiniantendency, which
indeed
gladly
the
the
in
the
of
had
been
increase
Nature
adopted
knowledge
(as
case
before) and the perfection of the logical apparatus, but put
aside the intellectualistic metaphysics and
developed all the more
of Augustinianism.
energeticallythe opposite elements

thinker

of the

reached

Christian

its full strength in the

Middle

Ages,

Duns

acutest

Scotus, who

and

deepest

brought

the

312

Mediaeval
of

germs

the

of

philosophy

to their

Philosophy.

[Part III.
in

will, contained

the

and

Augustine's

from

the metaso
physical
important development,
side gave the impulse for a complete change in the direction
him
of philosophicalthought. With
and
scientific
religious
fusion
had
begun in the Hellenistic
interests,whose
philosophy,
begin to separate.

system,

The

renewal

of the

last

first

of the

century

flaunting itself

was

logic the

on

the

especiallyon
which

attached

in

various

Aristotelian

culminated
result

same

had

in
with

obtained

anew

movement

extremely

an

still
the

ing
last-

more

in

schematism.

worked

This

there

and

mastery

disputations,developed

grammatical side, and

the doctrine

intellectual

the

Ages

led to the

which

Dialectic,

which

Middle

interestingcombination,
force.

in

of Nominalism,

was

developed

its textbooks

to a

out

theory

of

judgment and the syllogism to the

view
that regarded the concepts {termini) as subjective signs for
became
united
really existing individual things. This Terminism
in

William

Aristotelian

Eealism,
But
of

had

will

into

knowledge,

been

also

naturalistic
and

maintained

became

tendencies
these

alike

united

with

of the

combined

in Thomism
the

Arabiancombated

and

Scotism.

Augustinian

doctrine

powerful individualism,with the beginnings of

studied
the
empirical psychology which
history of development,

the

to

natural
to

which

the

of

theory

Terminism
the

with

of Occam

an

the

kind

of

idealism

investigationwhich
empiricism that was

scholastic

Here

and

vainly

covering

there

was

the

inner

experience, and

conquering wider

and

fruitful in the

future.

to be

the

the

territory,

Thus

sprouting the germs of new

extremely diversified movement

confidence

with

wider

under

thought.

were

in this

with

of

still

men

that

they can create a rational

of the signifisystem of religiousmetaphysics, and finallya man
cance
of Nicolaus
Cusanus
to
all
these
elements
force
sought vainly

of

appear

secular

new

half

mystic

elements

back

intellectualism

exercised

stronger because
The

science

under
it

of

power

just from

was

influence

an

the

the

upon

half

his system

future, that

scholastic,
those

that

all the

was

of his work.
of Aristotle

falls in the century 1150-1250

(for this topic see
Jourdain, cited p. 273). It began with the more
uable
valunknown
parts of the Organon, hitherto
and
{vetus
nova
ceeded
prologica),
to the
metaphysical,
physical, and ethical books, always accompanied
of the Arabian
by the introduction
explanatory writings. The Church
slowly
the
admitted
new
logic,although dialectic was
again set in fluctuation
thereby ;

reception

principally the

work

of A.

"

for
the
own

it

soon

aid

of

became
the

convinced

doctrine

of

that
the

of

method

new

which

introduced

was

advantageous

with

presenting

for

its

teachings.
This

the

the

syllogism, was

in the
scholastic
method
basis for discussion
is broken
up

propositions ; questions

are

proper

sense

by division

attached

and

the

is
and

as

follows

explanation

possible

answers

text

into

used

as

number

brought

to-

Second

2.]

Chap.

Period.

313

for establishing or refuting these

gether ; finallythe arguments to be adduced
of a chain
of syllogisticreasoning, leading
are
answers
presented in the form
ultimately to a decision upon the subject.
first employed by Alexander
of H^les
scheme
This
was
(died 1245) in his
with
which
far superior to the
a
was
Summa
Universx
Theologioe,
mastery
of

of treatment

mode

the

earlier

Summists

in wealth

of

contents, clearness

of

of results, and
later.
was
scarcely surpassed even
development, and definiteness
worked
out
with
An
was
regard to the material
analogous change in method
science
of Beauvais
in the encyclopaedias of natural
by Vincent
(Vincentius
Bellovacensis, died about
1265), by his Speculum
Quadruplex, and Johannes
work
for the doctrines
(1221-1274), did the same
Fidanza, called Bonaventura
of the Viotorines.
Bonaventura's
works
of Mysticism, especiallythose
Among
Cf. K. Werner,
Artium
ad Theologiam is especiallycharacteristic.
the Beductio
Erkenntnisslehre
des B. (Vienna, 1876).
Die Psychologie und
in regard to ArisChurch
totle's
The
more
proceeded in a much
hesitating manner
these made
their entrance
in intimate
Metaphysics and Physics, because
this latter
with Averroism,
and
because
connection
theory had
developed to
had
the Neo-Platonic
been
never
Mysticism which
pantheism
entirely
open
of such
a
Erigena. As the defenders
system appear
forgotten since Scotus
Amalrich

of Bena

ing whose

doctrines

and

council

Lateran

GospeV^

about
David
of Binant,
1200, concern^
only by later writers, especially Albert
the widely extended
sect
of the Amalricans,
which, after

we

With

Thomas.

the

of

Chartres, and

near

of

Joachim

informed

are

1215,
Floris

with

persecuted

was

also

was

fire and

connected.

Cf.

on

sword,

the

this

ST. Schneider

J.

' '

Eternal

(DilUngen, 1873).
The

of

judgment

(of." 27) applied

the

orders,

condemnation

at

first to

the Averroistic
upon
It is the service
of

passed

Aristotle
and

Dominicans

also.

Franciscans,

have

to

Pan-psychism
the

broken

two

this

dicant
men-

tion,
connec-

to the
and to have
the power
of the Church
recognition of
brought over
this way
which
frequently wavered
Peripateticsystem.
By a long c'onfiict,
and that, they succeeded
of the Aristotelian
in founding two
chairs
philosophy
taken
into the faculty
at the University of Paris, and
finallyin having them
(cf.Kaufmann, Oesch. d. Univ., I. 275 ff.). After this victory in 1254, respect
He
for Aristotle
the highest philosophical authority.
rose
fast, until he became
John
of
Nature
in
matters
the
forerunner
of
Christ
as
was
was
as
praised

the

the

Baptist in

of grace,
and
in such
a

matters

Averroes) held him to be

in the following literature
The

doctrine

of

the

he

this time

from

is often

Dominicans,

Christian

on

cited

only

which

has

"

as

science

of scientific

incarnation

the

sense

(like

truth, that

Philosophus."
until

remained

the

present time

and
Thomas.
created by Albert
Church, was
1193
at Lauingen
in
born
Albert
of BoUstadt
was
(Albertus Magnus)
and
became
in
studied
in
Padua
and
Paris,
Swabia,
Cologne
Bologna, taught
His
writings consist for
Bishop of Regensburg, and died in Cologne in 1280.
the

official doctrine

the

most

part of

of the

Catholic

and

paraphrases

commentaries

; aside

Aristotle

upon

from

the

(De Vegetabilibus,
Botany is particularly of independent value
Libri
ed.
VII.;
by Meyer and Jessen, Berlin, 1867). Cf. J. Sighart, Al. Mag.
sein Leben
und
seine
Wissenschaft (Regensburg, 1857) ; v. Hertling, Al. Mag.
und
die Wissenschaft seiner
Zeit (in Sist.^pol.
Blatter, 1874) ; J. Bach, Al.
Mag. (Vienna, 1881).
cated
eduThomas
1225
27 in Roccasicca, Lower
Italy,was
of Aquino,
born
or
Summa

his

at first in the

science,then
at

these

near

cloister

universities

addition

and

also

Besides

the
to

and

Liber

at

Rome

de

Bologna,

and

and

Causis

these, principally

the

the

Summa

and

contain

Sentences

of

Theologioe

contra
contra
veritatefldei Catholics
gentiles {Summa
De Begimine Prineipum
only in part.
belongs to him

study in natural
taught alternately

died, 1274, in

works

treatises, his

minor

for
he

this

After

Paris.

old

of

Cassino, famous

Monte

Naples, Cologne,

Terracina.

Aristotle,on
in

in

cloister

commentaries

Lombard,

Peter
and

the

treatise

gentiles). The

on

and
De

trea,tise

the very
From
copious
La
named
Ch. Jourdain,
be
:
him, the following may
Philos.
uber
die
Studien
St. Th. (Paris, 1858) ; Z. Gonzalez,
from
the
(Regensburg, 1885);
A., translated
Spanish by Nolte

literature concerning

Philosophie de
des.

hi. Th. v.
R. Eucken, Die
A.

Philos.

Frohschammer,

Die

d.

Th.

v.

A.

Philosophie

und
des

die
Th.

v.

Cultus
A.

der

Neuzeit

(Leips.1889).

(Halle,1886);

Philosophy.

Mediaeval

314

among

the

commentary

great world-poem,

his

Besides

Commedia.

Divina

in

by Philalethes

editors

his

Alighierihas

of Dante

philosophicalimportance

The

[PaktIU.
best

been
his

on

treatise

the

recognised

translation
De

of the

Monarchia

Cf. A. F. Ozanam,
forgotten in a philosophicalconsideration.
13""
Steele
D. et la Philosopkie Catholique au
(Paris,1845); G. Baur, Boethius
und
Dante
(Leips.1873).
is great, is only of literary-historical.
number
in other Thomists, whose
Interest
Order
Dominican
Mysticism,
To
the
belonged also the father of German

should

be

not

Born
in the middle
of Thomas.
of
a
Eckhart,
contemporary
younger
about
he
Professor
1300
was
of
in
at
probably
Saxony,
century,
for Saxony, lived for
of his Order
then
Provincial
Philosophy in Paris, became
Master

thirteenth

the

cerning
conCologne and Strassburg, and died during the painful discussions
The
in 1329.
extant
writings (collected
orthodoxy of his doctrine
tracts, and aphorisms.
by P. Pfeiffer,II. Leips. 1857) are principally sermons,
der
Cf. C. XJUman, Beformatoren
vor
Beformation, Vol. II. (Hamburg, 1842);
W.
(Leips.1875, 1881) ; also
Mystik im Mittelalter
Preger, Gesch. d. deutschen
Eckhart
in particular,
On
S.
Denifle.
and
articles
editions
the
different
by
der deutschen
J. Bach, M. E. der Voter
Speculation (Vienna, 1864); A. Lasson,
M.
E. der Mystiker (Berlin,1868).
of
into the heresies
In its farther
Mysticism branched
development German
"
the
in
the
of
it
former
of God
of Basle
of the " Friends
case
the Beghards and
;
It took
with
the Averroistic
the
radical
connection
pantheism.
led to the most
John
Tauler
at Strassburg (1300-1361),and
form
of popular preaching with
of Constance
with
Heinrich
Suso
of poetic song
(1300-1866). Its theoretical
maintained
doctrines
diminished, in the
themselves, while the heterodoxy was
"
edited by Luther, 1516).
German
(first
Theology''''
a

in

time

the

Augustinian

The

Arabians

of the

has

Platonic

supporters :
from
Aurillac, teacher

in

the

suspected Aristotelianism

"

of Auvergne,
of a work
1249, author

"William
died

opposition against

its main

as

Universo.

De

He

Bishop in Paris, where

by K. Werner,

and

is treated

he
Die

Philosophie des W. v. A. (Vienna, 1873).

Goethals
of Muda
of Ghent
near
Henry
(Henricus Gandavensis, Heinrich
defender
of the
Ghent, 1217-1293), the valiant
primacy of the will against
Besides
he wrote
Thomism.
a theological compendium,
a Summa
Quoestionum
and principallyQuodlibeta Theologica.
Cf K. Werner, H. v. G. als
Ordinarium,
Platonismus
Jahrhundert
im 13
(Vienna, 1878).
Seprdsentant des christlichen
de la
Eichard
of Middletown
(E. de Mediavia, died
1300) and William
.

Marre,
named

the

In

itself

regarded

as

spat. M.-A.,
The

of

author

here.

by

the
the

violent

following
side

its leader

of

Correctorium

centuries

Thomism

(-iEg.Eomanus,

an

and

Fratris

Thomce,

may

also

he

tained
Augustinian theology proper mainis
Scotism.
of Colonna
^gydius

1247-1316).

Cf.

K.

Werner,

Schol. d.

III.

sharpest opposition
mind

to

Thomism

grew

out

fruitfullystimulating

of

the

in

all

Franciscan

order.

not
Roger
in
in any
of them.
born
He
one
was
appearing in a fixed and definite form
in Oxford
and
Paris, several times
Ilchester,educated
persecutedoft
1214, near
of his occupations and
directed
in the line of
account
were
theories, which
natural
research, protected only for a time by Pope Clement
IV., and died soon
doctrines
His
embodied
in the
after
1292.
are
Opits Majus
(ed. by .lebb,
Lond.
1773), and in the form of extracts in his Opus Minus
(ed. by Brewer,
Lond.
doctrines
(Paris,
1859). Cf. E. Charles, B. B., sa vie, ses ouvrages,
ses
articles on his psychology, theory of knowledge,
1861), and K. Werner, in two
and physics (Vienna, 1879).
The
Johannes
most
important thinker of the Christian Middle
Ages was
of his
His
home
Scotus.
Dmis
and
the
or
(Ireland
Northumberland)
year
about
At
first a scholar and
1270, are not certainly known.
was
birth, which
active
in Oxford, he then
teacher
he was
won
high reputation at Paris, where
in 1308
moved
after 1304, and
to Cologne, where
he died soon
after his arrival
edition of his works
all too
early. The
prepared by his Order
(12 vols.,
is not
that
genuine
Lyons, 1639) contains, besides the genuine writings, much
and
worked
that has been
or
over, and especiallytranscripts of his disputations
Bacon's

"

was

directions, but

Brief

and

Arabian

of the

Survey

Period.

Second

Philosophy

Mediceval

316

of

Philosophy

Jewish

[Part

the

III.

Middle

Ages.
This
of view

period

philosophy,and

of

that

from

than

interesting from

certainly more

is

as

literaryand

yet

competent

no

historical

point

presentation of

been
has complete clearness
Nor
attained
period as a whole has been made.
it the followingare
literature
the
concemiag
from
hut
investigation,
by
yet
to be emphasised :
Philosophical Sects
al Schahrestani, History of Beligious and
Mohammed
A
1850
Halle,
Haarbruoker,
f.);
Schmolders,
Arabs
the
(German by
among
les Ecoles
Phisitr
Documenta
(Bonn, 1836), and Essai
Philosophic Arabum
losophiques chez les Ar. (Paris,1842); Fr. Dieterici, Die Philosophic der Ar. im
zehnten
Jahrhundert
(8 Hefte, Lelps. 1865-76). Cf. also Hammer-Purgstall,
the
as

"

Litteratur.
Gesch. der arabischen
S. Munk,
Melanges de philosophic juive et arabe (Paris,1859), and the same
des Sciences
articles on the individual
author's
philosophers in the Dictionnaire
in
Mnc.
Phil,
Arabian
Art.
Brit.,
Ueberweg,
Philosophiques. [W. Wallace,
Erdmann.

]
(3
Eisler, Vorlesungen uber die judischen Philosopher),des Mittelalters
der Philosophie (_BiesOeschiohte
zur
vols.,Vienna, 1870-84); M.3o'A,Beitrage
histories
of Judaism
lau, 1876). Cf. also Fiirst's Bibliotheca
Judaica, and
by
and
Graetz
Geiger.
civilised Semitic
the philosophy of the two
be which
Close as the relations may
science
Arabian
sustained
their
especiallyowes
to
peoples
religiousinterests,
and
its founders
circumstance
that
its peculiar character
to the
supporters
of the clergy, as in the West, but physifor the most
cians
part, not members
were,
(cf.F. Wiistenfeld, Gesch. der arab. Aerzte und NaturforsCher, Gottingen,
medicine
and
natural
the beginning the study of ancient
from
1840). Thus
of philosophy.
science
hand
with
in hand
that
went
on
Hippocrates and Galen
of the
translated
as much
were
(in part through the medium
Syrian) and read
Arabian
Neo-Platonists.
and
in
the
Heuce
metaphysics
as
were
Plato, Aristotle,
dialectic is always balanced
by natural
philosophy. But well as this was adapted
basis of knowledge
scientific thought a broader
of facts,we
to afford
must
not,
ta
the other hand, overestimate
the independent achievements
of the Arabs
on
medicine
and natural
science.
science
learned
is essentially
Here, too, mediseval
tradition.
The
to the
the Arabs
later able
to deliver
knowledge which
were
had
its origin,in the main, in the books
did even
West
of the Greeks.
Nor
experimental knowledge experience an essential extension
through the Arabs'
work
in
for
and
own
some
mineralogy and
only
fields,
example,
;
chemistry
as,
in some
independent.
parts of medicine, e.g. physiology, do they appear
more
verse,
In their method,
however, in their principlesby which
they apprehend the uniand
in their entire system of philosophical fconoeptions,they stand, so far
information
infiuenoe
the subject reaches, entirelyunder
the combined
as
our
on
M.

of Aristotelianism
it be

can

and

maintained
of

this

Neo-Platonism
that

material.

was

artificially
grafted

into

it, and

after

the

history of
development
temporarily lost.
In

the

From
also

was

the

received

nature

with

which

; and

the

It is rather

as

whole,

Western

of the

is true

same

of

Nor

Jews.

the

disclosed in their appropriation

scientific culture
this whole

the

mind

case

can

it withers

its mission
the

that

civilisation,it

away
is only to

continuity which

strike

true

no

without

give back
the

roots

vital force.

latter

in

part

had

to

itself

appropriation of ancient science in this case

by working backward.
Beginning with the
still current
was
in Syrian tradition, and
which
of its religious colouring, the Arabian
account

case,

gradually
was

the

peculiaritybecomes

the Arabian
upon
short
period of bloom

science
of

completed

Neo-Platonism

national

the

and

on
sympathy
thinkers
better
proceeded to ascend
to the
the
consequence
sources
; but
remained
that they saw
Aristotle
and Plato through the spectaclesof Plotinus
and
Proclus.
During the rule of the Ahassidse an active scientific life prevailed
in Bagdad, stimulated
especially by the Caliph Almamun
at the beginning of
the ninth
the
The
almost
century.
Neo-Platonists, the better commentators,
entire
didactic writings of Aristotle,
and the Bepublic, Laws, and TirruBus of
known
in translations.
Plato, were

Arahian

2.]

Chap.

first

The

Jewish

and

Philosophy.

elucidators

Neo-Platonic
of mediseval

book

of

Aristotle.

about
870, and
teachings from
belongs to
greater importance

(Ibn Sina, 980-1037), whose

Avicenna

medicine

in the

powerful influence
especiallyhis Metaphysics

exercised

died

distinctlyemerging personalities,Alkendi, who

died 950, are
scarcely to be distinguished in

Alfarabi, who
the

West,

well

as

the

the

East, and

extremely numerous
Logic. His doctrine

and

perhaps the nearest

among
pure Aristotelianism, and
of these philosophical views
the extension
But
was

their

becroie
in

his

by

"Canon"
as

317

fundamental
who

also

ings,
philosophical writcomes
nearer
again to

all the

Arabians.

regarded with jealous eyes

lent
orthodoxy, and the scientific movement
experienced so vioby Mohammedan
persecutions in the tenth century that it took refuge in the secret league of
Brothers."
Avicenna
himself
also
"Pure
abovethe
was
persecuted. The
named
the
of the knowledge of
embodied
excellent
league
extremely
compass
the

in

time
in

of treatises

number

with

contrast

(on

Avicenna,

this
to

seem

see

show

which
less,
nevertheabove, Dieterioi),
Neoa
stronger leaning toward

Platonism.
Of
the

scientific

the

of

achievements
of

metaphysics

the

their

opponents

know

we

on

the

hand

one

orthodox

Motekallemin, who, as against the

Aristotelian
and
Neo-Platonic
of Nature
view
as
a
livingwhole, developed an
to a, distorted
resorted
extreme
exaggeration of the sole causality of God, and
Atomism
in the greatest metaphysical embarrassment
the
other
on
hand, in
;
the writings of Algazel (1059-1111, Destructio
there
Philosophorum)
appears
a sceptical and
mystical analysis of philosophy.
These
latter tendencies
the more
the victory in the Orient
won
readily,as the
declined
The
of Mohammedanism
in
that
spiritualexaltation
quickly
quarter.
contintiance
dan
Mohammeof Arabian
science
is to be sought in Andalusia,
where
civilisation
found
its short
after-bloom.
freer
Here, under
conditions,
in turn
bore
a
philosophy developed to vigorous naturalism, which
strongly
strange

Neo-Platonic
A

stamp.

in this philosophy is
of knowledge
exposition of the doctrine
similar
who
died 1138, and
of the Solitary by Avempace,
culminate
died
in
with
Abubacer
an
interesting
thoughts
1185)
(Ibn Tophail,
of natural
with
cal
philosophicomparison
positive religion. ITie latter author's
the
The
sets forth
romance
Living One, the Son of the Waking One, which
all historical
intellectual development of a man
from
a
lonely island, excluded
upon
and social relations, was
translation
as
by Pocock
published in a Latin
before
the
not twenty
PhilosophusAutodidactus
(Oxford, 1671 and 1700,
years
found

characteristic
in

the

Conduct

"

of

appearance

Der

Defoe's

Naturmensch

Crusoe

Sobinson

) and

in

German

translation

as

by Eichhom

(Berlin, 1783).
But
the
Arabian
thinkers
most
was
important and
independent
among
who
1126
in Cordova, was
for a time
born
Averroes,
was
judge, and then
driven
afterward
physician in ordinary to the Caliph, was
by religious persecution
to Morocco, and
died
treated
in 1198.
He
in paraphrases and
longer or
shorter
of Aristotle,
which
commentaries,
were
printed in the older editions
almost
all the didactic writings of Aristotle, who
the
esteemed
as
by him
was
exist now
of truth.
works
Of his own
highest teacher
(Venice, 1553 ; some
Destructionis,
only in the Hebrew
version) the refutation of Algazel, Destructio
is most
ology
theof his treatises
the relation
of philosophy and
important. Two
on
have
been
translation
by M. J. MfiUer
published in German
(Munich,
et VAverroisme
1875). Cf. E. Eenan, Averroes
(-Sded., Paris, 1869).
With
the expulsion of the Arabians
of their philosophical
from
Spain traces
activityare lost.
of the Middle
Je'wish
philosophy
Ages is, in the main, an accompaniment
of the Arabian, and
bala,
it.
The
dependent
only exception to this is the Cabupon
that
sure,

Oriental
and

thought
la

fantastic
later

were

secret

much

mythology

with

go back
attendant

to

Kabbale

upon

doctrine

whose

elaborated,
the

ideas

of

show

fundamental
the

Hellenistic

same

science

outlines, which,
as

period and to the same

mingling of religions. Cf.
German
by Jellinek, Leips.

same

the

(Paris, 1842;
Seligionsphilosophie des Sohar
(Leips.1849). On
works
of Jewish
philosophy were
originallywritten
into Hebrew
until a relativelylate time.

to

peculiar amalgamation

the
in

does

Christian

be
of

cism,
Gnosti-

of
agitated condition
Franck, Systeme de
1844); H. Jo6l, Die
other
hand, the main
lated
Arabic, and not transA.

Mediaeval

318
The

book

Second

Philosophy:

Period.

[Part

(died942), Concerning Religions

of Saadjah Fajjumi

and

III.

phies,
Philoso-

doctrine, is related to the

apology for Jewish
Arabian
earliest
closely to the free-thinking
Aristotelianism, and still more
Mutazilin.
In the
Neo-Platonic
Mohammedan
line
theologians, the so-called
Jew
the
eleventh
of
Avioebron
meet
a
we
Spanish
(Ibn Gebirol,
century), of
and
Latin
versions
Moses
whose
extant.
Fons
are
Maimonides
Vit(B,Hebrew
philosopher of the Middle
(1135-1204)Is regarded as the most important Jewish
In his culture
and
doctrine he belongs to the phase of Arabian
doctrine
Ages.
His
main
which
has
Averroes
its centre.
as
treatise,Guide to the Perplexed
and
French
with
a commentary
{Doctor Perplexorum), has been published in Arabic
by Munk
(3 vols.,Paris, 1856-66) [Eng. tr. by Friedlander, Triibner,
which

aims

The

Lond.].
(Levi ben

furnish

to

attachment

an

to

is still closer

Averroes

Gerson, 1288-1344).
of their widely
Jews, by means

in

the

extended

mercantile

Oriental

philosophy

of

case

Gersonides

the
relations,were
West, by sale
centuries
translation
thirteenth
fourteenth
and
and
especially their
; in the
the medium
for this wide-reaching activity.
schools
in Southern
France
formed
taken
and
Jewish
To
the
Arabian
literature, which
was
by Christian
up
and
science
about
of pseudonymous
1200, belongs finallya number
anonymous
in part perin the latest periods of Neo-Platonism, and
arose
writings, which
haps
of still later date.
totle
were
Among these the principal are the Theology of Arisby Dieterici, Leips. 1882-83),and the Liber de Causis
(Arabic and German
ascribed
(De essentia puree honitatis),an extract from the a-Toix^lioaiifleoXoyiici}
to Proclus, published in Arabic, Latin,
and
German
by O. Bardenhewer
burg
(Freii. B. 1882).
The

chief

contributors

" 25.

with

The

all the

Among

greater
which

or

extension

the

to

Sealm

of

of Nature

philosphers of
less

and

the

the Realm

Middle

of Grace.

Ages

clearness,a livelyfeeling of

forms

in the

find

we

existing,

twofold

the

tion
tradi-

presupposition of their thought. In the

earlier period all knowledge and
it
as
thought had arranged itself,
accord
within
the system of religiousmetaphysicsj
were, of its own
and now
there appeared by the side of this a powerful, finelyarticulated,
coherent
the age, thirstingafter real
body of thought which
in its barren
contents
dialectic,was ready to take up eagerly. The
manifold
relations
between
these
two
mutually laid
systems which
hold upon
another
and interpenetrated,
determine
the scientific
one
character
of the last centuries
of the Middle
Ages, and the general
of the
course
development was, that these antagonisticsystems,
starting from
and
the

attitude

of

abrupt opposition,strove
adjustment, only to diverge all the more
an

seemed

goal

the

to

have

been

reached.

This

toward

ciliation
recon-

violentlyafter

course

of

things

necessarilyin the conception of the reciprocalrelations

of the different
relations
sciences,as in the view of the ultimate
of things. In both lines the attempt at synthesiswas
followed by
all the deeper.
a separationthat went
The
religiousthought of the West, whose
highest problem had
appeared

been

to

Oriental
toward

as

understand

the

working

philosophyin which
knowledge

of

Nature

the

of

divine

grace,

old Grecian
had

at

last

was

confronted

by

tendency
philosophical
attained

metaphysical

The

2, " 25.]

Chap.

the

Hence

1.

in

form

definite

but

still

the

age

of

in

reaction
in the

marked

the

against
East

had

mental

great

up

off its

attacks

been

to

subjected,

revolutions

which

intimate

contact

the

religardently these ions

the more
the sharpness
fought iu the sphere of historical reality,
blunted
from
the point
became
of their contrasting doctrines
of

of view
as

observers

element

behind
the

fields of battle
form

this,every

path of

the

So with

the

thought

of

the

Bacon

and

entire

his

of the

by

sense

of

had

way

own

reached

attain

to

be taken.

must

to the

made

the

the moral

by

the

strippedoff,

was

formed

was

the

above

order
be

ions
relig-

seek

science,and

upon

this

mate
ultilaw.

result, so

influences,designated morality

as

religion.

religion,however,

the

return

of

to

to establish

already

Arabian

universal

the

Arabs

thought,
patristic
^

impulse

religion.^ In

memories,

conviction

between

had

exclusive

originating with

distinction

The

timeless

universal

common

later,under

more

doctrine.

differences,and

religion,founded

scientific natural

This

the

conflict

specialhistorical revelation must

universallyvalid scientific knowledge

universal

in

content

more

of

resist

not

this

of

of this

Abelard

Eoger

could
the

idea

more

passed through

aid of Neo- Platonic

content

As

who

Those

theory.

thinking

common

and

religions.

monotheistic

three

of the

The

had

against positivereligion.

experienced through

Crusades

the

only by

first taken

was

science

as

of the

in consequence

more

science

manner

place not only

philosophicalmovement

the

which

Arabian

taken

had

ascend

to
"

this,however,

In

boundaries in the most

This

appropriation began

consequences,

which

that of Averroism.

was

last

of

process

319

premises.

to the

degrees back

the

of

adoption

the

with

Averroism.

the

here, too, again

and

supremacy

Realms

Two

had

stamped

Philo,

and

verbal-historical

religiousdocuments

of

character

in the

spiritually

here

it

esoteric

current

and

(cf. " 18, 2)

an

upon

became

the

positivereligionis an indispensable need for the mass

of
seeks the real truth back
of the people,while
the man
of science
Averroes
doctrine
in which
a
religion,and seeks it only there,
which
and Maimonides
at one, and
were
completely corresponded to
doctrine

that

"

the social
moved

relations

within

The

court

and

narrow

of

as a chief
appears
of thought between
^

of Arabian

Representing

highly

the
seat

closed

cultured

of this mode

East
this

science.

and

of

For

circles,and

as

and

in

always

foreign growth

Frederick

Hohenstaufen

thought,

science

Arabian

general

of

II.
the

in
Sicilyexchange

West.

opinion,

the

Eternal

Gospel

of

Joachim

of

Floris

was

completed for the entire

among
into the
of Christian
of everything external
dogma, the transformation
compass
valid
all
historical
into
the
the
the
internal,
pneumatic gospel " of
:
timelessly
asserted
here attained
to have
Origen (cf." 18, 2) was
reality,the period of the
"
spirit" to have begun.
circulated

the

Averroistio

Amalrioans.

This

"

'

320

gained

never

Thus

race.
religionof the human
with this thought, Abubacer

in

line

knowledge

humanity,
clearly and in
wrappings, and

of

God,

and

in

is here

reason

people : Averroes,

founder

of this

what

extorted

the

ultimately

the

from

admitted

est,
high-

Man

again at

last with

that

what

he

believed

by

the

cal
histori-

had
its

known

picturate

demand"
of

means

and

it still follows
of

in

revealed
that

in k

ical
philosoph-

self-evident

as

natural

least in their

rilydiffer,at

"

to the

multitude

that

content,

same

him

for

holds

his

made

isolation

contact

doiag discover
thought, is here

so

punishment.
it is hereby
now

have

into

come

abstract
that

in his

attained

had

State of Nature," who

If

as

the

[Part III.

universal

most

and

of the

mass

Aristotle

nevertheless, expresslyhonours

the

the

with

sympathy

true

Period.

Second

Philosophy:

Mediceval

of

reward

religion

they

necessar

truth, that
expression
form
the expression of philosophicalreligion
the conceptionswhich
understood
ers
not
are
by believers,while the picturateideas of believnot regarded as the full truth
are
by philosophers. If,then, by
the
understand
we
exposition of the positivedoctrine of
thecjlogy,
laws
of
religion,arranged and defended
according to the formal
science,i.e. Aristotelian

logic,

and

this

relation

religion

had

taken

of

theology

it follows

"

to

that

common

the

form

the

West

was

in

"

which

the

in the

as

which
true theologically
something may
is not true
and
Thus
is explained that
vice versa.
philosophically,
doctrine
of the twofold truth,^theologicaland philosophical,which

East,

"

be

the

through

went

fix

exactly

the

expression of
opposition of

entire

later

authorship
the

mental

the

two

Middle

of

this

Ages, although

formula.^

It

is the

authorities

under

which

the

Middle

stood, viz.
a

later

Hellenistic

time

it often
of

persecution
cases, the

honest

2. The
and

the

Cf. M.

As

of

the

doctrine

bold

and

formula

can

the

the

Die

it be

of

was,

which

the

with

von

the

; and

while

part, even

discord

in which

peoples accepted

the

in these

justthe

truth

Simon

was

this

antithesis,

expressly proclaimed

Tournay,.or John
rigidlycondemned
by the power
as

at

themselves.

twofold

such

most

inner

found

the

more

Lehre

fixed

for

was

Christian

all the

was

religioustradition

by the
Ages

protect scientific theories from

age

dialecticians

Maywald,

little

it

expression of
of

by

and
to

Church,

science

while

Brescia,

served

minds

important

most

science

adequate

about

necessarilybrought

state

cannot

we

of

of
of

der zweifachen Wahrheit

(Berlin,1871).
the
tended
certainty what
origin of that widely ex-

designatedthe

founders

of

the

three

great positive

of mankind.
religions as the three "deceivers"
Unhistorical, as is every
Enlightenment, the philosophical
opposition of that day could
explain to itself
only by empirical interests the mythical which
could not stand
before comparar
live criticism.

The

2, " 25.]

Chap.

it had

Arabians,

the

been

doctrines

distinctive.

proceeded

Albert

could

theology could
all his

with
become

of

favour

be

of

such

on

duration

good

Christian

the

He

of

the

of

doctrines

the

in

that,therefore,in such

knowledge

to

comes

before

standing

the

decision,

results

Maimonides.

be

of

proved
This

is

or

but

reason,

not

contrary
for

standpoint
if

view

of
in

possible,the

as

the
which

to

reason.

by Thomas,
of that

extent

that

the

of

the

he

"

teries
mys-

nation,
Incar-

corrected

in
"

know

can

within

in which

philosophical

decision

and

itself,
remain

must

revelation
possibilities,

Albert

follows

natural

although

it cannot

Revelation

and
he

is to

is above

revealed
seeks
be

the

mainly

just because

insight.

which

soul

it carries

those

which

natural

any

in existence,

that

human

different

harmonising

taken

found

hand,

is meritorious

by

tion
distinc-

light" (lumine naturali)

that

questions

Faith

established

that
essentially

more,

"

he

Trinity and

"natural

but

antinomy

gives the

the

doctrine

other

finallyvalid

no

that

"

completelyonly that, the principlesof

and

cific
spe-

teaching of the
Philosopher
question concerning the eternityor
He
sought to show that all which

the

theology,

were

to

opposition,

the

the

as

the

alien

philosophy and
he hoped .and laboured
to
might not be allowed

distinction

the world.

of

sight,

and

this

understood

religion,which

out

doctrine

of

ophy,
philos-

Aristotle

religionwhich

consciousness

abandoned

philosophy by
also

nature,

identified,but

He

Church

in

its iu"er

this

important points

is known

in

rational,and, on

made

the

temporal
holds

be

strength that

theology,

can

remain,

put

longer

no

contradiction.

a
"

be

longer

no

of

revealed

and

fact that

influence

his great task.

to

the

the

full

evade

not

321

under

the

With

natural

between

must
of

Albert, Thomas.

could

developed
and

was,

those
precisely
and

Realms

leading minds

the Church, the

as

Two

theology

to

limit

withdrawn

still
from

ing
philosophicalinsightand given into the possessionof faith. Accordthe
fundamental
he
to
thoughts of his system, moreover,

apprehends

this

relation

development, and
possibilitygiven
full

to

and

sees

in

entire

It is therefore

as

man's

natural

highest point, was

far from

or

from

task

an

upon

only by

of

beginnings
sporadicallyin the

its dissolution.

the

the

grace

when

of

is

active

as

has

dogma.

often

tion.
revela-

Scholasticism

this

theology,

been

sented,
repre-

conception

This

science,e.g. to

example, Eaymundus

and

brought

in

Scholasticism,just in

former,

mediaeval

of

stages

which

identifyingphilosophy

times

So, for

different

philosophicalknowledge,

that

unresting comprehension

belongs to the
is found

of

of

endowment,

to notice

important

its

making

relation

accordingly,in

realisation

the

Anselm,
was

LuUus

and

entering

projected

his

all

these

of

other

the

and

the

drawn

was

there

3. Hence

again
it

made
stands

as

only

as

that

but

mysteries
increases

theology
and

more

world

created
this

to

of

and

; and

Occam

which

with

the

longer

Between

of

the

Church

At

Duns

for

immortality of

even

rational

denies

the

theology

was

the

of his

theology
of the

knowledge

beginning

of

the

soul belong

human

wont

trary,
con-

supplementation,
tories
opposing terri-

compass

cogency

head

of

natural

the
the

mately
ulti-

conceived

natural

The

Scotus

who

their

that

two

knowledge,
domain.

natural

continuers

for the
no

occasion
"

theology,and

bridged.

inaccessible

are

; with

more

is

two

mind,

of
to

the

prove

usual
the

of God.

existence

criticism

This

that

and

rational

poverty

in time

sphere

arguments

of

and

extreme

an

the

separation.

of

revelation

into

for him

Hence
between

doctrine,the relation

shrivels

be

not

with

the

of

sons

in

had

doctrine

its

the

distinction

taught that theology should be

practicaldiscipline
; philosophy, on

theory.

pure

of

it could

that

wide

so

the

Church

in

ogy,
theol-

evidently be

philosophy and

cleft between

of

Scotus, who

Duns

treated

and

the

the

of

contents

always kept

was

help

manner,

basis

lies at the

more

faithful

very

were

the

double

Scholasticism

of

confusion

the

guard against
theology."

in

one

of

sharply,the

more

to

broadened

the

with

prove

(libervivus), the

theology

revealed

and

natural

between

to

Nature

time

classical

in the

But

aimed

philosophy,must

of

basis

the

at

of

himself

revelations,of which

two

same.

in

{liberscriptus)and

Bible

the

this,by making
adapted to
Christian
religion.

the

truth

revealed

has

if God

that

Art

the

of

of Sabunde

So, too, later,Eaymond

Lull's

"

unbelievers

"

III.

all truths, will be

possiblea systematicexplanationof
convince

[Part

that

opinion

the

essentiallyin

"

Art

"Great

Period.

Second

Philosophy:

MedioRval

322

is rooted

essentiallyin

the

purpose

to

assure

to

In
completely honest.
had
which
again become
pronounced (see below, 'No. 5) the knowledge of the understanding,
it was
to sense-perception,
bound
seemed
as
incapable of searching
it
just right,and in this purpose
the
with
connection
metaphysical dualism
faith

its

This

wrong-headed,

and

therefore
respects interesting and
of concentric
rings,each
a system
By
into
divided
circular compartments.

yet in many

frequently attempted, discovery, consisted

of

which

bore

group

of

is

concepts

in

between
to be
shifting these rings, all possible combinations
concepts were
a
there was
Thus
brought about, problems given, and their solutions stated.
which
contained
the whole
Figura A (Dei) which
theology, a Figura Animse
contained
aim at the
such
psychology, etc. Mnemo-technic
as
attempts, and
discovery of a universal language, or of a system of symbols for expressing
combinatoria.
to this ars
philosophical thoughts, have frequently been attached
nected
of the
The
introduction
of reckoning by letters is also conalgebraic method
with

these

efforts.

and
l^lato,
and

in the

the

of

two-worlds

the

overcoming

[Part

phenomena,

of

up

mission

of

development,
intended

was

St. Victor

III.

formerly in

as

conception of

the

psychology

gradual building
separation. While

Augustine,

in

theory

Thomist

Period.

fulfilled its historical

ho-wever, Aristotelianism

Now,

Second

Philosophy:

Medioeval

324

had

to

drawn

the
Hugo of
bridge that
midst
of
man's
nature,
dividingline in the created world through the
tween
by emphasising the complete impossibilityof any comparison bethere
soul
substances
the two
brought together,the human
as
to be understood
now
was
just that connecting link, through the
into organic interaction in
worlds
the two
medium
of which
come
the

one

that, in

fact

the

also

material

The

matter.

subsistent

only

themselves

(on

which

the

body,

it is

together

in it to

Form

which

only

of

the

these

the

the

the

way

of

realise

Forms

The

time

selves
realise them-

which
its

nature

and

bound

are

this

unity,and
subsistent

separata

time, as entelechy

same

of

forma

man
hu-

unity is

the

inherent.^

In

beings proceeds from the lowest

of material
Forms
existence,on past plant and animal
life,throiigh
the human
into the world
soul,with uninterrupted contimiity over
the angels,^and finally
of pure intelligences
Form
to the absolute
this

series

same

former.

Forms

sides

substantial

to

characterised

are

intelligences,is

two

relation

(inherent Forms).

matter

pure

mation
transfor-

(formce separatee; called

out
withactive intelligences

as

immortality) and, at
the highest of those

is at the

worlds

Forms

in

their

and

Forms

actual

or

with

absolute

an

of

matter, while

But

matter.

real

are

things.
extraordinarilyacute

immaterial

the

union

its

rests

in

in

an

latter,pure

to

lowest

soul, as
of

Forms)

by

all

doctrine

and

the

attachment

any

result

Aristotelian

the

of

of

development

attains this

Thomas

by

of

course

individual

"

the

"

deity.

The

cleft between

the two

worlds

is closed in Thomism

positionof metaphysical psychology.

closed
5. But it seemed
to the following period that the cleft was
only by being plastered over, as it were, and that the union of so
sistence
heterogeneous attributes as the entelechy of the body and the subof a pure
the conof a load than
ception
more
intelligencewas
this

by

central

individual

of

Scotus,

whose

Aristotelian

essential

'

In

this

the
Form

"

Thomas

even

constructs
the

to

bear.

Hence

Duns

intelligentsoul, which

naturally within the

(inherent) forma corporeir
he too designates as the

of

body

the

is concentrated

the world, which

Aristotle,in

able

was

metaphysics likewise
terminology, introduced

tatis between
"

substance

in

body,
a

moves
an

and

the

conception

the

itself ; and

anthropocentric

way

thus

the

of viewing

Thomism
his

did not overcome.

scale of forms
in the

spiritualworld

according

to

material

Dionysius

the

world
according
Areopagite.

to

The

2, " 25.]

Chap.

Two

Realms

Augustinian and Victorinian

from the physiologicalvital
Occam

sensitive

separation. It

the

little be

ascribed

that

united

sensuous

with

the

for

Thus

him

world,

the

soul

activities

of

the

relation

the

regard

and

ber
num-

of

which

their

to

sciousness
con-

form

into

splitup

this

whose

nature

can

as

is

determine

faculties,to

to

rational

especiallywith
great diflBculties,

occasions

essence

importance

real

the

immaterial

the

body.

individual

of

him

to

it is to behold
of

motion

conscious

re-established.

again

was

and

part,

seems
as

can

vocation

force

the

distinction his Own, but, forced

to
only made
lectual
gradation,analysed the conscious soul into an intel-

not

and

of

separation

325

this

another

insert

Thomas, Scotus, Occam.

spatial

inter-relation.
essential

The

6.

that

and
rated ; and
which

of

from

this

is that

bodies

corporeal

the

these

of

world

ness
conscious-

again completely

become

of

especiallyin Occam's

this is shown

proceeded

in

thing

presuppositionsto

separ

knowledge,

theory
an
cant
extremely signifi-

innovation.
their

In
Thomas

and
the

the

Duns
old

Occam

Greek

the

external

object

existence

idea

the

of

alike

these

soul

knowledge,

of

according
be

of being

to

this

assumed
But

by

{conceptus,intellectio rei) is

view,

in

far

so

having

state

of

it is

as

knowledge

with

or

still another

sensuous

compared
a

doubling

useless

this act

such

as

of

means

object,a copy of
beheld
by the soul.

and

as

as

copy

ations,
vari-

some

by

process,

as
species intelUgibiles

would

with

external

the

apprehended

(in psychicalreality).
its character

knowing

"Eealists,"

two

followed, though

in the

and

is then

reality,which

loses for him

An

out

"
the
speciesintelUgibiles

idea, that

arises,which

strikes

"

Scotus, had

co-operationof

the latter

an

of the

doctrine

an

its

object.
the

act of

(jpassio intentio animoe), and forms in this a sign (signum)

is
for the corresponding external
thing. But this inner structure
it is
the outer
from
reality of which
something of a different nature
semblance
rethe sign, and therefore
it is no
of it. We
can
speak of a
copy
the inner reality (esse
only in so far as in this case
soul

"

"

"

objective
=

content

and
of consciousness)

the

outer

reality[esse for-

of the
objectiverealityin the present sense
word
"objective"^) necessarilyrelate to each other, and, so to speak,
form
correspondingpoints in the two heterogeneous spheres.
idealism
Thus
the beginning of a psychological and epistemological
maliter

or

subjective
=

According to his methodical

multiplicanda.
2 The
terms
"objective" and
a
meaning
exactly the
usage.

principle:

entia

"subjective"
reverse

of

that

prceter necessitatem

in the
which

Middle

they

non

Ages

have

have

in

esse

ingly
accord-

present

develops
and

only

of
(ideoe)
Lastly, Augustine's dualism
than

other

are

7.

in

the

copy,

but

Things
ness
bald-

complete
and

that

of which

of the

each

confronted

historical conditions

The

rigidantithesis.

its

of God

realm

The

state, here
political

the

and

devil,the Church

in

appeared

conception of history.

in his

mind

them.

ideas

our

III.

than

corresponds to it.

which

without

sign for something

is not

former

the

of

world

is another

in

is found

things. What

of

world

[Part

duality

old

the

of

out

consciousness

of

world

the

body:

Terminists

the

among

Period.

Second

Philosophy:

Mediaeval

326

other

this doctrine

changed completely since Augustine's

Ages had not only lacked historical
day. But hitherto the Middle
conceptionswhich would have been adapted to correct this doctrine,
logical
but scientific thought had been
employed in such a one-sidedlytheoand
social problems had
that ethical
and dialectical manner,
reflex,had

the

was

outside

farther

remained

become

And

problems.

at the

yet

philosophers than had physical

ments
time, history was seeing movealso must
science
necessarily

of

horizon

the

same

that
grand dimensions
take
a
positionwith regard to it. If she was able to do this in the
second
completely worthy of the greatness of
period in a manner
her strength for this again to the Aristotelian
the subject,she owed
of mastering in thought
into her hand
system, which
gave the means
of such

the

great

in

arranging
that
the

connected

and

thus

which

she

Arabian

Thomas

In
and

of

regards
of the

had

be

must

so

not

before

gone

as

conceived

right also

above

lies the

most

Albert's

did

falls to

flows

in
from

all human

ment,
develop-

the

of

in which

brilliant

interest

lay

Thomas.

Augustine, as

member

necessary

or

line

here

as

of

this

since

credit

series

mighty import

in

Indeed,

state, not
political

fall,but

the

conceptions the

physics, the chief

the

of

philosophy,^and

view, therefore,law

his

forms

living through.

was

side

these

into

putting

of mediaeval

the

on

of

commentators

achievement
more

metaphysics

her

life,of

historical

politicaland

of

structures

world's

sequence
con-

life.

divine nature

the

institutions

stands

the

morality and the life of society. In

however, as is proved by language,by the need of help
particular,
which
the individual
feels,and by the impulse toward
society,man
destined
is by his nature
for life in a state.
The
end of the state is,
according to Aristotle's teaching,to realise virtue,and from this end
lex

which

naturalis,upon

characteristics

all the
law

begins

"

does

citizens

that

Cf

W.

civic
not

of the

Bight

Natural

"

rest

or

virtue

exhaust

state

Law)
to

man's

Dilthey, EinUitung

are

which

to be
But

"

the

destiny.
in die

ical
developed (in philosophhere the new
thought

and

state

In

should

this he

educate

fulfils

I. 418
Geisteswissenschaften,

its

only his
f.

The

2, " 25.]

Chap.

which

offers

grace

him

exists for the

lower

preparation for

the

be

to

Thus

God.

the
the

to

means

the

of the

side

the

; but

forth

set

two

had

by

Thomas

thought, and

system

widely

reaching union

world

that

has

this the

With
Thomism.
that

Church.

But

as

and

the

the

is

politicalcommunity
higher community of the State
subordinate

is the

teleologyof

of

the

higher,

the

to

the

to

school

Church

of

the

of
the

as

The

complete.

for that

of grace,

assigns him,
The

race.

but the

of

munity
com-

heavenly

"

been

ancient

state is

longer
divine

the

to

one

the

of the

other

in

and

deeply

most

conceptions of

attempted.
structure

which

his

the

as

individual,but

task

the

of the
end

an

the

metaphysical
community of

from

it,not

thought

no

the

fulfils

doctrine

Christian

and

is fitted to

fulfils the
he

The

the

ancient

had

philosophy

teleologyof history (cf."

doing completes

so

the

this transition

but

carrying out

in

Greek

unconnected.

subordinates

ever

man

the

set

remained

capstone

By

which

Nature

out, patristicthought had

worked

21, 6)

the

salvation

througl%the lower,

preparatory

earthly life

of

the

GEATIjE.

PR^AMBULA

state

the

that

the

as

itself

becomes

state

end,

of the

By

of

327

higher destiny is

community

realises

sake

Thomas, Dante.

his

in the

higher everywhere

the

Realms

earthly being

an

as

purpose

Two

an

state
in

in

again

itself,it

is the

Gratia

naturam

world-plan.

into

Nature

positionin

lives

of

universe

only in the
Christianity;

best

for

means

tollit sed

non

perflcit.
8.

But

this

even

politicallife,so
on

form

relation

because
makes

that

also
was

highest synthesis did

in theory,the relation

of subordination

fulfilment

of this

assignsto

the

dotium, the

the

former

sets

the

authority. God has

happiness in like measure
state,by

the

guided by

joy

the

in the

place
two

to

the

in the

see

; and

state

took

Dante

the

man

the
of

cannot

he

former

of

the

the

as

for

to

In

the
this

Eenaissance,

feelingof strength which

think
latter
sacer-

powers

of

heavenly

is conducted

philosophy ;

of revelation.

the

beneath

against each other

for earthly and

the

Empire

where

of subordination

world, characteristic
does

and

monk

over

knowledge
Church, by means

"

great Ghibelline

the

destined

natural

victoriouslyas
state.

But

Dominican

the

imperium

monarchia

"

postulate.

like

secular

With

in

is

state,the

does
as
theocratically,

as

and

of Church

harmonious.

less

As

endure.

long

tion.
already exchanged for that of co-ordinaThe
with
the metaphysician the
thought that
poet shares
man's
destined
end
is to be attained
only in the race, this
mand
dea
perfect unity in politicalorganisation requisite. Both

the universal

the

much

very

not

latter

by
he

the
is

co-ordination
bursts

belongs

forth
to

the

[Part
the

development proceeded. When

line the

along this

And

Period.

Second

Philosophy:

Mediceval

328

in the

severed

III.

graded

midst

of
was
realityconstructed by Thomas
fell
apart, as did the
man's
powers
nature, the spiritualand political
the convenient
spiritualand corporeal worlds ; and the theory afforded
to the
of banishing the sacerdotium
supra-mundane
means
of

scale

nature, and

inner

world

the

latter.

of the
his

the
Nor

temporal

of the

thought

of

human

race

end.

The

one

in social
he

and

In

commune)

Kahl,

W.
und

state

society
in

Lehre

or

ground
back-

who

interests

of

isation
real-

willj
(bonum

prevails.-'

of the Intellect.
bei

Willens

des

realistic
the

for

individuals

the

with

substantial

products

of the Will

Primal

vom

as

as

life,individualism

Primacy

The

Die

and

the side

the

together

sees

life,only

which

accordance

state upon

bound

whole,

Nominalist

theory,as

" 26.

as

of the

theory

historical

and

regards

the

base

to
presuppositions,

from

position upon

longer possible,in

is it any

yet

his

took

power,

view

of

within

controversy between

to the

reference

with

control

sole

into

imperium

preciselythe point

is

Disputatio

and

papacy

This

sense.

in his

Occam,
the

of

the

putting

Duns

Augustinus,

Scotus

Descartes.

with

connection

In closest

all these

psychologicalproblem,which
this

whole

period,

scale,but

whether

will

to the
broad
have

made

in

of

powers

intellect

the

literature

in the

space

been

unfolds

to

or

reference

look

to

upon

with

connection

it

the

soul

the

points of
recognised upon a
It is the question

which

to

partiesof the time may

the more
sharply focussed.

all

the

among

in

the

oppositionbetween
smaller

and

was

general questionsstands a special

discussed
out
throughvigorously
be

the

higher dignity belongs

{utra potentia nobilior). It takes so

of this period that the attempt might
the
psychological antithesis which
as

the

leading

motive

of

the

whole

too
clearlythat
development shows
the
real impelling forces
lay in religiousmetaphysics, and the
phical
distinguishesthe philosorigidityof systematic conception which
of this period explains sufficiently
doctrines
why it is that
their positionwith
reference
individual
to an
problem may appear

period.

But

the

typicalfor the
that this problem
as

of

course

different
is

the

thinkers.

question taken

It

from

still remains
the

domain

characteristic
of

the

inner

"world.
1

This

doctrine

of Occam's

concerning secular power

the omnipotence
of the
whose
Marsilius
of Padua,
treatise, Defensor Pacts
rigorous lines the attempt to establish the theory of the
to the

and

extreme

nominalistic

consequence

basis,

of

and

law

state

by

is followed
Occam's

(1346), carries
state

upon

out

friend,
out

in

the utilitarian

Will and

2, " 26.]

Chap.

question,Also,the

this

In

and

tinianism

Intellect :

Thomism, Scotism.

two

main

Aristotelianism,were

not

that

here in nowise
the

questionwas

the

oneness

and

the

of
in

bodies
at

stated.

general awkwardly
in the

inter-relation

of

personalitywas

the

different

tradition,Augus-

; but

one

outspoken opposition.

an

of nature

of

their

Bor

relation

was

Augustinianism

Por

in this

system
strongly emphasised,

so

sides

329

of

its

activitywas

so

prominent, that a relation of rank in the proper sense

was
reallyout of the question. But on the other hand, especiallyin his
doctrine of knowledge, Augustine had
assigned to the will as the
in the
of ideation
even
a
impelling power
position
process
made

often

"

central

so

"

it

that

the

though

facts,even
maintained

the

as

intellectualism

the

Arabian

in

findingat
its

as

which

this

its side

were

life the

question
decision

of

adapted
that concerned

it from

Thus

enough

the

antitheses

break

to

to

the

as

the

upon

forth

to

itself

pre-eminence

that the

the

Now,

will, is

have
case

dialectic

able

if it had
or

to

lect
intel-

do

that

of the

was

fore
there-

of

psychology
mental
ment
developthis in

always

not

the

to

It

greater.

higher

been

ferred
trans-

domain.

metaphysical

: but
responsibility
meanings to the word.

cases,

Thomas

or

this

admits

general he regards

the

man's

defend
was

an

affirmation
only upon motion, but also upon
he recognises absolutelysuch
particular,
an
in

of the

ideas, or

upon

the

been

to maintain

interest of

in individual

and

of the fact
principallyin consequence
always involves ethical and
freedom, which
looked
the point in controversy.
as
upon

parties,indeed,desired
different

or

so

occurred

conception of
religiousquestions, was
in the

will

the

of

Occamists,

Dominicans

the

beginnings of a treatment
especiallywith the history of

ground

Mysticism,

German

of the

will's decisions

upon

to further

unconditionally,

mands
purely psychological controversy, and deof the psychical
in the course
point,whether

of the

ideas

related

nearly

opposition between
general expression.
to the

first

latter transfer

Both

Aristotle

Augustinians, Scotists,and

(cf." 24), and it would

degree than was
actuallythe

But

received

the

as

dependence

movements

In

contrary, the

quite undoubted,

Averroism.

soon

the

case

the

finds

develops at
a

in this

grouped,

Franciscans

1, The

not

the

was

had

point,also, followed

opponents

thus

that,as

gave

system

increase, it

any

On

development.

philosophy, especiallyfrom

Thomism

This

its

controversy.

open

the

importance for empirical

contemplation of. the deity was

Aristotelian

presented themselves

and

of

goal

if it still admitted

and

in

Neo-Platonic

final

of

shaken

not

was

"

freedom

possibleonly
influence
or

will, quite according

the

of

of

denial

influence
to

as

in
the

"

they
will,
ideas.

belief.
ancient

Medimval

330

Second

Philosophy:

Period.

[Part

in.

by knowledge of the good. The intellect not

model, as determined
only apprehends in general the idea of the good, but also,in each
is good, and
individual
thereby determines the
case, discerns what
is known
to be
necessarilystrives for that which
the intellect.
The
latter is
dependent upon
good ; it is therefore
of the psychical life ;
the
said
motor
so
rationality,"
supremus
will.

The

will

"

also, is

Eckhart

the

of

head

the

soul,

and

romantic

even

love

(as ethical ideal)

{"Minne") clings only to knowledge. Freedom
exists upon
is hence, according to Thomas, that necessitywhich
the
basis of knowledge, and, on the other
hand, (psychological)freedom
is nevertheless
of choice (facuUas electiva)
only possibleby reason
of the

fact

that

as

which

the

understanding presents
its

toward

means

is known

to be

"

will

then

held

various

deciding
Albert

by

with

connection

in

intellectualistic determinism,

view

the

best,

will

the

end,

to the

which

sibilities
pos-

for

also.

that
This

Thomas

self
him-

always insisted that the decision of the will depends only upon
extended
was
by his contemporary
purely internal krtowing activities,
the
to the
sensuous
Gottfried,of Fontaine
point of making even
of the will's activity.
presentation (phantasma) the causa
efficiens
the

But

couception

of

still later

had

entangled
ideas.

But

with

being

otherwise

one

in this

"

it

to the

of

process
there

Nature

is

be

exercises

no

preserved only

activityof the will

of its choice.
possibilities
the decision

remains

the

occasioningcause

the

doctrine

intellect.
a

matter

the
as

ideas, so

Scotus,and
becomes

avoidably
un-

over

always

will.

But

this

only

The

idea

master.

be

indispensable in
the

the

that

To

will

in

contingency,
Eesponsibilitycan

it presents
it does

determined

With

ground.

the

will's functions

its
as

is

the

intellect
the

sure,
the

case

objects and
the
never

operation
co-

of

the

servant, and
more

than

{causaper accidens)of the individual volition;

Thomas
confuses
practicalconsideration with pure
If the latter gives the object,the decision
is still solely
of the will; the will is the movens
per se; to it belongs
of

Indeterminism,
that

with

is

in the

acknowledged

facultyis
:

this

self-determination.

absolute

will

if it is

power

every

Duns
will

choice.

no

however,

ideational

him
the

contrary ")

therefore

the

and

process,

also falls to the

responsibility

of

rising of

The
after

with

completely dependent upon

of
Scotus, contingency {i.e.
possibility

prevails

compelling

in connection

if it is to be

power

for the

; where

way

natural

this, said
or

is irreconcilable

just

already taught, and

is

Occam,

attack

determination.

necessary

of Ghent

Henry

their

made

opponents

as

fundamental
a

matter

of

Scotus
power
fact

and
of

the will

Occam

teach

the soul, and

on

it,sees

therefore

maintains

its side determines

in the

conversely,
the

develop-

MedicBval

332

imperfection and

dependence
influence

strong

in

similar

of
originality

the

intellect in the
antitheses
and

of

essence

contrary Avicebron, who

Duns

had

world

God

Scotus,

III.

ercised
ex-

defended

the

created

was

in his creative

and
in the

continued

now

were

[Part

by the divine will,

tained
of Auvergne had mainthought William
the will as existingside by side with the

of

line

Period.

the

; on

upon

the

religiousprinciplethat
and

Second

Philosophy:

activity. These

controversy between

Thomism

Scotism.

indeed,

Thomas,
the

divine

divine

as

will,but

he

and
intellect,

only what

creates

regards

it

ideal

the

as

necessary

he

content

the

by

of the

be

latter.

knows

to

of

intellect,that

his

realityof

consequence

in its content

his wisdom

himself, i.e. the

recognises the

course,

determined

as

in

of

matter

God

sarily
; it is neces-

good

forms

the

objectof his will ; he necessarilywills himself, and in this consists

the freedom, determined
vidual
only by himself, with which he wills indithings. Thus the divine will is bound to the divine wisdom,
which
is superiorto it.
But
just in this the opponents of Aquinas see a limitation of
omnipotence which does not comport with the conception of the
A

realissimum.

ens

for

it

kind

no

of

world, according

might
and

have

are

no

be

must

the

by

will of

when

; and

asked
a

fact which
3.

The

fundamental

the

moral

and

fixed

be

the

the

good.

God

God
God

even

"

as

this

commands

has

might

divine

garment
For

reality,and

willed
have

fixed

the

content

of

goodness
teaches

and
"

the

the

instance

On

sides

both

But

command.

God's

it is

good because

; Scotus

lightin

to

comes

maintains

Occam

something else,might
of

the

essential

also

is

For

festation
mani-

and

says

nature

have

law.

moral

consequence

Eckhart

good,

that it is

it, and

commanded

persettas boni, the

morals
intellectualism,

indifferentioe,

every

ethics.

necessary

wisdom,

tions
quesmade

necessary.

the

and

is the

in

tive
crea-

decision

arbitrium

antithesis

wisdom

will,

further

no

the

as

its liberum

good by his

as

veiled ; intellectualism
the

grounds,

of

the

of

all

uuderstood

opposite as
Thomas, therefore,goodness
even

is
the

created

its undetermined

creates
given possibilities,

that

recognised

to this that

with

metaphysical principlesof
is naturally regarded
as

law

God

completely undetermined

God

of

being with

cannot

good only because

adds

to its

as

finite

teaches

is

will of

sharpest formulation

the

Thomas

this his

original fact

placed before

new

beyond
The

is the

restriction.

or

if there

sovereign,only

absolute
Scotus, solelyfrom
arbitrarywill ; he
it,if he had so willed, in other forms, relations,

to

causes.

resolves

them

to

seems

determination

created

conditions

there

will

that

of

neath
"be-

God

is

rationaXtyof

discipline
philosophical

Intellect :

Will and

2, " 26.]

Chap.

principlesare to
^) is
(synteresis

whose

"

Scotiis and

Occam,

is determined

d'Ailly

Pierre

sin;

by

have

might
but

with
the

only

divine

doctrine
a
anything such,
reflect that, according to the

ratione

to

than

of

it is ; it

Nothing,
in

which

prohibition

these

the

when

God's

men,

so

itself,or

is understood

range

view

With

object of

an

will.

and

only through

man

be

science
Con-

"

honi.

consistency,is

whose

"

333

light."

otherwise

command

make

known

sub

been

extreme

se,

becomes

natural

by groundless

per

we

"

contrary, the good cajinot

reason,

teaches

it is

for it

not

known

by the
knowledge of God

the

on

knowledge,

natural

be

Thomism, Scotism.

mouth

mand
com-

of

the

Church.

closely connected

It is also
still

Thomas

opponents,
"

remained
has

as

been

of Middletown

that

theology

that

while

deals

will:

4. The
in the

doctrines

blessedness.

majesty,
formed

free

the

ideal had

The

ancient

from

will

ideal

been

he

as

is

made

he

is

the

this vision

On

This

is for

word

eo

which

this

vision

of

God,

which

him

the

goal

of

ipso the love

the

that

of

man,

in

the

divine

the

visio divinoe

is removed

of

God, just as

every

since

so

life

dianoetie

essentim,

beyond

striving.

all human

lier
ear-

intel-

highest stage

(written also sinderesis, scinderesis) has,

stadt, occasioned

Aristotelian

thought

this

of the

doctrines

in the

the

this account

divine

and

glorifiedman,

is the

of

in eternal
the

of

Thomas, too, sets

account

between

distinctness

participationin

The

divine

Augustine's teaching

in

by

Albert

by knowledge

on
practical,

follows

little

support

new

with

attains

temporal,

but

like

of his state

and

pardoned

the

consequence

contemplation

want, had

is intellect.

intuitive,eternal

that

the

waver

accordance

reach.

can

from

taught

separation

with

man,

fact

experience,

or

necessary

of

destiny

it found

man

virtues above
the

to

truly man,

being which
which

of

sort,

the

had

authority of
the

his

of this

Bacon

reason

disclosed

dcwpia,the

and

state

Now

in
lectualism,

final

of the

Mystics.
far

becomes

contrast

on

fixed
it

with

emphasised

Eoger

the

Scotus

same

intimations

for

(" 25, 3), a "practical

had

its foundation

completed and
theology and philosophy by making
his metaphysics of the will.
Duns

above

based

are

theology, which

science, became

emotions

sciences
for

that

"

Bonaventura

the

with

has

this

speculative

and

all other

theology alone

with

already indicated
had already made

discipline.Albert

Richard

"

all

From

determinate

Albert

of

BoU-

Since, however,
etymological cudgelling
a
the later
as
rijpijo-is
among
physicians of antiquity (Sext. Emp.)
appears
technical
is attested
term
for "observation," it may
be that
awTip-na-n, which
in the fourth
in analogy with
century, originally signified "self-observation"
the Neo-Platonic
and
thus
took
in
or
(cf.
ffunoio-flTjo-is
(n/Ke/Srjo-is
234),
usage
p.
on

the

ethico-

of

much

religioussense

of "conscience"

brains.

(coTsscientia).

necessarilyattached

of the -will is

state

Meanwhile

and

love,

second

the

"love."

by

in

and

he

the

appeals to

is

with

of

is

Christ,he
is identical

decided

will,and

cal
polemi-

that, too, of

last

man's

glorification,
contemplation,

superior to

Apostle, "The

of the

word

the

sees

love, which

in

regarded

contemplation

of

; he

point also.
angel choir by

imitation

the

this

state

alone

God

contemplation,but

in

not

toward

directed

the will

is

blessedness

that

most

Beatrice

Bonaventura

Scotus, however, taught

Duns

tendency

state

this

on

supreme

while

; and

wisdom

contemplation as the highest stage

emphasised expressly the fact that
with

the

characterised

had

St. Victor

of

Hugo

its force

manifests

counter-current

corresponding
was
given its

III.

of this ideal,for all time.

poetic embodiment

the

the

to

[Part

poet of the system.

the

expressionby Dante,

beautiful

Period.

of Thomism

tendency

this

Just

intellect.

of the

Second

Philosophy:

Mediaeval

334

greatest of these is

love."
Hence

will,

Thomas

as

decisive

the

as

Thomas

hold

could

according
bilis,
with

and
forced

the

to

"

of divine

will

of
"

is to

grace

the

On

extreme

that

So

the

great

other

hand,

only
he

he

Thomas
the

his

through

halted.

of the

symbol.
1

the

Cf.

S.

But

the

while

Denifle

in

the

and

be

dogma
tendency is

Arehiv

fur

view
of

with

ff.

Albert.

So

in

the

con-

beyond his
originalpersonality
and
mighty
deep
far

by

on

of the

his inner

which

before
world

given in

also
being made
his pious faith

the
to a

of
spirituality
external, temporal

the pure

only

one

that

Litterat.-

u.

far,therefore, as Eckhart
was
really to he
in Thomas
speculation," this speculation had its source
417

founder, Eckhart,

urged

sublimates

as

develops its

restrictions

capable

he

the

thus

the

in contrast

Church

this

more

strict

of predestination.

doctrine

Order

goes

much

that

highest knowledge,

upon

his

to translate

must

and

of

statutory

Convinced

speculativeknowledge,
this he looks

as

with

Augustine,

Eckhart

piety into knowledge,

religious consciousness

content

that

in his effort

breaks

had

respect

one

is unwearied

feeling of
nature

in the

himself

found

of Thomas

teacher

entirely dependent upon

ceptionaloutlines of his doctrine.^

master

of

Mysticism, whose

the

lect
intel-

reception of the operation

will
the
free
conditioned
by

intellectualism

is

nature,

the

successor

in German

consequences

the

gratia irresisti-

Scotus

against the Augustinian

the

man's

the
irresistibly

Duns

certain extent

logicalconsistency,decided
5.

while

man,

of
of the

determines

synergistic view,

individual.

of the

revelation

Scotus

Duns

element

Augustine's doctrine

fast to

it the

intellect,and

determining

and

which

to

the

regarded

the

with

he shares

KuU.-Gesch.
the

d.

"Father

Aquinas

and

many

M.-A., II.
of German
his teacher

Will and

Chap.

2, " 26.]

other

systems, it is
and

inmost

rather

is to

doctrine
and

he

so

be

from

down

conceptions constructed
marks

that

the

and
of

modes

for

But

in

had
to the

one, and

all that

of

into God
The

is

ideal

Nicolaus

last

takes

process

existence

than

of

its

of

language

philosophical
fluence
in-

determining

of

and

the

by

and

is in its

the

world

self-revelation,

the

of

and

of

knowledge,

of

all

that

made

higher

is real

this doctrine

corporeal

existence

deepest

at

so

"

of

of Scotus

knowledge

forth

"

are

essence

of

God

return

of

things

higher

intuition.

out

later

Eckhart's

which

ism,
ideal-

medium

Being

of

intellectualistic

Neo-Platonic

the

through

world

procedure

who

the

him

place in the

The

Cusanus,

is truer

impressive preaching,
of

mystical

logical consequence.

knowledge,

into

were

intensified

become

process.

process

combined

probably reached

Erigena,

knowing

the

teaching

of Thomism

which

religious

future.

his

elements

believes

of

mastery

which

circle,

simple piety,
people the finest

the

beginnings

"

He

the

with

Scholasticism
the

exclusive

an

essence

pulpit among

his nation

have

to

psople.

connection

expression, beginnings

for the

all

With

wish

not

deepest

science.

he coins

genius

creates

this

for

the

by

does

it to

preciselyin

found

he

335

privilegeof

communicate

to

throws

the

as

right understanding

the

that

kept

Uckhart.

peculiaritythat

truth

truest

desires

but

his

Intellect

time
his

in

appears

is

said

own

"

and

space

time.
The

of

original ground

beyond Being

all

things, the

therefore

deity,must

lie

and

knowledge ; it is above reason, above Being ; it

has no
determination
But this
or
deity
quality,it is Nothing."
reveals
itself
in
the
triune
and
the
God,^
(of negative theology)
God

who

Ideas
This

is and

he

knows

of

is

nothing

; for this

self-revelation

word

of

out

himself

timeless

the

creates

within

of

process

it is hence
sense

knows

belongs

necessity,and

required

for

to

to

creatures

whose

is his

creating.

knowing
the
act

no

God

the

of

essence

of

will

produce

the

in

the

in

German
the

the

that
"

the
'

fast

with
the
Mysticism is thus connected
seized
which
increasing extemalisation

thirteenth

and

fourteenth

lay outside
Evidently

the

Iv and

vods,a relation

The

the

distinction

lectioally
by
versals

the

and

Gilbert

centuries

drove

The
"

actual

only

produced

as

general phenomenon,

more

upon

proper

Nature

"

deity;

world.

the

un-natured
deity,as productive or generative essence, as
[or Nature that has not yet taken on a nature],is real or
by knowing and unfolding itself in God and the world

that

"

"

"

the

life of the

Church

into

piety everywhere

paths

Church.

same

relation

between
de

its relations

that

deity

la Porrfie
to

subsisted

in which

the

and

in

connection

doctrine

in the

system

thought and Being

God
{divinitasand
of the

with

the

Trinity.

of Plotinus

were

held

deus)

was

controversy

between

to

coincide.

made
over

diauni-

Philosophy:

Medimval

336

nus

that

"

Nature.^

natured

reality,as
to

Eckhart,

as

they

say,

all

things

have

The

and

essence,
the

possesses
active

variety of
of

member

as

it is
"

"

or

powers

as

"

and

nothing.^
of

time

with

That

naturata.

natura

them

nature

in

"

far

so

here

"

is

inmost

faculties

"

in

appears

phenomenon

as

Cusa-

in

only

Thomas),

its

in

III.

hand, according

time, their

and
with

et nunc

only

the

else

in space

"

other

substance

or

soul,also,is therefore

human

divine

on

[Part

said I^icolaus

"

the

whatever

phenomena, their determination

"now"
und
Nu," hie
{"Hie
"

And

essence

God

themselves

are

all

creates

is all.

he

is to

God

Period.

Second

the

that

which

inmost

it

it is

essence

Spark," and in this he recognises the living

point at which the world-processbegins its return.
the
For
to
the
"Becoming"
corresponds the reverse
process,
the
disappearing. And
"Anti-becoming" {" Entwerden")
this,
Eckhart

the

calls

"

too, is

the

which

knowledge

been

have

into

of

act

by

external

made

the

original Ground.
finds again its true

of

means

the

to

deity
by man

are

known

By being

which

the

things

taken

back

the

world

of

Hence
human
spiritualnature.
tion,
cogniwith
its ascent
from
to
rational
sense
perception
insight,*
consists
in the
elimination
tiplicity;
mulAbscheiden
of
and
plurality
("
")
the spiritual
is freed
from
its enveloping husks.
essence
And
this is man's
highest task in the temporal life,since knowledge
sense

"

"

is the

most

active

in

valuable
this

itself and

world,

"inner

above

the
of

"

in

which

"

of

into

knowing

constrained

by

above

indeed

should

rational

all outer

be
to

nature

assert

the

action,above

also

eousness
right-

first
sphere
sense,
disposition,purity of heart, and

belongs

the

to

of

retirement

its inmost

of

complete

withdrawal

essence,

into

purposelessness

that

freedom

within

stands

"

decease

"

or

that

end,

an

his

bring

soul,the

it reaches

He

powers.

thus

stands

turn

poverty
world

outer

and

work," cleanness

this

heit)and

man's

gain control,but
of works

the

of

the

of

{Abgeschiederir
of the soul from

deity.

action,that

in
itself,

which

the act

In

action
its

not

beauty

consists.
But

this is not

even

perfect so

find its consummation.

not

On

the

brought

terms

into

natura

goal

and

naturans

by Averroism

use

long

The

as

the

knowing

of all life is the

natura

(cf." 27, 1), of.

which

naturata,
H.

process

does

knowledge of

were

Siebeck, Archiv

probably
f. Oesch. d.

Fhil., III. 370 ft.

2

Accordingly without

Thomistic

Erigena.

doctrine
He

of

accepting the dialectical formulas,

of the strict
quite in the sense

Ideas

speaks

slightinglyof

the

Nominalists

of

Eckhart
Realism

his

time

treats
of
as

the

Scotus
"little

masters."
*

Also

The

the

"

Gemuthe"

singlestages

Thomistic-Augustinian

or

of

Synteresis.

this process
scheme.

are

developed by

Eckhart

according

to the

God,

but

with

that

be

which

that

his

begets
nature

the

works

in

of

ignorantia,it
is the

"

the

own

stripped

and

has

effaced
when

Nicolaus

is known

love

by

" 27.
The

doctrine

of

The

and

of

in

the

presence

of

which

his

reality,
appears

sin

as

ancient

Oriental

inherent

in the

the

from

the

time

subsistence

which

had

when

in

universalistic

the

connection

all the

thought

with

increased

the

which

had

universals

form

the

"

also,the

took

in the

in

the

in the

case

that

becomes
it

evident

appeared
in

was

itself

party maintained
will.

the

of

was

of the

the
sarily
neces-

of existence

in

controversy

real and

more

ingly,
Accord-

antithesis

same

dialectic

selfthis

intellectualism

the

was

became

metaphysical

of

the

individual

counter-current

and

ideal

an

world,

form

the

the

felt in

into

Eckhart,

increase

led to the

need

(cf.p. 287)

it thus

other

on
a
(cf.p. 289) now
the
to
ground
question as
beings {jprincipiumindividuationis)

over

state

from

contradictiou

doctrine

powerfully,

more

the

whatever

the

the

it

(charitas),

arisen

been

contest

to

of

postulate

had

of Master

individual,while

tendency

evoked
of

to that

which

God,

love

no

eternal

is the

particular,every

intellectualism,in

the

of

palpable, and

necessarily inclined

of

is

thought

immediately

is

; God

pure

life in

Aiigustinian system

Augustine

self-subsistence as

motives

of the

depths

of

this

It

by knowledge.

imperfection, as
In

Neo-Platonic

always

alone

or

view.

fullydeveloped and
that

that

; and

man

This

this not-

through

eternal

renunciation

everything

is

Individuality.

Mysticism,

exaltation, of self-denial,of

that

in

deepest personal piety and from a genuine individual

life whose
a
out
religionwas
purely internal,thus runs
of

deity is

Nicolaus

God

his

loved

Problem

German

of

ends

and

the

reality,so

distinction.

said,it is

(amore)

by

off all its powers

man

of Cusa

all

act

soul,

their

its

as

only sin
acquired

contemplation.

is the

the

has

supra-rationalknowing

which

blessed

most

within

essence

time,

of

all

Being

it must

not

knowledge

later called

was

individual,it

"Spark"

in this

originalground

highest, the

state,of which

of

knowing

of

God,

reneunce

stripofE
phenomena

must

docta

of

act

an

It

know

must

apprehended only

is the

knowing
longer

"

would

It

it is

Nothing

"

also.

all present

so

not-knowing

itself.

be

itself

soul

337

of life and

community

the

If

to

but

and

Nothing,"

; it is

Being

cease

world,

knowledge,

of Individuality.

is known.

it must

the

as

is

knowing

God,

and

"

Prohlem

2, " 27.]

Chap.

ical
metaphys-

in individual

1.

The

stimulus
to which

the

Arabians.

for this

was

universalism
For

the

furnished
and

Arabians,

by

the

quences
far-reaching conse-

intellectualism
in

interpreting

had
the

led

among

Aristotelian

338

Medioeval

Second

Philosophy:

Period.

proceeded in the direction -which had

antiquityby Strato (cf.p. 179 f.);and which among
had been maintained
chieflyby Alexander
direction

This

that

was

the system of the

from

concentrated

the

and

world,

is conceived
that

to

it,and

time

Averroes,

the

Aristotelian

it realises

in

above

could

of God

shows, only
But

will.

the

of

the

the

for

the

other

hand,

realitya

within

itself,and

moving

Form

Averroes^

of
be

In

the

as

of

The

regarded

was

actuated

by unity

from

the

one

the

on

forth

by

its termination

The

transcendence
of

created

demands

Forms.

separated

All-being appeared on
(natura naturans),and

which

by

Avicehron

divine

the

philosopher,proceeding
that

with

the exception

be

universe

matter

as

to

than
as
thought of otherwise
the
accordingly even
spiritualForms
in which
they inhere, and that finally

the

realm

same

fast

by

matter

called

Jewish

same

held

doctrine

itself

the

finds

mover.

as

this

could

matter

of

entire

of

to

phy
philoso-

At

processes,

insisted
presuppositions,

being

Andalusian

the

Forms

first

regarded

were

same

system

God

Matter.

must

of

this view,

matter, that

be

in

Form,

and

with

living community

basis

lower

highest

deity,no

for their

need

of

faculties.

other

movement

every

series

united

the

relation

in its movement.

graded

if matter

with

connected

itself

the

be

from

realisation

to

the

as

on

itself

principlethat
of

God,

and

Form

regards particularcosmic

and

higher Form,

the

effort had

It
metaphysically self-subsistent.
is merely abstractly possible,
but
as
livinggerms the Forms
peculiar

which

within

them

as

out

to

remove

ical
metaphys-

This

the

upon

reason

matter
that

as

bears

brings

the

fain
of

sensuous.

this connection

make

to

of, not

which

as

of

find in

tendency

that

the

points :

conceptions of

Aristotelian

general,we

In

two

and

mentators
com-

Aphrodisias.

would

last traces

the

later

of the Arabian
trine
Peripateticdocpeculiarnature
this took place by complicated transformations

the

developed,and
of the

upon

upon

lines

these

both

ideal

the

which

naturalism,

Stagiriteeven

separationbetween
become

of

the
of

III.

introduced

been

system, had
in

[Part

other

hand

less could

life,the
thus

Form

as

as

in

the

matter,

as

the

the

divine

same

moving

and

as

motion

eternally in

it realiter,
and
hand

matter

however,

more,
as

of

single

moved

force

world

(natura naturata).
This

doctrine

with

informed within, and

with
of

the

Averroism

philosophy
of

consequences

God,

as

the

ens

of

regard
is

to

matter, that

eternally in

as

an

Aristotle.

extremely
It

dialectical Realism

generalissimum,is

things are

but

the

more

motion

or

now

it is

nature, is

of itself,became

naturalistic
became

in

one

tended
ex-

interpretation

reinforced

by

those

compelled the view that

dividual
only substance, and that in-

which
the

less transient

Forms

in

which

340

on

agens,

the

contrary, as

and

independent

the

universal

of

the

of

them,

arises

in

truths

"

dividuals
empiricalin-

eternal

generic

the

life,and

tains
con-

It is the substance

for all.

valid

of

reason

which

perishes,and

nor

manner

intellectual

truly

is the

III.

[Part

from

existing apart

Form

neither

race, which

the human

Period.

Philosophy: Second

Mediceval

knowing .activityof

of it. This
special manifestation
(actual)
in its content,
knowing activity (as intellectus acquisitus)is indeed
in its essence,
son
eternal, since in so far it is just the active reaitself ; on the contrary, as
empirical function of an individual
the

is but

individual

knowing

it is

process,

completest

The

the

transitory as

as

incarnation

of

active

the

individual

soul

itself.

has, accordingto

reason

rational
Man's
knowing is,
given in Aristotle.^
then, an impersonal or supra-personalfunction : it is the individual's
This latter is
temporal participationin the eternal generic reason.
valuable
ties
activithe unitarj'
which
realises itself in the most
essence
of personality.

Averroes,

been

Intimations

of this

of !N"eo-Platonie
as

Mysticism

Averroism

about
the

at

this

with

period in

doctrine

1200

; the

are.

first

Dominicans

earlier

an

extended

when

Peripatetic thought
the

at

and

outspoken

an

and

Aristotle

Albert

and

against the Averroists.

Pan-psychism encounters

named

doctrines

erroneous

it is

himself

Thomas

Arabian
effort

of

confused

being

write

of

tion
conjunc-

the

main

one

train

side

in

of

from

both

the

by

it appears

the

literature ;

Western

everywhere

condemned,

protect

doctrine.

two

the

are

to

in

pan-psychism occasionallyappear

De

Unitate

Intellectus
3.

in which

the

value

of

determining
personality,
"

This

by Augustine.
William
this

of

Auvergne

is also the

the

Eealism

their

but

reason

which

in the

Avicenna's
also

and

feeling of

the

feeling which
standpoint from
Ghent
main

Eckhart's

to

an

the

Henry of
why the

come

thinkers

Christian

factor is the

inherent

was

to

is the

with

contrast

metaphysics
here

was

in

oppose

systems

Mysticism

the

had

been

which

ished
nour-

like

men

And

Averroes.
of
"

Scholasticism
did

not

complete development.

allow

bases

intellectualistic

difiicult case, for it maintained

more

sition
oppophysical
meta-

of

Thomism

ing
indeed, follow-

formula

(cf.p. 299), that universals, and therefore

the genus
vidual
soul," exist only individualised,"i.e. in the indiempirical examples as their universal
essence
(quidditas),
"

it ascribed

divine

mind.

with

is

real

in diametrical

"

with

And

"

to

in the
them, nevertheless,metaphysical priority

It

was

this the

therefore

unconditional

justifiedby
theoretically

Averroes.

obliged to explain

recognition of

the

how

authority of

it comes

the

Stagirite

2, " 27.] Problem

Chap.

this

that

about

and

iNDiviDUATiONis,
is

time

universal

as

essence

one

forms.

such manifold

and

of Individuality: Thomism, Scotism.

That

is to say,

found

it in the

matter

it asked

itself

presents

after

the

consideration

341
in

pkincipium

that

in

matter

quantitativelydetermined

{materia signata). In
to assume
the capacityof matter
quantitativedifferences consists the
of individuation, i.e. the possibility
that
the same
Form
possibility
space

is actual

(e.g.humanity)
vid\ialsubstances.

is,there

angel

is

is but
and

Forms,

on

the

spiteof

its subsistence

This

view

opposed

then,

individual

in

of

their

its relation

to

the

shows

of

mind

of

the

and

the

on

by being

other

the

individual

belongs

in

examples,

in

and

space

time

and

of

hand

by

it teaches
the

series

the

particular,and

Form

that

intellectual

even

that

the

is

of,

means

it is

that
this

point

notice

to

come

"

soul

"

On

in

in

the

universal,by maintaining

the

the

on

this

hand,

one

the

Arabian

universal

is

descending

Forms

This

Forms.

energetically Duns

more

ultimately by

(hcecceitas)

soul,

inherent

and

evidently not

that
of

individual

self-subsistingrealities.

teaches

emphasises

Reality

with

relation

substantialised.

had

It

religious and

only after,and by
had
taught, but

Thomas

as

whose

(materia primo-prima) quite in

realised

to

Scotus

and

which

its author.

of matter

still

and

Ghent,

body,

discord

strongest manner,
unity

inherent

general metaphysics,

as

separate

substantialised

definite

of

in

regarded

are

alreadyin itself individualised

Scotism

in many

first the

thought,
extension

matter,

and

also

intimate

following Avicebron,

own

individualised

not

in

developed

distinction

Scotus, maintained,
have

actual

Franciscans,

their

general,

They rejected the

Bonaventura, Henry
Forms

had

consistent

beings

the

by

In

Augustine's teaching.
with

ratee
(sepa-

presents.

was

metaphysical psychology
and

The

soul

differences

quantitative

Forms

pure

time.

same

human

(ef.p. 324), are

the

matter

the

indi-

as

only through themselves

;
Every
corresponds to them.

at the

which

to

contrary,

with

their

which

individual

an

genus

which

examples

or

Thomas,

to

individualised

example

one

accordance

instances

Hence, according

subsistentes)are

sive
that

in different

individual

only

from

Form

versal
uni-

the

definite

the

of

means

sense,

actual

is therefore

for

Duns
is

ground
sense
as

of

the

deduced
fact.

Scotus

an

permissible.

individual

He

substance

and

contingent (contingens)
;
from
For

inquiryfor

universal

is the

"

principleof
last

"

Form

no

in that

that

ground,

him, therefore, as
the

farther

question as
designates individuality (both

original fact;

but

for his

is, as
is

all

individual

that

only

to

which
be

has

reality,by

no

means

occurrence)

verified

as

to

the

which

be

actual

Bacon,

meaning
of

its
the

in

is not

predecessor Roger

individuation
of

of

to

the
vidual
indi-

alone

universal
of

the

the
"

that

fact

the

exists,and

matter

only Reality, one

being

still

can

[Part
in

question rather is,how,

individual

the

Period.

Second

Philosophy:

Medicev.al

342

with

speak

of

Reality

presence

determined

its

of

III.

form

is

universal

natures."^
From

becomes
Francis

explicablethat
of

while

doctrine

the

its

of

some

adherents,

it to

proceeded from

Mayron,

of

limitation

noteworthy

this

of
as

for

Scotus

example

Realism,

extreme

it

it suddenly

into the
renewal
Occam
of the nominalistic
changed with
thesis,that only the individual is real and that the universal is but
a
product of comparative thought.
victorious
4. The
experienced in
development which Nominalism
the second period of mediaeval
philosophy rests upon an extremely
of thought. In the
of very different motives
peculiarcombination

depths

this

of

seeks

which
feeling,

moment

of

secured

to

current

the

knowledge,

individual

the

just becoming

matical
the

Byzantine

William

in

of
the

value
the

metaphysical value
the main
philosophical
Aristotelian
theory of

proper
in
the

itself,throwing its

asserts

of

"first

surface

substance"

plays

to

the

logico-gramoperationof

origin in the first

ancient
thought.^ All these influences
impassioned,impressive personalityof
has

its

of Occam.

their

"

"

is

Augustinian

expositionof the doctrine of concepts and its application

of "modern"
the judgment and
logic,
syllogism,the text-books
that of Petrus
tant
Hispanus may serve, lay an importype of which
which
emphasis upon the theory of
supposition in a manner
its precedent in antiquity.*According to this theory
not without
In

as

which

tradition

concentrated

become

to

toward

schematism,

the

known,

conceding the
empiricalindividual only ; and on

influence

see

personality;
tendency of

anti-Platonic
now

to

the

is dominant

development

of

stream

class-concept

term

(terminus)may,

in

language, and, as was

then supposed, in logic also,stand
and a
for the sum
of its species,
of all its individual
species-conceptfor the sum
examples (homoomnes
homines), so that in the operations of thought a term is
inalism
Occam
employed as a sign for that which it means.
develops Noma

in the

or

forms

of this Terminism*

(cf.pp.

325

f). Individual

This
method
for the solution of the problem of universals, peculiar to Duns
Scotus, is usually called Formalism.
2 In
Psellos the
fact,we may see in the working of the text-hook of Michael
first impetus of that accession
of ancient
the West
which
material
of culture
of Byzantium,
became
received
and
Renaissance
later in the
which
by way
with
the two
by
other
the one
definitelyunited
lines of tradition
that came,
of Rome
and
York, the other by way of Bagdad and Cordova.
way
" The
on
reader need
of the investigations
of Philodemus
only be reminded
signs and designations (p. 162 ; cf. also p. 199).
*
in the Sitz.-Ber. der Munch.
Cf. K. Prantl
Acad., 1864, II. a 58 ff.

Problem

2, " 27.]

Chap.

things,to which

Occam, following Scotus,

originalForms,

only

have

They

with

This

designated.

any

sign

is that

of

as

relation

ideas

individual

little

as

for

stand

these

"

second

refers

word
idea

the

of

also that

real

the

"

science

by

knowledge
serve

themselves.

The

laus

at

Cusanus

what

the

idea

it has

Nominalism

the

which

with

in

the

of

turn

idea.

This

according

this distinction

the former

help

arbitraryor

relates

Occam

relates

diately
immethe

abstractlyto

refers

an

things, but

carried

out

inner

puts it.

presupposes

the

of

that

even

ideas,which

different

thought

of

the

from

things
Nico-

states
As

with

committed

only

terministic

which

contrasted
who

knows

"

world,

into

in

presented

clear

world

are

Cusanus,

Nicolaus

material

incidentallysaid, and

knowledge

to the

also

it is also

inner

had

real world

science

empirical

Albert

so

"

things, teaches

ideas

general

the

rational

only
of

itself;its

within

so, in

things,

"

as

but primarilyto
thing itself,

science,but

"

later time

now

the

latter

to the

signs

mind

with

of

essence

as

object

But

of

science

this,that

this real

"

the

larity
simi-

ideas.

apprehends

reasons,

connection

to

resentations
rep-

real

for the individual

general

rational

is bound

and

of ideas

indeed

may

of real and

have

words

longer natural, but

no

clear,according

form

"real"

the

relations between

immanent

"

written

or

intuitivelyto things, the

or

It is

is

thing,

and

undetermined

"

of

things represented.

necessarilylike

liking (ad placilum instituta)}Upon

to one's
rests

in which

longer directlyto

no

the

mental

first intention."

stand

general ideas,may

intention,"

is

Reality

or

(supponunt) individual

thought,speech, and writing,the

abstract knowledge, or the spoken
express

"

the

Meas

them,

to

343

without
intuitively,

us

these

signs for

reference

necessary

them

"

natural

"

concedes

thought by

speciesintelligibiles
; but

only the

are

in

represented

are

of

mediation

the

Terminism.
:
of Individuality

its

living

the

true

himself

absolutelyto this idealistic Nominalism, human

thought possesses
that is,only modes
of representationwhich
spond
correonly conjectures,
to

its

own

nature, and

the

positive predicates,the knowledge

ignorantia,is

of this

knowledge
of

this

relativity of

non-knowledge,

the

all

docta

the

only way to go beyond rational science and attain

to the inexpressible,
signless, immediate
community of knowledge
with true Being, the deity.
5. In spite of this far-reaching epistemologicalrestriction,the
real vital energy
of Nominalism
directed
toward
the developwas
ment
of natural science ; and if its results during the fourteenth
and
fifteenth centuries

The

agreement

been asserted
is obvious.

also

remained

of this with
in

the

very

the

ancient

limited,the

contrast

between

philosophy

of

essential

64"ns

and

reason

for this

which
tpia-is,

had

language (Plato'sCralylus),

Mediceval

344

that

was

the scholastic

which
later

had

well

as

ideas

new

into

forced

Eenaissance.

impetus
beside

the

the

and

itself

itself

of

with

originalindividual

be

known,

as

fact ; and

point

the

who

Bacon,

with

the

books

how

experiment,

and

are

had

things, from

and

independence

only by

the

individual

the

to

value

gave
of

his

called

the

science

sources,

his side

worth

proof

research.

to

be

the

"

the

of

of

in

Roger

his time

dialectic

in this movement

thought

of

original
his

to

was

But

from

of

in

upon

it

world.

influence

line

fact,

Iioecceitas

real science

the

same

brilliant

being
"

actual

to

place

verification

under

At

the

actual

to

the

opinions

to Nature.

supported

knew

but

of

apprehension

all his energy

Albert,Who

Dominicans,

declared

its

actual

that

meant

the

essentially

designated the

Scotus

of

consciousness

contingent, this

as

been

of concrete,

definite

more

Duns

Franciscans

to

science

thereby pointing out

was

experience,from

stood

of

he

two

frorn. authorities
to

Occam

immediate

the

this

When

Form,

when

truly Eeal,
to

and

by logical deduction,

not

way

secular

more

empiricism.

or

alone

again

hitherto

had

nomenon,
phe-

the chief

gave

philosophy, taking

which

the

"

Occam

and

that

freely,
philosophy

the

into

Scotus

interests

metaphysics whose

placed

the basis

in

unfold

absolutely

and

science,

not

far

continues

movement

religious,made

could

form

all that. Duns

For

to

this

which

moreover,

prosecutionof

the

earlier

as

of authorities,

perfection,controlled

full

attained

now

[Part ILL

discussion

its bookish

with

method

Period.

Second

Philosophy:

the

among

observation

botanical

studies

But

strongly as Eoger
Bacon, following Arabian
models, urged quantitativedeterminations
in observation, and
mathematical
not
yet
training,the time was
research.
Alexander
of
ripe for natural
Attempts like those
Nekkam
(about 1200), or those of Nicolaus
d'Autricuria, at a later
time
effect.
(about 1350), passed away without
fruitful
The
development of empiricism during this period was
the influence
of the Arabs,
only in the line of psychology. Under
and
of the physiologicalopticsof Alhacen,
especiallyof Avicenna
investigationsconcerning the psychical life took on a tendency
directed

more

toward

This

had

pupil,Johann
in

establishingand arranging the facts of experience.

been
of
Alexander
begun even
Hales, by his
by
of Beauvais, and
Eochelle,by Vincent
especially

in the

and

by Albert;
Sereshel,

of

the

own

system

first half

of

of Alfred
the

the

Englishman

thirteenth

century)

(Alfredde
we

find

purely physiologicalpsychology with all its radical consequences.

These
stirringsof a physiologicalempiricism would, however, have
been repressed by the metaphysical
psychology of Thomism, if they
had
held

not

found

fast

to

their

the

support

in

experience which

the

Augustinian influence, which

personality

has

as
of itself,

its

2, " 27.] Problem

Chap.

of Individuality: Nieolaus
attitude

highestprinciple.In this
in opposition to
forward
in

which

of the

that

became

remarkable

"real

the

Augustinian

Pierre

as

Middle

Ages

the

life
the

at

intellect,he

of

time

doctrine

it

as

of

appeared
Hence

d'Ailly.

the

regarded

was

"

real

"

secular

and

the

of

"

in

the

as

empirical consideration

the

nominalistic
"

science
human

science

in

life than

of

the

6.

died

divided

The

Ages found
thought and

broke

the

of

Nieolaus

to Nature

inter-relations
Occam
of

relations,in

and

richer,

also

which

of

in

an

Nicolas

path.

mind

in

the

which

departing

Middle

the

which

Cusanus,

in every

time, he

nevertheless

his

thoughts

new

fact of

original presuppositions of its

these
beginnings of a new,
experientiallyvigorous
nowhere
a
more
osophy
lively expression than in the phil-

Seized
the

frame

social

itself,between

research,finds
of

1382,

the

ality.
person-

Mystics
departing

the

"

of

tion
connec-

certain

most

human

"

science

of
self-certainty

among

to active

allied itself rather

d'Oresme,^ who

from

opposed by Roger

was

beginnings
of
not
only in the theories
societyare found
Marsilius
of Padua
(cf.p. 328), not only in the rise
inward
more
writing of history, but
living,and more

and

feeling,the

same

intellectualistic Thomism,

self-knowledge

science," even

such

of

experience.
ensued, that purely theoretical

result

oppositionto

This

of

states

inner

and

outer

in

developed

value,particularly
feeling. Just in this

the admixture
of metaphysical
insight and without
in
view, distinctlyapprehended the difference

of

principlebetween
the

the

it d^sive

emancipated
the

of

sharply

clear

points

with

that

will and

Bacon, who, with

Thus

thus

formulated

gave

empirical apprehension

the

point, in
theory of

He

inner

the

345

Henry of Ohent, especially,

came

Thomism.

experience and
investigationof the

standpointof

Ousanus.

fibre of
could

in

the

is

of

capable

his

being by

the

give up

not

of

system

fresh

impulse

of

of arranging

purpose

conception

old

the

tations.
interpre-

many

so

the

of

the

world.

This
which

attempt acquires a heightened

furnished

thoughts.
in

the

divine

Cf

he

which

which

end

thoroughly systematic
the
is

finite.

limited

possibilityas

ooncerning

this

To

essence.

and
infinite

that

indefinite

in

him

W.

All

within

infinite.

Roscher,

antiquity
In

the

the

the
had
and

to

the

conceptions
arrange

his

individual,even

with

the

most

employs

Nieolaus

way,

itself

from

undertook

The

first time, in

be

forms

leading motive is to show that

metaphysical separateness, is identical

his

of the

the

interest

for

versal,
unithe

conceptions
perfect to
regarded only
philosophy,

related
held
had

Alexandrian

the

Zeitschr. /. Staatswissenschaft,186.3,.305 ff.

Mediceval

346

the

on

had

been

thought

additional
as

that

was,

will

more

Being

and

the

in

even

first to

the essential

by treatinginfinityas
antithesis

the

to

required

world.

well

as

absolute

same

presents
In

identity of
of
mystical view

the

by

is

Being

contained

the

given

was

infinite

is

the

farther

living

and

antithesis

the

the

divine

all
of

actual

main

is felt

"

the

earlier

also

de^is

Thomas

world

of

that

this

into

plurality.

which

in the

plurality
"

also that

of

different
the

harmonised

realised

are

of

as

united
the

side

in

the

and

opposites.
elements,
of

another

infinitude

while
(possest,can-is),
is real

possible,and

the

God,

those

time

same

unitary

{maximum)

the

important.

most

the
the

in

infinite and

explicituspoured

greatest

and

and

In consequence

implicitusis

into
at

of

and
finite,

of his

finite ; in each

deus

forth

him

between

at

the

plurality(cf.p.

the'

also

time

same

designates his own

doctrine,in contrast witli opposing
oppositornm, since it aims to do justiceto all motives
Cf. the

expressed

heing, i.e. that

regarded as an

tems,
sys-

the

same

of

in

Falckenberg, op. cit.,pp. 60 fi.

thought as follows : God is the only necessary

passages

which

exists by virtue of its own

nature
(a thought which is to be
embodiment
of Anselm's
ontological argument, cf ; " 2.3,2), while

of

all

existence

in

that the

the

the

coincidentia

philosophy.

case

appear

phenomena

is the

Nioolaus
as

in

God

infinite is at

in

the

God

ipso

eo

is,those

plurality,

time

290).

world,
by the

as

in

in

unity of all opposites,the coinis, therefore,the absolute

realityin

oppositions which

manifestations
same

of God

is the

He

him.

world, "that

this union

the

God,

the

the

that

finite entities is in itself only

many

the

and

unity

God

nature.

only through

Among
the

world

thing by

one

adjustedand

possibilitiesare

the

divided

appears

possible as

means

oppositorum,}

which

and

world

become

must

cidentia

each

finite

this

only by

of

the

eternal

in

space,

with

of unity

"

in

God

which
infinitely,

What

from

of

individual

formulation

Cusanus

finite

in

Here

characteristic

unity
extended
as
plurality. But
appears
lays specialweight on this point is

the

itself in finite forms.

this

The

of

of

in Christian

knowledge

the

The

naturalistic,received, therefore, the

or

also

is

power

perience
quiet striving,and that this infinityof inner exexalted to a metaphysical principle. But Nicolaus was
of negative theology its positiveexpression
give the method

was

and

all finite attributes.

account

on

boundless.

as

will

the

of

III

restless,never

the

and

more

motive

the

as

[Part

all-forming

itself ; and

it discloses

well

as

power,

the

as

intensity of

in which

Period.

stripped

was

"One"

unlimited

provided with an
infinityof matter
the

the

Plotinus

In

thought

highest being

the

contrary,

Second

Philosophy:

creatures,
such

essence

(or quidditas

that the former

way
to it as realisation. The
a

latter is added
fundamental
Aristotelian conceptions, actus

and

"

is reallyseparate
-wha{,ness)

is in

itself

relation

of

merely possible and

this

doctrine

potentia, is obvious.

to the

PART

Versuch

Brdmann,

der

vols.
Kuno

Leips.

tr. of Vol.

[Eng.

RENAISSANCE.

pts., in 6 vols.

and

Riga

der

Prineipien

der

Oeschichte

der

Darstellung

Leips. 1834-53.
Philosophie.

neueren

1845.
der

Creschichte

Fischer,

der

3d

Philosophie.

neueren

I.,Descartes

Zeller, Geschichte

Ed.

Kritik

und

THE

wissenschaftUchen

einer

Philosophie.

neueren

Ulrici, Creschichte

H.

OF

PHILOSOPHY

THE

J. E.

IV.

and

School, by

His

deutschen

Philosophie

ed., Munich,

J. P.

Gordy,

N.Y.
2d

Leibniz.

seit

1880

ff.

1877.]

ed., Berlin,

1875.

R.

Geschichte

Windelband,

W.

Geschichte

Falckenberg,

J.

Schaller, Geschichte

J.

Baumanu,

Die

F.

Lehren

Mnglander

der
F.

Naturphilosophie

Berlin,

und

Jodl, Geschichte

Zeit

Baum,

von

Geschichte

Vorlander,

1868

1886.

1878-80.

[Eng.

tr.

by

2 vols.

seit Bacon.

und

Malhematik

in

philosophischen Moral-, Bechts-,

der

Ethik

Marburg,
in

Leips. 1841-44.
der

losophie.
Phi-

neueren

f.

Franzosen.
der

Philosophie. Leips.

neueren

Leips.

1893.]

der

2 vols.

2 vols.

Philosophie.

neueren

der

N.Y.

C. Armstrong,

A.

der

der

Philosophie.

neueren

Staatslehre

und

1855.
2

vols.

Stuttgart,

1882-89.
B.

Punjer, Geschichte
2 vols.

tion.

Christian

Hastie,

der

christlichen

Philosophy
Edin.

and

antitheses

at the

show

time

in theoretical

civilisation
which

for

swelling
wrested
of

modern

Thus

of

movement

its way

by

here

to the

the

and

make

form

thousand
the

Philosophy.

seit

der

Beforma-

I., History of the

to

Kant, by

W.

the
of

that

surface, and

of

had

intellectual
there to

2 vols.

Chicago, 1892.]
in mediaeval

philosophy
have
a more
general significance
; they
self-conscious strengthening of secular

years

victorymakes

Vol.

Beformation

their appearance

its close

side

the

of

tr.

1887.]

which
of

[Eng.

of Beligion from

N.Y.

History of Modern
{B.'E.BvLit,
The

Beligionsphilosophie

1880-83.

Braunschweig,

the

Church.

the

accompanied

life

among

the

stronger potency,

in the

The

centuries

the essential

of

undercurrent,

religiousmain

Western
now

actuallyforced

transition

characteristic

peoples,

for the

its

slowly

beginning

times.

gradually developing

and
."!4S

constantly progressing, modern

Philosophy of the

it

in which,

mediseral

itself from

science freed

into

came

being

the

bursts

mind

the

itself

the

by
is

of

band

encircled

empire

the
into

in the

asunder

breaks

in

past

in

of

The

religion.

Church,
into the

organisation

world.

But

in in

of

been

begun

was

is -not

of

scientific life in addition

Oxford
the

had

Franciscan

Prague,
wealth

of

art

the

of

able

stripoff
in

the

the

free

itself

forms

of

shaped

find

we

at the

the

in its best

its

learned
out

of

its

such

for

Eenaissance

achievements

rigid

it

by

loses
the

centuries

Just

by

had

religions
creeds.
of

centres

While
of

seat

finallythe

developing
the

extension

an

its inner
with

expand

individual

free

and

time, by

connection

its

as

this

life of

of

of

Italy,

tradition,and

set

What

own

Germany,

same

outer

Vienna, Heidelberg,

first
of

once

all the

scientific

number

that, following

from

the

growing rapidly.

also

was

Protestant

But

at

the

sects, which

Christian

the

academies
of

it in

contact

between

importance

an

movement

fetters

philosophy in
becomes

won

the

by

printing,literarylife gained
to

life of

broken.

was

that

Paris

numerous

widely ramifying
was

belief

accident
to

vital forces.

the

following

of

summit

the

had

Mysticism

of

the

fact

centres

new

oppositions.

controversy

universities

new

for

Crusades

opposition,now

then

independent
the

already

at

the

the

matter

in

various

of confessional

Paris

Christianity.

became

organisation, wakened

religious
of

age

completed by

now

It

in the

cities

stirred

dominance

definitive

and

complete

the

tration
concen-

and

life of

Church

secularisation

external

and

itself first in the

indispensable for

religious feeling,and

however,

unitary

world.

showed

splittinginto

this

fanaticism

world-

wealth

Rome

faith, which

the

the

civilisation,Latin

educated

other

was

of

with

passionand

means,

which

process

connection

depths
the

the

the

had

announces

of
the

worked.

the

trated,
concen-

deliverance, to degenerate again

victorious

to

rose

the

time

Western

details

history

epoch

new

of

place

modern

primitivevigour

also, and

of

of

against

the

had

over

inwardness

in revolt

risen

already

the

and

Wittenberg, Geneva, London,

multifold

was

which

life ; the

this process

mastery

with

realm

of

process

the

life

and

time,

Thus

centres

language

lost its sole

Rome

of

Ages

Middle

religiousdomain

In the
that

sole

mediaeval

natural

controlling

be the

to

ceases

the

be

to

cease

the

which

with

of

which

takes

variety of decentralisation

hand

intricate

vigorous development

intellectual

the

the

For

nations.
of

349

entirety^began.

tradition

the

awakening

in

progress

common

of

hand

life in its

(lapidare) unity

tense

and

views,

went

modern
activitywith which
life begins everywhere with
the

Renaissance.

their

invention
and

such

impulse,
the

it

schools,

unconstrained

personalities.So

corporate character,
deed

of

of

individuals

and
; it

350

Philosophyof the

seeks

its
and

time,

have

involved

became

to have

unclear

first,still

the

at

and

outlived

been

the

"world

real

and

externallymore

of

two-thousand-year-oldforms

The

of

extent

[Part

in

more

of

its

the

IV.

own

garb

of

languages.
science

this way

In

broad

itself

presents

national

modern

the

in

sources

Renaissance.

in
the

for

life seemed

intellectual

unusable.

novelty

filled

become

search

powerful fermentation.

to

passionate,and
all minds, and

But, in
imagination gained the mastery of the movement.
with
connection
this,the whole
multiplicityof interests of secular
the powerful development
themselves
in philosophy,
life asserted
the extension
of political
life,the rich increase in outward
civilisation,
civilisation
of European
over
foreign parts of the world, and
excited

"

world-joy of newly awakened

of new
content
brought with
pre-eminentlysubjectto no

least the

not

living wealth
became

them

rather

took

raised

itself
of

ideal
The
the

all

above

into

up

them

for its

knowledge

scientific

theoretical
and

the
of

spiritis

the

and

ophy
philos-

interests,but

passing

work

of

was

subordination

The

that

these

in this consists

thought, which

Greek

spirit with

with

free

result

of

one

this fresh

of

time

to the

knowing,

sake.

of the purely
Renaissance,"

"

to the

own

birth

new

it the

itself,and

again

And

art.

also

decisive

its

of

kinship of

importance

for its

ethical,and
practical,
religiouslife which had prevailed in the whole
philosophy of the
Hellenistic-Roman
more
period and of the Middle
Ages, decreased
at the beginning of the modern
and more
period,and knowledge of
end
of scientific research.
realityappeared again as the absolute
Just as at the beginnings of Greek
thought, so now, this theoretical
development.

turned

impulse
modern

its

attention

which

mind,

had

to

ends

meaning

true

of

essentiallyto

natural

into

the

taken

up

itself

The

science.

of

achievements

from
the beginning
antiquityand of the Middle
Ages, appears
having attained a stronger self-consciousness,
internalised,and
as
having penetrated deeper into its own
nature, in comparison

later
as
as

with

ancient

the

intellectual
of

mind.

'activity

Nature.
this

toward

The

end,

and

But
the

was

whole
in

true

as

this

return

to

philosophyof
this

is,its

direction

independent

disinterested

the
it

first

tion
concep-

pressed

Renaissance
achieved

its

greatest

results.

Feeling such
modern
spiritin
upon

by

the

oldest.

the humanistic

Greek

relationship in its
its passionate search
The

philosophywere

tradition.

But

from

the

the

in violent

point

of

view

new

seized

up, and

the

oppositionto
of

the

impulse,
at

first

philosophy brought

eagerlytaken

was

revived

for

of ancient

knowledge

movement

fundamental

the

whole

out

systems of

the mediaeval
movement

of

the Renaissance.

Philosophy of
this

history

of
rich

own

the

of

the

main
of

mode

into

the

regard

while

and

civilisation

which

their

of

systems

inner

the

the

of the

world,

which

natural

to

science

the

forms

of

all

important

the

adoption

daughter of
^

In

this

of

tlie

respect

Nature.
leads

which

thoughts
cludes
in-

period

gradually

the

these

from

physical
meta-

great

philosophical

the

for

it

radically

and
this

which

the

upon

stimulus

Modern

philosophy.

work

took

according

place,
to

prove

proceeding
science

natural

in.

process

out

complete,

became

the

worked

manism
Hu-

knowledge

new

in

For
of

movement

its fulfilment

found

whole.

connected

and
in

be

from
is

the

Humanism.

And

of

Angelo,
classical
Goethe

through

of

course

that

to

of

reanimation

Nature

dependent

Greek

of

which

in

research

of I

history
show

second

intimately

in

manner

thought
points

exactly parallel
Raphael, Michael
the

the

But

the/(
Grecian'

earlier

of

haps
per-

contains

the

The

new.

established

became

may

centuries

shifting

priately
appronatural

genuine
for

the

century.

demand

ultimately

of

following

and

most

in

urgent

which

principles.

motive

same

the

we

periods

two

natural

modern

form

impelling
is

these

seventeenth

the

periods

two

for

independence,

these

the

two

interest

that

merely

the

that

in

from

falls,therefore,
and

in

science

out

period

by

rich

made

of

beginnings

conquered

The

is

preparation
the

tradition

view

of

It

first of

The

natural

worked

between

literary activity,

philosophical point

by

line

is therefore

the

gradually

humanistic

extremely

in

and

the

1600.

mediaeval

which

philosophy.

boundary

year

of

supplanting

As

period.

thought,

periods,

two

is

Greek

of

in

sub-

itself.

for

Renaissance

process

the

its

investigation

the

to

the

into

thought

from

turned

back

in this

itself
in

master

paths

the

of

to

science

wider

world

the

By Jjving

vigour

and

the

of

history

renewal

full

new

spirit/ which

ability

equipped,

philosophy

regarding

humanistic

science

the

of

history

The
the

open

there

the

gained

instinctive

the

but

as

modern

vigour.

youthful

with

world

the

of

thus

inner

to

Nature,

it

life, and

outer

tility of

its

ideas

Greek

work

true

attained

bath

Castalian
world

the

for

preparation

itself

antiquity presents

to

return

351

art.

development
The

line

which

of

Rembrandt,
Titian, Diirer, and
and
forms
to
independent
for
is likewise
proof that

Greece.

in

science
leads

from

the

passes
immediate
us

Renaissance

Giotto

moderns

to

ran

Leonardo,

gradually from
apprehension
the

way

to

I.

CHAPTER

Burckhardt,

Jac.

Civilisation

IThe
1878

and

Benaissance

continuity

for

completely new,
and

has

time

no

attempts
and

do

of the

multiform

in this

process

until

not

became
The

the

the

stream
and

of

thought

Renaissance,
a

began

continuation

than

this turbulent

once

its
the

philosophy
dissolution,and

the

the

352

of

which

goal

It

was

fermentation

clarified.

opposition

the

was

which

by

the
the

so

way
course

far

the

of

was

Greek

of

fifteenth century.

In

val
mediae-

conception.

process

re-birth of classical
of that

the whole

original works

Byzantium

completion

closely,

and

IVfiddle Ages,

the

in the

direction.

that

toward

clear

stronglydiverted

previous

so-called

and

known

of

movement
of

more

in

tious
ambi-

so

look

of ancient

mixture

this

from

and

we

evident

longing

century that

to be

only

not

society,been felt
passionatelyas then,

yet, if

bounds

obscure

in

something

of

adventurous,
And

in

as

by the grotesque
the
are
grandiloquence which

the

premonition

flowed

which

from

state

so

naive

in

for

want

of

deceived, either

inherited

culture

Rome,

whole

this.

be

within

ferment

fallinginto
which

the

on

seventeenth

essential

already
thinkers

of

did

to

strives

complete, and

between

the

transformation,

many,

1866.

remarkably

so

literature,it becomes

goes

object rather

an

by

so

as

ourselves
or

day

has

radical

also in the

at innovation

traditions,and
is

and

experienced

self-consciousness
order

nowhere

perhaps

vol.,Mainz,

spiritualdevelopment

expressed so variously and

allow

not

total

and

itself

time

life,but

intellectual

vigorously

intellectual

no

3d

pts. in 7 vols.,1875-86.]

Italy.

in

manifests
At

Renaissance.

and

in the

humanity

European

the

Beformationsseit. 2ded.,

der

Mittelalters.

des

Philosophie

der

The

[J. A. Symonds,

the

Lond.

Middlemon,

1890.

Stookl, Geschichte

The

C.

G.

ed., Leips. 1886.

1887.

Leips.

so

S.

by

Tr.

Benaissance.

the

of

4th

in Italien.

Menaissance

Die philosophische Weltanschauung

Carrifere,

Mor.

A.

der

Cultur

Die

PEEIOD.

HUMANISTIC

THE

new

Florence

of Western

humanistic

antiquity,appears as
powerful process of appropri-

Chap/i.]

HumaniBtic
the

presentedby

ation

Middle

Ages (cf.pp.
retracing in reverse

in
process consisted
of thought, it now

Greek

known

becoming

The

at first in

out

the fresh

wit

this

of

to

were

lonians

and

transmitted

humanistic

leadershipof
leading mind
form
nearer

of the
the

the

to

progress

intrenched

itself

continuation

But

when

Augustine,

influence

of

however,
traditions which

while

in

the

German
united

of the

philosophyof

the

the

in

the

it

the

people,

in

thrown

Church.

of

addition
all the

vigorous in
to stifle it.

in

the
the

remained

in consequence

the

and

was

the

philosophical

branch

Church,
toward

thought

observed

into

Reformed

fruitful

by
the

between

under

Thomism,

antagonism

with

and

warfare

the

assault

originalform
to

these

widely

dencies,
ten-

ramified

itself

in

the

efficient for

the

(cf." 26, 5), maintained

to become

in vain

"

Protestants,Augustine

In

of

again.

life of

of

tendency

their

to

ent
religiouslyindiffer-

the

Lutheran

ent
differ-

held

Nature

controversy

against

were

Mysticism,
in

future, more

sought

violent

prevailed.

system

need
religious

that

Church,

Humanism,

Aristotelian

erudition

dogmas

Protestant

into

cosmology,

heathenism

"

bulwark
the

of

divided

of

either

open

in

Among

N"eo-Platonists

Greek

lived

was

the

Plato-

were

vigour. Scepticism

new

sition
oppo-

interpreters. There,

of

conception

equally

an

was

the Jesuits.
"

the

with

firmly behind

Ages.
in

dogma,

Church

more

doctrines

movement

together

doctrines

Catholic

ancient

ment
refine-

this

another, according

philosophicalEclecticism

engaged

even

rose

tions
assumpmonastic

the

There

again

the

thought, with
with

called

be

one

to

as

for its aids

itself.

were

England.

stiffness of

time

of

ticism,
Scholas-

against

taken

life-lovingrace,

the

older

and

of ancient

better

of

Pythagoreans;

and

this

Middle

tasteless

in turn,

another

or

against Christian

more

would

part

Epicurus

popular

and

spread

regards method,

; as

conceptions

the

of

the

directed

was

restoration

nature

reawakened

and

Democritus

The

wonderful

most

one

the

While

to-day,

opposition to

metaphysics

from

vigorously combating

attachment

or

Greek

Aristotelians,who,

groups,

mixed

essentiallyall

as

Germany, France,

an

for the

were

the

ment
move-

is accessible

of

cultivated
artistically
swift victory.
a
divided
within
oppositionwas

nists,who

too,

the

with

won

there

if this

and

ancient

originals,and

opposition

deduction

imaginative

and

But

in

regards form, against

and

the

order

movement

also

of
interpretations

as

Latin

310 f.);
ff.,

which

Greek

Italy, then

againstauthoritative

of

the

this
regardssubject-matter,

mediaeval

264

end, inasmueh

literature

of

culture,called

humanistic

As

353

known.

became

now

its

reached

originalancient

of the

Period.

its life than

the

Church

Philosophyof the

354
The

which

new

of

movement

had

conflicts
with

begun

philosophy,viz.

mediaeval

of

various

in these
which

[Part

IV.

was

Duns

the

separar

philosophy established
philosophy from theology. The more
by the side of theology as an independent secular science,the

of

tion

itself

its

more

peculiartask

shall
The

natural

be

had

their

"

Weltanschauung,
of

had

which

philosophy

as

been

the

thought

these, however,

of

consecLuence

art of life.

and

theory

time.

of

anthropocentric character

in the

element

of the

watchword

of

modes

traditional

phy
Philoso-

meet.

nevertheless, necessarilymoved

of this purpose,

the

common

is the

this

science,

carrying out

first within

the Eenaissance

philosophy of

In this

knowledge of Nature.

to be the

held

was

of the

all lines

result

at

that

culmination

at the

Scotus

being prepared

was

consummation

the

Renaissance.

the

this

For

their

ment
developthe

reason

for its
in all its lines takes
philosophy of the Eenaissance
in constructing its problems, man's
position in the
starting-point,
in ideas which
took place in this aspect,
and the revolution
cosmos;
became
of the changed conditions
of civilisation,
the influence
under
the whole
of decisive
theory of the
importance for shaping anew
world.
At this point metaphysical imagination and fancy was
most
deeply stirred,and from this point of view it produced its cosmical

natural

for

poetry, prototypal
and

Bruno

Jacob

following

The

Geschichte
Q. Vogt, Die
founded
the

Cf.

on

Fr.

of

hy Cosmo

author

Greek

general the

in

treat

Studien

seat

impulse

The

der

of

revival

classischen
des

doctrines

of

Gfiordano

of

philosophy

ancient

L.

Heeren,

(Gottingen, 1797-1802);
(Berlin,1880 f.).

Litteratnr

classischen

Alterthums

Academy
of Florence, which was
and
Medici,
brilliantlymaintained
by his successors.
been
Fletho
given by Georgius Gemistus
(1355-1450),
commentaries
and
and
of a treatise in
compendiums,

Platouisin

de'

for this had

numerous

difference

the

the

in

future,

Boehme.

Wiederbelehung

main

The

'

der

the

between

Sohultze, G. G.

the

was

the

Platonic

(Jena, 1874).

P.

and

the

Bessarion

"

Aristotelian

(born

1403

in

doctrine.

Trebizond,

of the
died
Roman
church
Cardinal
in Ravenna,
his influential
as
1472) was
main
Calumniatorem
treatise, Adversus
pupil. Bessarion's
Platonis, appeared
1469.
in Migne's coll. (Paris,1866).
most
at Rome,
The
Complete Works
of the Platonic
of Florence
circle were
Marsilio
Ficino
important members
"

(1433-1499),the
of

Theologia

Patiizzi
its

translator

(1529-1597),who

completest

expression

instance

similar

ancient

of

Pythagorean

the

works

of

Plato

(Florence, 1482), and

Platonica

brought
in his Nova

of

the

natural

later

philosophy

to

of this movement

Universis Philosophia (Ferrara, 1591).

de

Neo-Platonism

motives

author
Plotinus, and
time, Prancesco

and
at

alloyed

is afforded

by

John

with

Pico

Neo-Pythagorean

of Mirandola

and

(1463-94).

The
in the original sources
study of Aristotle
was
promoted in Italy by
of
Trebizond
Platonis
Georgius
et Aristotelis,
(1396-1484 ; Comparatio
Theodoras
Gaza
and
Venice, 1523) and
Germany
(died 1478), in Holland
by Rudolf
Agiicola (1442-1485),and in France
jbyJacques Lef"vre
(Faber
Stapulensis, 1465-1537).
The

line)
The

Aristotelians
divided

into

of
the

the

two

University of Padua,

of the

liveliest controversies

Renaissance

parties of
as

the

between

(aside from

the

chief
the

Averroists

seat
two.

of

the
and

Averroism,

churchly-scholastio
the
was

Alezandiists.
also the

place

356

The

Renaissance

Period.

Humanistic

[Part IV.

In
the
edition of his works
by Bretschneider
and
by Philip Melancthon.
Vols.
13. and
16.
Of chief importance
form
Bindseil the philosophical works
and
ethics.
Cf. A. Richter,
them
the text-books
are
on
logic (dialectic)
among
M.^s
den
Verdienste
philosophischen TInterricht (Leips. 1870); K. Hartum
felder,M. als Prceceptor GermanicB
(Berlin,1889).
the position of Angustinianism
himself
stood much
Luther
nearer
(cf.Ch.
still more
the case
Weisse, Die Christologie Luther'' s, Leips. 1852). This was
friendlier
inclined
toward
with
Calvin, while
contemporaneous
Zwlngli was
Italian
Neo-Platonism.
The
scientific importance of
the
philosophy, especially
all three
lies,however, so exclusively in the theological field
great reformers
of the general intelhere only as essential factors
that they are
to be mentioned
lectual
in the

movement

Protestant

(1547-1606, Professor
1573

Alpes

sixteenth

Aristotelianism
in

Basel

CcescB, Frankfort,

century.

found
and
1597

its

opponents

Altorf
; cf. F.

;
X.

in

Nicolaus

Taurellua

Philosophice Triumphus,

Basel,
T.,

SchmidtrSchwarzenberg, N.

founded
Philosophy Erlangen, 1864), further in Socinianism
Sienna
(1525-1562) and his nephew Fausto
(1539-1604;
cf. A. Fook, Der
Socinianismus,
Kiel, 1847, and the article S. by Herzog in his
2d
377 ft),and
Theol.
of
Enc,
ed., XIV.
especially in the popular movement
the
are
Among
Mysticism.
representatives of this movement
prominent
Andreas
Osiander
Schwenckfeld
(1490-1561), SebaEh
(1498-1552),Caspar
tian
Franck
(1500-1545; cf. K. Hagen, op. cit.,III. chap. 5) and especially
Valentine
(1553-1588 ; Libellus de Vita Beata, 1606, Der gnldne Qriff,
Weigel
Ort der
1613, Vom
Welt, 1613, Dialogus de Christianismo, 1614, TvuSt
(rairiv,
1615
W., Leips. 1864).
; cf. J. 0. Opel, V.
Der

erste

by Iielio

deutsche

of

Sozzini

in attachment
natural
to Nic. Cusanus
tendency toward
philosophy
in
Charles
1470-1563
Bouilld
Intelleetu
more
strongly
(Bovillus,
appears
; De
iSensibus ; De Sapientia. Cf. J. Dippel, Versuch
and
De
einer system. Darsteldes C. B., Wtirzburg, 1862), and
G-irolamo
Cardano
lung der Philos.
(15011576 ; De
Vita
De
Subtilitate ; works, Lyons,
Berum,
Propria, De Varietate
uud
und
Lehrmeinim1663). Cf. on this and the following, Rixner
Siber, Leien
Physiker im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert,!
Hefte, Sulzbach, 1819 ff.).
gen beriihmter
The
brilliant among
the Italian natural
most
Bruno
philosophers is Giordano
of Nola, in Campania.
in 1548, and
Born
reared
in Naples, he met
so much
picion
susin the Dominican
he had
Order, into which
entered, that he fled,and from
life.
that time
He went
and
by way of Rome
on, led an unsettled
Italy
upper
to Genoa,
Lyons, Toulouse, held lectures in Paris and Oxford, then
in Wittenberg
and
Helmstadt, visited also Marburg, Prague, Frankfort, and Zurich, and
of the
finally,in Venice, met the fate of coming into the hands
Inquisitionby
delivered
to Rome,
and
treachery. He was
eral
there, after imprisonment for sevof his steadfast
burned, 1600, on account
refusal to retract.
years, was
His Latin
works
(3 vols.,Naples, 1880-91) concern
art (esp.
partly the LuUian
De
et Idearum
Signorum
Imaginum
Compositione),and in part are didactic
or
metaphysical treatises (De Monade
Numero
et Figure ; De
poems
Triplici
ed. by P. de
Minima) : the Italian writings (ed.by A. Wagner, Leips. 1829, new
Lagarde, 2 vols. Gottingen, 1888) are partly satirical inventions
{II Candelajo,
La Cena
delle Oineri, Spaecio della Bestia
Trionfante, German
by Kuhlenbeck,
del
Oavallo
Leips. 1890, Cabala
Pegaseo), and on the other hand, the most
complete expositions of his doctrines : Dialoghi della Causa
Principio edMm,
German
by Lasson
(Berlin,1872) ; Degli Eroici Furrori ; DelV Infinito,Universo
Cf. Bartholmfess, G. B. (Paris,1816 f.)
Mondi.
e Dei
Berti, Vita di 0. B.
; Dom.
Inlorno
O. B. (Turin, 1880)
(Turin, 1867), and Documenti
a
Sigwart in
; Chr.
Kleine
Schriften,I. (Freiburg, 1889) ; H. Brunnhofer, G. B.'s Weltanschauung
und
Verhdngniss (Leips.1882). [(?. Bruno, by I. Frith, Lond., ITUbner; T.
The

Whitaker

in

Another
reriim

natura

Mind,

Vol.

tendency

IX.].

is

represented by Bernardino
juxta propria princ.ipia, Rome, 1565

(1508-1588; De

Telesio

him
On
Naples, 1586.
Ferri,Turin, 1873),and his more
Born
1568, in Stilo of Calabria,
after many
brought to France
and

F. Florentine, Florence, 1872 and

see
1874 ; L.
Tommaso
important successor,
CampaneUa.
he early became
a Dominican,
rescued
and
was
persecutions and an imprisonment of several years.
There
with
the Cartesian
circle,and died in Paris, 1639, before the

he

became

intimate

completion of the

Warring Traditions.

The

1, " 28.]

Chap.

full edition of his writings, which

to

was

357

called Instauratio

be

Scientiarum.

has
by d'Ancona
biographical introduction
appeared (Turin,
new
be mentioned:
Prodromus
Philoswritings may
1854). Of his very numerous
1617 ; Mealis
Philosophic Partes
^aluor (with the appendix,
ophice Instaurandm,
1625
Civitas
Hispanica,
Solis), 1623 ; De Monarehia
; Philosophim
Bationalis Partes
Philosophice seu metaphysicarnm
Quinque, 1638 ; Universalis
Cf. Baldachini,
Vitae
Filosofia
rerumjitxta propria principia partes tres, 1638.
and
Documenti
di T.
C.
C. (Naples, 1840
Berti, Nuovi
di T.
1843) ; Dom.

edition, with

(Rome, 1881).
Theosophioal-magical

found

are

with

John
of

Cabalistica),A.gnppa

De

Philosophia;

Occulta

De

doctrines

Arte

Miriflco, De

J)eVerbo

Incertitudine

;
;

Scientiarum} Fxanceaco

Vanitate

et

(1455-1522
(1487-1535

Reuchlin
Nettesheim
,

Mundi, Paris, 1549).

is Theophrastus Bombastus
acelsus
Parindependent thinker
of Hohenheim
life,
(born 1493 at Einsiedeln, he passed an adventurous
died in Salzburg, 1541).
his
Professor
of Chemistry in Basel, and
Among
was
works
(ed.by Huser, Strassburg, 1616-18),the most important are the Opus
Cf. E. Eucken,
and
Natura
Berum.
Die
De
Wundarznei,
Paramirum,
grosse
Of
his numerous
Gesch.
der neueren
Philos., Heidelberg, 1886.
Beitrage zur
man
Helmont
Baptist van
(1577-1644 ; Gerpupils the most important are Johann
ed. of his works, 1683), and
his son, Franz
Fludd
Mercurius, also Robert
(1574-1637,Philosophia Mosaica, Guda, 1638), and others.
is formed
The
most
by the doctrine
noteworthy deposit of these movements

(1460-1540,De

Zorzi
A

Harmonia

and

important

more

of Jacob

He

Boebme.

born, 1575,

was

all kinds

Gorlitz, absorbed

near

of

Settled
maker
shoethem.
as
a
wanderings, and quietly elaborated
at Gorlitz, he
came
forward, 1610, with his main treatise Aurora, which
been
at a later time after he had
temporarily forced to keep silence, was followed
Seele
der
them
von
others, among
(1620),
by many
especially Vierzig Fragen
Coll.
(1623), Von der Gnadenwahl
(1623). He died 1624.
Mysterium Magnum
und
works
1862.
Cf.
H.
J.
Leben
A.
sein
Fechner,
B.,
ed, by Schiebler, Leips.
seine Schriften,Gorlitz,1853 ; A. Peip, J. B. der deutsche
Philosoph, Leips. 1860.
in his

thoughts

" 28.
The

immediate

prevalent in
in the
of

Eenaissance,
men

(cf.p. 302)

were

prototypes

Ages,
for

1.

In

in the

oppositionto

fact,the

form
had

of
been

Boccaccio,and
which

natural

was

national

flowing
from

of

ancient

stream

until

which

proceeded
Italy. Among these
with

the

of

ing
increas-

an

humanistic

ment.
move-

changing

the

union

the

then,

attaches

itself

literature

showed

the

but

it received
from
the

the

The

of Platonism.

since

on

closely connected
consciousness

the
of

as

now,

union

William

and

fortune
between

Plato,

to

and

Aristotle.

revival

arose

the

with

philosophy

strengthening

of

characteristic

and

Chartres

of

Nature

doctrines, that

and

in

of

knowledge

noteworthy,

transmitted

stands

not

was

like Bernard

It is

Humanism

philosophy which became

its precedent
entirely without

Greek

the

to

and

Middle

Conches

the Traditions.

Struggle between

attachment

the

interest

of

The

the

interest
with
this

in

Eoman

Aristotelians
the

could
of

were

latter

not

of

the

of

impulse
Byzantine
like number

brought

that

and

Italian

become

the

of the

ment
move-

literature

secular

awakening

help

removal

Platonists,but

of

current

the

humanistic

Dante, Petrarch,

days
the

itself at first

torious
vic-

out
with-

from

scholars
and
which

to

portance
imwas

The Renaissance

358

this,Aristotle

to

which

there

still further

again

Medicis
a

live

to

paid

was

reverence

sarion which

Plato;

keenly-

more

was

and

the writings

with

intoxicated

an

of

that

scientific activity actuallydeveloped here, in which

rich

opposition,

from

departing antiquity. As
immediately with this latter period,the Academy
the protection of the
under
in Florence, and

itself

if to connect

addition

from

time

no

the

comes

became

Italy first

matched

that

for Plato

enthusiasm

for which

and

Thus

this.

than
susceptible

that

IV.

philosopherwho

the

as

the aesthetic charm

was

great Athenian,

the

of

was

West

the

in

regarded

was

[Pakt

impressive. In

more

and thus
agreement with the Church doctrine,
longed for something new, hoped much more

in

"was

therefore

and

relativelyless known,

Period:

Humanistic

not

was

the

to

that

less than

Pletho

Gemistus

like

leaders

Besof

Scholarchs

to the

given

once

and

Neo-Platonism.

relationshipwith this
Byzantine tradition,in

the

But

the

deeper ;
taught

as

Platonism

translated

Plotinus

in Florence

silio Ficino

Theology"

fantastic

the
basis

nothing

the

well

as

What

philosophy

but

Neo-Platonic

that

of

time

was

Mar-

his "Platonic

So, too,

Proclus.

is in

conceptional

its

emanation

of

system

was

Neo-Platonism.

Patrizzi

of

went

doctrine
that

at

Plato, and

as

from

thought

of

Platonic

in truth

was

natural
the

which

different

much

not

was

system

tradition.

Neo-Platonic

the

received, was

latter

it is

; but

of Neo-Platonism
elements
the dualistic
that in this case
significant
are
entirelystrippedoff,and the monistic tendency brought out
of the
the Neo-Platonist
more
purely and fully. On this account
Renaissance
places in the foreground the beauty of (lie universe; on
this

account

on

universe
2.

The

in

Church,

On

not

the

make

to

and

thus

the

only by
other

to

the

hand,

which

its

to

combat

be

is

so

in

unmistakable

an

it ;

and

an

sure, the
for

that

instrument

but
Aristotelians,

Aristotelianism

this,

object of suspicionto
Peripateticopponents a welcome

give

scholastic

him

fancy.

Platonism

to

for

pluralityharmoniously within
of the
the infinity
glorifyeven

to

this

which

humanistic

new

fascinate

(One-all)is

XJnomnia

is able

pantheistictendency,

with
used

to

way

the

includes

he

this account

enough

was

deity,

world-unitywhich

sublime
itself ;

the

even

Platonists

also
could

by

the

the
strument
inwas

others.

reproachthe
tendencies,and

its naturalistic

allied to
the super-sensuous,
as
tendency toward
praise their own
the two
of Greek
philosophy
great traditions
Christianity. Thus
again,while each charged the other with
fought their battle over
In this spiritPletho, in his vofiutv wycharacter.'
its unchristian
1

Quite

the

same

Aristotelians, each

relation
of which

is

repeated

wished

to

be

in

the

case

of

the

regarded orthodox,

different
"

even

groups
at the

of

price

Warring Traditions

1, " 28.]

Chap.

his

conducted
ypatjyrj,

and
polemic against the Aristotelians,
from

thereby condemnation
this

in
in

and

the

it

in

subsists

that

the

there

manner

as

barbarians

as

part prepossessed in
which

conflict

was

of

The

but
for

and
the

Averroism
this

attached

in

regarded

it

discussions

the

their

party

that

of

part

the

of

sented
repre-

soul

Here,

others.

The

least
the

problem
tality,
immortion
compensa-

Alexandrists

to its animal

conditions,

with

Connected

saw

Pomponatius

full,individual

them.

Master

best

the

was

possessed at

the

the

most

Averroists

activityof

intellect,while

the

like

for the

was

the

controversy

it

in

them

were

to

where

admitted

the

of Aphrodisias.

successful
of

iipon

this

were

of

the
theodicy,providence, destiny and freedom
Pomponazzi frequently inclined
signs, in which

of

oppositions

for

which

opposition

Padua,

the

unity

doctrine.

Stoic

course

in

perishablewith

as

and

the

in

point

rational

on

will,miracles
In

the

and

lians
Aristote-

Stagiriteand

interpretationof

Alexander

by

believed

the

even

stronglyto

that

stood

by

main

Neither

immortality.

the

contempt

passed

Stratonism,

to

threatened

teacher.

much

as

Both

of

theory
especiallysevere

their fortress
as

with

favour

(died

deeper unity

the

they themselves, however,

transmitted

too, one

Padua

the

interpretersof

the commentators

among

of

and

of

Thomists.

closely allied

was

Renaissance,

philosophy.
absolutely
unity among

down

the

him.

literarystir

no

the

upon

the

understand

heroes

Academy,

answered

Thomaeus

to

Grecian

looked

the

Bessarion

to

incurred

in Constantinople;

schools, and

two

Leonicus

two

was

The

adherents

Averroists

attacked

combatants

between

themselves.
their

Trebizond

transferred

like

men

the

Meanwhile

3.

Gennadios

the

antiquity,were

admonished

1333)
that

Patriarch

spirit,though milder,

vain

in

was

of

spiritGeorge

same

produced

it

the

animosity between

the

Thus

Platonists,Aristotelians. 359

time

this

dependence
stripped off,and

also

was

upon
the

and

commentators

prepared

way

for

best
This
succeeded
apprehension of Aristotle.
with Caesalpinus,
his complete allegiance to Aristotle.
who
avowed
An
equally correct
understanding of the Peripatetic system was
Humanists
from
gained by the German
a
philologicalstandpoint,

immediate

pure,

but

doctrine

own

4.

In

it

the
came

"

only

all these

opposition
of

Melancthon's

following

to

twofold
about

the refutation
covered

himself

in

so

cases

far

as

the

adoption

Scholasticism

In

truth."
that

of

precedent they adopted

of

one

the

as

this

them,

Pomponazzi's
with

same

it

agreed
of

regards

the

with

Protestant

Greek
the

real

this

their

dogma.

philosophy
content

in

or

led to
matter

an

of

Averroists, especially,were
ready, and so
had
himself
entrusted
by the Pope with

Nifo,

doctrine
shield.

of

immortality.

The

latter,indeed, also

Renaissance

The

360

the

literature,inclined

sympathy with Roman

formal opposition,of which
in

the

The

forerunner.

mediaeval

and

polished refinement
not
writers, they were

the

character,which
The

within

lay
minds

directions,with

in all

conceptionsthey
words,
and

the

tasteful

Valla

Laurentius
took

ola

it up

models

The

of

their hand

the

full of

so

nology.
termi-

aesthetic
essentially

abstract

nature

men

of subtle

should

that

first to make

lively controversy,

these

was

principles of
of

in

ancient

scholastic

the

Cicero

were

speak

proofs

this

cry

resound.

Agrio-

joinedin.

and

Erasmus

also

and

Quintilian,and

when

and

The

grammar.

The

"

"

Aristotelian

dialectic

true

logic

therefore

at

lastic
scho-

to be
changed, the
philosophy was
introduced
dislodged and in its place were

discourse.^

the

to

of

rhetoric

to

living man.

the

was

the

kernel

; instead

world

exposition

of the

method

dialectic

science

the

heart

of

their

feeling for

any

against

Accustomed

the

with

Renaissance,

of the cultivated

distinctions,a

shell of

rough

as

conceptions. Thus they opened the battle

of jestand of earnest ; instead of
weapons
of artificially
constructed
tilings;instead

demanded

language

imagination and

rightlythe

value

longer

no

of abstract

science

the

the

of

had
disposition,
of that

to

more

regarded

rebelled

clearness

transparent

able

be

literature.

of mediaeval

form

outward

barbarous

was

IV.

predominantly

Humanists

of the

taste

to

Salisbury may

of

John

[Part

which

Hunianism,

line of

Another

opposing systems.

Period.

Humanistic

the
is

the

becomes

object of most violent polemic ; the doctrine of the syllogismis

The
driven
from
its commanding
to be simplifiedand
situation.
unfruitful
syllogism is incapableof yieldinganything new
; it is an
form
of thought. This was
later emphasised by Bruno, Bacon, and
Descartes, as strongly as by these Humanists.
But
the
of the syllogism was
more
nected
concloselythe dominance

the

with

dialectical

nistic

motives

This

shows

zealous
to

itself

the

the

true

for

reason

the

Vives

of universal

nominalistic

more

with
of

cases

Universals, Nizolius

the

mediaeval

teaches,^are

They

Nizolius.

conceptions ;

in

termi-

opposition.

humanistic

and

and

are

this,according

corruption of

collective

the

which

names

by "comprehension," not by abstraction; individual things

their qualities
constitute reality. It concerns
to apprehend
us

these, and
is to
Hence

in

the

themselves

against the reign

sciences.

with

Realism,"

connected

Vives, lies

arise

"

all

the

secondary activityof

be

carried

the

understanding which

pares,
com-

as possible.
simply and unartificially
have
made
metaphysical assumptions, which
so
great a

out

as

"
,

'

Petr.

Mar.

Ramus, Dialect. Instit.,at the beginning.

Nizolius, De Ver. Princ, I. 4-7 ; III. 7.

Warring Traditions

1, " 28.]

Chap.

Humanists, Ramus.

be banished
in previous dialectic,must
difficulty
use
can
only a purely formal logic.
"natural"

The

dialectic,however,
held,

for, Ramus

grammar,

the

voluntary thinking
control also

reason,

spontaneouslyin
discover

the

and

to

then

the

In

thought.

of

all

logic,which

of the
of

which

them

here

the

of the

God,
in

and

world.

finds it

of

in

into

kind
the

the

trines
doc-

general

of
form

of

the

unite

it

into

naive

doctrine

The

of

first is the

The

cognitions that
division

and

brings

in him.

the

physics
meta-

judgment
cision
de-

simple

object under the discovered

of the syllogism has
its place,
than
formerly. In the second

smaller

grounded

question,

the

doctrine

when

only

is

part

falls

stages.

systematic whole, by definition

it fulfils

dialectic

new

first

system,

in three

accordinglymuch
judgment is to

place the

our

subject. Accordingly Ramus,

his

question by subsuming
;

and

Causality, Inherence, Genus, etc.,and

without

Ramus

the

for

introducing again

as

ordinary idea

view

is

the

The

avoid

such
categories,

developed by

rhetoric

us

is determinative

Judicium.

cannot

yet

of the

point

that

Vives,^ divides

and

thus, enumerating
is

view

of

of Inventio

teach

piricism
Em-

involuntarythinking,and present themselves

correct
expression of this involuntary process
reflection,however, the essential thing is to

point of
remark

the

laws

same

in

sought

was

logic.

only to follow in
which, according to the nature

apply this correctlyto

-followinga

"loci"

our

it should

from

361

all

Thus

belong together

; its

ever,
highest task, howinto

knowledge

relation

dialectic

natural

to

to

culminates

theosophy.^
Slight

system,

as

it

excited

yet

In

new.

Humanism,
to the

them

is
who

point
from

especiallyworthy
the

set

where

time

he

task
knows

point

correct

for

of

note,

view,

eager

of

the

for the

engaged
system,

typical pedagogue

education

of
how

and

was

rhetorical

anti-Eamists

friends

things,and
of

that

and

the

Among

this

originalityof

in

great respect

controversy.

Sturm

real

and

especially,Eamists

Germany,

in vehement

depth

the

was

bringing

the

hannes
Joof

scholar

judge concerning
speak in cultivated
to

'

to

manner.

5. A

characteristic

feature

of

this

toward

metaphysics ; this very fact proves

Roman
popular philosophy. Cicero, to whom
itself,
was
particularlyinfluential by virtue
a

considerable
1

Lud.

Cf.

Surfeit

Probabilism.

or

Vives,
E.

Laas,

(Berlin,1872).

part
De

of

Humanists

Corr.

Art.

Pddagogik

des

Gausis

Die

the

of

its derivation

relation
from

the

especiallyattached
his Academic
cism
Scepti-

it
of

abstract
from

part
(first
J.

is its cool

movement

of Be

St. kritisch

discussions
the

alienated

great systems

Disciplinis),III.
und

historisch

of

5.

beleuchtet

Renaissance

The

362

The

antiquityalso.
ism

was

circles

the

as

of

motive

to

glitter of

the

of
scepticism of the man
complete expression by Montaigne.
This

expression of

of
a

fundamental,

which

tone

also

this movement

But

let fall is

bring

literature

essential

character.

"

arises

had

for

all the work

rhonism.
Pyr-

long

theoretical
senses,

change

in which

of

time

ions
opincleft

the
both

intellect upon

the

of

from

the

of

constant

Whatever

track.

which

ness
fine-

and

French

gave

Essays

illusions

grace

its

to

are

such

arguments of ancient Scepticism meet us

with
systematic form, but incidentallyin connection
"

in

of

discussion

the

of

all these

data,

here, not

to

brought

relativityof

The

up.

of

involved, the dependence

doubtful

charm

rest

easy

its

"

tradition

object,the

subjectand

between

the

in

theories, the

ethical

and

thus

ancient

the

in

runs

taken

again

the

was

the

With

remained

has

philosophical thought is found

Hereby a thread of
been

in many

The

man.

world

great writer, he

indifferent-

or

scepticism appear

cultivated

IV.

philosophicalsubtleties.

indi'fference toward

about

make

civilisation,did

refined

[Part

religiousunbelief

the

for

right temper

life,the

outer

extension

additional

an

Period.

Humanistic

in

thus

questions,and

individual

much

more

impressive manner.
lastic
schoin a much
at the same
time revived
more
Pyrrhonism was
form
and not without
by Sanchez, and yet in a livelymanner,
be allowed
time
to man.
hope that a sure insightmight yet at some
concludes
He
whole
individual
the
work, with
chapters, and
At

"Nescis?
indeed
debt

given

pointed
wisdom

themselves.

indeed,

is not

he

would

did

out

of

not

he
:

the

guidance
it.

sought

It
free

must

great "Quid?
left

he
the

was

knowledge

true

doubt

no

itself from

the

was

to the

as

Montaigne

which

same

has

"he

word-lumber

of

schools, and

put its questions directlyto things

demands
a
new
knowledge, and has,

Sanchez

foreboding of it,but

prepared

to

But

discharge.

science

Thus
dim

and

answer,

in which

direction

the

he

that

also

no

this

To

Quid?"

nescio.

ego

In

to say.

many

where

how

and

it

passages

it is to be
as

seems

sought

though

he

just here he
cannot
get beyond the scepticaldoctrine of outer perception,and if
he recognises the greater certaintyof inner
experience,this inner
proceed

experience
Oharron
him

the

to

in turn

loses its value

forward

comes

practical end

firmer

wisdom.

possibilityof

certain

the

respect

all three

metaphysics
is not

with

because

of

doubts

empirical investigationof Nature,

can

set

up
be

sufficient

of

its indefiniteness.

step, since

Like

but

his

theoretical

he

keeps before

predecessors he
knowledge; in this

two

of faith:
and
authority of the Church
edge
revealed
of knowlonly ; the human
power
for it. But, proceeds Charron, the
human
the

Renaissance

The

364

in the

its appearance

books

Greek

the

text

controversy
considered

hinges

"

shall

the

Scholastics.

longing
its

nature,

all

"

these

of Calvin

doctrine

is shown

Eather
Thomism

and

faith

of

for the

and

richer

of
in

means

its

of the

of

of

dogma,

Humanists
its

give

his work

his

and

from

learned

older

Humanism.

which

nature

in the

only

great Church

of

between
evinced

the

the
the

teenth
seven-

guidance
Reformed

of

mighty

the

aided

was

ment
develop-

had

had

the

to
to be

nature
of

power

himself

1 On
the relation
of the
der Ethik, II. 414 ff.

conceptions with

the

soul

he would
the

which

sity
neces-

to

lay

nature

introduced

humanistic

Aris-

Protestantism,here, too, opposing

remodelled

Reformation

as

of

Luther's

to

operation
co-

the

Little

harmonising
passionately rejected scholastic

associate

corrected

the

by

nevertheless,obliged,when

the philosophy of

tradition

Aristotelianism

and

source

Here, however, Melancthon's

Aristotelianism, his
as

In

thus

philosophy the
Luther

totelianism

by

itself,Augustine

courses.

genius

the

was,

while

in,

otlier

scientific form, to accommodate

borrowing
and

in Catholicism

Luther's

with

accord

might

foundations.

out

created, which

religiously indifferent

profound faith,he

with

of

and

Melancthon

theoretico-sesthetical
^

followed

Lutheran

the

tine,
Augus-

antagonism

an

more

tendencies

of

sin,passionate

it is

But

influence

once

appeared

position.

same

Protestantism

German

tianity
Chris-

satisfaction,and

Augustine's

Calvin.

this

had

doctrine

internal

of

permanent

freer

of

conceptions worked

was

and

was

the

consciousness

traits

Au^ustinianism

the

held

the

tradition

as

Churches,

came

theoretically

literature
especiallyimportant in the French
century (cf." 30 f.). For the Catholics under
the ruling authority; for
was
Jesuitism, Thomas

itself

The

philosophicalantithesis
In

deeper,
in the

yet just by

; and

canonical

creed.

"

repeated which

that

Luther
the

that

the

was

in the

were

in

themselves

repeated

Earnestness

redemption,

for

century

Ages.

expression than

immediate

drew

Middle

found

religious need

the
more

the

points during

many

the

one.

theologicalantithesis
it,and here again a relation

after

the

binding

the

But

at

be

tianity
originalChrisof

Nicene

question, which

the

upon

sixteenth

the

in

dogmas

over

modifications

renew

circle

to the

; it returned

authoritative

as

IV.

Vulgate, it recognisedonly

the

again ; putting aside

narrower

the

It drew

against Catholicism.

as

desired to

Eeformation

The

developments.

and

its mediaeval

aside

put

[Part

Here, too, the opposition

churches.

Protestant

tradition,and

older

the

claimed

Period.

Humanistic

tradition.

in many

and

passages,

Humanism

cf. Th.

This

original

to be

sure,

by

Ziegler, Qesch.

Warring Traditions

1, " 28.]

Chap.

reach such

in this instance
of

department

Middle

treated

rather

great skill

so

the main

and

forth

it became

the

in its nature, and

Luther's

active.

doctrines

could

not

attained

for

this

the material
basis

for

such

as

Melancthon

end,

in his text-books

doctrine

with

which

at the

taught

was

knew

in

was

Protestant

centuries.

in Protestantism

But

of

365

by the slow ripening

Ages ; but the Pe"ipateticsystem was
but a supplement to theology in the
as

set

universities for two

7.

been

profane science,and

that

one

combination

had

as

in the

sift,arrange,

to

union

organic

an

of Thomism

how

the

Scriptures,and

of the

means

Protestantism.

work

there
of

still other

were

liberation

owed

origin and

forces

its

success

sublime, spiritualised

not

least

form

the genius of Master

Eckhart
viewing the world to which
of deepest piety which,
given expression,but to the movement
League
practicalMysticism," had spread from the Ehine in the

of the

Friends

of

of the

Brothers

"

Common

Life."

external

the

the

was

only

also

independence was
But
in the

when

the

fixed

forms

this the

national

impulse

movement

the

Mysticism
as

of

obliged

was

Confessions,

the

then

undeceived,

became

theological
its

it

as

Luther

as

to

to

struggle

supra-confesalso

did

as

of

fixation

ruin, and

clung

doctrine, and

of

system

consolidated

again

the
had

the
of

thought
once

waged

a
"sophistry" of the Scholastics, so now
of Mysticism that was
quietly stirringfarther and wider
In men
creation.
people,directed itself against his own

and

that

quietlymaintained
of fantastic ideas
the

Schwenckfeld
and

evident

lightin

The

appeared

nature

own

national

against the

like Osiander

became

strife

consciousness.

his warfare

of

impulse

an

ology":
The-

religiouslonging,

this

became

Church

state

theoretical

in the
of

Oerman

mingled.

anxiously in proportion

more

Reformation

among

of

of

the. storm

had

himself
"

own

works,

outward

the

edited

against Rome,

Protestant

for its existence

sional

conflict

the

also

had

even

of its

Luther

Eeformation.

and

freedom

all these

transcends

let loose

the

only

demands

of the

source

his word
in

soul

indifference

of

matters

Augustine, he

searched

which,

be

to

worldly organisation

whole

holiness,the

that

demand

inner

and
with

of

believing

"

This

works

life,appeared

life,
religious

to

in the

the

hindrances

his

and

God,"

of

Church

the

that

to

tion
Mysticism, the disposition,
purity of heart, and the imitato
the sole content
of religion; assent
Christ were
mas,
dog-

this

For

not

not

"

"

"

of

Mysticism,

of

had
as

to

indeed

its

traditional

its
the

and
and

had

development.

doctrines

obscure
of

of

to

contend

But

mediaeval

in

against parts
this

it

movement

Mysticism

of

had

been

legendary form amid all kinds

imagery. The Mysticism which comes

continued

teachings

he

men

in

like

Sebastian

FrancJc,,or

in

the

Renaissance

The

366

secretlycirculated

of Eckhart, which

idealism

into

all the historical

Valentine

Weigel, has

transformed

all the

of

tracts

eternal,and

the

Period.

Humanistic

its

outer

in the

saw

[Pakt

VI,

support

in the

into

inner,

the
of

process

Nature

divine.
This constituted,
history but the symbol of the
though frequently in strange form, the deeper ground of
sixteenth
the Mystics of the
the
battle which
century waged in
Germany againstthe "letter" of theology.

spiritualand

and

8.

Look

where

will

we

sixteenth

and

into

up

itself

and
direct

in the

entire
feverish

with

contact

spiritof

struggles upward

the

the

into

excitement

highest

the

to

which

of

teenth
fif-

arrayed

between

mitted
trans-

peoples has

now

past offers

for its culture,

which

achievements

attainment

the

tradition

battle

Western

the

material

is

of

movement

everywhere

see

controversy

every

The

the

intellectual

the

centuries,we

against tradition,and
doctrines.

in

it is
of

taken

finallyput by

ancient

science,it
It

complete independence.

work
of its own,
and overflowing
hardened
to execute
sufficiently
tasks.
with
its wealth
of thought, it seeks
One
feels the
new
thing
impulsive blood of youth pulsate in its literature,as though somehad
before
unheard
never
of, something which
been, must
into being. The
of the Renaissance
to us
come
men
now
announce
of science and
nothing less than the approach of a total renovation
feels

of

the

of

state

doctrines

leads

old wisdom

to

surfeit

youthful joy

the

cosmic

of

in Goethe's

" 29.

By Scotism

Ages

had

and

had

supersensuous

had

as

remained

yet

problems

had

past;

the

learned

time

of this

transmitted

research

into

full of

and

forth

into

of

temper

the

is the

Eenaissance

Faust.

Macrocosm

and

Microcosm.

the faith

metaphysics of the Middle

disintegrated and split in twain:
everything
been
to
and
the
given
as
dogma,
ophy
object of philosthe world
of experience. But
before
thought
to become

clear

as

to

the

methods

special

and

secular

knowledge. Humanism, and with

that the
Weltanschauung,burst in. No wonder
of the problem, which
itself at first seen
but dimly, was
was
in
connection
with
this
sought
theory : and this doctrine must
been
the more
welcome, especiallyin its Neo-Platonic
form,

it above

all,the Platonic

showed

the
but

world
made

the

young.
this

Terminism

become

there

ever

portrayalof

first monologue

the

between

throwing aside all book-rubbish,

dawning, growing life,the mind goes

life of Nature

classical

of

warfare

with

ends

the

The

The

humanity.

of

the

the

supersensuous

particularsof

the

presageful in
world

of

sense

the

tion
solufirst
have
as

it

ground,
back-

stand

out

1, " 29.] Macrocosm

Chap.

defined

distinctlyin purposefully
all therein

and
itself,
be

might

itself to

that

cheerfullyset
the task of being

apprehendingNature

as

conception of
diverging branches
theology teach
the business

how

science

The

of

were

the

and

the

divine

the

of

could

all the

Neo-Platonic

and
spirit,

retained

dedicate

calmer

precedent

thus

believed

point of unity for

spiritualand the secular.

the

himself

in the

Scripture,it

is that

fact, however,
motives

in

which

this

had

of

that

Did

was

now

tion
revela-

to

forward

came

or

fanciful

All, the

regarded

natural

revival

belonged

of
the

to

beauty of

as

of

divine

the

has

unity of

fundamental
been

divine

ing
liv-

by

up

beauty

Idea.

the

thought

taken

this

this ; and
the

"tvas therefore

was

Such

no

now

view

forms
by Patrizzi,in
entirelyNeo-Platonic
and
with
strongly poeticalquality by Giordano
the symbol
With
Bruno
by Jacob Boehme.
all-animating primitive light is still dominant

originalform
likewise

the

all-formingand
(cf.p. 245) ; with Boehme,
; the

organism

of the

universe

manifestation

fundamental

Renaissance

macrocosm

the

The

in almost

expressed
and

of the

sympathetically as by

so

the

imaginative conception

of the

time

unmixed.'

and

pure

philosophy of

admiration

of Plotinus

Bruno,

science
con-

They disappeared together

completely set aside.
had
supported them,
specifically
religiousinterest which
theoretical
element
of recognising in Nature
the creative

the

more

religiouslife,

also

the natural

is

reveals

last dualistic

tendency in

also

the

science, the

characteristic

power

other

product

philosophy

Neo-Platonism,
with

supersensuous

man's

science,with

deity it

God

with

367

apprehend with admiration his

On this account
the beginnings of modern
Nature.
were
theosophicaland thoroughly Hfeo- Platonic.

in

same

of

The

theology ; philosophy

natural

the

in the

outlines.

it followed

proportion as

Bruno, Boehme.

connected

was

off to

in

1.

Microcosm

and

is permeated

world

is

the

on

tree

contrary,

which

from

find

we

root

that

flower

to

of

and

of

the
fruit

is formed
and ordered
life-giving
sap, and which
from within
outward
germinal activity.^
by its own
In this inheres
the
and
inclination
to complete monism
naturally
"pantheism.
can
Everything must have its cause, and the last cause
be

but

the
he

one,

and

Stoic

"

God.'

In

once

the

He

is,according

certain

elements

Cf. the
231

rational
of

Vrsache")

(Lag. I.
'

"

one

and
formal,the efficient,

is at

by

tMs

sense

of

might

and

cause

came

and

at

the

cause
causa

expressed by saying
controlling force

with

Causa

time

same

according

efficient

(principium
also be

Bruno,

between
agreement
Bruno, Delia
Aurora, Vorrede.

Boehme,
III.

final

ground

world

Neo-Platonism

remarkable

f.) and
Aurora, Chap.

the

the

to

to

Boehme

(" Urgrund
with

that

"

Bruno).
thereby

into

Pr.

the

e.

the

ground.
fore-

U., II.

Renaissance

The

368

himself

is

of God

And

of

devoid

and

reason

view,

science,"but

"

be

as

been

shapes

and

rich

to

nature

he

works

artist who

is the

God

adds

unceasingly

life.
inmost

also,the

accordingly,for Bruno
who
can
apprehend

is

and

world,

his inner

out

Harmony

for him

as

Bruno

seeing, all-hearing,

analogy;

not

all-knowing,all-

all-tasting"spirit:and
all-smelling,

another

in Neo-

thought

the

of God

transcendence

it had

as

should

God

that

holds

Boehme

this

the

of

idea

the

yet

with

here, too, connected

Platonism.
force

creatural."

made

[Part IV.

essential nature

"the

but

nothing

is also

universe

the

Hence

Period.

Humanistic

it with

the

of the

nature
of

gaze

enthusiasm

poetic inventions Degli

apparent defects and imperfectionsof
odicy
He
needs
no
detail vanish
in the beauty of the whole.
specialthedown
it is the life of God, even
is perfectbecause
; the world
raise himself
to
to every
detail,and he only complains who cannot
The
of the whole.
a view
world-joy of the aesthetic Renaissance

(as does the philosopher in

Eroici
Furori), for him the

the

dialogues and

sings philosophicaldithyrambs

everything

carries

that

optimism

in Bruno's

writings.
it

before

universcdistic

prevails in

his

poetic

thought.

conceptionswhich lie
metaphysical fantasy in Bruno
2.

at the

The

Bouille,though
vivid

in his

the

raised

teachings
this the

principleof

reconciliation

their
had

of

Nolan

the

to

knew

contrasts,

degree

some

oppositorum

in

their

He

not

tic
artis-

to the

total

the

Charles

lost

restore.

to

harmonious

the

to

main

the

preserved by

how

coincidentia

in

source

been

had

expositionthey

Just

freshness.

only

whose

Cusanus,

Nicolaus

had

unfolding of

of this

basis

action of

opposing partialforces in the divine primitiveessence, but above all

he gave
to the
and the finite a far wider
conceptionsof the infinite
reaching significance.As regards the deity and its relation to the
God
essentiallyretained.
be appreall opposites,cannot
himself,-as the unity exalted above
hended
fore
therefinite attribiite
and
through any
or
qualification,
is unknowable
in his own
essence
(negative theology);
proper
time he is still thought as the inexhaustible,infinite
but at the same

world,

the

Neo-Platonic

the

world-force, as
and

"

"

unfolds

natura

naturata.

the

world

is

Eenaissance
in

Boehme,

That

purposefully and
This

general

; it is found

and

it could

doctrine

of

likewise

in

assume

with
an

in

identification

finallyalso

also

are

naturans, wliich

natura

itself

the

relations

the

the

change

in eternal

conformity
of

the

natural

essence

with
of

forms

law,

into

God

and

philosophyof

the

Paracelsus, in Sebastian Franck,

whole
body of the " Platonists."

extremely

Aurora, Chap.

naturalistic

II.

form, and could

Macrocosm

1, " 29.]

Chap.

Microcosm

and

Bruno.

lead to the denial of all transcendence, is proved

the

of

sum-total

the

naturata,

natura

creatures

claimed, but

not

fixed

earth

motion

well

as

them

through

of

that

f*

hand,

the

of

unlimitedness

; but

of the

had

well

true

in

above

such

Copernicus,which
authorities

system

of

could

furnish

its

and

definite

The

tradition

time.

own

regarded

like

the

reason

the

and

of

formation

that

he

; but

but
juxtaposition,
of the

fame

3.

While

and

in this

of

there

Stoic

doctrine

which

found

cosmical

in

powers.

Lucilio

Vanini

adventurer,wrote
(idmwandii
Nicolaus

1643).

the

man's
We

solar

decay

of worlds

dogmatic

the universe
about

out

and

in

forms

its central

conditions

destiny of

systems

as

universalism, with

an

threatened

not

and

as

to clear

dissolution.

mechanical
the

regarded

maintained

analogy
nature
see

this

between
the

to

its bold
the

claim

counterpoise in

effective

sum,

doctrine

by

the

cess
pro-

pulse-

flightinto spatial
fantasy entirely
the
and

macrocosm

Peripateticmicrocosm,
"

quintessence
reviving in the most
the

"

1692
(born 1585 at Naples, burned
^teriiuB Providentim
Amphitheatrum

reginm deoeque mortalium

Bevolutionibus
Copernicus, De

natural

the

of

All-life.

way

was

of

teaching

philosophy

moves

the

the

raised

having thought

chaotic

from

also

and

temporal boundlessness,

for its own,

of which

of the universe

by

of

organic living whole,

an

divine

one

is

condemned

again yields to

plurality of

as

growth

beat of the

universe,which

Epicurus had perhaps a share in

conception of a pluralityof worlds arising and
of Bruno's
it is the peculiarfeature
doctrine,

of this

the

each

life,grows

Democritus

regarded

for

Boehme

basis

the

on

was

; but

worlds,

formation, and

idea

basis

centre

as

Patrizzi
"

restriction

proper

familiar

anthropocentric idea of the world

of joint. Man, as
out
Ages became

all confessions

perishingagain

and

rational

position in

to be

for that

of countless

sun, leads

is

infinity

space

been

Copernican system to its end, both in natural

Bruno.
metaphysics,belongs to Giordano
He
developed from this system the theory that

and

"

"

The

Men
"

had

the

the

"

old

man's

cease

world.

its axis

sun

Middle

the

of the

centre

of

science.

earth, must

themselves

"

universe

"

Pythagoreans, perhaps, indeed,

victoriouslyproved hypothesis of the

the

view

ruled

the

as

the

the

only

ea]?th about

completely new
peculiarto modern
which

about

to

as

the

and

other

^^thecharacteristic

its revolution

and

Cusanus

to

agitativeand

and
more
incomparably clearer form
conception gained an
by the Copernican theory. The spherical form of
significance

This

the

the

on

"

rather

the

by

of Vanini.^

boastfullypolemical doctrine
For

369

arcanis

Orbium

of

the

varied

Toulouse), a dissolute
(Lyons, 1615) and De
(Paris,1616).
Ccelestium
(Nuremberg,
at

370

The

Eenaissance

the

Eenaissance

during

forms

knowledge

is almost

division

furnishing

for

scheme

Feriod.

triple

connection

in

with

One

metaphysical anthropology.

theory of

Neo-Platonic

the

IV.

[Pakt

entirely the

it controls

period, and moreover

universallyauthoritative

this

at

Humanistic

it,

know

can

this

in which

was
expressed
is,is the mode
only what one himself
is
far
he
the all.
knows
the all in so
as
by Valentine Weigel : man
This was
Mysticism. But this
a pervading principle of Eckhart's
As body, man
took on a definite form.
idealism
belongs to the
now

material

world

following him

in finest and

things

is of

he

sidereal

"

of

life,he

whose

he

image

A
which

all

found

this

applicationof
of

knowledge

himself,is

intellectual

of

able

of

is

being,
know

to

divine

spark,"
highest principle

the

conscious

become

to

As

he

"

divine

the

nature

is.

abstract

more

able

is also

this account

Finally,as

partialmanifestation

on

is therefore

origin,and

in all its forms.

spiraculum vitoe,as

a,s

corporealworld.
"

all material

of

essence

Just

form.

compact
the

world

intellectual

the

most

himself, as Paracelsus, and

teach, the

Boehme

to understand

competent
however,

and

Weigel

within

unites

he

indeed,

in

the

the

world

principle,according to
in man's
knowledge of

same

is rooted
of

thought

Campanella, involving

not

the

separationof world-strata
(although this too is present
categories of all reality. Man
Campanella), but the fundamental
is the thought here too
knows
in the proper
sense
only himself,

Neo-Platonic

in

"

"

and

all else

knows

from

only

and

but
perception (sentire),

is
the

into

states

learn

by experience

know

we

something

ourselves
this
ties

which

limited

it follows
"

of

all

us.

inasmuch
will

and

as

In

this

we

are,

that

known

doctrine

knowledge,

power,

as

that

that

things, but only

God

in

and

of

they belong
all-powerful,
all-knowing,and
all

to

knowledge

of

God

the

find

we

beings.

are

we

something,

further, that
will

if

do

can

we

of other

and

however,

process,

something, and

by corresponding functions

and
reality,

degree, he is
4. The

that

set

knowledge

All

the

perceive, not

we

these

himself.

through

"

From

primali-

unlimited

an

all-good.
the

world

is

ultimatelylocked up in man's knowledge of himself, is nevertheless

only an epistemologicalinference from the more
ical
general metaphysto be
heldprincipleaccording to which the divine nature
was
in each
of its finite manifestations.
fully and entirely contained
Bruno

Giordano
smallest

as

individual

individual

well

as

the

the Cusan

the

Each

also

in

holding

greatest,as truly the

being as that
thing,and not

world-substance.
nature

follows

of

the

universe.

merely

without

man,

vital

God

principleof

"

mirror

exception is according to

deity itself,but

each

in

its

is the
the

accordingly every

And

becomes

that

own

way,

"

of the

its essential

which

is

372

The

and

led to

so

the

Renaissance

the

with
law

their

or

of action

mode

back

numbers

and

di the

corpuscles
in the

old

and
Plato.
The
by Democritus
by their
physical realityare determined
of experience
qualitativedeterminations

this.

their

order

for the
The

origin of

beginnings

of

originalin

poses
presup-

principle of multiplicity.^
again make their appearance

the

as

elements

physicalworld, and thereby

the Aristotelian-Stoic
doctrine
of the qualitatively
determined
forces,
of the inner Forms
of things, of the qualitatesoccultce,
was
displaced.
As
this latter doctrine
had
the
formerly gained the victory over
principle of Pythagoras, Democritus, and Plato, so it must in turn
of the most
yield to this : and herein lies one
important preparations
as

and

of

combination

The

number-relations

and

essential

themselves

assert

modified

the
to

spatialforms
the

of mathematics

of

and

be traced

Thus

held, the

as

constituents

geometricalform,
must

it

workings

Pythagorean form,
ultimate

to which,

traced.^
the

Here

IV.

puscles.
inseparableatom-complexes, the corin
assumed
the
atoms
tion
connecthemselves,
theory
and
mathematical
form
an
original
unchangeable

the

is also to be
5.

[Part

consists of

action,to which,

of

Period.

corpuscular theory, according

so-called

corporealworld
In

Humanistic

modern
this

the

natural

already with Nicolaus Cusanus ;

but
now
they receive an essential strengthening from the same
from
which
their
in his
source
thought is explained:
presence
namely, from the old literature,and in particularfrom the NeoPythagorean writings. Just for this reason, however, they still
have
the fantastic metaphysical garb of
ber-symbolism.
number-mysticisni and numThe
of

God

things is

according

mathematical

and

example,

found

of

Nature

of

God,
in the

from

But

just

of

in numbers

an

; all life is

as

mony
har-

arranged by
unfolding

an

of

in

of

procedure
the

Bouille," is again
of

is

All

; the

antiquity, so here, this

arbitraryinterpretationof conceptions,

construction

of the transformation

fantasies

number

speculation. The

the

attempt

is written

number-system.

and

at first as

mysterious

the

measure

relations.

from

process

that

is unfolded

thought
forth

to

book

are

science.

unityinto

the

of

the

Trinity on,
to

be

"

conceived

number-system.

world
as, for

the

as

Such

followed

like Cardan
Eeuchlin
and
Pico.
by men
added
further
the mythological creations of the Jewish
Cabbala.
6. Thus
the
principlewhich was
destined
fruitful
for the most
its entrance
into the new
development made
world
wrapped again

in

the

Cf.

were

old

K.

metaphysical fantasticalness,
and

Lasswitz, Cfeschichte

des

Atomismus,

I. pp.
rr

Leips. 1890).
2

Cf

for this

G. Bruno,
especially

De

TripliciMinima.

fresh

359

forces

ffl.CHamburg
v

were

and
"=

needed

stripoff

to

of

idea

things

with

and

to

so

the

it

guide

But

this

connected

Astrology, with

of

of

dreams

spirits,the

elements

of the

most

luxuriant

bloom.

with
all the

the

and

Stoic

Cardan

help

laws

and

the

arts,

excited
of

the
of

age,

the

in the

forces, it

of

advantage

the

stars

forces

wrappings

Neo-Platonists,

spirits,as
was

teriously
mys-

aim

proper

space

mystical
with

of these

Nature

in secret

the

arts, showed

an

tions
conjura-

illuminations

them

and

to

into

task

in

nection
con-

adopted
science,
magic

secret

the

of

conceded

Campanella

of the

all

then

were

Agrippa of Nettesheim
possibilityof rational

vocation

might

its

"

brought

operations,and

and

life,the

ecstatic state,

divination

all seriousness

in his idea

with

in the

Eeuchlin
;

human

upon

necromancy,

Neo-Platonic

and

Physicians especially,whose
course

of

against
in

proceeded

unusually wide

mining
deterthem

world.
demanded

interference

an

permitted to expect special

seem

inclination

toward

these

magic

cine.
medidesired
to reform
point of view Paracelsus
the
the sympathy
of all things, from
He
also proceeds from
of the universe
a
a"
system. He finds
spirituallyconnected
vital prinof disease
in the injuring of the individual
ciple,
essence
with
whereseeks
the means
and
the Archeus, by foreign powers,

arts.

From

to free

sorts

of

with

case

of

course

magic

knowledge

dominance

number-mysticism

seek

to

the

must

the

signs,

Pico

scepticalattacks

order

the

the

Here, too, a higher

man.

predictions of persons

these

idea

spiritualisation
in

also received

internal

its influences

interpretationof

in the

by

To

subject by knowledge and will. Thus magic became

subjectof thought in the Eenaissance, and science again
itself with the task
of bringing system into superstition.

concerned

an

of

efforts,

tradition.

fanciful

impulse

was

as

other

quite

interfere

to

will

was

right working.

conjurations and

Nature

thought

system

the

373

these

favourite

arts.

the

regarded

was

with

its

Neo-Pfetonic

fantastic

mastering

the life of Nature

in

with

superstition.If, as

of ancient

means,

according to

of

in it.

to make

impulse

the

it for

mingled

the

also

Paracelsus.

free

origin in the
psychical life,to

before

thought

working

it became

mysterious

hovered

thought

covering, and

universal

Microcosm

and

their

Nature, belonged

of

"

had

likewise

which

tMs

however,

Meanwhile,
the

Macrocosm

1, " 29.]

Chap.

of useful

strengthen

by

the

Archeus.

thus

the

arts

all its fantastic

results

extended

this

Since

corresponding composition

magical drinks, tinctures,and

brewed, an"
spite of

and
about

come

of

this

of

alchemy

other
were

secret
set

in

of

latter

materials, all

remedies

must

motion, which,

performances, ultimatelyyielded a

for chemical

knowledge

in the

process

course

of

be
in

number

ibly
its incred-

pursuits.

In this connection

the

fundamental

metaphysical presupposition

The

374

of the

also

be

of

strengthening
and

diseases

that

and

power,

efforts of

this

possession of

the

the

afford

vital

that ther

forces

; and

nourished

magic

the

lend

would

secret

desirable

most

thought

remedy for th
against a]
panacea

all the

of

macrocosmic

the

with

nection

whatever,

maintenance

the

for

[Part

efficacious,universal

Areheus

every

itself to the

led of

simple,most

Period.

Humanistic

of all vital force

unity

must

Renaissance

All

treasures.

coi

the

hop

highest magi
this

to

was

"

to heal all diseases

philosopher'sstone
; it was
into gold, conjure all spiritsinto the powe
all substances
transmute
it was
which
the
And
thus
of its possessor.
though
purposes
of alchemy, were
be satisfied in the ventures
would
ultimatelyver
the

achieved-

by

real and

sober.

"

magical view of Kature into the subtl

Mysticism constitutes the peculiarfeat
religioussystem of German
of Soehme's
ure
philosophy. He, too, is seized by the thought tha
philosophy should be knowledge of Nature ; but the deep earnest
which
of the religiousneed
ness
lay at the basis of the Germai
Eeformation
tion

of

did

he

sought

tended
and

ism,

aid of

allow

not

him

to solve

Peripateticsystem.
adopted

will,but

was

elements

many
able

not

into

work

to

these

of the

ests

of his time

to

complete separationof empirical

similar

with

side
such

true

Augustinian
real

thoughts, and
in

material

so

came

research

of

separa
at hi;

from

effort;

Protestant

science

new

by the
produce

to

enough

the

form

also

and
Christianity,

of

fixed

of

aimed

the

Similar

again.

one

dogmatic,

the

with

science,customary

into

two

the

Taurellus

philosophy

purpose,

natural

problems
metaphysics, throve

Christian

fessional

the

transcend

to

hoped

to work

himself

to content
and

religiousmetaphysics

time, and
which

of this

introduction

The

7.

with

of the
a

officia

supra-con

instinct
doctrine
from

thi

for hi
of

thi

inter

the

ultimatelyrathe
all metaphysics

the

mystical movement, which

gre7
with the popular opposition againstthe new
the
all
mon
orthodoxy
in proportion as the latter dried
and
Thi
within
itself.
hardened
mystical doctrines also remained
suspended in vague generalityunti
the

teaching

and

then

In

went

process

on

of Paracelsus

completely by

Boehme's

doctrine

brought

was

be

known,

if

Neo-Platonism

follows

one

them,

at first

by Weigel

Boehme.

religious colouring. Here, too, man

from
and by which
the bodily,the
can

to

the

"

again a completely
regarded as the microcosn

assumes

is

sidereal,"and

right illumination

the
and

divine

world
mis

is not

led

by learned theories.
Self-knowledge,
nevertheless, is religiou
knowledge, which finds the oppositionof good and evil as a funda
mental

trait of human

world;

it rules

in

The

nature.

heaven

as

on

same

earth,

opposition fills the

and

since

God

whol

is the

sol

the coincidentia

extends

of

ground
with

darkness,

of

his anger.

Being

within

in this latter

Thus

has

to

of

the

of attraction

repulsion

and

to those

the eternal

portrayal of
of
the

which

of

process
and

senses,

with

ends

the

(" Vergafftsein") for

to the

man

this

full of

is

dilettantism.
become

is

It

of the

master

with

spiritual essence

creature, with

of

attempt

interests

the

older

While

Mysticism retreat, with

with

Eckhart,

the

of

Eckhartian

passing was

regarded

as

strugglingof
8.

In

from
that

all these

was

Nature

sought

between
the

ways

could

took

on

inevitable

was

acquired,nor
the

will

knowing

the
so

process,

of

form

long

of
as

the

inadequacy

As
of

in its
with

the

of the

of

spiritual

profundity and
Mysticism to
first still

the

science
from

into

an

point
stand-

the

of

features

background.
in its

arising and

it is rather

Boehme

older

forms

of

Nature

metaphysics.
for

which
for

This

knowledge

the

it had

of

itself

elaboration

prerequisitefor this,it was

necessary
and
metaphysical theories,
putting them
a

the

to

devotion

knowledge

of facts
as

and

separation of philosophy

desire

the

provide neither a material

new
conceptionsto serve

this material.

the

that

was

history

evil.

and

good

result

dogmatic theology always

procedure

of

the

this

To

infatuation

into the

more

both

from

Lucifer

science,and

Boehme,

world-process

of

intellectualistic

deepest religious life,the

and

prophetic discourse,

in

of

forces

the

mystical

tentativelyuncertain
raising natural
step toward
this is made
idealistic metaphysics. But because
of the

material

restoration

the

"qualia"

or

proud

unique mingling

modern

the

Boehme

passes

perceptible

the

the

forms

functions.

fall

the

Paracelsus.

attached

the

of

in

religious

warmth,

is then

things

presented by
the

and

will,

everywhere

of

the

from

of

or

thus

is

in

dark

revealed

forms,

intellectual

overcoming

deep conviction, with

the

system

light

ultimatelywith

deity,and

All

nature.

the

of

begins
the

rendering

from

fundamental

seven

ascend

and
of

nature

earthly world,

the

sensible

of the

process

effort

the

nection
con-

the

become

the

only

self-revelation

the

and

those

to

revealed

how

the

carry

world

constructed, which

on

be

can

thus

cosmogonic,

finds

in

only

theogonic development

(" Qualen "), are

there

revealed

object,attains

development

kingdoms

three

limit,and

portrays

physical categoriesof

antithesis into the

Boehme

urgent impulse {"Drang"),

the

the

also.

^If-revelationof

be

can

Boehme

which

While

into

immediately

shown

its

that

world.

itself into the

the

for

how

divine wisdom, and

over

the

375

him

extreme

goodness

Thus

him

itself

only

has

which

to the

light

God's

so

in

sought

necessityof
As

Boehme.

self-generationof God, describing

eternal

ground

the

Ground.

with

connection

be

oppositorum

duality in

divine Primordial

the

Microcosm

and

all,this opposition must

of

cause

the

Macrocosm

1, " 29.]

"hap.

to

see

aside,

The Renaissance

376

Period.

Humanistic

[Part n

to

modern

rendered

was

of

tendencies

the

thought by

service

This

empiricism.

to

turn

the

to

genesis o

and

Nominalism

Terminism

part, also, by the rhetorical and grammatical opposition to thi

science of the schools, and also by the revival of ancient Scepticism
in

The

writings

Ludovico

of

Vives

these

various

of

these

endeavours

importance

place of the
metaphysics, a demand
but

the

remarks
about

callyset
but

without

the

"

line

"

natural

logic

Further,
could
external

had

thought

this

to

ultimately only

with

could

It

Nature.

speaks

be

of

scientifi

experiment
Quite

if the

the

im

artiiicial

great hue
Eamistic

lief

so

subtle

and

cry

fancies

o\

in their stead.

put

only

should

with

attacked

were

empiricism,justby

move

And

Sanchez.

with

this

for the

by experience

its nature.

deep insight into

very

method
syllogistic
of

themselves

; he

uncertain

and

fashion

nominalistic

in which

manner

meagre

later time

ties of the
this

are

any

at

case

to the

as

commoi

arbitraryconceptions o:

and

apprehensionof things

intuitive

mediate,

is

in

is made

as

also tha
they prove
essentiallynegative in char

words

obscure

In

acter.

regarded

but

efforts ;

starting-pointfor
the

be

must

virtue

of its

uncertain

very

step

the

deny

not

originfrom
in

the

ism,
Termin-

presence
of

background

oj

Occam's

held to be, not a copy of a thing

Sense-perceptionwas
of the subject corresponding to the presence
oi
inner state
but an
the
thing. These
scruples could be only strengthened by the
of the
the doctrine
theories
of ancient
Scepticism,for this added
and
and the consideration
of the relativity
deceptionsof the senses
this empiricism of the Humanists
change of all perceptions. Hence
dualism.

also threw

now

itself

sallyregarded
fortunate

where

like

men

turns
How

much
he

upon

inner

than

surer

speaks

the

Nizolius, Montaigne,

perception,which

univer

was

perception. Vives is mos1

language of empirical psychology

and

outer

Sanchez

shared

this

view,

anc

practicalsignificance.Strenuously as all these urge

looking at things themselves, outer perception ultimatelj
out comparatively empty.

Charron
toward

as

more

gave

it

little certain

this

of

and
itself,

little fruitful

in

principles

time,
empiricism
by its twc
main
in Italy,
Telesio and Campanella. The former
representatives
of the most
one
stirringand influential opponents of Aristotelianism
is everywhere famous
in his own
time
even
(and also with Brum
and
demanded
most
Bacon), as he who
strongly that scienc(
H(
should build only on the basis of facts perceivedby the senses.
founded
in Naples an academy which
Cosen
he called the Academia
was

at

that

how

is shown

best

of

all

"

tina,after
toward

the

the

name

cultivation

of

his
of

the

home, and,
sense

for

in

fact, contributed

empirical natural

mucl
science

Macrocosm

1, " 29.]

Chap.

if

But

leap

hastily
the

fashion

are

set

to

to

over

of

forth

conflict

the

in

The

and

He

Oampanella.

observations

principles

quite
the

and

forces,

the

most

of

whose
be

to

are

almost

after

moist-cold

out

life

appears

teaches

principia,"

few

microcosmic

contradiction

inner

from

dry-warm

the

377

propria

fundamental

opposing

macrocosmic

same

which

metaphysical

Ionics.

two

"juxta

theories

general

Oampanella.

Nature

treats

physical

ancient

the
This

he

most

the

as

both

still

how

see

genuinely

by

met

are

we

look

we

Microcosm

and

plained.
ex-

more

nent
promi-

pronounced

ualism.
sens-

All

recollection,
forms
into

of

that

feeling.

all

Thus

Into

of

Neo-Platonic

imperfect,

So

cling

he

then

is

between

picture

of
do

to

the

the

also

the

long-wonted

the

beginnings

in
of

the

with
he

quite

that

of
the
in

arranged
habits
the

Nominalist

of

new

over

not

of

the

inner

experience,
and

an

extended

scholastic

esis
antith-

following
the

perfect

variegated

successive

metaphysical
research.

to

ient
percip-

macrocosmus

which,

spreads

of

tilts

(cf. above)

non-ens),

and

even

modified

but

states

analogy

identified

world-system

the

apergu

draws

two

of

starting-point

simple

(ems

good

too

feeling

him
sensualism

also,

case

[sentire)

for

are

far

of

Non-being

and

everywhere

his

takes

example,

tenaciously

but

upon

this

and

Being

is

"feeling"

his

he

principle

builds

ontology.

is

he

the

following

microcosmus,

in

But

perception

him

inference

idealism

himself.
and

for

and

judgment,
that

psychological

know

is

knowledge

the
and
physical
meta-

strata.

thought

II.

CHAPTER

NATXJEAL

THE

Damiron,
Kuno

Essai

Fisclier,Francis
de

Ch.

Natural

science
modern

with

the

aid of

this

position being

down

the

evolution

in

general

content,

view
But

be

to

there

for

indeed

of

sought,

not

the

where

so

of

course

of

treatment

points

procedure

in

of

both

of

fruitful

of the

and
oppositionagainstScholasticism,

In

of the

this

modern

consists

and

beginning
the

the

must

systems

theory

the

as

In

"material"
of

respect

from

ancient

former

created.

transitional

of

outset

philosophy.

an

The

naive, and

was

develop

this way

to

with

ophy,
philos-

the

progress

and

so

new

of the task and

of the

out

grew
of the

excited

out

of

those

essentia]

metaphysical

former

difference

is

this is

between

reflective in its

as

since
self-explaining,

traditions
the

which

the

in

philosophymay

particular the

seventeenth

be characterised
378

as

latter

greater number

modern

knowledge

thereby

humanistic

philosophyto seek the path to the

problems by consideringthe science of method

to its

this

which

pointsof
practicalproblems.
in all
thought were

and

it is characteristic of

; and

Galileo

period.

the

latter

out

ment
develop-

and

of modern

which,

modern

science

of

philosophy are
conceptions with new

conceptions

new

from

modern

theoretical

departure

then

movement

Kepler

material

new

development
independence
and

reference

new

of

the

far the

so

evolution
in

out
reflection,

permanently

conditioned

fantasies

In
from

events

much

own

general

content.

science

upon

method,

the

itself the

series

resulted

at first the

cases

and

natural

in methodical

as

time,

of

is not

scientific

constantlyproceeds.
the positivebeginnings of
reason

this

Tor

form

of

determine

to

both

is yet that

but

of

use

able

method

to Newton

Baconjusqu'a

Angleterredepuis

en

1875.

conscious

regards

as

of

Fhilosophie

la

Paris, 1846.

ed.,Leips. 1875.

2d

Nachfolger.

seine

Steele.

17^

au

acquired its decisive influence

philosophy by first gaining its

of

thought

de

vols.,Paris,

Fhilosophie

la

und

Bacon

Histoire

Rfimusat,

Locke.

de

VHistoire

sur

PERIOD.

SCIENCE

real
and

of
or

the

century with

strifeof methods.

the Renaissance.

Philosophyof

380
publisliedin

with

1842-56)

vols. (Florence,

15

[Pabt

IV.

biographicalsupplementary

which
; among
by Arrago.
and
the
the
dialogue on the Ptolemaic
II Saggiatore (1623) and
Copernican systems (1632). Cf. H. Martin, Galileo, les droits de la science
des sciences
et la methode
physiques (Paris,1668) ; P. Natorp, Gal. als PhiloNewton
(1642-1727) comes
Monatsh.,
1882,
pp. 193 ff.). Isaac
soph. {Philos.
of his Fhilosophice Naturalis
Principia
into consideration
chiefly on account
by Wolfers, 1872) and
Mathematica
(1687; 2d ed. by Cotes, 1713; German
notice
the chemist, liobert
Boyle
his Optics (1704)." Of his contemporaries we
De Ipsa
Formarum
et
0
Qualitatum
o
Chemista
;
rig
Scepticus
(1626-1691;
;
(1629-1695; De Causa
Huyghens
Natura), and the Netherlander, Christian
Gr'amtatis;De Lumine).
Sciences
by
(Lond. 1837 ; German
Cf. W.
Whewell,
History of the Inductive
der Menschder
Geschichte
Die
F.
E.
Epochen
Apelt,
Littrow, Leips. 1839 ff.)
;
der
der
Geschichte
Pnncipien
heit
(Jena, 1845) ; E. Duhring, Kritische
2d
des
ed.,
Iserlohn,
Materialismus,
A.
,(?pscft.
Mechanik
Lange,
(Leips.1872) ;
Lond., 4th ed., 1892];
1873
by E. C. Thomas,
[Eng. tr. History of Materialism
K. Lasswitz, Gesch. der Atomistik, 2 vols. (Hamburg and Leips. 1890)
contain

11-U

Vols.

volume

Fisiao-Mathematiea

the

notice

we

born
in
Albans, was
reigns of Elizabeth
of politicalopposition, he
was
proceeded
and
James
I., until, as the result
the
and
convicted
of
position of Lord
High
deposed from
venality,
against,
is that by Spedding
of his works
latest edition
died 1626.
The
Chancellor.
He
Francis

1561,

and

Bacon,

studied

in

(Lond.

Heath

of

Baron

Cambridge,

1857

Verulam,

had

Viscount

brilliant

ff.). Aside

career

the

from

of

under

Essays

St.

the

{Sermones Fideles)the

Scientiarum
(1623 ; originally
writings are De Dignitate et Augmentis
Bacon
the Proficience
Francis
under
the
The
Two
Books
on
of
published
title,
and
Organon
and Advancementof
Human,
1605) and Novum
Learning, Divine
under
the title, Oogitata et Visa, 1612).i Cf.
Scientiarum,
(1620 ; originally
Ch.
de R6musat,
influence
Bacon, Sa vie, son
temps, sa philosophie et son
Fr.
B.
und
seine
H.
Heussler,
geschichtliche
jours
nos
(Paris,
1854)
;
jusqu'a
series,Edin.
Stelhmg (Breslau,1889) ; [Bacon, by J. Nichol, in Blackwood's
of the Novum
1888 : Ed.
Organum by Fowler, Oxford, 1878].
Ken6
Descartes
(Cartesius),born 1596, in Touraine, and educated in the
took part in
for a soldier and
Jesuit school
at La
Fleohe, was
originallydestined
of 1618-1621
in the service
of various
the campaigns
leaders, but then betook
ent
himself
for the first time
for many
to Paris, and
later,withdrew
years, at differhe kept in the
places in the Netherlands, into a. scientific solitude, which
After
his doctrine
controversies
in which
most
diligent and careful manner.
had
become
involved
this place
in that country had
rendered
at the universities
of residence
Christine
of Queen
disagreeable,he accepted, in 1649, an invitation
of Sweden
have
to
he died
works
the following year.
His
Stockholm, where
collected
in Latin
in the Amsterdam
been
in French
editions (1650, etc.),and
lated
by V. Cousin
(11 vols., Paris, 1824 ff.); the important writings have been transinto German
Fischer
by Kuno
(Mannheim, 1863) [Eng. tr. of the Method,
and
Selections
Meditations
from the Principles by J. Veiteh, Edin. and Lond.,
1st ed., 1850-52, 10th
1878,
ed., 1890 ; of the Meditations
by Lowndes, Lond.
also in Jour.
Spec. Phil., Vol. IV., 1870, by W. R. Walker; and of the Bules for
the Direction
from
the Med.^s, The
of the Mind, with selections
World, The
works
Passions
of the Soul, etc., by H. A. P. Torrey, N.Y.
1892]. The main
Monde
Le
Traite de la Lumiere
are
ou
(posthumously printed, 1654) ; Essays,
them
the Discours
de la Methode
1637, among
and
the Dioptrics; Meditationes
de Prima
savants
Philosophia, 1641, supplemented by the objections of various
and
Descartes'
replies ; Principia Philosophim, 1644 ; Passions
de I'Ame, 1650.
Cf
F. Bouillier,Histoire
de la Philosophie Cartesienne
(Paris,1854) ; X. Schmid"main

'

It

is well

discovery
To

fuse

it, but

that

two

in any

known

that

Lord

Bacon

very
wrote

recently

great literaryphenomena
case

mistake

has

much

noise

Shakspere's works
been

into

one

made

has

been

also, in his

"

over

leisure

the

hours.

have
something alluring in
may
be
it would
For
in the person.

more
probable that Shakspere had incidentally composed
philosophy. [The Germans
to take this "noise"
seem
much
than
Shakspere's countrymen.
Tr.]

much

made

the
more

Baconian

seriously

Natural

.Chap. 2.]

Science Period.

sohwarzenberg, B. D. und seine Beform

G. Glogau in Zeitschr.
f. Fhilos., 1878, pp.
theorie (Marburg, 1882). [Descartes by

381

der

PhUosophie
(Nordlingen, 1859) ;
S. ; P. Natorp, D.'s ErkenntnissJ. P. Mahafiy in Blackwood's
series,
Brit. ; H. Sidgwick
m"nc.
Wallace, Art. Descartes
Edin. and Phila., 1881 ; W.
in Jour.
Spec. Phil., XVII.
in Mind, Vol. VII. ; Rhodes
leaders
of modern
two
these
Between
philosophy stands Thomas
Hobbes,
who
to France
at Oxford,
was
over
1588, educated
bom
early drawn
by his
returned
thither, was
personally acquainted
studies, and frequently afterwards
the
Cartesian
with
circle,and died 1679.
Bacon, Gassendi, Campanella, and
1839 ft.
Complete edition of his works, English and Latin by Molesworth, Lond.
iirst treatise, Elements
and
Political
His
lished
pubof Law, Natural
(1639), was
Nature
and
De
parts. Human
Corpore
by his friends in 1650, in two
He published previously Elementa
Politico.
Philosophim de Cive, 1642 and 1647,
7%e Matter, Form,
and further
Leviathan
and Authority of Government,
1651.
or
is given in the Elementa
pore,
A comprehensive statement
Philosophic, I.,De Cor1668
Cf.
II., De Homine,
(both previously in English in 1655 and 1658.
in Vierteljahrschr. f. w. Philos., 1879
ff. [Hohhes, by G. C. EobertP. Tonuies
in Blackwood's
son
series, Edin. and Phil. 1886, also Art. Hobbes, in Enc.
Brit, by same
author.]
Of the Cartesian
ists of
ed.

are
(cf.Bouillier,op. cit.")

School

Port-Koyal,

from

209

circles

whose

came

the

Logique

noted

to be
ou

Vart

the

Jansen-

deperiser
(1662),

(1612-1694), and Pierre Nicole

(1625-1695) ; also the
Pensees
la
sur
Meligion
(1623-1662 ;
; cf. the monographs
by J. G. Dreydorff, Leips. 1870 and 1875), and Pierre Poiret
(1646-1719 ; De
Eruditione
Triplici,Solida Superficiariaet Falsa.
The
development to Occasionalism
proceeds gradually in Louis de la Forge
ris
{ Traite de I'EspritHumain.
1666) Clauberg(1622-1665 ; De Conjunctione Corpodu
et Anim(B
in Homine)
Corps et de VAme,
Cordemoy
{Le Discernement
1666), but finds its complete development independently of these thinkers in
Arnold
and
in Loewen
Geolincz
Leyden).
(1625-1669; a university teacher
His main
works
the Ethics
are
(1665; 2d ed. with notes, 1675); Logic, 1662,
and Methodus, 1663.
ed.
of his works
New
by J. P. N. Land
(1st vol., The
Hague, 1891). Cf. E. Pfleiderer,A. G. als Hauptvertreter der occ. Metaphysik
und
der Hseghen,
G. Mtude
Ethik
sur
sa
Vie, sa
(Ttibingen, 1882) ; V. van
PhUosophie et ses Ouvrages (Liittich,1886).
Prom
the Oratorium
founded
by Cardinal Berulle, a friend of Descartes, to
which
Gibieui
also belonged (De Libertate
Dei
et Creaturm,
Paris, 1630), went
forth Nicole
His
main
De
la Becherche
de la
Malebranche
work,
(1638-1715).
la Beligion in
la Metaphysique et sur
Virite,appeared 1675, the Entretiens
sur
1688.
Coll. works
by J. Simon
(Paris, 1871).
in the commuBaruch
born
in 1632
at Amsterdam
nity
(Benedict de) Spinoza,
bf Portuguese Jews, and
this community
account
later
on
expelled from
of his opinions, lived in noble
land,
places in Holsimplicity and solitude at various
and
died
He
had published an
at The
exposition of the
Hague 1677.
Cartesian
philosophy with an independent metaphysical appendix (1663) and
the
his death
Tractatus Theologico-politicus (anonymously in 1670). After
Geometrico
appeared in his Opera Posthuma
(1677),his main work, Ethica More
Demonstrata,the Tractatus Politicus, and the fragment De Intellectus Emendatione.
His correspondence
and his recently discovered
youthful work, Tractatus
by Anton

Arnauld

Mystics, Blaise

Pascal

(brevis)de
On

the

Deo

et

Homine

ejusque

Felicitate, also

come

into

consideration.

latter cf. Chr.

Sigwart (Ttibingen,
1870). The best edition of his works
is that by Van
Vloten
Land
and
(2 vols.,Amsterdam, 1882 f.). Cf. T. Camerer,
Die Lehre
Sp.'s (Stuttgart,1877). [Spinoza, by J. Caird, Edin. 1888 ; Spinoza
1883 ; also in Types of Ethical
by Martineau, Lond.
Theory, Oxford, 1886 ; P.
1880 ; Seth, Art. Spinoza, in Enc.
Pollock,Spinoza, His Life and Phil., Lond.
Brit. ; Arts, in Jour.
and
Spec. Phil., Vols. 11 and 16, by Morris
Dewey ; Eng.
tr. of prin. works
by Elwes, Bohn
Lib., 1884, of the Ethics by White, Lond.
1883,
and
of Selections by Pullerton, N.Y.
1892.]
Of philosophical writers
the movement

Joachim

Jung

among

the

in
two

(1587-1657;

who
to the train of
attached
themselves
civilised peoples of the West
to be mentioned
are
Logica Hamburgiensis, 1638); cf. G. E. Guhrauer,

Germany

J.

Renaissance

The

382

J.

und

Erhard

Weigel,

the

of

teacher

(1661-1708 ; Medicina

hausen

1859);

Tub.
and

Leibniz
Mentis

Science

Natural

(Stuttg.and

Zeitalter

sein

Period.

[Part

Jena

mathematician,

the

Puffendorf

; Walther

von

Prxcepta

Inveniendi

sive Artis

(1632-1694; under

IV.

Tschirn-

Generalia,

the

pseudonym
by
publicce GermaniccB,
Naturm
et Gentium', London,
1672).
; De Jure
Leibniz
belongs in this period, not only in point of time, but also as regards
other
interests
of his metaphysics, vfhile with
the motives
the origination and
into the age of the Enlightenon
ment
of his incredibly many-sided nature, he ranges
this. Part "V. Here, therefore, we have to consider principallyhis
; of. on
methodological and metaphysical writings : De Principio Individui, 1663 ; De
Samuel

1687), and

Amsterdam,

De

Monzambano,
H.'Bresslau, Berlin, 1870
Severinus

ComUnatoria,

Arte

1666

; Nova

Puffendorf

Statu

1667, German

Bei

Methodus

pro

Maximis

et

Minimis,

1684

; De

Philosopkieo, 1684 (of.A. Trendelenburg, Hist.

Primm
Philosophic
Emendatione,\mi\
Philos., III. 1 ff.); De
Beitrdge zur
connected
Eclaircissements
the three
de la Nature, 1695, with
Systeme Nouveau
Nature
de
la
et de la
the
1696
also
the
1714,
Principes
with
Monadologie,
it,
;
the
extended
his
of
correspondence.
Among
and
a
part
Grace, 1714,
great
edition
excellent
by J. E. Erdmann
editions
of his philosophical writings the
lin,
(7 vols.,Berbeen
surpassed by that of C. J. Gerhardt
(Berlin,1840) has now
whole
cf.
L.
EntFeuerbach,
On
the
Darstellung,
system as a
1875-91).
Philos.
der Leibnizischen
(Ansbach, 1837), A. Nourisson,
wicklung und Kritik
der L.'schen
Mode L. (Paris, 1860); E. W'endt, Die
La
Entmcklung
Philos.
Eine
Darst.
der
neue
nadenlehre
bis 1695
(Berlin,1886). [E. Dillmann,
Scientia

Universali

sen

Calculo

"

L.''schen
On

Monadenlehre,

the

historical

and

Leips. 1891.

See

systematic relation
den
Zusammenhang

also

the

of the

lit.on

p.

systems

444.]
to

one

another

H.

Spinoztsmus mit der cartes.

Leibniz^sehe
Lehre
der prdstabilirtenHarmonie
Die
Philos.
von
mit friiheren Philosophemen
in ihrem
(ib. 1822) ; C. SchaarZusammenhang
de Careil, Leibniz,
Toucher
A.
und
schmidt, Descartes
Spinoza (Bonn, 1850) ;
Geulincx
Descartes
et Spinoza (Paris, 1863) ; E. Pfleiderer,L. und
(Ttib.1884);
und
E. Zeller, Sitz.-Ber. d. Berliner
Akad, 1884, pp. 673 ft. ; FtTonnies, Leibniz
fl.; L. Stein, Leibniz
und
in Philos.
Monatsh
Hobbes
Spinoza
; 1887, pp. 357
(Berlin,1890). [E. Caird, Art Oartesianism, in Eno. Brit., reprinted in Vol. 2
and
N.Y.
1892 ; Saisset's
of his Essays, Lond.
Modern
Pantheism.']
C.

W.

Slgwart, Ueber
(Tiib.1816) and

des

Die
Vorldufer
philosophy of law (cf.G. v. Kaltenborn,
der
R.
und
Litteratur
Gesch.
Mohl,
v.
Hugo
Grotius, Leips. 1848; and
Macchiavelli
Staatswissenschaften, Erlangen, 1855-58) belong Nicolo
(14691527 ; n Principe, Discorsi
sulla prima
decade
di Tito Livio ; [Works, tr. by C.
E. Detmold, Boston, 1883.] Thomas
More
(1480-1535; De Optimo BeipuUicm
Insula
Statu sive de Nova
Utopia, 1516); Jean Bodin
(1530-1597); SixLivresde
1577 ; an
from
la Bepublique,
the
extract
given by
Heptaplomeres has been
Gentilis
Guhrauer, Berlin, 1841) ; Albericus
(1551-1611 ; De Jure Belli, 1588) ;
Johannes
Althus
(1557-1638 ; Politica, Groningen, 1610, of. O. Gierke, TJnters.
deutsch.
Staats-u.
z.
de Groot
Bechtsgesch., Breslau, 1880); Hugo
(1583-1645;
Jure
De
Belli et Pads,
1645; cf. H. Luden, H. G., Berlin, 1806).
Of
sides
the Protestants
who
of the
be named, betreat
philosophy of law may
Melancthon, J. Oldendorf
{Elementaris Introductio, 1539), Nic. Hemming
lics
(De Lege Naturm, 1562), Ben Winkler
{Principia Juris, 1615) ; of the Cathobesides
Bellarmin
De
Potestate
Suarez, Rob.
(1542-1621 ;
Pontificis in
Temporalibus) and Mariana
(1537-1624 ; De Bege et Begis Institutione).
Natural
in
natural
morals
In the
seventeenth
religion and
century found
of Cherbury
England their main
supporters in Herbert
(1581-1648 ; Tractatus
de Veritate, 1624
Beligione Gentilium
; De
apud eos Causis, 1663 ;
Errorumque
him
Ch. de Rgmusat,
on
Paris, 1873),and
Richard
Cumberlaud
(_De Legibus
Naturce
Neothe Platonists
Disquisitio Philosophica, Lond.
or
1672). Among
Platonists
of England at the same
time are prominent Ralph CudTvorth
(16171688 ; The
Intellectual
System of the Universe, Lond.
1678, Latin, Jena, 1733)
and
His correspondence
Henry More
(1614-1687 ; Encheiridion
Metaphysioum.
with
Descartes
is printed in the latter's works, Vol. X., Cousin's
ed.). [PAiX
Bational
of Oudworth,
by C. E. Lowrey, with bibliog., N.Y.
1884; TuUoch's
Theol.
Christian
and
Phil, in Eng. in llth Ceiit.}
To

des

the

founders

of the

Problem

2, " 30.]

Chap.

" 30.
of

of Method

The

Bacon.

Problem

383

of Method.

modern

naiVe

philosophy have ie common

an
sive
impultime
opposition against
Scholasticism,"and at the same
a
lack of understanding for the common
attitude of dependence

upon

some

This

fundamental

All

beginnings

"

that
fanciful

or

on

of its

in all
views

insight into

the

merely

set

known,

or

for

an

the

knowledge

the

proof

to

This

had

Telesio

the

his

be

to

was

commended

out

that

which

with

attack

to

the

the

for

Nature

; in order

science it must
have

the

and

Sanchez,

science,and

calls

dialectic'

make

to

These

the

There

with

perversions

idols,and

illusions that

in

doctrine

things, making

of

first the

given

are

we

it in

facts.

dence
confi-

any

right

spirithe

that

he

set

up

well-known
true

the

are

the

with

"

specus), by
and

Nov.

Bacon's

reason

his

of

situation

which
in

every

individual

life,finds

himself

by

nature

excited
"

cave

his natural

shut

old

into

in
an

world,

outer

been
the

and

order

the

once

of

images

in the

human

of

ing
regard-

(idola tribus),

tribe"

measure

of

experience

pure

always suspecting an

ourselves

way

conclusions

of the

connection

additions

fallacious

of these

fallacious

"idols

in

of

edge
knowlbe used

can

erroneous

falsifications

or

that

involuntary

our

his doctrine

presents

are

all the

blindlyretaining a mode of thought which has

idols
impressions,and the like ; then the

(of.De

the

full

believed

in this

of

practisedby

gained

experience

an

purifiedfrom

together

general,following which
end

to become

first be

grown

analogy with

the

the

"

things.
in

by

particular, from

and

help

matter

"

Bacon

to

the

"

which

demand

way

as
over
Organon
against the Aristotelian.
Every-day perception he confesses, admitting the
basis for a
sceptical
offers,indeed, no sure
arguments

by

already

the

sure

of

could

was

arises

accomplished

Vives

by

paths

new

New

of

Out

syllogism,"which

and

point

"

feelings,

foreground.

Campanella. But they had neither

in experience nor
known
afterwards
how
beginning with their facts. In both lines Bacon
could

quence,
conse-

tion
doctrines,reflec-

a
of investigation,

nearest

been

"

particularcase,

expedient was
method, proceeding from

reverse

old

in the

it the

of the

wants

the

all occupy.

new.

nothing

rhetoric,the

of

method

inveniendi,a

now

stands

refutation

or

same

merely

against

over

unfruitfulness

apply
the

it is not

set

are

of

in

ars

If

that

forth

discovery of
1.

where

cases

methods

new

traditions,which

they nevertheless
oppositionalcharacter
brings with

one

his

by

(idola

tion,
disposi^

cave

Org. I. 39 ff.
strongly rhetorical
language, rich in imagery, aims by this term
(Bep.
Augm. V. ch. 4) to recall Plato's well-known
parable of the Cave

384

The

then

Renaissance

everywhere brought about by

to
language, and by adherence
the "idols of the
idea; finally,

In

intercourse
the

word

are

especiallyby

substitute

we

IV.

which

errors

men,

among

which

[Paet

for the

the illusory
{idola(heatri),
from
human
which
of theories
we
credulously receive
subjectingthem to any judgment of our
repeat without

phantoms
history and
own.

Period.

{idola fori),the

market"

of the

"idols

the

Science

Natural

this

connection

theatre"

opportunity to direct a most

of Scholasticism,against

finds

Bacon

polemic against the word-wisdom

the
rule
of authority,against the
anthropomorphism of earlier
of things themselves,
a
personal examination
philosophy, and to demand
he does
an
unprejudiced reception of reality. Nevertheless
violent

this

get beyond

not

experientiais

mera

husks

of

that

the
must

one

about

set

experiment
but

the

essential

himself

observation

which

he

thinks

general designation

Bacon

of

nature

similar

Quite

is

its aid

order

that

this

we

we

the

as

to

are

activitythe

of the

only

makes

the

while

for

task, and

with

the

enveloping

Bacon

teaches

the

to

mind,

himself, this

theoretical

is still

must
it

by

also is

insight into

wanting.

method
mode

of

Induction, which

of

elaborating facts.
general cognitions (axioms),in
these
explain other phenomena.

correct

proceed

human

from

how

accidental

and

ultimatelyfrom

may

and

meagre,

to

as

perceptions,but
methodically, and
supplement

out

case

statements

separated

to

experiment

the

proclaimed

With

In

extremely

are

the

and

gained

limit

not

his
*

be

to

idols

for

demand;

whose

among

constitutional

errors

is

is to be restrained
much
over-hastygeneralisation,
as
as
possible
;
it is to ascend
to
quite gradually the scale of the more
general,up
the most
general. Healthy and valuable as these prescriptions
are,
the more
we
tailed
deare
their more
surprised to find that with Bacon
of view
carrying out is completed in conceptions and modes
which
are
entirelyscholastic.^
All knowledge of Nature
has for its end to understand
the causes
of things. Causes, however, are
according to the old Aristotelian
"

scheme

"

"formal"
has

its

when
e.g.

causes

for
of
Form

the

in the

"

Form

that

of
as

final.

consideration;for

Forms,"

Induction

Scotism
of

into

come

grounds

Bacon's

sense

The

formal, material, efacient,or

in the

"

natures

searches

for

the

heat.Form

is

here

the

which

Of

these

all that
"

of

"Form"
understood

only the
takes
place

things.
of

Hence

phenomena,
quite in the

of phenomena.
abiding essence
nature
or
is given in perception is' composed out of

is the more
514), which
tmfortunate
it is precisely
as, in the Platonic
passage,
the general limited nature
of knowledge by the senses
that is dealt with.
1 Nov.
Org. I. 82.
"
Cf the circumstantial exposition in the second
hook of the Nov.
.

Org.

Problem

2, " 30.]

Chap.

and

simpler "Forms"
to discover.

in

phenomenon

and
proesentice,

lacking
added,

like

in the

third

heat,

for

where

heat

which

is

is

of

in

is to

of

assumptions
the

of the

that

The

which

where
heat.^

scholastic

is

the

varying
with

compared

heat

there

certainly

these

is then

is

What

the
to be

The

everywhere

where

tabula

is

(exdusio)
is

the

phenomenon

problem

which

Form

present

is

lacking, and

more

heat, and

Bacon

presents

simple enumeration,

no

quite

in

which

is

abstraction, which

is still

new

in

exclusion

is less

is

the

appears

is nowhere

there

important

absentia:; to

graduum,

greater degree

process

of

be

which

where

tabula

of

it is

possible

which

phenomena.

Induction

as

involved

presage

into

process

these

as

in

phenomenon

other

found,

degree

accordingly
an

the

example,

present

in lesser

those

tabula

385

brought together into

are

manner,

progressive

cases

many

place, a

which

varying intensity
of

as

brought together

are

by

end

Bacon.

difEerences,"and

"

question appears,
in

intensity with
solved

their

this

To

of Method

rests

Formalism^

physical
meta-

(cf." 27, 3); the

in

embedded

the

upon

but

the

habits

old

of

thought.
is

2. It

bring

to

accordinglycomprehensible
the

to

furtherance

but

this

importance,^which
any

He

had

use

that

understood

discussion

of

build

upon

only

point at
^

In

no

issue

which

motion

which

the

smaller

to

case

form

the

conceptions
direct

only cautiously and

understood

less
was

just in

namely,

in

which

the

back

to

gradually

out

the

to

other

that

yet
of
of

the

in

must

the

corporeal world.
the

from

the

endless

abstract,^and
of

case

than

the

Form

of

this

is

motion,
and

he

can

this
had

Induction, the

discovery

heat

it

that

rise from

it must

more

give

immediate

most

turn

that

eral
gen-

to

the

by inhibition
expansive, and thus divided
parts of the body Imotus expansivus, cohibitus
is

the

unable

was

man

philosophical

demanded

things themselves,

perception, and

nothing

he

case

science

he

the

material

or

his

from

knowledge

new

not

was

methodical

this,that

the

clearly that

it turns

itself

principle,to

Bacon

derogates nothing

fruitful

or

objectfor its

Nature

consists

applicationof
useful

of

study

that

of

the

simple

and, indeed,
communicated

et nitens

per

paries

minores].
2

Cf. Chr.

Cf. Chr.

Sigwart, Logik, II. " 93, 3.

Sigwart in the Preuss. Jahrb., 1863, 93 ff.
* The
contrasted with
doctrine
of the Baconian
as
pedagogical consequences
in
science
came
of natural
Humanism, with which, in general, the movement
(1592-1671).
conflict in this respect, were
Comenius
drawn
principally by Amos
from
His Didactica
of instruction
a graded ascent
as
Magna presents the course
to give
aims
the concrete
Pictus
his
Orbis
and
to
the
abstract
more
perceptive
;
Linfor the school
for instruction
about
things ; his Janua
a perceptional basis
the
to
have
learning of foreign languages
Beserrata, finally, aims
guarum
for acquiring
arranged so as to be taught only as it is requisite as a means
similar
of
Eattich
(1571about
The
views
are
knowledge
things.
pedagogical
1635).

386

The

elements

of

relation
to be

be

must

shut

theory,
also

he

normal
ideas

against

up

demanded

and

of

what

their

politicalsystem,

Not

vital

the

only

the

also

will, especiallyalso

should

examined

be

even

Copemican
be

applied

existence

bodily

but

processes,

the

of

the

did not

and

atomism,
of

regular

he

empiricalprinciple should

his

all these

"

traditional

IV",

perceiveis
by which

we

cosmology

great achievement

man.

activities

of

in

which,

in his

while

to the

the

that

abnormal

and

of

compass

But

adherence

an

knowledge of

to

"

nature

whole

the

interpreted.

beyond

himself

"

[Part

Induction,he thought,will find the Forms

explained.

far

the

connection,

Science Period.

Natural

reality,from

and

Nature

get

Renaissance

in

its
of

movement
the

social
their

to

as

and
ing
mov-

of natural
plained
science, and ex("Forms") by the method
without
prejudice. The anthropologicaland social naturalism
which
Bacon
in the encyclopaedic remarks
of his work
announces
De
Augmentis Scientiarum, contains
examples of programmes^ for
branches
of knowledge, and
proceeds everywhere from the
many
forces

fundamental
his

life

as

also lie at the

basis

Still another
To

rather

task
of

it is such

form.

to

the

While
master

with

Bacon

therefore,

subjectingnature
"

Eenovation

this.Bacon

his

of

discoveries

time,

crimes,

in

If

of

His
this

itself,any

thought is

entire
he

conceives

in the

the

interpretatio naturae
the

human

could

bears

the

beyond

man

had

mind,

"

also the

title De

what

impress
the
at

planet,with
gunpowder,

is

true

Magna,

mastery
For

essence.

the

"

of

means

work

great

for

Temporis

the
tus
Par-

Hominis.

Regno

the heart

great events.

seas, where

his

owe

only

his

moving

was

of

their

and

Instauratio

"

can

With

of thousands
that

series

through mistakes,adventures,
taken
complete possession

last for the first time

inventions such
and

of

the

art

as

of

those

of the mariner's

printing,^a

mighty

therefore regard as accomplished all that Bacon

him
sets before
might find with him the entire natural science of to-day.
Cf. O. Peschel, Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen, 2d ed.,Leips. 1879.
we

prospect,
2

in

end

an

Nature.

insight that man

investigationof

sober

expressed

under

of his
compass,

to

the

to

to

^-

at

and

realitywhich

est.
anthropologicalinter-

Bacon,

of the Sciences

Maximus"
In

this

practicalend, and
human
knowledge has

to

All

things only

him,

understand

to

of

of

ultimately^or its sole

for man
dominion
the world
over
procure
by his knowledge
world.
Knowledge is power, and is the only lasting power.
therefore
itself
magic with fantastic arts sought to make
of the working forces of Nature, this blind endeavour
became

clarified
over

light in

is not, for

man

elements

activities

Nature.
to

comes

all the

and

man

simple

same

external

element

subordinated

grandest

the

of

understand

than

more

of

product

understand

to

purpose

we

Renaissance

The

388

the

was

his conviction

verified

he

of

planetary motion by means

In this procedure it became
of

task

induction

mathematical

the

the

remains

of

discovering the

by

IV.

his research
order

mathematical

hand,

one

in

consists

science

[Part

the

laws

of

induction.

evident, on

which

relation

grand

natural

in

the

of

philosophicalconviction

universe, and

of

psychologicalmotive

The

glory of Kepler.

is the

Science Period.

Natural

in

same

that

the

that

finding out
the

true

entire series

by measurement, and, on the other

phenomena determined
this task can
with
be
which
hand, that the object,in connection
The
than
divine
other
motion.
performed by research, is none
and
was
arithmetic
Kepler sought in the universe
geometry which
ing
found
in the laws of occurrence
and
change {Gescheliens) Proceedof

the

with
principle,

this

from

Galileo created

mechanics

the mathematical

as

ness,
conscious-

methodical

distinct

more

theory of

motion.

the latter
the thoughts which
extremely instructive to compare
interpretationof Nature.
presents in the Saggiatore with Bacon's
the phenomena given in perBoth
aim to analyse into their elements
ception,
of
the combination
in order
from
to explain phenomena

It is

these

elements.

Galileo's

method

of

resolution

Bacon's

capable

interpretationwith

while
the

where

motion

of

processes

But

the

Induction

seeks

(analysis)searches
of

form

out

"

Forms,

consists

in

"

simplest

the

determination;

mathematical

former

the

pointing out

and
how

empirical structure, the latter

shows
in his method
cal
of composition (synthesis)that the mathematithe
of
theory under
presupposition of the simple elements
motion
leads to the same
results which
experience exhibits.^ From
this standpointexperiment also acquires quite another
:
significance
it is not merely a shrewd
gent
question put to Nature, but is the intellinatures

and
are

co-operate

intentional
isolated

all that

Bacon

is what

is

to

an

interference

in order

by which
to_subjectthem

of

simple forms
to

rence
occur-

Thus,

measurement.

had

merely presaged receives with Galileo a definite

of the
significanceusable for the investigationof Nature, by means
mathematical
ance
principleand its applicationto motion ; and in accordwith
these
able by his
Newton
principlesof mechanics
was
hypothesis of gravitationto give the mathematical
theory for the
explanation of Kepler's laws.
With
this,the victoryof the principle of Democritus
and Plato,
that the sole object which
true knowledge of Nature
deal with
can
capable

form
completely new
to the Being, but to
1

ch.

This

6),and

metliodical
indeed

in

of

quantitative determination,was

; but

the

this

time

Becoming

standpoint Hobbes

the

or

makes

expresslyrationalistic

principlewas
change in Nature.
entirely his

antithesis

to

the

own

sealed

in

appliednot
Scientific
(of.X"e Corp.,

empiricism

of Bacon.

Problem

2, " 30.]

Chap.

insightreaches
this

of

knowledge

objects as

we

from

Nature

in

is rooted

construct,

this

is the

Geometry

our

from

their

effects

the

are

Thus
the

arises

the

doctrine

of

of the
with

the

The

In

result

neither

his

his

reform

of

is not
the

in which

"

he

the

factors

usually counted
he

beyond, was

was

extreme

causes

quence
conse-

theology,which

in

these

began

twofold

empiricism

was

found

that

rational

in his treatment

of the

Proceeding
attained

craving

aims

to be

polymathy

; and

all the

to transform

by

known,

of

ing
followa

ative
cre-

of human

rest

In

mathematics.

universal

the

to be found

was

is well

himself, as

in

tion
personal convic-

learned
alone

conviction,

Educated

for truth

in mathematics
"

this

the

the

in

perception.^

sense

philosophy.

principlerequisite for this purpose,

the principlefruitful for the
made

Galilean
which

as

ruling

fell away,

in the

advance

an

upon
mind

the
for

that

so

Descartes'

history

of

ing
teach-

physics;

philosophicaldevelopment,

the

seventeenth

century

and

all the

greater.
methodical
thoughts which

those

Cf.

G.

Cf.

the

beginning of De Corpore.
1
Sell' Inf. Univ. e Mond.
fine exposition in the Discours

Bruno,
the

are

to

common

in.
de

(L.

307

f.).

la Methode.

in Galileo.

together

from

nor

thought

his influence
the

nings
begin-

methodical

of

had

theories

research

of natural

of

from

elaboration

earnest

an

philosophy

the

power

are

is the

bound

of

mathematics,

of

generalisation of

specialtasks

To

for

metaphysical

some

but

critical

Jesuits, he

the

mathematician,

knowledge

This

demanded

is mathematics.

of

pattern

to

again motions.
proposition : philosophy is

are

had

but
empiricaldisciplines,
the

the

and

meet

for

satisfaction

in

in turn

shapelessPythagoreanism of the
by empiricism definite mathemati-

Bruno

undertook

that

to

motions

essence,

theory,accordingly,was

doctrine

Scholasticism

latter

has

the

and
made

lines

Giordano

science

Descartes

Science

these

efEects

is, therefore,

was

mathematical

Eational

bodies

philosophy

for

research

These

Copernican

space.

Franciscans.

tradition

factor which

the

of

by mathematics,

theory.

'

motion

quences
conse-

in

and

motion,

further

such

us,

in their

separationof philosophy

natural

humanistic

4.

the

essential

corrected

of

only

knowledge of all
consists
in tracing back

apparently materialistic

English

of

cal

elements

simple

cal
theoreti-

Hence

from

and

phenomena to causes,
: but
phenomena are,

all

extends.

discipline
;

know

can

derive

we

things,in so far as it is accessible for

is perceived to motion
of bodies
what
reason

We

operation.

own

oniy certain

it.

that

so

389

theory of motion
physios is taken in

Galilean

the

Hohbes}

can

Hohbes.
Gralileo,

mathematical

the

as

standpoint of

Exactly
philosophy by
all

far

as

of Method

Bacon

and

The

390

Renaissance
added

Galileo, Descartes

of induction

had

and

all human

of

knowledge

for

need

Descartes

all

siftingof
this

from

analytic,the

The

his

dramatic
omnibus
all

on

second

from

and

mould.

one

and

The

truths.

surfeit of

knowledge,

single,certain

whole

critical

point,in

first task

order

of

osophy
phil-

synthetic.

thought is presented in the

The
philosopher portrays his struggle after truth in
Proceeding from the principle
dialogue with himself.

classical

Meditations.

de

to

all further

deduce

point to

is

forward

ideas, press

ence
experi-

systematic,connected

ultimately upon

; it rested

wards,
after-

of

entirelyoriginal,

was

reception of historicallycollected
philosophicalcreation
longing for a new
enumeration
will, then, by an inductive

his

upon

"

felt

the

IV.

lead to

which

compass

traditional

the

in

its root

whole

demand

This

explanation.

find its

must

should

certainty,from

the
composition,

of

method

the

[Pakt

greatest importance : he
resolution

or

absolute

singleprincipleof highest and

by

the

postulateof

method

the

that

demanded

Science Period.

Natural

carrying

in

the

this

whole

the

dubitandum,"

sides,and

of

out

circuit
the

meet

we

process

of

ideas

is reviewed

whole

apparatus

of

opinions and the

too often, says
deceptions of the senses
Descartes, to permit of our
the
In the face of the variety of impressions which
trusting them.
different circumstances, it is not
under
same
object makes
possible
which
of these
whether
to decide
and,
indeed,
impressions,
any one
We

scepticalarguments.

of

contains

them,

and

excite

aside, as
believe
of

with

sureness

must

the

in

that

all the

we

us

the

say

with

meet

that

if

now

we

of

of

of

delusion

were

mistrustful

should
even

actual

can

be

with

we

our

be

never

liveliness

the

experience
completely set

and

in

with

connection

if
a

4,

that

from

demon

some

Eeason

teaching
defenceless,and
the

to

and
our

had

that

to be

reference

are

2x2

constituted

so

supposed itself
we

which

arithmetic

necessarilyerr ? how
to give us
pleasure it was
it

in

consciousness,

must

while

and

undeniably obliged to
help recognising them, as, for example, the

simple propositions
how

thing ;

when
we
perhaps dreaming even
perceiving. Meanwhile, at the basis
the imagination can
produce lie the

and

truths

cannot

we

which

of

not

which

acts

the

dream

can

are

combinations

we

we

awake

are

of

essence

scruple

we

simple elementary
these

true

which

whether

to

experience the change

the
very

created

nature

we

us, whose

necessarilydeceive

would

the truth

Against

evident

such

make

this thought must

most

But

like.

a
us

of

utterances

reason.

After

fundamental

extreme,
that

doubt

it proves

it itself presents

that
a

has

been

the

fact of

thus

doubt

pressed even

breaks

off

its

completely unassailable

to the
own

thest
far-

point,

certainty:

Problem

2, " 30.]

Chap.

ia order

exist.
cogitans),

think

The

in

it.

of

none

I go to walk

merely

dream,

that

I, as

thinking

the

in my

dream

The

the

certaintyof

fundamental

conscious

of

often

as

is itself

existence

or

which

is

tained
con-

That

conscious

am

Descartes

as

consciousness.

that

must

being (res

certaintyof Being

Being

truth

deceiTed,I

i" true

that

except

391

to be

imagination,for imagination

my

one

in order

And, indeed,

imagine

consciousness.''
is the

to

activities

my

can

Descartes.

proposition cogito sum

pronounce

or

be

order

itself proves

Doubt

be.

in

doubt,

to

of Method

not
can-

kind

of

ness
conscious-

of

finds

by

the

analyticmethod.
from

Eescue

doubt

of

the

its

applicationwith

Reality of

himself

and

as

latter

therefore

conscious

in

the

soul

was

just
the

fundamental

fact of

obtains

the

for

is not
of

valued
inner

Augustinian argument
(cf." 22, 1). But
with
as
Augustine

essence

the

same

those

transition

theory

Thus

or

number

great

in the

nature

Descartes^

the

of
self-certainty
the

the

with

influential

was

consists

whom

on

For

period.
the

as

of

knowledge

experiences,

of

means

which

the

preponderance

recall

doctrine

Augustine, the

of all

surest

perception by

his

over

Charron's

again
moralising
perception.
had
the
employed
tinian
Augusinterpretation Campanella particularly
unlike
the
Church
he
not
Father,
great
principlewhen,
gave
to the elements
of this experience of self the meaning of metaphysical
elements
In
a completely analogous manner
prime
(cf." 29, 3).
outer

not

"

to

"

not

"

speak

to

of Locke

Descartes, had

to

later

dentissima,^which

can

is therefore

constructed

threefold
others

of

process

Descartes'

The

No.

to

we

we

we

as

that

for in

by

the experientia evi-

posterioribeginning

not

well

with

the

and

by

in

the

reference

to

that

others, and

attitude

of

knowledge

is contained

things

some

passive

as

it all further

from

and

some

occupy

the

adherence

supposed

self-knowledge

effected

are

understand

ideation

serve

7), so

priori;

truth, that

ill,that

Tschirnhausen, in

"

regarded self-knowledge

philosophy (cf.below.
be

reply to Gassendi's objection (V. 2) ; cf. Princ. Phil. 1. 9.

"think"
of cogitare, cogitatio by
(Denken) is
ordinary translation
is
liable to occasion
in German
misunderstanding, since Denken
[and the same
true of think, in English, at least in philosophical terminology] signifiesa particular
kind
of

etc.

that

scarcely any
with regard
Schol., and
'

this

Who

Phil.

doubt, aflSrm,deny, understand,

For

which

word
to

but

"

Spinoza's

also

Eth.

besides,

argument.

is

at

Cf.

Cf.

Tschirnhausen,

below, ""

33

Bewusstsein

"

of the

term

use

functions

[consciousness].
; cf. his
elsewhere.

sensation,
German

we

have

in

The

same

is also

true

Cart. I.,Prop. IV.,

known

the

historical origin of

f.

(1695),pp.

ing
mean-

Phil.

II., Ax. III., and

not to have
outset, seems
Obj. IV., and Besp.
Ment.

the

understands

Princ.

the

Med.

elucidates

he
9), by enumeration:
will, abhor, imagine, feel

I.

all these

to

common

himself

Descartes

consciousness.

III. ; Princ.

cogitare (Med.

it to

by

of theoretical

290-94.

The

392

Renaissance

Science

Natural

for the

three points of attachment

world,
sciences,ethics,logic,and physics.

the

outer

has

not

rational

intuitive

all

this consists

motion,

place

in

the

rationalism

in the

and

clear and
the

distinct

the

"

Clear

"

and

present

clear

Scholasticism

not

to

the

to

the

the

meta-'
In

complete
propounded

his

as

superiority
and

clearness

ness,
distinct-

principlefor
which

be true

must

is

as

presents itself before

mind,

distinct

"

"

in

are

be

calls them

he

this

deduced

he

calls

from

And

after
clear

sense

the

which

ideas.*

is

those

tirely
en-

mental
of later

manner

distinct,whose

and

others, but

any

innate

that

as

preciselydetermined.

and

solely in themselves,
he

prehensible
com-

which

"

its

that

fact

maxim. Everything

ideas,^as

or

"

is

is

is to make

ence.
existsurely and underivably as the mind's own
that which
is intuitively
defined
as
by Descartes

itself

presentations
evidence

as

manifest
in

which

i.e. which
self-consciousness,

as

vision

mind's

in

Descartes

that

syntheticmethod

the

physicistdiscovers

corporeal world,

itself in the

is found

fact

analytic method

elementary truths of consciousness.

expresses

of self-consciousness

ence/
infer-

an

of Descartes.

rationalism

the

the

while

of

for the

hunting

is

physician

takes

that

of

of the

elements,out
simple, self-intelligible

form

perceptionalelementary

This

rational

that

that

The

certainty.

explained; but

all else is to be

of which

is its evidence

Nor

Galileo, the

with

here, as

rather

experience,as

an

truth.

of immediate

but that

of

meaning

the

much

first fundamental

the

three

IV,

propositioncogito sum

contrary, the

the

Descartes, on

so

seeks

[Pakt

"

With

5.

Period.

With

is

this

grounded
expression

incidentallyconnects also the psycho-geneticthought that

ideas are
soul by God, but for the
imprinted upon the human
of
part he desires to give only the epistemologicalsignificance

indeed

these
most

immediate, rational
These

for

the

in

meanings

two

the existence

theory
or

of

evidence.

of Ood,

knowledge,

in

which
so

synthetic procedure
intuitive

evidence

form

far

as

of

his

of

the

self-consciousness,is claimed.
which

he

introduces

Besp.

[German

used

by

ad

in this

Descartes

"idea''

method
"

without

of his

is the

first for

clearness

and

which,

ness
distinct-

light,"equal to that of
(so-calledCartesian) proof

new

connection,'has

the

proofs

natural

I follow

Descartes'

integrant constituent

an

this

The

Obj. II.
Idee.

in

peculiarlymingled

are

multitude

Prim.

ordinary English

usage

Phil.
in

of scholastic

I. 45.

spelling the word

as

capital.]

angeborenen Ideen (Jena,1873),and also

is better
innatus
(Marburg, 1882). That
translated
remarked
by
by eingeboren than by the usual angeboren has been
Geschichte und Kritik
R. Eucken,
der Grundbegriffeder Oegenwart, p. 73.
? Cf. E. Grimm,

P.

Natorp,

Med.

D.'s

III.

D.''s Lehre

von

Erkenntnisstheorie

den

Problem

2, " 30.]

Chap.

assumptions.

He

itself to

knows

latter

that

nevertheless,is
finite

least
'

effect.

not

in

in

"

the

{essein

re

should

For

the

been

mind

or

metaphysical
it that

by

demon

his

is

thus

by

us

of

proof

being

then

with

it is

For

give

immediate

relation

if the

the

impossible that

he

evidence

by

the

Thus

circuitous

charter

for

of

that
had

lumen

created

is restored, and

rationalism is introduced

of

Scholasticism.

acknowledging

with

For

this

complete certainty

'

existence
Descartes

of

God.

takes

For

with

thinking God
In

this way
that

with
argument^
regard to a triangle follow

be

known

Descartes

it follows

is

as

too, in

and

the mathematical

the

mathematical

Med.

and

the

cal
geometri-

the

definition

of

the

V.

Real

most

The

possibility

criterion

of clearness

and

especiallyof bodies, so
distinctlyperceived. But
and

is limited

to the

as

unclear

and

theory of knowledge
He

designates
2

confused.
terminate

the

Med.

sensuous

VI.

ness,
distinctmuch

can

this

is for

quantitative

elements
sensuous-qualitative

physics.

thus

"

his existence.

philosopher
the

the

from

him.

belongs to

of

the

definition

mere

element,

all the

metaphysics
a

the

existence

from

clearly

regarded by

account

from

tinct
dis-

which

things also, and

determinations,while
are

"

sufiices to prove

of finite

necessity of thought

same

Anselm's

up

propositionswith
of the triangle,
it follows
being that the attribute of
of

the

us

naturale,that

all

true

not

involves

God

themselves
in clear and
propositionswhich manifest
Here
all truths
light before the reason.
belong, firstly,
mathematics, but here belongs also the ontological proof for
as

we

deceiving

have

so

knowledge,

modern
route

Real

significance that

should

of rational

the

anthropologico-

perfection of
the

now

the

idea

at

the

of

inference

This

Descartes

the

definitively
grounded.
the

the

himself.

since

any

is in

objective)to

necessarilyerr, confidence in

Descartes

the

to

esse

to

in

principleis

scepticalhypothetical phantom

again destroyed.

proof gives

"

there

as

perfect being

most

such

has

former

should

we

is,in the
by

in

idea

cause

realistic

or

which,

cause

causalityrequires that

argument,

intellectu

selves,nor

own

the

sense

formaliter),in order

veracity,and

that

in

Anselm's
in

our

principle of

contained

have

must

us

within

scholastic

to

the

produced

within

found
the

(esse

esse

have

not

be

to

applied, in analogy
idea

self-consciousness

therefore

find

we

Eeality be

This

individual

imperfect (accordingto the

expressing value with ontological
knowledge can be derived only from the

this

which

things.

much

as

the

393

absolutelyperfectbeing (ensperfectissimum).This

an

conception

other

and
finite,

Descartes.

of determinations

and
gradations),

conceptionof

that

argues

be

old identification

of Method

in perception
On

this

for

him,

appre-

Renaissance

The

394

he

which

be

can

reallyscientific insightrests,in

(which

back

goes

the

also to solve

principleof

the

human

arrange

himself^

by

that

it cannot

unclear

the

and

avoid

reaching
the

power,

freedom

tion

Scotist

God). Thus error

arbitrarily(without

unclear

and

follows

from

ancient

and

distinct

while

the

not

the

upon

reference

to
and

(itsfarthestindifferentice
in

is set

the

us

208) ."

negar

which

where

ciently
suffi-

distinctly

too

the

the

of

of

case

demand

overlook

to

doctrines

to the

and
the

in

recalls

present

with

analogy

affirmation

when

permit

with

distinct

boundless

rational

to

Scotist

or

with

retains

fashion

arises

insight is

iTroxij
("suspense")
this theory of error,

of
Stoics

of freedom, which

ground)
for judgment.^ The
indistinct material
this of withholding judgment in all cases

clear

and

in the

so

Descartes

only clear and

compelling a power

arbitrium

of

follow

the

which

liberum

Here

could

is,that

and

his

possible to

determinism

presentationsit

the

all.

of

out

seem

doctrine

recognising them,

confused

groundlessactivityof

that

cogent

so

not

at

err

Thomistic

assumed,

presentationsexercise
mind

it to

either

Descartes

serves

principle,
perfect deity

that

to allow

with

It is

indeterminism.

it does

peculiarlylimited

presentations

results for him

error, which

with
as

farther)

latter.

the

upon

confused

and

del,because

veracitas

consistent

be

might

problem of

nature

opinion,only
and

Scotus

Duns

accordance

in

how,

to

his

distinct

between

distinction

The

helps

hension
appre-

knows

see

IV,

terms, on
mathematically constructed
and
hand, "intellectual" knowledge (intellectio) stronglyas
how
to prizethe help which
experiencegives in the former,

the other

The

"

"

of that

he

[Part

qualitative,imagination {imaginatio)

of the

hension

Period.

Science

Natural

tionship
rela-

Sceptics

crvyKardOea-i^
(cf.pp. 167,
the
will-factor
in judgment
recognised distinctly
(agreeing here,
with
the
of
and
Duns
too,
epistemology
Augustine
Scotus), and
him
in this,so far as to designate affirmation or
Spinoza followed
denial
that

as

Descartes'

fate.

characteristic

necessary

cannot

man

6.

as

think

without

mathematical

Its

metaphysical

its

tendency

Med.

Error

as

of

at the

reform

results

began

idea,and

every
same

of
a

In

time

and

regards method, however,

thus

to teach

willing.*

philosophy
rich

fact,Descartes

had

fruitful
soon

peculiar
ment;
develop-

became

sub-

IV.

accordinglyas an act of free will parallelto the act of sin,

guilt; it is the guilt or fault of self-deception. This thought was
carried out particularlyby Malebranche
(Entret.III. f.).
8 This
the
relationship extends
Prom
ethics also.
to Descartes'
consistently
clear and distinct knowledge of reason
ing
follows necessarilyright willing and actthe obscure
and
confused
impulses of the sensibilityresult practically
; from
sin and
of freedom.
theoretically error, by abuse
ethical ideal is the
The
and

thus

appears

as

Socratic-Stoic

ideal

of the

4JEtA. II.,Prop. 49.

rule

of

reason

over

the

sensibility.

Renaissance

The

396

Spinoza

[Part IV.

in the

before

stands

schematism

this methodical

Period.

; but

Geulincx

of

logicaltreatises

in the

logicand

Science

Natural

system

complete

us

of

and

tesian
first gave an exposition of the CarHe
perfectas from one mould.
the
content
of
geometrico,"by developing
philosophy more
first
after
tions
the system step by step in propositions,
settingup definifrom
the
of these propositionswas
Each
and axioms.
proved
definitions,axioms, and preceding propositions; while corollaries
"

scholia

and

this

propositions. Into
his own
philosophy

surely demonstrated
presupposed not only
also

but

validity of the
the

books)

the

flawless

definitions

sufiices

convince

to

the

brings forward

the

complicated

with

beginning of
the

following

which

Spinoza

of

constructions

condensed

and

unassailable

the

at

naivet"

This

demonstrative

an

also

first,but

of

one

look

the

thus

was

geometry.

and

evidence

the

of

that it

the

of

of

Spinoza pressed

of

system

axioms.

and

only

not

form

correctness

unambiguous

an

(and

Ethics

Euclidean

the

certain

to

believed

Ethics, and

in the
as

added

were

rigid,unwieldy

same

also

as

process,

elucidations

freer

giving

of

thought as self-evident conceptions and principles,and

thereby anticipatesimplicitlyhis whole metaphysical system.
This geometrical method
has, however, in Spinoza'siihought and
its psycho-genetic justification at the same
in this consists
time
scholastic

"

"

its material

well

as

conviction

as

formal

that

all

idea

ought

this it follows

from

things forth
the

character
of

problem

of

the
all

to be the

God
the
of

same

same

as

philosophy

be

must

method

involved

the

In

the

true

real order

the real process

thought
from

consequent

the

fundamental

should

manner

things.

itself that

of

from

logicalprocedure
thus

ideas of

the

God

of ideas

order

of

of

The

things necessarily proceed

to him
to require a method

of God
seemed
unitary essence
knowledge, which in
the

significance.

which
in

after

its ground

Spinoza

advance

the

from
of

the

sophical
philofrom

derive

philosophy the
of things.^ But

of

the

ligious
re-

the

procedure

analogy
or

of

reason,

fixed upon

the

and

for the

metaphysical

acter
char-

of its solution ; cf. " 31.

Little

7.

as

the content

make

form
the

men

of

dared, in the immediately following period,to

the Spinozistic
ical
philosophy their own, its method-

exercised, nevertheless,an
geometrical

impressive

influence

and

the

philosophy of
the schools, the more
the syllogistic
procedure entered
again with it,
since all knowledge was
to be deduced
from
the highest truths by
more

The

view

method

became

settled

in

the

that true
knowledge as genetic definition must repeat the process
carried
out
object arises was
especiallyby Tschirnhausen, who did
from
the paradox that a complete definition of laughter must
not shrink
be able
to produce laughter itself I
(^Med.Merit., 67 f.)

by

which

its

inferences.

regular

in

Cartesians
line

this

the

to

Problem

2, " 30.]

Chap.

done

was

Christian

do)/

be in fact

undertook

to deduce

geometricalmethod,
of the

need

of

into

came

form

only

"

of

could

that

as

Leibniz

of

made

the

pursued
also

things,may
Giordano

known

to him.

most

the

out

material

when

was

to

be

been

with

end

Puffen-

for

method

had

after

the

Art

with

its

regular

Jung,

exercised

thought
and

an

of

likewise
of

manner

characters, seemed

of

porters.
sup-

garb

that

of

and

purpose,

to

the

Lull

and

Altorf

offer

stimulus
cf
.

" 31, 2

the

pains

were

well

had

Professor
upon

expressing the
the

certain

of transforming

of invention

influence

the

when

conceptional signs

improvement

art

sophical
philo-

first time
clear

the

Erhard

unwonted

opinion

as

Leibniz

consistent

circles,also,the thought

Joachim

the

this

another

with

to

also

existence

the

in

reckoning
taken

metaphysical conceptions,

mathematical
the

pseudonymous
eligendo (1669),

and

king of
^

De

'

The

demonstrations

the

in

fundamental

ing
writthis
in

author

Universali
of

guage,
lantime

Specimen demonstrationum
politiearum pro rege Poloin sixty propositions
proved by
geometrical method"
be chosen
that
the Count
Palatine
of Neuburg
must

he

"

Poles.

Scientia

of

guage
sign-lan-

of
possibility

"

the

Joh.

Leibniz

philosophical investigation in general formulae, and by

means
raising it beyond the capability of being expressed
definite language
effort toward
an
a
universally scientific
likewise
a
appeared at the
"Lingua Adamica," which

In

been

logical operations

the

Eight by

energetically. The

quite

added;

had

respect. Finally, the

definite

giving

its appearance

though

"

besides

combination

of

find their

Cartesian

ChristopherSturm,'

norum

sys-

single principle

its most

very

mathematical
discussed

jest

thought

Bruno
In

of

one

this

have

which

by

the

the

tury
cen-

for

especial influence

calculation.^

thinking

their

in

shown

seriouslyof the

make

once

Hobbes,

this

this line

into

mathematical

declared

much

with

eighteenth

of Natural

coming

the

beginning

would

who

the

the

was

system

of

it under

the

controversies

philosophy

This

entire

in process
with

at

not

In

this

impulse
form

text-books,and
clearlythought

and

form.

academic

method

logicalnecessityfrom

brochure,^ but
political

of

the
a

was

was

He
to

as

sympathy

and

Weigel,

Latin

along

society.

this view

When

his

better

no

this

V.) pursued

firmlyestablished

in

the

sympathy.

with

manner

of

could

utmost

method

geometrical

found

397

mathematically schooled'

Weigel, and

Wolff (cf.Part

comprehensive
there

and

text-books

the

the

the

up

by Jung

have

it could

tematisation

take

Germany

Spinoza,Leibniz.

did

Especially

preparation of

which

of Method

seu

Compendium

Calculo

Fhilosophico (1684)
seu
Metaphysicce JEuclidepe.

Universalium

398

The

of Leibniz

in

to

Renaissance

Natural

Science

Period.

supporters.'So, too, Leibniz

numerous

extraordinaiydegree with the thought of a

and a method
of philosophicalcalculus.^

an

essential

The

attempt
from

of

outcome

these

necessarily made

was

Leibniz, like

deduced.

So

search

out

that

itself upon

the

all derived

stumbled

him), that
knowledge

which,
mind

and

Galileo

and
self-evident,

as

characteristica

Descartes,
and

immediately

as

himself
versalis,
uni-

that

was,

an

highest truths,
to be
knowledge was

all

which

of

logical combination

the

IV.

those

establish

to

busied

endeavours

strange

[Part

must

proceed

to

intuitivelycertain,forces
its combinations

by

grounds

of these
reflections Leibniz
knowledge. In the course
the discovery' (which Aristotle
had
made
before
upon
there are
two
completely difEerent kinds of this intuitive
universal

truths

experience. The one

for a singleinstance
:
that they
in common
and

has

vMt4s

timeless

itemelles

to

validity;

and

from

and

reason,
the

viritis de

Both

certain

else ;

anything

facts

of

other, validity

fait.

intuitivelycertain,i.e. are

are

deduction

by

not

class

self-evident

they

have

in themselves

called,

are

because
therefore,primce veritates, or, also, primoe possibilitates,
them
the

possibilityof all that is derivative

"possibility" of a conception is known
the

"

definition

which

is,a priori;
that

the

kinds

two
we

see

marks

the

idea

constituent

shifts

parts

According
eternal

this,the

to

truths

are

posteriori,or

distinct.
with

the

case

of

For

*'

causal
by a
that
possibilities,

its actual

the

existence,

latter

the intuitive

Such

attempts

had

which
the

distinct

"

or

the

impossiblityof

recognition of
its

"

its

particular

combination.

metaphysical
other

"

the

hand

clear,indeed,

the

opposite,while

is thinkable.

projected by

upon

but

not

the

J. J. Becker

In

the

case

Principleof

in the
of

the

Contradic-

(1661),6. Dalgarn (1661),

(1663).

Cf.

Meditationes
de Cognitione Veritate,etIdeis
lb. at the beginning,Erd's. ed., p. 79.

Trendelenburg, Historische

guished
distin-

perfectly transparent, conjoined

are

Kircher

the

meaning

surely

their

on

relatingto facts,are

the

the

to

even

of

; while

is

the

is clear

A.

for

knowledge

opposite
certaintyrests

been

which

priori, geometrical

and

and

very

slight extent

adequate

the

Athanasius

is

so

rational

interestingmanner
and
clearness
self-evidence,

is clear

former

of

to

the

"

truths

conviction
the

to

clear

the

Hence

especiallyby

first

"

idea

is distinct
and

in

intuitive

he

and

truths"

attached

of

end

all others

object; that

former

Leibniz

"

this

To

from

and

either

experience of

"primitive

expressions.^ That

both

immediate

of

Cartesian

two

distinctness.

from

same

ground.

is, posteriori.

empirical,as

of

the

by

or

the

its

These

to

derives

has

in

Beitrage

zu

Philosophie, Vols.

(1684).

II.,III.

Substance

2, " 31.]

Chap.

tion; in the
actual fact

of

case

needs

the

still

and

Causality.

399

latter the

possibilityguaranteed by the
with
the Principle
explanation in accordance

an

of SufficientSeason.
At

the

beginning,

reference

of rational

case

empirical truths

with

with
natura

the

us.

If

and

this

for

is not

Leibniz

the

this

compared

incommensurable

But

in

the

an

absolute

of

course

the

his

; it

one

distinguished

involves

realiter between

the

has

their

ideas

connection
and

could
In

not

and

in the

proceed

been

produce

it

great to make

was

the

it

which

of

power

He

oppositeis

and

he

of

tinguished
dis-

contingent
the

which

gency
contin-

the

and

the

of

after

the

certain
:

in

the

But

to

measure

of
stance
sub-

change
science.

begin

ah

ovo

general philosophical

more

were

it should

be

that

the

principlehad

authorityof tradition

possibleor permissible

mode

this

in natural

as

Galilean

the

of

conceptionsof

content.

new

methods

new

transformation

things,

Nature

theory

and

the

is thinkable

result

of

new

of fact.

Causality.

nature

conditional

matter

theory

science, a

realm,

Leibniz

geometrical method.

formal]

possible in

completely

of

natural

limited

found,

necessary

and

for

necessity,which

of

Scotist

the

of

became

metaphysical motives,

the

processes

beginning

knowing capacity.

opposite, and

between

for

able
commensur-

the

at

significance.

radicallyin metaphysics

so

more

doctrines

set

the

with

of

the

grounded

thinkable

antithesis

opposite

with

causality acquired

this latter

once

of

this

selves
our-

also,in
so

that

meant

those

the

Substance

[as contrasted
metaphysics, as in

fundamental

content

latter

limited

the

into

after-working of
and overthrew
finite,

real

in

was

he

character

cohered

" 31.
The

the

must

unconditional

an

"

"

This, however,
of

but

gained metaphysical

metaphysically, also,
an

we

with

development

only the
the principlesof things
unthinkable,and those of which

from

and

in man's

only

divided

arose

distinction

logicalimpossibilityof

necessity,which

truths.

case,

magnitudes,

incommensurability lies

now

the

divine

that

him

distinction

understanding, are
impossible, although it remains

is

opposite

and

this

establishingtheir actuality :

rerum

that

intended

only with
imperfection of the human
understanding. In the
truths
into the impossibilityof the opposite
we
see
;

the

to

Leibniz

much

too

completely

aside.

This

distinction

delicate relation

sustained

The

itself

asserted
to

Aristotelian

already

in

connection

religiousconceptions.
distinction

of SiAti and

Natural

Sn.

with

the

science

Renaissance

The

400

isolate itself

could

Science Period.

Natural

maintain

theology,and

absolutelyfrom

IV.

[Pakt

toward

tion
complete indifference : metaphysics,by its concepmental
or
spiritual
of the deity and
by its theory of the
"world,was brought again and again into hostile or friendlycontact

it

of

attitude

an

religious sphere

the

with

their

investigationsof physics,whatever
the

least

was

not

thing

the

with

himself

of

teaching

the

piety in

ardent

most

the

be, had

not

might
Bible,^and

result

natural

mathematical

his

prevented by

burying

the

with

do

to

that

declared

Galileo

of ideas.

the

Newton

philosophy from
mysteries

of

the

their

indifferent
'Apocalypse. But the metaphysicians,however
and however
strictlythey might prosecute
thought as regards religion,
still always
were
their science in the purely theoretical spirit,
to do with
objects concerning
obliged to consider that they had
This gave modern
fixed.
philosophy
doctrine was
the Church
which
delicate position: mediaeval
somewhat
philosophyhad brought to
a

; modern

well

as

own

standpoint only.

theoretical

like

who,

secure

natural

entirelyto
and

proper,

regard
did

religiousinterest of
essentially
philosophy regarded them, if at all,from
dogma

Church

objectsof

the

this with

Hobbes,

research, declined
willing

his true

felt

those

Hence

to

restricted
enter

upon

themselves

the

most

philosophy also
a
metaphysics

with
only words
speak
Bacon
deity and the super-sensibledestiny of man.
it is diificult to recognise
behind which
large words

were

to the

and

Bacon

its

an

disposition
;

to

Hobbes

let

the

dogma

rather

let it be

seen

that

his naturalistic

opinion,like the Epicurean, saw in ideas as to the supernatural

defective
a
a
knowledge of Nature,
a
superstitionresting upon
ing
the bindsuperstitionwhich by the regulation of the state becomes
the
difftcult,
however, was
more
authority of religion.^Much
held
fast to the metaphysical
position of those philosophers who
cartes'
conception of the deity in their very explanation of Nature ; Des"

literary activityis

whole

filled

with

an

anxious

caution

avoiding every offence to religion,while Leibniz

the
could
more
positivemanner
attempt to carry through in a much
conformity of his metaphysics to religion; and on the other hand
how
the example of Spinoza showed
dangerous it was if philosophy
its conception of
openly brought to the front the difference between
directed

the

and

God

The

1.
that

toward

the

new

Cf.

the

De

Augm.

forth
'

as

dogmatic conception.
of the case
inhered
difiiculty
methodical
principleof mec/ianics

main

the

in

excluded

letter to tlie Grand

circumstance
all

tracing of

Duchess
Christine, Op. II. 26 fi.
the supernatural and
Scient. IX., where
incomprehensibleis set

characteristic

Leviathan,

the

and

I. 6 ; cf. the

serviceable

quality of

faith.

drastic expression, ib. IV.

32.

Substance

2, " 31.]

Chap.

back

corporealphenomena
alised; science
bodies, of

which

in it nothing but

is the

ghosts and spiritshad

the

and

Leonardo

past.

held

had

world

should

systems

of the

seventeenth

such, and

with

injuriouserrors,
view

place in

the

by

the

regarding

Nature

dangerous

idols

as

philosophy has

of

to

of

do

with

only

formal

of

if it

In

finales?

causae

Bacon

and

explanation

to

of

polemic

of

In

of

absurd

reference
essential

his idea

speak

to

to

men

nature

endsV

to

Balthasar

De

Cf
.

God.'

more

God

and

of the

of the

so

God's

deity,and

deity,there

teleologicalmode

Bekker

with
is

(1634-1698),De
Append.

nature

he

physics

his

who

was

and

pressed
ex-

rejectionof
Nature

if it

the

that

taught

of

explanation

the

become

causes,

and

of

of

one

which

efficient

is

concerns

disciple

desire

to

keenest

and

no

relation

of

to

to know

by far, is the
of teleology.

the

world,

especiallyof such as
eternal necessityfrom
for

room

Betoverte
s

I.

as

errors

an

English Neo-Pla,tonists,such

Augm. III. 4.
principally Eth.

of

thought

was

anthropomorphism

all follows

; where

give place.

purposiveness

the

to

it audacious
open,

the

in

much

self-explaining.But Descartes,
from
the
kept at a distance

causes

against

of

is

declares

Much

of ends

The

final
he

to

their

the

the

Hobbes,

view

same

"

Spinoza*

of

case

all

see

Nature

of

purposes

view

the

as

Renaissance.

metaphysics
efficientes,

causce

Galileo, the

also, desires
the

concerns

ances
appear-

the

or

to

that

reckoned
very

obliged

his very

through

man

show

to

be

idols, and, indeed,

philosophy
metaphysics preciselyby saying that
physics

the

the fundamental

"

his restriction

of the

contradictory
point
victory of the
philosophy of Plato and
emphasised most forcibly

this

counted

the

was

by

natural

Bacon

tribe,

to

phenomena

must

things, and

the

one

of the

illusion

of

source

way

At

over

philosophy.

new

standpoint of

science,all

other

or

palpable; this,too, was

most

was

Neo-Platonic

book

which

phenomena

some

mechanics.

Democritus

of

Aristotle

of

one

causes

superstition of

ordering

or

principle

system

admonition

natural

ultimately in

came

the

of

luxuriant

of

spiritualcreation
to

the

spirits,teleology,also, was

explanation

always

for science

all, at

only ; the great

exception recognise only

word

of the

with

the

the

"

remained

room

first of

in which

became

of smallest

No

So

powers.

principles of modern
ghosts, conjurations,and magic arts

of

The

otheik

century without
Cartesian, Balthasar
Bekker, wrote

accordance

But

the

despiritu-

was

the movements

alchemy,

sway,

401

Nature

that
already demanded
be explained by natural

external

in

of

cause

stroke, magic, astronomy,

Bacon.

spiritualforces.

to

see

one

Causality:

operation of supernatural

the

for

would

and

as

Wereld
Med.

IV.

it is
have
the

ing
activityaccord-

Cudworth

(1690).

aind

The Renaissance

402

of the

feature

obliged

without

but

arguments,
to

eloquence of the old

was
teleologicalconviction
of
claim
affording scientific

The

success.

definitivelythe

renounce

and

explanation of particularphenomena,
a

part

Nattire,still
viz.

third

of

spheres

the

Nature,

Neo-Platonic

the

of the

element

of

thought

the

8), and similarly

tory
ultimately a satisfac-

opposing principles.
the
the
spiritualfrom

of

exclusion

the

With

No.

find

Nature,

metaphysical

the

between

adjustment

in the

only

(cf.below,

of

students

English

of the

Leibniz

did

the whole

conception of

IV.

all the

metaphysics with

new

[Part

mechanico-antiteleologieal

this fundamental

combated

Henry More,

Science Period.

Natural

it had

as

of

world

and

embodied

been

realm

graded

kind

in

difference

of the

view

old

explanation

fell away,

value

in

of

of

the

distinctlyin

most

the

things, following

ancient

fantastic
natural
Pythagorean precedent. In this respect the
had
already done a forcible work of
philosophy of the Renaissance
stances
of the omnipresence of all subpreparation. The Stoic doctrine
revived
had been
at every
by Nicolaus
point of the universe
in connection
with the victory of the CoperniCusanus
; but it was

system,

can

The

heaven;
thought
when

that

and

The

longer.

view,

with

away

combated
of motion

the

as

the

of

the

phenomena

In

which

identity of

the

in

one

itself

army

of

only ground

of

and

also

the

higher
the

explanation

distinction

the

science,the

old

and

This

in

same

Aristotelian

the

"

much

principle

mechanical

phenomena,

principle

did

It

Forms.

forces

for all

exists

earth

the

and

this

of

fall

throughout.

Matters

stellar

complete

the

opposition to

lower

of

in

heaven

nature

in

it became

and

the

as

from

was

modern

between'

between

and

mate
the ani-

inanimate.

had
Neo-Platonism
Though here
of
overcoming this antithesis by its view
entire
task now
arose
universe,the reverse

the

mechanics, namely, that

of lifealso.

of the

he

homogeneityof
to recognition.
way

It

force

For

stars.

in value
is

both.

qualitatesoccultce;it recognised

Galilean

Geneva

and

whole

the

the

circulation

of

in

proceeded,

development system

toward
animation

the

presented

therefore, removed
and

alike

are

Galileo

universe

moreover,

Thomistic

and

and

revolution
essence

the

completely forced its

could
no
longer be contrasted
the more
spiritualspheres of the

recognised

in

of

first

motion

Kepler

the

distinction
no

and

matter

the idea

that

Bruno,

world

sublunary

Newton

apple

in

see

with
imperfection,

of

realm

we

the universe

of

all parts

as

blood

had

by, Calvin's

been

The

of

anticipatedby

instrumentality).

(1626)

Michael

the
for

explaining m,echanically

discoveryof the

by Harvey

operated
co-

gave

mechanism
to

Servetus

this

of the

tendency

(bUmed

1553

in

Renaissance

The

404

mathematical

true

perceptionsthe

in these

and

this real

this

belong

of

view

other

the

on

its action

demanded

which

class

the

With

of

called

and

primary,

as

those

ondary,
sec-

body only by virtue of

allowed
as
primary qualities

belong

Descartes

motion,

to

the

for him

that

so

physical

in

mathematical

the

also be

should

Locke,*

and

later

(cf.below, No. 4). In order

the two, Henry More,^ on the contrary,
distinction between
that impenetrability,
regarded as the property of

fillingspace,

ments
distinct ele-

and

senses.^

with

body coincided
maintain

clear

the

who

Locke,

only shape, size,position,and

to

always
"imagination." But

adopted and madeDescartes, designated those qualitieswhich

John

hand,

our

upon

is

physicalresearch, to dissolve out

of our
modes
mental
the subjective

themselves

in

bodies

to

perceptions,

essence

of the

of reflection upon

representationby means
of perception.

IV.

of

from

bodies

of

essence

popular

true

task

the

this consists

in

mathematical

[Part

aid of

the

only by

qualitativeelements

the

alloyed with
just

of bodies

essence

Science Period.

Natural

this

with

accordance

essential

to the

reckoned

view,

took

of

nature
"

up

bodies,
"

solidity

into

primary qualities.
^

Hobbes

these

thoughts

modified

become

in accordance

more

conception. He regards space (asphantasma

of menand time (asphantasma
tal
rei existentis)
motus) as also modes
therefore
and it is just because
construct
we
can
representation,
that mathematical
these ourselves
theory has the advantage of being
science.
But
instead of drawing phenomenalistic
the sole rational
this premise, he argues
conclusions
from
that philosophy can
treat
with

terministic

the

bodies, and

leave

everything spiritualto revelation.

nent
Scientific thought consequently consists,for him, only in the immacombination
of signs. These
are
partly involuntary in perceptions,
cf.
Occam,
27,
"
partly arbitraryin words
(similarly
4). It
is only by means
of the latter that general conceptions and
tions
proposibecome
a
possible. Our thinking is hence
reckoning with
only

of

verbal

signs.

It

must

has

its truth

completely heterogeneous by

in

the

itself

side

and

of

stands

the

outer

something

as

world

to which

the

system of

it relates.
these

3. .AH

Descartes

to

suggestions become

form

analytic method
realitywhich were

of

Essay,

"

As

one

Human

the

doctrine
intended

was

"

Deso.

Essay,

Human

upon
CEuv.

to

the

dualism

discover

and
self-explanatory

Understanding,II. 8, "

tertiary qualities,Looke

body

of

added

X.

pp.

181

y^ature, chs.

2-5

of

the

not

The

substances.

simple

elements

susceptibleof

of

farther

23 f.

further

the

others.

(C),

in

compressed

ff.

II. 4.

Leviathan, chs.

4fE.

"

powers

"

for the

operation

Chap.

Substance

2, " 31.]

that

discovered

Descartes

deduction.

Causality: Hohhes,

and

all that

Descartes.

be

can

405

experienced is,

Being or existence.
specieseither of spatialor of conscious
Spathe qualityof filling
or
iiality,
("extension"
space, and consciousness
of extensio and cogiand "thought" according to the usual translation
a

are

what

is conscious

spatial.

personality

of the

that

is not
as

have

in

themselves

spatialexistence

and

change,

far

they

as

bodies

either

are

and

extensce

res

The

world

falls thus

separated realms

Bodies

scholastic

recognises

as

intuitive

also

no

of

To

Mcolaus

Cusanus, namely,

of the

Middle

that

in

the

this

successors

could

lead

even

without

but

more

the

the

or

of

so

of

scious
con-

or

of the

God

infiniteBeing.'^

that

Descartes

with

Being,

own

distinctlyin

now

for

the

had

been

spoken

out

find

in

the

those

the

direct

connection

and

the

with

the

Being

forward

by

infinite
the

and

Eealism

development

pantheistic

with

complete

in

of

the

historical

back
ness
clear-

Descartes'

Middle
is

of

quences
conse-

carefully held

repressed existence,this
of

which

the

the

doctrines

which

pretation
inter-

is added

brought
of

cepted
ac-

the

perfect, infinite

antithesis

the

stance.
perfectsub-

apprehends

one,

form

Descartes

we

is

in

of Descartes

or

relationship with

most

less

thought

in its

the

the

that

if

But

ontologicalargument
in

assumption

pragmatic

only

completely

minds.

fact

mind

Reality
the

and

accordance

imperfect

strong similaritywith

merely by

The

period, were
And

the

in

quite

succeeded

of

in the

to

as

world

appears

sureness.

tilings

spatial

perfectissimum

presupposition, which

scholastic

and

the

that

ens

above-mentioned

Ages

metaphysics
of

the

All

motion.

finite things;

and

of

But

the

God

relation

finite.

stands

are

(cf.above, " 30, 5).

the

there

Realism.

and

is

real in

are

either

are

and

certaintythe

God

and

mind

determinations

completely different

doubt

limited

quantitative

conscious

not

Bodies

being.

bodies

deity as

conception

of

same

of

leave

prime predi-

two

spatial is

extension

two

minds

and

Meditations
the

it

the

of

conception

The

these

All

reality.

of
self-certainty

the
of

of

cogitantes.

res

into

that

The

; substances

of this dualism

background
the

minds

or

is

conscious

attributes

Tor

disjunctively. What

related

cates

conscious.

spatialor

is is either

that
"

ultimate, simple, original

the

tatio) are

Ages

intelligible
dependence,

logicalnecessity of

the

conclusions.
4.
God

The
in the

could

be

common

So

not

infinite

universel.

sense,

permanently

likewise

called

metaphysical

Malebranche

only Celui

and
cover

said

qui est, he

to

of

name

minds

the

(Bech.

"substance," applied

and

bodies

problems
III.

is I'etre

2, 9

sans

a.

which

B.)

that

in

were

God

restriction, tout

to

finite sense,
hidden

could
etre

be-

properly
inflni est

406

The

neath

it.

The

and

needed

the

idea of
of

concrete

is essential

Descartes'

conception

characterised by

to be

All

consciousness.

or

consciousness

state

of

IV.

flux,

touch

with

finite

of

in

class,all
in

since

its fundamental
bodies

are

states

these

quality,spatiality

in substances

found

was

completely

was

substances,

fundamental

one

else that

category,

of

must

fore
there-

quality,of

modes

of

mind

are

their

its
spar

modl-es of

(modi cogitandi).

It is involved

alike

[Part

lost

almost

this

of
regarded as a modification
of
and states
All qualities
attribute.
tialityor extension : all qualitiesand

are

into

come

had

to

be

either

had

conception of substance
further
re-shaping. It

entity,which

held

were

Science Period.

Natural

nation
"thing," the category of inherence; for just the combiinto the idea of a unitary
multiplicityof determinations

in

lacking

Renaissance

bodies

their

all

that

this

the

on

particularsubstances
hand

one

their

essence,

and

belonging to
the other,
on

all minds

attribute.

constitutive

But

from

this likeness
is
only a step farther to the idea in which
all minds
thought as metaphysical identity. All bodies are spatial,
bodies are distinguishedfrom
another
conscious ; individual
one
are
of spatiality
only by different modes
(form, size,situation,
motion) ;
individual
minds
from
another
ent
are
one
distinguished
only by differof consciousness
modes
(ideas,judgments, activities of will).
Individual
of
modes
individual
minds
bodies
are
are
spatiality,
this it is

of

modes

consciousness.

preponderance
as

the

cogitantes,modi

res

Descartes

himself

; the

general conception
and
viz. that

one

this
in

doctrine

metaphysical

of

the

attribute

become

modi

conclusion

general
in

its

modification

capable

of limitation

of

he

in the

only

restricted

the

of the

now

extensionis;

domain

of

ural
nat-

carryingout

of

principles. Here, however,

the

took

nificance
sig-

on, of

itself,a

definite

apprehension by perception or imagination,

(determinatio) Bodies
.

limitations

physical
meta-

substances, which

extensce

res

obtains

cogitationis.

drew

philosophy,to which
his

way

individual

over

its modifications

appear

this

In

are

parts of space,

universal

space-filling
qualityor extension.' Hence
of
conception
body coincides with that of a limited
A
spatialmagnitude.
body is,as regards its true essence, a portion
'
of space.
The elements
of the corporealworld
the
are
corpuscles,"
the

for Descartes

"

that

Cf. Prine.
this

to that
2

Phil.

relation

of

of individual

II. 9

f.,where,

the

individual

and

species.

at

body

the
to

same

time,

universal

it appears
is made

space

quite clearly

equivalent

For
the corpuscular theory, Descartes
found
suggestions in Bacon,
many
others.
The
Hobbes, Basso, Sennert, and
variety in the development of this
the dialectic between
rests upon
the mathematical
theory, which
and the physical
has
interest for natural
An
more
science
than
for philosophy.
momenta,
excellent
exposition is found in Lasswitz, Geschichte der Atomistik.

Substance

2, " 31.]

Chap.

spatialparticleswhich

i.e. th.e firm

is,there

that

are

the

longer

no

divisible

infinitelydivisible;
presuppositions follow,

are

impossibilityof empty

the

world

mental

claim

analogous
with

connection

In

Malehranehe.

they

407

and

space,

the

corporealworld.

infinitude of the
the

are

these

From

atoms.

no

likewise,for Descartes,
For

realiter

structures, however,

mathematical

as

Causality: Malehranehe.

ancl

the

pronounced

was

by

epistemologicalmotives

(cf.

it seem
that
to him
no
knowledge of
8) wliich made
conception of the
things is possibleexcept in God, he came^to^^the
which, as being alike in all individual minds, canroisoTi
universelle,
No.

below.

belong^tothe

not

finite

which

minds

this account, be
far the

of

other

in

obtains
underlies

minds

of

determinations

the

of

the

of

ground

its

finite mind.
situation
the

universal

ance

with

be

thus

this,

activitywhich
inclinations

Reason,
of

all desires

God,

Malehranehe
the

making
mind,

it seemed

love

the

Cartesian
in

things

difficulty
nothing

availed

but

Malehranehe

indeed

obliged

the

word

as

in the
critical

in accord-

how,

For

and

those

In

freedom," in using
that

self-

in

God?

opposed

confess

to

God

very

self-subsistence

"

the

toward

but

are

disappear completely in

which

man'

tional
percep-

insight is

quite notoriously present

were

of

which

toward

into

so

particular

the

directed

that

mind

explain
of

was

the

of finite

came

finite

volitions

and

relation

human

its modification.

as

he

should

place

necessarilydwells

life,which

and

sure,

divine

is the

of

all ideas

just on
is in

and

All

of

God

God.

universal

participationsin

essence

To

by

idea
but

particularobject are

the

participation.^

as

infinite

participationin the

of

that

can,

following
analogy
this
relation
is thought
body

picturate terms

or

attribute

an

the

and

space

is rather

modifications,and

between

thought, and

the

but

mind,

spirits,
just as space
expression proves, the

or

the

conceptions

conception

than

"

Here, also, as

bodies.

finite

themselves

are

none

place

"

of the

modes

freedom

this

which

was

an

impenetrable mystery.^
5.

In

this

clearlythe
which
to

of

course

inevitable

logical consistency

regarded by

were

either of the two

thought pursued by
Descartes

classes

of

finite

thought only as the attributes of

precisely in this point consists
nozism, which
and

at the

Mech.

Recall

developed along

outset, and

de

la

the

Ver.

at

fundamental

time

the

attributes,
belonging

could

infinitesubstance

the

appears

essence

common

this line out

same

which

substances,

the

2, 6 ; Entret.
M^"efis 1

III.

Platonic

the

the

as

with

Malehranehe

ultimately
deity.

or

motive

of Cartesianism

developed

to

the

of

Cf.

above,

p.

394,

note

But

Spi-

directly
farthest

I. 10.
"

be

2.

The

408

Eenaissance

Spinozism

consequence.
to the

as

holds

the

of

extension, just
volitions

and

finite

"

That

only

things

are

consciousness

and

(thedeity.

(twoattributes
of

which

ultimate

realistic

within

with

series of
the

modes
ideas

extension

are

existence

be

exhausted

these

substance."

"

infinite

Being,

or

in

the

these'

the

experience;

actualityof

the

lutely
abso-

their

of

name

human

to

and

Hence

attributes

cannot

turn,

the

or

for the
"

is

cipitur"

"

again
from

Proceeding
infinitude

ens

ber
infinitenum-

of

of the

thought

have

becomes

"

in

quod

here

do

to

itself and

the

of

matter

est

se

for

proof
with

clearlymanifest

of substance

nature

as

its

"

transcriptionof

followed

involves

of

expression of the ontological

is preserved in the
aseitas

definitions,the
^

we

"

that

as

another

of substance

the

scholastic-

Spinoza'sdefinition

(essentia)which

essence

God

lies in the

being.

condensed

; substance

these

That, however,
course

the
of

but

real

most

the

existence
sui

causa

the

deity,as

position also

this

of

ground

existence, is only

term

the

itself

the

to

whose

accessible

are

conception of

substance

proof

in

minds

of

tial
spa-

all possibleattributes.

The

own

viz.

themselves,

involves

realissimum

substance,

its essence,

But

The

only

are

IV.

qualitative

endless

consciousness.

of

modes

longer entitled

no

called

be

can

the

only

are
"

motions,

series

endless

the

as

whole

the

But

their divisions,forms, and

bodies, with

the

firmly to

as

[Part

spatialityand consciousness.
are
entirelyheterogeneous

spiritualworlds
independent of each other.

and

Period.

Science

Natural

likewise
of

dualism

causal

et per

con-

thought.

same

the

se

and

oneness

course.

entirely realistic
Spinoza'sdoctrine

an

from

of its relation

to

the

attributes.

the

or
Spinozisticsystem says absolutelynothing of substance
of the deity farther than the formal determinations
contained
in the
^conceptionof the ens realissimum, of absolute fieing.Every predicate
the
content
is,on
expressing any
contrary, expressly denied:
and in particularSpinoza is especially
careful to refuse
to the divine

For

"

the

does
of

modifications

of

consciousness,such
[intellecius,
Erkenntniss']and will. Just

essence

he

recognise

the

divine

express

this

nor

body

the

old

form
to two

of

the

modifications

though
especially. God
essence,

; of him

it

can

only

he

of
had

himself
be

extension
no

principleof negative theologyis

little of

as

inducement

therefore

neither

he

here

is.

It

is evident

present with

consciousness.

'

EtJi. I.

Props.

To

1-14.

both

of

these

to

mind
that

changed

expression. Knowledge of all finite things and states

highest universal conceptions: space-filling
quality or

and

course

being predicates

as

polemical
is

said,that

intellectual cognition

as

leads
sion,
exten-

higher metaphysical
2

lb. I. 31.

Substance

2, " 31.]

Chap.

and the things

are

the

to

content,

the

all

the

along

of all to the

from

it does

not

the

conception

His

general

in them
God

is uot

with

universal

total of the

in

him

of

God

is

only

any

then

lies

all

quite

the

things
of

world-essence, he

in which

things

in

his

And

attributes

its

their

own

and

tions.
modificaessence,
this

In

Giordano

the

is Nature

naturans

as

exists
the

sense

Bruno

God

essence

; but

way

universal

reality.

natura

this

sists
con-

the infinite essence

If in this connection

naturata.

God

in its countless
as

are

tinct
dis-

not

are

that

the

naturata.

is the

they

ejus attributa}

and

natura

and

space
also

say

infinite

Cusanus

and

naturans

of

does

applies first

them,

between

and

modes

Nicolaus

from

from

it expresses

with

things,he

This

omnia

sivb

again

in

them.

can

repeated

than

as

individual

natura

this

finite

dimensions

Deus

.manner,

exists

of

Spinoza

is afterwards

then

expressions natura

contain

of

For

distinct

the

as

attributes,or

Spinoza adopts

abstraction

being,and
Spinoza, also,the

doctrine

essence

and

Hence

exist otherwise

they only

of

process

is left.

nothing.

"

itself.

definite

God

he is the

the

attributes,

generalissimum,

ens

Every attribute,because

in

the

substance

him, just

relation

of God

as

of

than

from

the modes.

and

from

attributes.

space

the

are

Mysticism.^

of

of countless
the sajne

away-

is thus

distinct

not

if the

the

general, to

thus

exist otherwise

not

But

they

409

determinations, the lasitwhich

two

Form

path

finite things ;
,

and

if God

But

modes.

falls

empty

deityis

their

most

definite content

only

to

these

rises from

now

than

ascribed

dignityis

Causality:Spinoza.

and

sum-

modified,

natura

naturans

is called
force
this

of things, this creative

occasionallyalso the ef"cient cause
from
its workings ;
must
not be thought as something distinct
This is Spinoza's
exists
in its workings.
nowhere
but
cause

complete and unreserved

pantheism.
this
relation
is
repeated yet again in
Finally
the infinite and
between
Spinoza establishes
each

of

the

countless

connection

regarded
three

'

which

To

resulting of

deity

things, which

this
sets

The

corresponds
"intuition,"
all

things

from

his

the

an

theory

Eth.

I. 23

finite modes.^

them

between

them

and

affirms
in

appears

corresponds
its

be

three

as

stages,

apprehension of the eternal logical

knowledge sub specie ceternitatis,above

immediate

God,

cap-stone would
30 ff.

also

must

with

of cognition

If

infinite

the

world-thing
; to

which

Spinoza

infinitemode.
modes

God,

as

as

if the

only the collective

prime realities and "God"
supposed, Sp. als Metaphysiker, Konigsberg,

(as K. Thomas
crasslynominalistic
8

the
of

perception and the activity of the intellect.

^
to be
Which, however, is in nowise
interpreted
self-subsistent

distinction

mode

universal

the
finite

are

also
as

as

is

exists

mode, and, indeed, as

of these.*

individual

things

which

coherence

or
as

finite

the

press

the

whole
*

Ep.

system
64

{Op.

out

II.

attributes
name

for

were

them

1840). Such
of joint.
219).

410

Renaissance

The

the

infinite mode
modes

matter

or

space,

consciousness, the
functions

realistic

of the
His

presuppositions to

dualistic

still

time,

same

process,

which

motives

"

spatialand the
principlesof mechanics
isolate completely the
of the

out

grew

motives

(cf." 27, 1).

Realism.'

of

demanded
in each

events

the

of

the

at

the

in

the

separation

first,indeed,

At

which

themselves

causal

real and

of the

worlds.

conscious

course

diately
imme-

us

adjustment ; but
became
mingled

monistic

powerful

more

reminds

problem of the qualitative

philosophy struggled out of its

modern

substances

of

difference

particular

the

relatingto

motives

these

With

finite

attribute of

the

of Dinant

David

of

of mediaeval

last word

is the

metaphysics

6.

pantheism

IV.

is infinite

the

beside

Spinoza

Here

the

mode

For

"

infinitus stands
will.

and

rest.

intellectus

ideation

of

and

itself in its motion

"

infinite

the

particularspace-forms ;

the

are

[Pakt

extension

of

attribute

the

In

universe.

Period.

Science

Natural

it

the

was

to

attempt

spheres

two

of finite substances.
in

succeeded

This

this

In

manner.

domain,

the

idea

of

Galileo.

significancethrough

new

corporeal world

the

in
had

cause

According

relativelysimple

acquired

completely

scholastic

the

to

ception
con-

or

in Descartes'
Meditations,in a decisive passage,
(which even
axiomatic
still presented with
substances
were
validity)causes
either their activities
things,while effects,on the other hand, were

or

were

other

substances

only by

such

activities

was

the

of

to the

only

to the

not

and

the

of

thinkers

states

was

of the

of

over

perception

to

This

identification

This

intellectus

system
branche's
*

as

The
motion

raison

Geulinox

regards finite

bodies

the

one

causal

causal

and

are

relation
"

motions,

counter-impact,

corpuscle to another,* is
relation,the

of

idea

substances

Causes

impact

tion
concep-

to the

of

motions

holds

"

manner

and

about

come

form

which

the
is

in
imagination (anschaulich),is intelligible

or

universelle

also, in

the

applied

relation of

the

back

went

themselves.

from

to

Platonic-Aristotelian

good with Spinoza as

infinitusappears
again in the
intelleetualisquo dens se ipsum

amor
"

to

now

held

were

contrary,

substances

orx^mal fundamental form of

clear

the

the

on

meant

motions.

are

passing

this

which

(cf." 6), who

that

"

Being

effects

things

Galileo,

aiTia.

Greek

older

the

and

minds

to the

well
ethical

with

as

Descartes.

part of the
In

amat.

both

Spinozistic
cases

Male-

thing.
similar
to that
of Spinoza and
Malebranche,
of the
as
only "limitations," "prcEcisiones''''

amounts

same

If we think away
body and the divine mind.
Cf. 3/ef. p. 56.
limitation
from
God.
ourselves, he says, ib. 237 ff ., there is left
* Hence
for Descartes
the mechanical
principle excluded
possibilityof action
at a distance, just as it excluded
This
him
forced
to the artificial
empty space.
he aimed
hypotheses of the vortex
theory,by which
to give a physical ground for
of the world
the Copernican view
(popular exposition by Fontenelle, Mntretiens
des Mondes, 1686). The
la Pluralite
this doctrine was
sur
grounds on which
of
displaced by the Newtonian
theory
gravitation are no longer philosophical,
but purely physical in their nature.
universal

infinite

"

The

412

Renaissance

the

of

comprehension

Tor

the

theory

world

also.

Period.

of outer

[Part

IV.

experience,to

from
Galileo to Newton
investigationof Nature
its energies toward
finding out the simple fundamental
of outer
corporealmotion, to which all complex structures
the

just as

directed
form

in

inner

the

Science

Natural

triumphs

its

celebrating

was

of

be reduced,

Descartes

desired

experience

could

fundamental

psychicalmotion, out of which the multiplicity

become
cal
explicable. In the theoretiexperienceswould
this seemed
attained by establishingthe immediately
forms

inner

of

domain
evident

truths

of

out

innate

this demand

the

ideas); in
problem

new

their

Spinoza produced
and
passions,^the latter
{Affecte)
the

former

whole

the
of

practical field
a

statics and
In

of feeling (Gemuthsbewegungen)

and

of

host

with

of

establish

to

the

of

(the

the movements

so

those

of

natural

author

Hobbes.

this

by combining

the

Descartes

of

cartes
spiritDes-

the

species

grew

mechanics

history of

Thus

particularpassions,as

there

emotions

thoughts

'

thel

derives

and

from
sub-species,
the six fundamental
forms
of wonder
(admiratio,)love, and hate,
desire
{dSsir),pleasure and pain [or joy and sadness, liust und
Spinoza develops his system of
Unlust']{Imtitia tristitia)
; thus
the emotions
of desire,pleasure, and
out
pain {appetitus,Imtitia,
the
out
ideational
in connection
by pointing
tristitia)
processes
"

with

which

have

become

transferred

self-preservationof

the

from

their

individual,to

other

ideas."
A

peculiarside-attitude

thinkers.

Tor

mental
draw

Bacon

is the
the

that

mental

of

nothing

do

belongs
the

whole
in the

the

thereto

are

held

in

the

on

other

system

there

these

we

at bottom

speak yet
and

of

and

the

of

volitions

of

immortal

an

mind

or

VAme;

the

soul

are

tially
essen-

against

over

known

by

body also,and
(spiraculum),of

this
spirit,

province
theology; But according to
be characterised much
theory cannot

de

they

as

activities

divine

of

which

is set

have

to

was

something

as

hand,

physical. Both,

therefore,also,the

Descartes'

corporeal world,

to be

Descartes, Les Passions

Cf below, No. 7.

5 ft.

as

the circle of the

of

spiritualworld

science

mechanical

proportion

which

Ideas
\_Oeistiges'].

experience

to the

English
conception of the
to
they endeavour
two

perception rather a something spiritual[spiritual

than
religioussense, Oeistliches}
a
or
something mental

intellectual

if besides

regard by the

empirical psychical life,and

with

world

in

closelyinto

more

the

in this

Hobbes,

natural

consciousness

to

is taken

and

more

is,regard

sphere

emotions

object,the

original
"

these

this view
otherwise

Spinoza, Eth. III.,and

fall

should
the

natural

than

Tract.

as

Brev.

an

II.

and

Substance

2, "31,]

Chap.

Causality: Descartes, Hohbes.

materialism; for it aims

anthropological
series of empiricalpsychical activities as
with

so-called

the

of

father

outspoken sensualism
frequentlyremind
us,
seeks

he

ideas,
"

the

that

that

toward

in

analogously

other

feelings and

activities

"natural
without

not

was

by
also

arise

characterised

With

whose

to the

regard

their

about.

come

history"
influence

upon

the

as

will

of

of

connection

the

elements

arise.

the

that

of

in

of the will

consistency
Spinoza
the

did

strict

of

the

for

it in the

there

is

the

deity

ethically,the

of

types

are

in

the

hand,

one

determined

form

in the

of

the

other

the

of

itself,and,

freedom

to exhibit

"

the

process
fore,
there-

Freedom

absolute

the

and

"

Spinoza,

can

Being
other

the

on

of

inexorable

of

course

metaphysically,the
overcoming

this

bute
attri-

attempted

For

of

all

theory

the

be conceived

can

determinism,.

but

which

too, projected

psychological sense.

by nothing

ideal

that

of

with

Both

Spinoza.

of

feelings

passions, and

followed

prevails even

freedom

no

only,on

the

baldest

they

for

and

necessity which

motivation

mean

Hobbes

formation
trans-

practical

Spinoza,whose

indeterminism

of

sense

ments
ele-

only

impressions are

is

emotions

the

the

out

and

own

of

and

Hobbes,

emotions

the

mechanism

In

with

by

same

his

combination

always looking squintinglytowards

extension].
[i.e.
the denial
From
these presuppositionsof method

the

nected
con-

the

deductions

self-preservationand

then

thus

entire

process

sense-impressions give

thought

which

pain

of

especiallywith

"

and

impulse

pleasure and

mechanical

psychology.

Campanella,

as

show

to

memory
domain

associational

consciousness, and

of

the

This problei^
was
bodily functions.
propounded
attempted to solve it,and in doing so became

the

; Hobbes

Bacon

understand

to

413

of

hand,

passions through

reason.

In

this it became

facts of

psychology,

7.

already

evident

that

in

the

of

presence

the

the corporeal
separationbetween
and the mental
which
not
world
to be
was
metaphysics demanded
But
Descartes
himself
maintained.
met
experience.
quite the same
The nature
itself
the
clear and
of the mind
might, indeed, explain

distinct ideas
from
and

emotions

themselves

forms

rather

not

of

the

passionsconnected

as

disturbance

This is the interest, not

only ethical,but

same

and

and

treat

since

states

point of view
Meds.

V.

and

so
psychologically

and
VI.

in

one

line.

will

rational

explain the

perturbation

to

L,

and

absolute

this

animi),

the

the

it could

these, but
the

and

that

obscure
with

of

the

which

also

different

which

and

confused
These

them.
mind^

gives

emotions

ideas,

present

(perturbationes
occasion

theoretical,which
as

resulted

and

for

induced

the

cartes
Des-

passions, from

Cf. for the following Passions

de

I'Ame,

414

Renaissance

The

Science Period.

Natural

[Part

IV.

be
due
to God, its
(cf. above, " 30, 5) cannot
be sought ultimately in an
influence exercised by the
origin must
of the
feeling there is, therefore,for
body. In the^disturbances
be explained from
cannot
the
indubitable
Descartes
fact,which
an
of

abuse

freedom

his

metaphysicalprinciplesof

fundamental

Here,

system.

fore,
there-

forced
to recognise an
exceptional
philosopher sees himself
in a way
that
had
been
relation, and he adjusts this for himself
foreshadowed
by the anthropology of the Victorines (cf." 24,2).
the

The

of

(natura)of

nature

teaches, consists

he

man,

mind

heterogeneous substances, a

two

and

in the

body,

spatialsubstances

Descartes, bodies
which

of

out

with

; their

has

is

substance

of

co-existence

this

gland

excites

as

the

the

disturbance

of

storm

latter

the

as

and

substance
and

the

master.

and

body

the

vulnerable

been
did

set

aside

the

obliged to

assert

in

not

without

to

go

on

metaphysical

moment

worlds

transcendent

other

formed
motion

one

On

once

were

causal
a

process

transformed

No

with
mind

philosophy, and

and

new,

erted
ex-

of

in

as

causality,in

sense

that
the

over

the
chanical.
me-

the

in themselves;
intelligible

but

from

of

one

was
difiiculty

itself into

certain

of

processes

regarded

than

between

gained preponderance

causal

idea,i.e.

exception which the philosopher

ever,
This, howanthropologicalfacts.

conception

more

problem.

Cartesian

effecting a

the

immanent

The

the

in

the

the

pineal

also, which

greater

influxus physicus

in

regressive, alteration

conscious

this

in

point

themselves
had

found

They

the

indistinct

as
emotion, or as passion.^
sense-perception,
the disciples,
the systematic impulse was
With

the

in consequence

spiritsin

mental
unclear

an

in accordance

body, however,

animal

for

movements,

arise

time,

same

the

in

human

so

and

remain,

nervous

system

the

the

at

only

are

motor

In

present

itself in the

manifests

of

mechanism.

mental

"

been

conscious

Animals

other.

each

upon

sensations

"

stimulations

reflex

the

act

union

this marvellous

and

(i.e. metaphysically incomprehensible) union

the
arranged by God's will that in this single case
the

inner

another

the

of

spatialand

these
found

or

that

this Descartes

worlds

into the

in the

idea that

one

function

of

then
builds his Ethics.
In such
perturbations the mind
passive attitude, and it is its task to free itself from these in clear
and
distinct
morals in an
knowledge.
Spinoza carried out this intellectualistio
antithesis of an
The
extremely grand and impressive manner
(^Eth.IV. and V. )
active and
point
is indeed
passive attitude of the finite mind
gained from the standof his metaphysics only artificially
(^Eth.III., Def. 2) : but he carried
through with compelling consistencythe thought, that the overcoming of the
passions follows from a knowledge of them, from the insight into the necessary
divine
nature
must
system of all things ; he taught that human
perfect itself in
the blessedness
of the active emotions
consist
in
the
which
activityof the
only
impulse toward
knowledge (^Eth.V. 15 ff.),and thus set up an ideal of
pure
life which
reaches the height of the Greek
Seupla.

occupies

Substance

2, " 31.]

Chap.

consciousness
:

example,

it seemed

but

out of

come

for

"

offer

to

thought

motion

or

should

"

understand
of will.

out

consciousness

dawned

between

and

cause

here

must

of the

be

causal

disciplesof

for

made

in
of

functions
functions

the

of

their causal

substance

other.

relation

But

to

which

the

the

other

The

true

substance,
"

Such
the

the

causal

are

author

causalityin
each
In

this

passages,

alterum

move

hoc

in

ab

utrumque

'

That

stumbled
^

For

the

ex

the

machina,

in the

while

sed

the

in

appear

stimuli

of

at

of
the

motion

and

to

as

view.

all

causal

later

time

added

in

arrangement.

of the

ulla

causalitate

qua
qua

est,"so

the

was

actually

this

in

Cf.

edition

"

artificer

dependentiam,

Hume.

second

clocks

same

constitutum

relations

lincx
Geu-

latter.

the

meram,

spiritof

the

the

by

absque

in the

the

God's

whether

case,^but

alike

industria

in

full

specialintervention

the illustration

"

Yet

Geulincx.

of

theory

; their

through
the child in the cradle, Eth. 123.
Ethics
(1665), in fact, introduced

annotations

throughout the profounder

'Eth., p. I2i, note 19.

for the

permanent

propter

simili

clear

analogy

first edition

with

occasionales.

use

involves

made

difBculty in

first became

example,

besides,that
devs

fundamental

upon,

and

doubtless

been

et

as

is the

clearlyin

causat,
arte

of

"

regarded

perfect harmony,

altera

eadem

purposive

Ethics

"

former

whole,

have

in

of

general

most

which

to

is

as

himself

clocks

continue

as

in

in their

connection

causce

into

entirelyexcluded

indeed, the

doctrine,taken
two

in the
not

or

case,

expresses
as

is

that

for

connection

individual

some

the

doubt

functions

betwepn

Clauberg brings them

perceptions,Cordemoy
development is attained

corresponding

is God.
bodily movements,
development
multiplied in the whole

of

latter

connection

the

that

contrivance

divine

by

them

two

and

purposes

school.

in

occasions

but
efficientes,

causae

for

considerations

Cartesian

only

not

between

sensations,and

but

the

properly, and

not

this
for the

of

these

aiccount

are

determined

consequences

"cause"

this

on

doubt

the

by

ments
ele-

two

in themselves

not

union

the

an

Where

of

arranged

so

the

do

cal
logi-

Hence

which

matter

followed

another

one

nature, efficient causes,

own

be

and

other.^

each

that

identity

or

exist.

effect,which

also

should

the latter the

mechanical

produced

are

of

equality

not

with

who

nature, has

one

of

principle by

not

other
an-

greater was

case

which

and

could

God,

man's

the

the

connected

sought

Descartes

substances

of

relation,cause

be

to

the

relation

means

sensation

the

intelligible,does

belong together,are

principlewas

the

effect,by
seemed

dependence
inquiry

that

into

over

ality
Physical and logicalcaus-

In

presentedby psycho-physicalcausality.

415

pass
how

much

difficulty
; so

no

Greulincx.

Causality:

impossible to

motion,

seemed

and

"

34.

It seems,
the
more

(1675) present

Eenaissance

The

416

beginning
Cartesian
in the

that

world-order

more

communicated

individual

body

Minds

create

can

sole

ideas

new

little

as

all the

had

in the

of

and

of the

Confessions, and

both

violently.
ism

out

came

Oratory,

Thus
in

that

was

inborn
he

has

tribution
its dis-

new

tion
mo-

this

who

lived

the

to

the
the
the

old

the

account
in

the

and

Jesuits,

made

in the

quickly

had

of

doctrine

the

and

Jansenists

the

phere,
Augustinian-Scotistatmos-

philosophy, the

new

foe

sole

contradiction

involved

with

Cartesianism

the

emphasise

to

became

Friend

time.

on

while

especiallythe

and

create

can

violent

encountered

doctrine

their

friendly

were

bodies

as

occasion

more

theologicalcontroversies of the
recognised the relationshipof
Augustine;^

of the
place by means
to the
corporeal world
which
changes only in

is God.

as

Fathers

the

of the
corpuscles,but in the case
speak, only temporarily concealed.

to

is, so

motion

individual

it

causalityof God,
orthodoxy

them

of

quantum

cause

Cartesians

takes

given

the

among

The

fits from

themselves, but from

substances

these

from

in minds

has

God

which

; the

in

thought. The
general metaphysicalcourse
inference
the premises for the
system already contained
cient
of all that takes
place in finite substances, the efficase

into

deity." Thinking

ideas

other

of

derives,not
principle
the

each

Occasionalism

of

[Part IV.

by God.^

determined

once

anthropological rationale

This

8.

the

with

accordance

Period.

follow

body

and

mind

of

functions

corresponding

Science

Natural

war

oppositionbetween

orthodox

upon

tetics,
Peripa-

it all the

Augustianism

and

more

Thortir

The
Cartesianism.
quence
consecontroversy over
Cartesians
brought into the foreground as far

allied to the
in which
their doctrine
was
possiblethose elements
plete
Augustinian. So Louis de la Forge attempted to prove the comChurch
with
the
doctrine
of the
identity of Cartesianism
Father, and emphasised especiallythe fact that according to both
well as
thinkers
the sole ground of all that takes place in bodies
as
this was
later designated by Malehranclie
minds
is God.
Just
as
mark
of a Christian philosophy, while
the most
the sure
dangerous
as

'

"*

If, therefore,Leibniz, when

upon
the

2 and .3)
this
{^Claire.

he

later

for

claimed

his

mony
"pre-establishedhar-

terised
frequent use at that time, characclicks
the Cartesian
immediate
of
the
two
an
conception by
dependence
another, and the Occasionalistic by a constantly renewed
one
regulationof
the part of the clock-maker, this was
clocks on
applicable at most to some
"

passages

in the

first edition

same

of the

analogy

Ethics

in

of Geulincx.

and the
Kinship and opposition apply also to still other points. Descartes
in
at one
priests of the Oratory (Gibieuf, Malebranche) are
against Thomism
the Augustinian
and
Scotist
of the deity;
freedom
doctrine
of the boundless
willed it,not per se
God
they maintain
again that the good is good because
so
2

(of." 26, 2, 3), etc.

"

Trait,

de

I'Espr.Hum.,

Pr6f.

"

Eecherche, VI.

2, 3.

2, " 31.] Substance

Chap.

philosophy consists

of heathen

error

moment

the

ideas

how

he

finite mind

bodies
in

richer

us

The

profound

knowledge
between

the
is

of the

the

than

but

two,

also

is thinkable

the

deity,and

knows

is,on

their

the

hand,

one

by God,
which
Our

God

Ideas

and

has

is like

equal

are

sense

Malebranche

behold

all

9.

to

attribute by

Eth., p. 113

The

was

problems.
of

mode

Met,

of

us

actual

to

perceive

God.

He

that

"

duces
pro-

itself.^
'

Malebranche
makes

direct

such

edge
knowl-

is

still

possible

total heterogeneity
even

idea

an

of

respect, also,mediation
takes

does

actual

not

archetype

this

actual

also

to

bodies

world

those

ated
cre-

ideas
world.

magnitudes

two

each

in God

corporeal

as

philosophy

of

in

refuge

know

corporeal

bodies, just

equal

are

in the

not

intelligible
corporealworld
the

of

qualitiesis much

of

how

Man

of the

no

other.
teaches

In
that

this
we

God.

different

Occasionalistic

to

third

in

it

theory

sought

Malebranche

hand,

understood

things in

Quite

other

the

comes

see

this

in God.

archetype

the

on

In

This

in God.

communicated

knowledge

which

of Ideas

the

it

of the

possibleto

possibleonly through
world

be

dualism

in view

other.

the Neo-Platonic

to

arm

have

the

influxus physicus

no

because,

his

which

absolutelyimpossible

the

one

bodies

finallywith

because

only

not

proceeds

corporealworld

Cartesian

mind

body by

raise

to

sought only

actual

finds

he

the

that

in its wealth

the

this

for
finally,

how

be

which

substances, it is not

two

know

in

he

part

of

deprived

are

but

all,and

not

apprehension.

is excluded

of the

the

on

"

even

at

it is to

beautiful

more

do

perceptionsis

does

of ideas

world

cause

to work

epistemologicalmotif

more

ical
metaphys-

he
only of which
follows
in the anthropological
of the bodily movements

it

the

of

; therefore

and

be

cause

for this

"

himself

this

operate

the

things

cosmological field,that

cannot

that

finite

can

sets

in the

whatever

knowledge,

nor

cannot

farther

in

of

action

spontaneous

substantiality. In

From

mind

knows

follows

one

it is done.
the

of

that

principle

how

one

element

or

'

that
field,
no

all

Geulincx, likewise,

With

knows

assumption

417

things.

of finite

causal

in the

capacity for

and

self-subsistence

from

Oausality: Occasionalism.

and

the

the

solution

The
other

which

explanation of
was

excluded

Spinoza

gave

to

mode

of

the

any

by

the

the
one

conception

of

p. 26.

of
in the system
that
remains
Cf. Eth.
121
f.
activity of man.
"
The
autology," or inspectio sui, is, therefore, not only the epistemological
Man
has
nothing
starting-pointof the system, but also its ethical conclusion.
to do in the outer world.
The
Vhi nihil vales, ibi nihil velis.
highest virtue is
will
to God's
submission
a modest
humility.
contentment,

Geulincx

of

remnant

consists

in

in finite beings
self-activity
the

immanent

mental

"

"

Sech.

ni.

2.

Renaissance

The

418

attribute

the

attribute

as

could

there

of

substance/

be

no

in

vice

consciousness, or

se

which

presents

another

explanation,and as a matter
aid of his conception of God.

the

by
God

is the

also

with

in the

sole

doctrine.

the

and

will; according

spiteof

In

is

tion

the

with

the

the

in the

likeness

With

there.
he

"

world," but,

in. a

here

or

world

the

nature

it

relar
that

from

not, "God

means

the

God].

therefore,the causal

entirely different

sense

his

by

of

of the nature

the

is the

follows necessarilyfrom

causa,

Spinoza

spiritof

essence

creates

consequence

word

that
found

reason

or

universal

world

necessary

for this

Malebranche, God

former, God

the

sought

doctrine

the

meaning

and
the

to be

was

Occasionalists exists only

in the

not

latter,the

the

really thought
it has

which

to

[or is

of God

nature

place is

according to Geulincx
according to Spinoza, he is
to

this

course

If,however,

For

things ; according

of

but

word,

of

takes

Spinoza,his agreement

motive

creator

all that

of

cause

dependence

facts needed, therefore,

anthropologicar

in the

itself

such

of

appearance

spatialupon

the

of

dependence

the

the

versa;

IV.

(see above, No. 5) ; it held of the

est et per se concipitur. Accordingly

of

question

[Part

it

defined

had

he

as

Period.

Science

Natural

creates

the

world."

is the

his conception of real dependence, of

Spinoza always expresses
tion,
follow
{sequi,consequi) and by the addiby the word
causality,
the definition of a triangle the equalityof the sum
from
as
The
of its angles to two
dependence of the
right angles follows."
"

"

"

world
This
off

idea

of ground

of
and

part

knowledge

true

of itself from
nature

all

from

the

is

eternal
which

"

replacesthe perceptional
relation
logico-mathematical

in

the

and

and

time, but
the
the

of

geometry

is

peculiarto

The

relation

of

causality

eternal,that is,timeless

things sub

deity as

of

quadam.

dependence resulted

the universal

from

cetemi-

follow
the

essence

or

just
timelessly,

nature

of space.

causality than that of the

for rationalism,
ence
only that form of dependthought itself,namely, the logicalproced-

knows
"

the

consequent.

relation

follow

of

und

Orund

consequent;

all its modifications

this nature

consequence
is

ground

conception of

propositionsof

"

or

identification

consideration

geometricalmethod

The

of

conception of

tatis -specie. This

"

that

completely stripped
played
creating which

thus

has

Occasionalists,and

consistent

deity is,therefore,not

of the

as

the

operationwith
consequent \^orreason

effect with

and

cause

with

consequence}

mathematical

"producing"

of

is

as

relation

active

Folge']. Spinozism

and

causal

conception of the
the empiricalmark

important

so

is,therefore,thought

God

upon

no

other

Mh.
I., Prop. 10.
die vierfache Wurzel
Cf. Schopenhauer, Ueber
cles Satzes
[Fourfold Root, etc., Bohn
Ch-unde, ch. 6.
Lib.]
2

vom

zureichenden

Renaissance

The

420

Natural

is this

Spinoza's conception,then,
divine

the

of

and

body:

As

motion.

idea,

passed through
physical system
entire

in the

author,

so

extensive

understanding

formed

the

by

Duns

become

the

The

this

with

and

interests of his

time,

wished

He
formulation

to

furthered,
he

time

living character
htosible.

The

which

there

to

whether

see

of

afford

whole.

The

aim

to

for the

Platonic

those

The

must

the

whole
back

import

an

for

indifferent

the

the

God

The

difficulties

of its

at home

which

of

inventor

of

for Plato

and

"

views
teleological
the

of the

religious

in the

he

himself

its full extent, and

the

which

aid of

might

nevertheless

therefore

be

in the
course

made

an

doctrine
of
whose

the

same

purposeful

remain
"

tially
essen-

at the

compre-

corpuscles,

arose

"

for

attempt

of Descartes

events

could

"

he

not

purposefulnature

and

ultimate

the

niz.
thought of Leibexplanation of Nature, the

efficient causes,

the

in

deep and fine

the conceptions

meaning to their working taken

philosophicaldevelopment of Leibniz has

whole

aiTta.

and

-and

conceptions

mechanical
to

none

as

and
scientific

motive

already intimations

were

substitute

also from

to

universe

'

importance

and

the

the

leading

through
thoughts by

the

and

its scientific

in

meta-

appreciated
Hobbes,
only he
pre-established
harmony."

mechanical

the

attempt

ultimatelytraced
should

the

see

for

"

the

mind

was

the

knew

Bacon

as

uniting of

was

carried

about

cast

of the

the

of which

he

understanding

the mechanical

of

Only

Spinoza,who

well

as

creator

much

as

and

Scotus

reconciliation

world,

had

Descartes

and

Thomas
could

for

as

that

is

had

motives

harmonising

study of Nature.^

modern

differential calculus,who
Aristotle

this

owes

philosophy with
he had for
as
significance

their

of

It

mediaeval

and

of ancient

ideas

which

equalled by
of

circumstance

the

mind

in

all-sidedness

the

and

learning

by

same

in detail.^

and

is

as

ideas,as

human

reached

was

combination.

and

of

thought

system which

a,

philosophyin

of

especiallyto

but

of

divarificatious

Leibniz,"

The

whole

movement

this

of

as

butes,
attri-

and

is the

content

attributes.

the

of

mode

idea

connection

the

both,

body, both

many

of

in

; but

human

adjustment

to the

only

an

by

history

of

in power

the

it is determined

conclusion

The

10.

not

attributes, as
the

IV.

particularfunctions

both

(Idee)of the

the idea

measure

to

measure

as

in both

of its

correspondence

of the

exists in like

[Part

thing

each

motions

of

that

by

finite

every

and

as

like

also in

belongs

virtue

e.g. man,

mind

as

motion

essence,

Period.

Science

entelechies,"and

to

win

as

the

back

the rights of the

geometrical method
goal of his philosophy is to under-

in this

connection

from

self-consciousness, and

postulate of the countless attributes, Spinoza did

cf. the correspondence with Tschirnhausen, Op. II. 219 f.
^
Cf. Syst. JVoiiv. 10.

not

solve

Substance

2, " 31.]

Chap.

of

mechanism

stand the

which

form by
realises itself.

For

this

only "Being/'

could

no

cotild

mum,

the

cosmic

the

living content
he

reason

attribute of unchangeable

an

merely

states
such

him

for

again

for its essential

had,
the

mechanical

and

motion,

should

motion

this

carried

inertia

into

dynamical

which

way

be

of

problem

this

"

as

perfectissi-

merely by
think

its

specificationsof

or

became

change

or

took
of

the

on

God

force.

This

force

evinces

creative

world

also
niz'
Leib-

was

itself in

of motions.

system
in

that

nomenal
phe-

cause

longer

no

processes

characteristic,creative

attained

Leibniz

could

(Wirkeri); substances
philosophicalconception

the

thought,

fundamental

cosmic

"

characterised

as

working

active

forces,^and

of

meaning

God

the

of

longer think
merely as ens

existence,and

quality:

and

means

import

or

no

"

421

the

as

modifications, determinations,

as

fundamental

could

substance

"

Leibniz.

processes

thiiak

longer

think

longer

no

Caumlity :

and

of

and

itself
into

over

the

that

the

metaphysics.^

The

required
begun

process

infinitelysmall

first in his

standpoint

impulses, which

of

point
stand-

same

mechanical

Galileo

by

theory

of

together

resolving

formed

the

for the authoritative

investigations in natural science
starting-point
tesimal
by Huyghens aild Newton, led Leibniz to the principle of the infinihis

calculus, to
the

to

the
.

yet in
work,

insight that

of motion

ground

their

On

essential

bodies

sought,

if substance

But

substance

their

motion

effects

are

is

metaphysical.^ In
knowledge this purports that
apprehends

bodies

in

is neither

of

them

as

identical

presuppositionfor them
(as with Newton),
bene fundatum, an
a phcenomenon
substances,

1.

La

substance

Cf.
'

Sust. Nouv.
With

again

est

Syst. Nouv.
3.

this the

abolished

un

gtre

capable d'actipn.
primitive."

; the

Ess.

in

Princ.

de

of

doctrine

of

cognition

and

confused
for Leibniz,

Descartes),

order

of

filling

of

Hence,

think

to

substance

distinct

but

material.
im-

nor

the

force-productof
co-existence,

la Nat.

"

et de

la

GrSice,

co-ordination
world

of the
of

IV.

3).

and
cogitatio,was
of
truly actual, the world
the intelligible
world
of substances
over
material
world
in a completely Platonic

two

attributes, extensio

consciousness

is phenomenon.
Leibniz
of the senses
against the phenomena

{Nouv.

Leibniz'

do

f., "Porce

extension

fashion

The

obscure,

(as

to

are, in their

property

spatial structures.
bodies

capacity

Bodies

rational,clear,and

with

extension, nor

compelled

force.
with

pecially,
es-

super-spatialand

force.

connection

in

their

himself

this

and

bodies, in which

not

force,Vfhile sensuous,

as

cognition apprehends
space

finds

immaterial

as

of

consists

viva, "

vis

nature

is force, it is

Leibniz

account

"

nature, force; their spatial form, their

and

space

essential

the

(impenetrability),but

this

corporeal

even

the

is to be

mass

in force.

"

of

conception

sets
or

Cf. " 33 f.

is the

Renaissance

The

422

not

but
reality,

absolute

an

true, mutatis
the

laws

of

bodies

which

relate

[i.e.the
logicalnecessity,but

is not

They

lois de

are

would

machines, they

are

Thus

of

purpose

machines

clioix

the

world

If

bodies

them.

by

that

sense

in the

are

purpos-

works.'

ively constructed
11.

the

determined

form

ness.
appropriate-

or

their roots

have

because

in the

such

are

purposiveness

; and

them

fulfilled in the

best

be

truths

are

"

convenance

chose

sagesse.^God

de la

but

contingent. They could be

oppositeis not inconceivable]. Their

fact,and

otherwise

thought
ground

of

to matters

further,that

spatial manifestations

these

to

holds

same

"geometrical" truths,

rational, not

not

are

refer

which

mechanics

of

it follows

this

From

time.

of

mutandis,

IV.

[Pakt

the

And

mentale}

ens

an

Period.

Science

Natural

Leibniz, but

in

again

in

than

form

maturer

in Neo-

principle for explaining Nature; his

time unity.
and at the same
life is variety;
doctrine
is vitalism.
But
The
mechanical
theory led Leibniz to the conception of infinitely
individual
forces, metaphysical points,*as likewise to the
many
had
idea
of their
continuous
He
connection.
originally leaned
the

Platonism, lifebecomes

toward

the

theory

of Democritus

Occasionalist

movement,

atomic

; the

him

Spinoza, made
he

found

found

the

the

force

Each

peculiar phase

Hence

just this meaning

substance

in

the

the

to

unifying of

every

and

With

is the

in

conception
plurality.^This means

represents

nature

of

the

thoughts

are

Cf. chiefly the correspondence

Princ.

Syst. Nouv.

Leibniz

the

"

united, in
with

11.

is here

served

very

the

good

lb. 3.

Monad.

turn

hand, to supply the place of or

of consciousness.
hand, the function
the rest means,
therefore, on the one

cannot

the

form

manifold, except
within

ancient
on

sense

the

avimvoia

irdma

other

and

every

stances,
sub-

other

the

the

13-16.
the

(cf.op. eit.)by

serve

as

"

ambiguity in
[and

vorstellen
the

word

"

means,
the
on

symbol of, and

substance
sents
"repreevery
in all
that all is contained
also the 'omnia ubique of the

That

hand,
and

hand, that each substance

justificationof this ambiguity

"perceives"
lies

in

the

all the

fact

that

of the unifying of a
idea whatever
we
which
rience
expeof connection
pattern of that kind
"
in the function of consciousness
(" synthesis in Kant's

clear
any
after the

ourselves

phraseology)

substance

Leibniz,

of

system

"

Renaissance), and
The
rest.
deeper
we

des Bosses.

11.

(Leibniz cites

in

belongs always

"representing"

one

other

the

in particular

that

of

multitude

representation " (which applies also to the German

to the English " representation "]), in accordance
with
which
on

with

but

of

the

"

had

force, but

world-substance,

to

and

Bruno

the part

cosmic

of

system

All-unity;

Giordano

identity of

is the

gives

unity
"

the

the

physics
meta-

manifold.*

these

word

of

all,the

of

and

world-force,the

Leibniz

state

thought

Cusanus

substance

it is

above

and

the

principle

; every

form.

with

Nieolaus

solution,as

before, in

it

whole.

familiar

nominalistic

the

and

and

distinct

Substance

2, " 31.]

Chap.

which
postulates

been

Descartes; namely,

since

reference

to

another,

one

force-substance

various

along

reference

with

of

and

that

lines
the

to

experience

neither

the

influence.
"

force

of

is

immanent

Its

principleof

Each

also

an

the

by
with

all,"
"

between

the

content, and
consists
which

epistemologiealcriterion
reason

the

of

the

of

the

fact that

passive in

in

far

so

it

as

Monad.
Monad.
Leibniz

7.

Cf.

other

"

the

of the

infinitum.
"

Monad.

49.

monads

and
to

Duns

and

of

"

the

are

is
two

no

guished
distin-

not

are

the

same

of

mode

difference

the

that

each

clearness

Descartes'

the universe.

metaphysical predicateby
Scotus
ceives
(cf.p. 331), con-

confused

in intensity.

the

Hence

in

antithesis

an

as

is

monad

garded
re-

represents clearly and distinctly,as

'^
represents obscurely and confusedly : hence,

this

there

monads

it

as

directed

passing from

toward

x.

obscure

14, 17.
the

as

principium

lb.

But

a, c, d,

is the

what
.

x.

The

monad
same

16-19.

indiscernibilium

identitatis

the fact that

overlooked
sure, Leibniz
of mutual
representation of substances.
.

But

Eor

"

system
A, c, d,

mirror

"

differentdegree of

represent

distinct

Syst. Nouv.

monads

is hence

things.

declares

{Monad. 9).
^
Here, to be
in this

all

the

11.

expressed

declaration

representationwithin

of

in the

Leibniz, like
of

hand,

as

now

becomes

also,its impulse (appitition)

is

'

If

they

far

so

his

receives

physical, but psychical

all others.

only

representation or

active

as

this

another.'

Leibniz

thus

antithesis

force of

But

"

this

with

the

they represent, for this is

be sought only in their
can

difference

distinctness

in

siibstance

is not

the

from

which

content

no

extent

influence

Leibniz

living unity

alike.*

world

monads

"have

certain

outward

universe

their

representing
and

the

consists

in the

monads

can

whole

the

is

monad

representations {Vorstellungen)
desire {appitition'),
i\i.Q "tendency"

are

individual,distinct

substances

is to

monad

nevertheless, on

; it contains

The

principle:

representationto

is

itself ; in this

the

activity is

one

monad
"

world

states

its

from

over

pass

internal

activity:

in its nature.
the

purely

Each

metaphysical impenetrability."

being completely closed to

a
positive expression from

monad

to

come

perfectlyindependent being, which

quality of
that the

motifs

calls his

"

their

Both

have

might

with

of

Leibniz

tradition.

of

all

correspondence

expression which
Eenaissance

movement

substances

Monadology.

expression
first of

of

world-ground.

windowlessness

"

their

of

423

metaphysical

isolation

common

exercise

nor

the

the

in the

out

of

rest

this

and

windows,"

the

an

"

in

that

originin

monad,

Causality: Leibniz.

current

perfectlybrought

most

him

its

having

functions
are

had

and

no

real
The

fi?

is reached

content

monad

It is in turn

is true

for

c, and

represents
the
so

representation
in
on

The

424

goal of

its life.
Leibniz

the

this

To

Science Period.

Natural

and
representations,

to clear
the

Renaissance

"

"

clearingup

above-mentioned

is

content

own

intensityof the representations

principle of infinitely

mechanical

the

applies

of its

[Part IV.

small constituent
impulses : he calls these infinitely
parts of
representativelife of the monads
petitesperceptions,^and needs
hypothesis to explain the fact,that according to his doctrine the

small
the
this

evidently has very many

of (cf.below, " 33). In

monad

would

be

scious
representationsthan it is conlanguage of to-day ^e petitesperceptions

more

the

unconscious

mental

(Vorstellungen)

states

Of

such

differences

natura

facit

non

saltum

of

degree

clearness

in accordance

and

infinitely
many,

are

in

the

"

with

monads

only

souls

to

obscurely and

universe

called

the

other

at every

and

from

This

Geulincx

by

however,

and

the

all that

the

The

of

lb. 21.

Prim.
of

,^

4.
an

for

this,

the

harmonie

of these monads

of their

sameness

action

life

of

this

of

the

all substances.

carried

involves

out

Leibniz

the

be

finite

it

des

est

substances

in

the

the

Here

the

there,

as

uninterrupted
necessity

strict

in

all freedom
the

conception
meaning of a

ethical

of
relationship

"soul"

unity

as

the

in the

to each

is conceived

in

substances

ground

of

its

central

monad.

its

content

of

own

as

the

distinctly the monads

lesser degree of distinctness
the

represents
a

attributes,

two

rescues

sought only

only with

61

content,

passions.''

this

"

also

substances,
gave

this connection

Monad.

only
and

senses

can

each

substance

one

prMtaUie

relation

needs, however,

"

this

is
activity,

completely with

totalityof

the

in that
organism,
and
accordingly

maffis

the
of

the

action.

over

In

Syst. JVouv.
-^0

Spinoza

just for

principle of correspondence, introduced

finite substances

reason

universe.
'

of

is the

pre-established harmony

the

the

uncaused
for

Being and
explanations,and
God, who created

tutmg

virtue

each

as

activityof all substances,the

place,and excludes all chance and

their

monad

relation

to the

takes

freedom

control

Inasmuch
all harmonise

only

represents

"

in the

of

sense

of

by

principle as

determination
of

"

which

extended

appears

accordinglj"^
pure

and

"

"

represent

which

such,

God.

simple

therefore

is

one

"

which

monads,

highest monad,

this arises the appearance

in

the

distinctness,

moment'

doctrine

"

and

nature, they

own

others.

upon
"

its

continuity

perfect clearness

central monad

out

of

rises from

lowest

The

matter.

is but

lives

The

law

there

uninterrupted graded

an

which

distinctness

confusedly,i.e. unconsciously,are

with

there

reason

minds.^

form

passive ; they
the

and

the

form

series,a great system of development,

monads

and

most

central
constiof

rest

ff.

14.

Ubertas

(Op., Erd. ed., C""^

quo

magis

agitur

ex

ratione, etc.

Leibniz,

De

Libert.

Natural

Chap. 2, " 32.]

in

of

particulargrade

this

in

And

necessary

realise the

end

mechanical

determination

process

in

series

sustain

monads

of

their

relation

same

sustain

in

the

throtighout.

and

deity

other

of

system

also,
finally,

The

each

to

representations.

its way

to

the

so

theig^life unfolds, they

Spirit in the whole

Universal

the

of

thereby

harmonise

which

creative

the

finite substances

and

they

should

teleologymakes
epistemologicalprinciplesof Leibniz.

the

other

that

mechanism

of

This relation
into

of

425

representativeintensity,and

monads

the

arranged all

Bight.

the

as

the

infinite

Descartes.

for

But

conception of things, only the infinite is a necessity

the contrary, is something
gent,"
continon
thought, while the finite,

the rationalistic
of

"

in the

that

sense

opposite contains
antithesis

and

God's

: only
significance

thought otherwise, that the

the
(cf. above, " 30, 7). Thus
truths
takes
on
metaphysical

also be

might

contradiction

no

eternal

of

it

necessary
is

Being

principleof contradiction,with

to the

things,however, are contingent; they

principleof sufELcient reason, by virtue

with

world

the

all that

and

This

conditioned,hypothetical necessity.
with

Leibniz, in agreement
The

God.

the

to

owes

Thus

in

might

have

choice

which

God

With

together.

run

of mechanics

found

into

their

the

the

in the

old

it is

; that

of

presages

will

of

is,it

school

in the

ideas

of

the

Greece

of

acquired by

knowledge

it

as

metaphysics

new

the

where

world,

the

philosophy

the

only

the

possibilities.^

raanj

the

and

to

conceptions formed

of the

midst

it has

to

back

the

between

systematic structure,

home

of

the aid of the

formulated

he

Renaissance

made

tion
determina-

contingency of

otherwise

been

all threads

Leibniz

belongs

Scotus,^ traces

Duns

world

only

necessity.

in accordance

of their

the

by another;

ing
exists,accord-

absolute

logicalor
exist

Finite

"

truth; he

eternal

an

modern

investigation.

The

Philosophy

the

on

hand,

one

the

upon

only in
of

needs

the
the

modern

the

generalisation of
1

The
not

relations

only

stimulus
life.

Cf.,however,

latter
those

of Leibniz

in this

unfortunatelynot
"

the

Renaissance
of
The

Humanism,
former

also

was

and

element

ancient
literature,but
dependence upon
ancient
conception of the state,and in

its traditions

to

the

upon
of

of

Right

of

Right.

Natural

" 32.

found
in

to

point, but
the

make

their

interests,in

the

appearance
connection

greatest of the

also

in

many

consideration

addition, below, "

or

35.

Scholastics

others
treatment

dependent,
the

on

other,

is shown

not

also in the
the
as

with

are

vival
re-

attachment
a

cal
theoreti-

which

the

be

recognized
have

to

though as yet they

that they deserve.

The

426
secular

Renaissance

during

states

took

period

this

Period.

Science

Natural

IV.

of autonomous

the form

on

[Part

life.
All

1.

motives

these

of

his admiration
it

and
his

the

of

theory

farthest

common

practicalfield

the

Marsilius

and

however,

as

the

of

out

power,

and

the

of

of the

national

Italian

an

it had

as

interests.

and

aim

warfare

that

The

with

before

been

this

Prom

fact

is

in

and
and

excited

state, moreover,

in

ban

the

of

state

Philosophy of Bight,
of the

state

the

of the

visible

by

more

Church

valuable

could

the

with

in value

under

its

between

the

divine

the lead

right of
indeed, the

Catholic

the

"profane"

also

Church

of

the

the

from

mission

of the

appeared capable
it might dissolve it again, and

deprived of

his

absolute

the

claims

magistrates
Much

obligationto

under

which

conceived
with

; the

right

the

State-church.

in

of abolition

spheres

Reformation

by

Mariana,

Por
composition or as a compact.
its higher authority,and
to a certain

secular,

the

limited

than
invisible,

Protestant

was

view

the

; and

to

state

interesting

secular

Melancthon,

feel itself

conflicts

the

the

itself

the

especial
it played

principlechanged

allowed

created

explained

an

spiritualand

order

divine

for the

support

first

although it thereby departed from

be pleased by such theories as those

root ; it

fashion

the

state ; and

lost

state

of

modern

human

for

this,

the

centuries,because

seventeenth

accordance

the

life,saw

afforded

is

Occam
of

consequence

was

removed

and

state,and

and

church

distinction

mediaeval

less

the

of interests.

of

world, which

of

to its

state

always important and often decisive in

and
an
shiftings of confessional
oppositions. Here
about.
The
Protestant
exchange of conceptions came

and

the

temporal sovereigntyof

(cf. p. 328).

in the sixteenth

interest

part

from

state

Nominalists

needs

relation

The

gained

Macchiavelli
regardlessnesswith which
his theory of the acquisitionand preservationof princely
with
which
he treated
politicssolelyfrom the point of

of the

view

to

he

that
just mentioned, was
but
in purely naturalistic
teleologically,

of

singleness

carried

system,

Padua

not

product

his

the

with

as

in

of

conceived

was

obstacle

permanent

that

the secular, which

the spiritualand
separation between
to all the beginnings of modern
thought, is completed

that

so

the

as

history

doctrine

the

combats

He

In

regards its negative side.

as

Ghibelline

Dante's

consequence.

Papacy

ancient

complete independence

carried

and

Church,

of

study

Macchiavelli.

diately,
feeling speaks imme-

national

state,at least

modern

the

demanded

He

the

from

was

Italian

the

Eome,

first in

themselves

show

of
this

human

even

While
inviolability.

Bellarmin

of
a

work

theory the

of
state

metaphysical

will

its supreme
the

it

Thomism,

as

its

extent

the

which
head

Protestants

had
was
re-

428

The

Renaissance

was

the

much-treated

from

the

older

the
that

truths, and
of
action
the

the

still less

has

virtue

forms

of their

their

authors,

those

former

like

the

Thomas

More.

After

view

belief

author

The

about

their

and

of the

by

the

of her

that the
is due

use

of money,

of

passion, of
of

in the

for this

to

imitation

characteristic

which
distinctions,

for modern

seemed

his reflection
and

of the

moral

prototype for

the

status

of

the

of

sources

perverted

ment
arrange-

inequalitygivesoccasion
island

the

ideal

The

of hatred.

Utopia,

of

in its

present condition, is

socialism,by

upon

the

ideal state of Plato.

necessaryto

which

inequalityof property

and

envy,

the

stop

the

to

society upon

in contrast

that

conclusion

justicewith

should

is, however, distinguished from

cance
signifi-

greater part of the guiltfor

latter consists

perfect state

sketches

Draconian

laws, she

individual

This
the

of the

revival

was

of

from

away

normative

to the

comes

an

intellectual

takes

criticism

features

of

literal

the

asserted

binding

Utopia

if instead

maintains

aberrations

More

manner

the

in

intellectual condition

the

of

historical

of the

violation

of the whole.

that

from

churchly politicalinterests became

a more
eloquent expression
gave them
a
thrillingportrayal of the misery of

one

first book

wrong-doing

main

of

views

No

punishes the

which

mystically
the dogfrom
matic

him

He

the

The

alienated

and

straining
con-

politicaland

do better

society would

of

religious life.

Spinoza

this

social.

the

masses

picture

rather

principle
all other phenomena of literature,
be
must
be
to their theoretical import, that is,must

that

and

the

all the

the

later time.

With

brought

of

churches

point

theoretical

associated

the

it should

that

and

historical documents.

the

from

of

the

of

religiousbooks,

crime.

itself about

trouble

to

of

understood

she

right

or

that/
incontestably

the

explained as
historically

the

work

statements

than

it follows

this

From

authority restrain every attempt toward

proceed from
conscience,which
may
any

government

3.

but

particular dogmas,

organised
ecclesiastically
profound religiousnature

for

by Averroism, this

of its real
of

that

examples

tion
religionconsists not in the recognithe will and
in the dispositionand

of

ground

of its citizens to

assent

nor

essence

particulardogmas,
determined
by it.

state

by

province

and

of

root

especiallythe religionsdocuments,
the design of teaching theoretical

and
religion,

that

IV.

movement

to the

went

thoughts

many

literature influenced

Jewish

neither

Utilising

matter.

demonstrated
have

"

classical

[Part

toleration

for the
"Doomsday Book
Tractate, which
Spinoza's Theologico-political

the

But

to

Period.

Science

Natural

the

its

its abolition

actuallygiven

in

prototype

ancient

individuals.

istic
human-

This

thinker

of
in

difference

In

succeedingdevelopment

an

More

class-

quence
conse-

in

the

abstraction

proceeded

Natural

2, " 32.]

Chap.

of

thought

the

from

Right

the

equality of

changed into an equality of

Plato
of community which
of the

renunciation

weal
the

as

with

surest

at the
model

of

equality in
basis

for

the ideal

of

goods

socialism
But

in the

spiritof

its

new

of
one

ideal of

comfort

and
made

the

the

of More

systematic

now

vex

and

few

gunpowder,

of

the
All

inventions

indispensable

before

exercised

improvement of

an

In

Bacon's

guarded

forms

by

of

of

and

compass,

sufficed

all other
of

The

is

this

at

of
the

same

Utopia and

much

healed

by

advancement
need

the

of

art

which

life

What

becomes

is thus

of

printing,

human

new

formations
transligently
intel-

an

transferred

us,

island-people in
which

to

time, by

the

invention,

in

it is

by

tions
regulamade

systematic

raises

carefully

skilful

civilisation

in

progress

else

plete
com-

of society.

happy

before
the

once

problem

condition

discovery, and

fragment,Critias (113 f.).

invention

social

brought

information

research,

The

Atlantis^

peoples,and

title of

when

us

an

Nature

all the

give

to

of

be

as

itself

from

control

scientific

cares

society

develop

of
the

more

transforming by

injurieswill

the

project.

before

and

knowledge

modern

much

human

saw

should

of

Platonic

social

have

the material

New

seclusion

receives

art

measure

working day

motion, greater dimensions, mightier development.

stand

entire

discoveries,dazzled

task

life,and

like the

Bacon,

says

of

life,which

use

of

magic

condition

conditions

society,by means
civilisation,
beyond all

it.

this

in like

normal

animated

itself the

set

raisinghuman
external

the

of the

out

the

by

science.

possible by

upon

ideal

treat

higher

was

outer

human

for

art.

eral
gen-

is demanded

fast to the

enjoy

to

all the

Renaissance

whole

natural

the

But

to

as

interests,as

for

Stimulated

insights
to

far

all

renounce

societywill be enough, he thinks, to

the
community : the remaining time
for nobler employment.
With
these

glitterof inventions, it

related

of

of

thought

the

sphere

possession.

still holds
so

is based

and

forms
as

entirelyto

common

all citizens

possibleto

to

were

crime,

to the

Chancellor

programme

worldly interests.
the

with

away

material

needs

the

grows

the

by

of

free for every

characteristics

individual

an

law, and

ruling classes

private property

society,science,and

external

remain

toward

of

all have

for all members

satisfyall
should

it

making

of the

philosopher,in

division

the

of six hours

doing

English

ancient

the

those

themselves

abolition

title which
the

title for all citizens

demanded

devote

429

the

preferred classes

to

for

means

time

same

the

the

More

equalityof

the

had

or

Bacon.

all citizens before

impulses

in order

privateproperty

claim

natural

Plato

With

interests.

Spinoza,More,

to

reminiscence

the

by

tion
prosecu-

highest

of

Plato's

Renamance

The

430

possible and

af

kinds

All

portrayal of

the

the

Campanella's State of

In

after-effects of More's

project of
ordered

Sun,

Utopia

are

of Solomon

direction

the

from

life.

is

"

the
plete
com-

even

cally
pedanti-

state

does

violence

extreme

the

to

not

dom
free-

delineated

mathematically

the

From

to

come

This

relations.

most

in which

hand,

noticeable,we

very

all of its minor

to

other

the

on

future state,which

socialistic

individual's

the

of

the

down

in any

shrink

life.
in fantastic

related

House

"

IV.

improving the material state of society,while the

and
portant.
unimpoliticalrelations is only superficial

toward

is directed

the

activityof

whole

the

prophecy/ and

[Pakt

of human

interests
practical
impossibleinventions are
for the

of Nature

control

pointthe

Period.

Science

Natural

plan of the imperial city to the division of hours for daily work
the pairing of the
of professions,
and enjoyment, the determination
the astrologically
and women,
men
predetermined hour for sexual
unions,
the

all takes

"

of

welfare

the

motives)^ is
The

here

by the state for

out
an
extended, carefully worked
there is an admixture
of metaphysical

from

and

whole,

bureaucracy (in which

of

system

place

more

built up

knows,

one

any

the

upon
the

an

arrangement

graded knowledge

more

he

power

ought

of the
to

citizens.

have

in

the

of
improve by his knowledge the course
The
Nature.
points of view in this improvement look essentially
in Campanella's system also.
With
toward
external civilisation
him, indeed, four hours of daily labour should suffice on the average
the good cheer
of society,and
this prosperity all
to assure
upon

state, in order

should
4.

have

spite of

In

writer
Plato

in

of human

they

believe
"

''

by

set

whimsical,'the thought
Campanella's State of tTie Sun, still

Utopia, that

insightfor

to

constitution

is fantastic

itself in

More's

desired
;

and

all that

asserts

than

product

rule

like claim.

nevertheless
more

to

up

in the

rational

the

the

and

should

state

removal

be

an

artificial

injuries.Neither

of social

than did
fancy,any more
of realising the best political
possibility
creation

mere

of

"

reflection upon

an

order

of social relations

to the microscope and

phone
the telescope, the microphone
and telewanting; there are giant explosive materials, flying-machines,
air and
all sorts of engines with
of
kinds"
water
and
"some
even
power,
the
I But
author
perpetual motion
the fact that hy
lays special value upon
better
culture
of plants and
discoveries, by
animals, by unsuspected chemical
and
baths
air-cures, diseases are to be banished
and
life prolonged ; experiments

In

addition
are

animals

on

Beneath

knowledge

not

are

also introduced

the
within

in the

ruler,
himself, stand

supreme

"

Sol

interest of medicine.

who
must
Metaphysicus,
all three
princes, whose
primalities" of Being, Power,
or

"

first of

activity correspond to the three "

(cf." 29, 3), etc.
'
Fantastic
is especiallythe strong element
rude
treatment
; whimsical, his monkish

embody all
spheres of
Wisdom

and

Love

of

and magical superstition

astrological
of the

sexual

relations.

Natural

2, " 32.]

Chap.

Right

that shall be

in accordance

encountered

much

Campanella,Grrotius.

with

Nature.

In

Cardanus

opposition.

develop

of

relations

special definite

their

in

life,and

to

their

In

mathematician

the

medical

free

and

larger way,

like

products

the

conditions

the

from

indulged,

life.
political
But the tendency of
founded

the

to reduce
of

childlike

gained

alone

reason

when

the time

need,

deduction.
social

crudeness.

The

and

found

that

thought

of

the

which

and

nature
"

of

of

history

character, the
he

would

and

have

would

apply

strongly

structive
con-

to understand

attempted

toward

relations

manifested

in

seeking a right

alike,and

like Albericus

firmer

and

nature, instead

human

That

naturale'

task

to

be recognised

Gentilis

desired

principlesof privateright to physical laws by analogies

of

method

therefrom

following
be

cannot

such

"

changed by

absolute

an

general

recognises

reason

fruitful

more

"

ground

Nature,"

was

taken

was

Like Thomas
by Hugo Qrotius.
principleof natural right in the
for its development in logical

social

the

realityas

more

man

starting-point.This was done

Aquinas, he found the fundamental
as

the

states

with

Bodin

much
and

although

but

historical

was

for all times

in Nature

by

of

character

sure,

categories of health and disease.

the Pythagorean astrologyin which

Cardanus

manifold

of

out

organisms,

fancy, the practicalstatesman

the

actual

experiences of peoples ;

natural

regarded as

them

the

they
Utopias on

science

to

nature,

be

combated

their

in
stead
commended
and
principle,
comprehending the necessitywith which

this,to

431

with

agreeing

as

in

consists

this

historical

any

right,which

exists

man's
the

jusl

mutation.

only by^^ts_

the politiindependently
foundation.J.n_
reason,
was
ground of this power,
cal^power and rather as the ultimate
to~Grotius by^thejjialogy^f
international
law with
brought home
Orf~the other
was
which_his investigation
.primarilyconcerned.
and

hand, however, by

which

of

exists

came
principle,privateright bethe authoritative
right also. The
presupposition for political
satisfaction of individual
interests,protectionof life and property,

appeared

as

the

essential

rights. Formally
draw

the

virtue

of this material

end

to

be

subserved

the

by

ordering

of

sophical
methodically, on the contrary, this philoof
deductive
it
aimed
only to
rightswas entirely
system
;
of the principle of society. In like
logicalconsequences

manner

Hobbes

capable

of

and

also

regarded

being deduced
intellectual activity,
and
perfect demonstrable

from
the

science.

De

Jure

the

corpus

poUticum

conception of
philosophicaldoctrine
the

At

Bell,

the

et Pao.

same

I.

time

1, 10.

as

its end
of

this

machine

by

pure

rights as
field seemed

432

The
in

adapted

Renaissance

pre-eminent degree

application of

to the

whole

the

Puffendorf introduced
by combining Grotius and Hobbes,
and

method,
method

Period.

Science

Natural

and

[Part
the

IV.

cal
geometriof

apparatus

developing the

this

whole

the

individual's instinct
thought that
and successfully
could be rationally
fulfilled
toward
self-preservation
natural
In this form
right peronly by satisfyinghis social need.
sisted

system syntheticallyfrom

the

as

ideal

of

the

"geometrical"

science

until

far

into

on

to Fichte
eighteenth century (Thomasius, Wolff, indeed, even
the general decline of the Cartesian
and
Schelling),and survived
principle.
rather
than
at the form, we
5. Looking now
at the contents
find
that the ultimate
ground of public life and of social coherence was
the

in

placed
found

the

in the

interests

of

of life viewed

explained in

be

might

social atomism
the

origin of

Occam

theory

with

174

to be

was

the
of

law
the

and

of

the

individual
which

state

that

man

the

complex
rights(Mechtslebens)

Galilean

principle. With
also went back to the Epicurean theory of
and the syntheticprincipleby which
f.),

down

understood

was

Eousseau, Kant,

to

dominant

in

themselves

to

was

devoted

Hobbes

subjectof

accordance

state

Marsilius

and

as

(cf.pp.

the

mechanics

the

of the state

this the doctrine

the

impulses of
simple element,^ out

character

and
self-intelligible
structures

individuals

of

tliecontract.
and

From

Fichte, this

politicalphilosophy.
carrying it out in the

tract
con-

and

Grotius

careful

most

the individuals
unite
politicalcontract by which
themselves
the contract of
to a community of interests,is attached
of which
hand
the individuals
sovereignty or subjection,by means
their rights and
over
authority to the magistracy. This proved to
be

the

To

mantier.

in which

general frame

While

Grotius,

citizens

be

to

fitted.

theories
political

the interests
of the
Spinoza, found
tion,
guaranteed by an aristocratic republicanconstitudeduce

could

Hobbes

varied

likewise

and

best

the most

the

from

presupposition his theory

of a purely secular absolutism, according to which
the political
power
in one
in
should
be inviolably united
will
the
universal
personality,
will of the

individual

the

closest connection

In

to

contract
proper

and
2

bearer

The

the

contract

theory

appears

of
conception of sovereignty. The source
this theory, is the popular will, from
which
and

the

of the

psychical, with

As

in

the

and

of

contract

sovereignty is
applies

"coraaias"

term

the

Democritus

sovereign.

with

the

of

according

same

Hobbes

theoretical

and

in

submission
the

tliis

have

people.

sense

to

both

opment
thei develall power,
the

cal
politi-

proceeded;
the

Meanwhile

domains,

the

the

con-

physical

Spinoza.'

domain, so also
Epicurus obtains with great

in

the

efforts

practical, the principleof

late victory.

Natural

2, ""32.]

Chap.

regarded by

of

transfer

the

and

tract

So

maintains

the

right

writers

some

of recall.

Bight

in

Bodin,

and

Theory.

433

completed thereby, are

irrevocable,and by others as capable

as

spite of

unlimited

Contract

power

his

doctrine

character

and

o^ popular sovereignty,

unconditifDnal

authority of

royal power, the inviolabilityof the ruler and the unjustifiar

the sovereignty
bilityof all opposition against him ; with Hobhes
of the people is still more
into that
of the
completely absorbed
the

whose

monarch,
moi

will

the sole

as

this

to

here
of

source

quite in

rightsin

the

the

of

sense

the

consistent

In

in view

monarchomachischen
presupposition,the
[opposed to an
chief
representative besides
monarchy] theories,"whose

Languet

maintained

ony,

dissolution
interest

as

and

broken

that
soon

according

on

has

man

he

it

the

again

fulfil its purpose.

advance

the

All these
motives
a

the

sovereign

to

is

with

when

it becomes

Thus

power
of

consequence

standpoint in

the

his
real

stood

the

religio.
for

that

of

that time

felt

as

the

to

to its

is

in

the^'
is

contract

other

party;

originalbearers.

under

then
reflection,
it has

failed

to

already providing

especialcolouring
of church

question
dangerous

Confessions.

taken

religion is

Spinoza
of

and

whether

in

or

from

state,
"

the

stricted
unre-

beneficial

as

The

in

radical

most

Hobbes

by virtue of his
private opinion,and only that
by

only

the

form

principles were
by

seventeenth

the

poet John

the

by

Protestant

defended

century,
Milton

to

him

cujus regio
in

this.

against all compulsion of

of knowledge
only a matter

manifestation

fixed

historical

and

thought

public

the

himself

public worship, it was

in

the

attached

religion was

the

positive sense

These

the

that

their

the

upon

politics was

for him

and

more

received

was

relation

And

disposition
; for

Renaissance

philosophicaltheory for

freedom

but

peace

evident

for

the

to/

liable

rightly,i.e.
If

Sax-

the

gave

church

and

purpose

Lower

sovereign professes has politicalstanding or value.

be
tolerated
in public life.
can
religion or Confession

other

illius

people.

particularrelations

ruler

religious indifferentism
opinion which

the

Buchanan

revolution}

depended

of

the

of the

out

which

of

no

theories,however,

growing

Hobbes

will

state

theory of

colouring

^0

the

rule

to

ceases

of

their

absolute

becomes

contract

longer binding
again
sovereignty returns

the

made

abolishes

governmental

side, it

one

in this situation
If

as

(1518-1581)

the

Althus

was

sition
oppo-

of

"

(1506-1582) and

c'esi

Vkat

positivepoliticallife.

decidedly more

and

view,

stands

with
and

of
in

the

the

religiousfeeling
of

interest

magistracy

should

Philosophy of Right
specialapplication

to

the

in

order

He
science,
con-

and
the
and

obtain.

In

declared

for

English

ditions
con-

of
right of the "Revolution"
(Defensio pro Populo Anglicano, 1651),and
to

the

by Algernon Sidney {Discoursesof Government,

1683);

434

The

the

sovereignty in

of

the

Althus,

and

in this

where

removed

the

people

the

another

IV.

as

over

motive

same

was

magistracy might be
excusable
prince was

the

of

assassination

the

The
the

that

defended

was

creed.

maintained

Jesuits

that

and

of

sovereignty

[Part

kingdom existing by the

for example in the case

the

school, also, as

against a' magistracy holding

decisive

of

state

Period.

Science

Natural

church

; while

of God

grace

Renaissance

(cf.above).
In

6.
rested

the

of

human

egoism, the
volitional

contract

theory

life
political

was

human
nature," the
point of view of
the fundamental, all-determiningcharacteristic
"

the

comprehended from
English philosopher found
be

to

the

of

social and

If the

motives.

general

more

on

rationale

the

of Hobbes

case

the

in

nature

toward

impulse

or
self-preservation

principle for explaining the entire

materialistic metaphysics and sensualistic

simple, self-evident
life.

Here

his

psychology (cf." 31) made it appear that this instinct toward selfdirected
the
only toward
preservation,in its original essence, was
vidual.
existence of the indiof the sensuous
preservationand furtherance
All other objectsof the will could
to
serve
only as means
end.
bring about that supreme
Agreeably to this principle,also,
there
other
of judgment for man
natural being
no
norm
a
was
as
the
than
that of furtherance
or
hindrance, of profitor of harm:
distinction
of good and
is not possible
evil, of right and wrong,
the standpoint of the
the social
individual, but only upon
upon
standpoint,where

the

the

interest forms

standard.
for

practical philosophy ;

preservationwas
state, yet this

and

perfect of
and

other,
founded
The
most

a
as

social

the

state

itself

and

of

against
for

is not

need

efficient and

'^ervare

"

is for

him

all willing.
|or

But

the

principle of

which
The

the

all:

it

it

also

into
the

the

as

to

the

of

upon

the

of

every

state

gave

it

his

was

self-jjreservation.

results

necessarilyas
satisfaction of egoism.

only

to
the

in which

egoism

this

escape

ingenious

hit

had

of

command

most

of nature,

warrant

for the

means

the

by

all

self-

toward

instinct

egoism

state

to

mutual

original:

certain

by introducing

became

corrected

Spinoza adopted this doctrine,but

\cance

the

originallyopposed

all

contract

of

regarded

was

individual's

instead

individual's

contrivances

stands

war
a

egoism

its satisfaction.

each

is

if

restricted

all the

secure

of

egoism

So

be

to

the

attain

interest

common

signifi-

ideal

more

Suum
metaphysics.
fundamental
quintessence and
"

the

esse

con-

motive

belongs equally to both

its impulse toward
attributes,
is directed as well
self-preservation
toward
its conscious
tenance
activity,i.e. its knowledge,as toward its mainin

the

since every

finite mode

corporeal world,

striving,interpretedalong

the

i.e. its power.

lines

of

the

This

Baconian

individual

identityof

Benaissanoe

The

436

of

is

commandment

as

considered

hence

[Part

the

to

shrewd

provision

of

God,

in

the

whose

principle

themselves

express

IV.

insight

authoritative

the

be

to

which

demands

those

obeying

for

due

as

Cumberland

by

regarded

is

man,

appeared

Hobbes

in

which

public,

Period.

Science

Natural

lent
benevo-

inclinations.

other,

also

Religion

mind.

human

of

the

constituent

necessary

but

reason

contrasted

with

Thus

the

the

origin
the

philosophy

of

of

in

the

problem.
the

morals,
With

Enlightenment

the

Herbert

in

the

in

the

ideas,

of

content

is

deity
a

demand
those

to

religion,

as

religions.
philosophy

lively

very

possession

corresponds

true

as

practical

transferred

right,

of

of

dogmas

questions

became

gradually

stand

can

nor

of

of

which

only

that

up

positions.

revelation

belief

world

human

the

account

reason

literature

English

runs

this

on

the

of

of

set

two

argues

that

proves

"

demands

the

Stoics

ancient

so
"

the

on

been

same

inborn

the

to

had

historical

upon

gentium

conse7isus

these

thus

was

sensualism

which

to

belongs

it

and

reason,

neither

based

The

of

manner

be

of

which

reason,

hand

opposition

in

institution

human

upon

shall

of

one

religion

Cherbury

of

the

on

natural

the

came

Herbert

by

orthodoxy

against

defended

morality

natural

this

of

side

the

To

to
and

this,

the

discussion

excited

in

however,
introduced.

the

human

in

appear

by

Hobbes,
What

realm.

psychological

religion

are

which

mind

is

?
"

the

movements

of

so

the

PART

PHILOSOPHY

THE

In addition to the

On

the

Damiron,

Memoires

348, cf

servir

natural
in the

der

deutschen

rhythm

modern

18.

of

intellectual

in

the

as

metaphysical period was

anthropologicalcharacter,
awakened, purely

Greek

of

the

content, and,
the

and
so

kinship in

There

in

in

prevails

subject'sinner

subtletywith
genetic

inquiryas

1876.
17th

the

and

18""

au

Steele.

life

thus
of

as

as

years

essentially

newly
yield to a

must

In

energy
which
In

scientific

antitheses

coincides
the

mately
approxi-

place

of

movement

Athens
among

counts

centuries

with

deepened

their

tradition

counted

fact,all

again

variety,with
in

result

the

found

intellectual

then

cosmologico-

an

more

are

eighteenthcentury.

it

first

worldrwisdom."

added

the

it the

of

once

broadened

of

with

philosophy

"

1873.

parts.

brought

Enlightenment,

breadth

Munohen,

now

; but

as

the

objects of thought, the points of view

of the philosophising,
show
instructive similarity
an
these
two
periods so widely separated in time and
which
their
the
civilisations
formed
background.

results

different

with

peoples, and

of

whole

the

whole

thousands

the

Philosophie

seit Leibniz.

sophisticmovement

the

civilised

tendency as

Lend.

during

philosophy a
by a period

efforts

philosophy

thought,

with

the

appears

many

and

of

Philosophy of

European

la

Jahr.

that

therefore,also,with

in time
now

of

Greek

ripened fulness

and

theoretical

practicalconception

in

de

Philosophie

followed

features

Cent.

Philosophy

I'Eistoire

Hettner, Liiteraturgeschichtedes

The
that

Ethical

18th

1872.

pour

Zeller, Geschichte
H.

in the

1858-64.

vols.,Paris

Also

p.

on

ENLIGHTENMENT.

THE

Progress of

Edin.

Centuries.

18th

E.

cited

literature

J. Mackintosh,

OF

Stephen, History of English Thought

Leslie

Ph.

V.

the

and

both

the

nature, the
doubt

and

consideration

to the

turning

same
same

turning

disgust,the
of

and
possibility

the
the
437

same

human
limits

of

away

toward

thought
from

metaphysical

preference for an
psychical life,the
of

the

scientific

pirical
em-

same

knowledge,

Philosophy of the Enlightenment.

438
the

and

life

of

the

the

of

broad

scientific with

the

the

fusion

the

Enlightenment

and

culture

of

V.

lems
prob-

characteristic,lastly,for

philosophy into

penetration of

is the

periods
general

discussion

the

in

passionate interest
and
society. No less

same

[Part

both

circles of
the

literary

movement.

was

given

in the

had

been

worked

general

found
the

question

should

conceive, in

nature

and
this

upon

the

settingof

the

position: and
question,the interest in
his

own

in which

the

these

seventeenth

foreground,
of

presence

various

the

While

tury,
cen-

how

man

Weltanschauung, his

the

in

the

the

new

had

Weltanschauung

new

in

into

eighteenth century
view
as
of life,
they
ments
by the fresh move-

research.

natural

again

came

now

secular

formulation

metaphysical

their

the

of

Renaissance

the

during

out

of

features

and
politics,
art, religion,

in

had

for

basis

the

But

the

value

metaphysical

been

own

embodied,

set

tions
concep-

retreated

contented
decidedly into the background. Men
of metaphysical theories,in
with
the general outlines
themselves
the more
order to employ themselves
thoroughly with the questions
of the Enlightenment which
all the doctrines
of human
life ; and
vehement
offer such
a
polemic against speculation are, in truth,
sound
mon
comworking from the beginning with a metaphysics of the
which
its voice so
mately
at last raised
sense
high, and which ultiand

more

more

"

"

assumed

only
it from
The

sought

achievements

the

beginnings of
in

interests

transplanted

ideals

which

worked

it

excited

more

thoughts

themselves
energy

and

that

At

fallen

preceding centuries.
the Enlightenment are

the

with

the

period

literarylife

to

to be

well-ordered

of

claimed

the

ditions
con-

revolution,a

philosophy also

From

vehement

take

on

from

the

the

the

outset, but

sharper point, and

powerfully against

more

had

England this literature

Here, however, the opposition of the
it to the
social and
politicalstatus,
not
the
was
only
presentation of the

and

also

of

which

of

of

culture.

with

that

connection

of

France.

way

labour

close

general

to

thoughts

Church

the

brought

in such

negative

in

movement
of

truth

philosophy

the

followed

powerful upward
was

of the

England, where,

which

in the

self-evident

as

turn

their

existing conditions

in

first from

France, and then from the direct

of England,^ also, Germany
influence
of the
the
ideas
received
it had
Enlightenment, for which
an
independent
already received
in
ideas
these
theoretical
here
and
a
more
preparation
manner:
found
their last deepening, and a purification
and ennobling as well,

state.

Cf. G. Zart, Der

des 18.

Jahrh.

Einfluss der englischeiiPhilosophen auf

(Berlin,1881).

die deutsche

Fhilos.

Philosophy of the Enlightenment.

they

as

to

come

the

became

Locke

John

findinga popular form

of

generaloutlines
in.

after-shoot

tional

psychology
to have

It controlled

the

development

of

with

field,where
David

The

the

and

influence

vigorous
its

turned

direction

of
the

chieflythat
Voltaire

in

of

moral

of

associa-

origin

tinued
con-

development.

philosophy, and

religion,which

and

sideration
con-

problems

various

course

sharpest formulation

consistent

all

of

sensualistic

of

the

upon

natural

views

of

the

connected

was

in the

deepest

of

the

the

cultivated

religious scepticism;
literature

English

the

was

the

great writer, who

eloquent expression,but

most

the

theories

movement

and

most

victoriouslyto

nativistic

the

idealistic

epistemological

English thinkers,

developed empiricism to positivism,and thereby called

the oppositionof the Scottish school.
pioneer of the French Enlightenment was Pierre Bayle, whose

Dictionnaire

of

brought forth an
anthropologico-geneticmode
system

Hume,

forth

the

and

deism

the

English Enlightenment by

opposition between

the

it found

it ; and

the

completed.

of the

of the

quickly

decisive

which

empirico-psychologicalexposition for the

Cartesian
While
conception of the world.

Berkeley,

philosophy. Here

with

poetry

of

the

extended

German
was

leader

metaphysicaltendency

the

the

Humanism

of classical

Renaissance

in

end

an

439

in

Enlightenment

also

the

it

and

was

then

was

not

world

only

taken

the

emphatic

most

this

gave

presented

completely in
along this line
in

up

Paris.
its

movement

positive

elements
But

manner.

the

the negative
development pressed with much
greater weight toward
side.
In the common
pleted
comthinking of the Encyclopaedistsbecame
step by step the change from empiricism to sensualism, from
naturalism
to

materialism,

to

egoisticmorals.

whose
intellect,
there

lines

appeared

leadingto
Germany

the

In

all

converge

intellectual

was

deism

opposition

in Rousseau

won

from

for

to
in

to

atheism,

such

an

the

positivism

shaping
the
Enlightenment

enthusiastic

Enlightenment of

feeling-philosophyof
of the

from

of

elemental

the

Condillac,
power,

Revolution.
movement

by

the

Leibnizian

which
Wolff
philosophy and the great success
achieved,
in his activityas a teacher, in developing and
transforming it,but
of the lack
of a unifying public interest,the
here,in consequence
individual
For the ends
culture was
tendency toward
predominant.
of this individual

culture,the

ideas

of

the

"

philosophicalcentury
elaborated
in psychological and
were
epistemologicalas well as in
the moral, political,
and
but
religiousfields with great multiplicity,
without
creation
of principlesuntil fresh
life and higher
any new
points of view were
and the great
brought by the poetical movement
personalitiesof its bearers,Lessing and Herder, to the dry intelli"

Philosophy of the Enlightenment.

440
which

with

gence

[Part

popular philosophy had extended

This
with the Berlin
Academy.^

boastful

especiallyin connection
kept the German

V.

itself,
stance
circum-

the

eighteenth centary from

philosophyof
like the Engself-disintegration
lish,
losing itself in theoretico-sceptical
politicslike the French: by
or from
being shattered in practical
with

contact

epoch

of

John
and

philosophy

Locke,

returned

He

home

from

at

exile

often

publicly defended, and

philosophical work
Understanding
(1690) ; besides

also

His

1704.

died

this

with

Holland

in

the

William

of Orange in

which
he
government
while
in
living in the country at leisure,
title An
the
Human
Essay concerning

bears

Reasonableness

(1693), The

Education

great

new

educated
at Oxford,
Bristol,was
Wrington near
of the statesman
Lord
bury.
Shafteschangeful fortunes

1632,

high politicaloffices under

filled several

prepared.

here

was

ideas

with

teeming

literature

in the

bora

involved

became

1688,

great

new

mentioned

Some
Thoughts on
his
of Christianity {W^b), and, among
Fox
Cf.
the
Understanding.
Bourne,
of
1876) ; Th. Powler, J. L. (Lond. 1880);
and
article
Phila. 1890, and
series,Edin.
J. Dewey,
in his Int. to Hume;
Leibniz's
of his works
by Low, 1771, also ed. Lond.
are

be

to

works, Of the Conduct

posthumous
The
Life of J. L. (Lond. and N.Y.
by A. C. Fraser, Blackwood
l^Loche.,
in Enc.
Locke
Brit.; T. H. Green
New
Essays, Chicago, 1888 ; Edition
in Bohn
1853 ; Philosophical works
Lib.].
born
in Killerin, Ireland, in 1685, took
was
man
part as a clergyGeorge Berkeley
colonisation
in missionary and
Bishop of
attempts in America, became
His
a
Theory of Vision
Cloyne 1734, and died 1753.
(1709) was
preparation
for his
Treatise
the Principles of Human
on
Knowledge
(1710). This main
work
later followed
was
by the Three
Hylas and Philonous,
Dialogues between
of his works
and
by Alciphron or the Minute
Philosopher. Edition
by Praser,
4 vols.,Lond.
1871
writer
has
also given a good exposition of his
; the same
thought as a whole
(Blackwood series, Edin. and Lond.
1881). Cf. CoUyns
Universal

Simon,
The

Immaterialism,

Lond.

'Psychology

Associational

1862.

found

its chief

supporters

in Peter

Brown

derstanding,
UnBishop of Cork ; The Procedure, Extent, and Limits of Human
Sensus
et Idearum
1719), David
Hartley (1704-1757 ; De Motus
Oeneratione, 1746 ; Observations
on
Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations,
for Abraham
Search,
Tucker
1749), Edward
pseudonym
(1705-1774;
ley's
Light of Nature, 7 vols.,Lond.
1768-1777),Joseph Priestley (1733-1804 ; HartMind
the Principle of the Association
Theory of the Human
on
of Ideas,
and
Tooke
1775; Disquisitions relating to Matter
Home
Spirit,1777), John
(1736-1812 ; ''Eirea irrepSevTa or The Diversions
of Parley, 1798 ; cf. Stephen,
Memoirs
Darwin
of J. H. T., Lond. 1813), Erasmus
or
(1731-1802 ; Zoonomia
the Laws
Brown
of Organic Life, 1794-1796), finally,Thomas
(1778-1820;
Inquiry into the Melation
of Cause and Effect,1804 ; posthumously, the Lectures
the Philosophy of the Human
on
in Edinburg).
Mind, 1820, delivered
Cf. Br.
Schoenlank, ITartie!/u. PriestleyalsBegriinder des Associationismus
(Halle,1882);
L. Eerri, Sulla Dottrina
Psiohologica delV Associazione, Saggio Storico e Critico
Cf. also Hartley and
James
Mill
(Rome, 1878) [Er. tr. Paris, 1883.
by G.

(died

S.

1735

Lond.

Bower,

1881.

For

following paragraphs
Phil.].

the
Hist.

Of

.the

Richard

opponents

to

bibliographyfor
consult

this

movement

(1723-1791) became

Price

Priestley :
Priestley, The

Porter's
who

known

the

writers

appendix
Platonise

mentioned

Eng.

to

in

especiallyby

the

his

in
tr.

this and

Ueberweg's

older

manner,

controversy

with

"

Materialism
Doctrines

Cf.

and

Doctrine
of Philosophical Necessity (1777); Price, Letters
Philosophical Necessity; Priestley, Free Discussions
of

of Materialism
Ch.

Paris, 1859.

on

the

(1778).

BartholmSas,

Histoire

Philosophique

de

V Academic

de

Prusse,

Philosophy of the Enlightenment.

441

the English moral

philosophers,
Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley
Among
takes
most
a
important place. His writings were
collected
1671-1713)
Cooper,
Times
of Men, Manners,
under the title,Characteristics
Opinions and
(1711).
After
Cf. G. V. Gizycki,Die PhilosopMe Sh.''s (Leips. and
1876).
Hej^elberg,
intellectualistic
various groups
diverge. The
tendency is represented by
Clarke
Samuel
of the Being and Attributes of
(1675-1729; A Demonstration
"

him

Human
Liberty, 1715 ; cf his
God, 1705 ; Fhilosophical Inquiry concerning
WoUastoii
(1659-1724 ; The Beligcorrespondence with Leibniz) and William
The
morality based
on
Delineated, 1722).
ion of Nature
feeling was
sented
repreHutcheson
(1694-1747 ; Inquiry into the Original of our
by Erancis
Ideas
Philosophy, 1755 ; cf.
of Beauty and Virtue, 1725 ; A System of Moral
Lend.
Th. Fowler, Shaftesbury and
Hutcheson,
Home,
paeud.
1882) ; Henry
Kames
for Lord
(1696-1782; Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural
Burke
of Criticism,1762) ; Edmund
Eeligion, 1751 ; Elements
(1730-1797 ;
and
ful,
BeautiPhilosophicalInquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime
(1724-1816 ; Institutions
Ferguson
of Moral
Philosophy,
1756) ; Adam
Smith
also, Adam
(1723-1790 ; Theory of Moral
1769), and in a certain sense
defended
by Joseph Butler
Sentiments, 1759) ; the principle of authority was
Human
series
Nature, 1726) {Butler,in Blackwood
upon
(1692-1752; Sermons
William
Paley
(1743-1805 ; Principles of Moral
by W. L. Collins, 1881], and
and Political
Philosophy, 1785). The ethics of the associonational
psychology
the
to
was
developed chiefly by Jeremy Bentham
(1748-1832 ; Introduction
and
Legislation, 1789 ; Traite de Legislation Civile et
Principles of Morals
1801 ; Deontology, ed. by J. Bowring,
Penale, brought together by E. Dumont,
1834 ; works
in 11 vols.,Edin.
In a peculiar isolated
1843)
position appears
Bernhard
de MandevUle
Vices
(1670-1733; The Fable of the Bees, or Private
made
Public
Benefits, 1706, later with illustrative
dialogues, 1728 ; Inquiry into
ment,
the Origin of Moral
Virtue, 1732 ; Free
Thoughts on Eeligion, Church, Govern.

"

"

1720).
Deism
coincides, for the most part, with the above-named
named
the
to those
philosophy; but in addition
following
writers are a}soprominent
Toland
: John
(1670-1722 ; Christianity not Mysterious,
1696 ; Letters
to Serena, 1704 ; Adeisidaimon, 1709
; Pantheisticon, 1710) ;
Anthony Collins
of Free Thinking, 1713) ; Matthew
(1676-1729 ; A Discourse
Tindal
Chubb
(1656-1733 ; Christianityas Old as the Creation, 1730) ; Thomas
with
(1679-1747 ; A Discourse
concerning Beason
Begard to Eeligion, 1730) ;
Thomas
Morgan
Philosopher, 3 parts, 1737 ff.); finally,
(died 1743 ; The Moral
Lord
f. ; cf.
ed. by Mollet
in 5 vols,, 1753
Bolingbroke
(1672-1751); works
P. V. Raumer,
Abhandl.
Geschichte
des
der Berl.
Akad.
V.
Cf.
1840).
Ijcchler,
englischen Deismus
(Stuttgart and Tiib. 1841).
born, 1711, in Ediriburg, and
England's greatest philosopher is David
Hume,
The

literature

literature

of

of

moral

"

educated
years

in

Treatise
him

there.

After

he

had

on

to work

Human
it

over

spent

some

time

as

merchant,

he

lived

for

several

of genius, the
study, and ^'composed his work
Nature
(printed 1739 f.). The failure of this book induced
and
the title Inquiry
concerning Human
publish it under

France, occupied

in

volume
of his more
cal
successful
Understanding, as a second
Essays, Moral, Politiand
Inquiry concerning the Principles of
Literary (1748), and to add An
Morals
History of Eeligion (1755).As librarian
(1751),and also The Natural
of the Advocates'
opportunity to write his History
Library in Edinburg he found
and
After
he received
came
of England.
a stay in Paris, where
great honour
into connection
Undertime
with
Rousseau
for
he
some
was
others,
among
to Edinburg, where
Secretaryof State in the Foreign Office,but finallyreturned
he died, 1776.
smaller
The
Dialogues concerning Natural
Eeligion and some
in
treatises appeared
and
Grose
Ed.
of
works
Green
his
posthumously.
by
4 vols. (Lond. 1875). His
autobiography was
published by his friend, Adam
Smith
(1777). Cf. J. H. Burton, Life and
Correspondence of D. H. (Edin.
in the
Zeitschr.
"Der
Gedanke"
1846-50); E. Feuerlein
(Berlin, 1863 f.) ;
E. Pfleiderer,Empirismus
und
Skepsis in D. H.^s Philosophic (Berlin,1874) ;
T. Huxley, D. H. (Lond.
1879) ; Fr. Jodl, Leben u. Philosophic D. H.'s (Halle,
1872) ; A. Meinong, Hume-Studien
(Vienna, 1877, 1882) ; G. v. Gizycki, Die
Ethik
D. H.'s
series, 1886; esp.
(Breslau,1878). [W. Knight, Blackwood
Int. by T. H. Green
in his ed. of the works.
The
Selby-Bigge ed. of the

Lond.
Treatise,

and

N.Y., is convenient.]

Philosophyof the Enlightenment.

442

School

Scottish

The

founded

was

Thomas

by

Reid

[Part

V.

(1710-1796, Professor

the Principles of Common

Mind
on
Seme,
Glasgow ; Inquiry into the Human
Powers
the Intellectual
1764 ; Essays on
of Man, 1785 ; Essays on the Active
Powers
of Man, 1788, complete ed. by W. Hamilton, Edin. 1827). [Selections
phy,
ed. by E. H. Sneath, N.Y.
bibliog. Cf. A. Seth, Scottish Philoso1892, contains
at

James
Brit.~\ Besides
Behalf of Beligion, 1766)
and Immutability of Truth,
the Nature
on
in Dugald
and
chief
academical
had
its
school
literaryrepresentative
the
1770),
Elements
in Edinburg;
of the Philosophy of the
Stewart
(1753-1828, Professor
by "W. Hamilton, 10 vols.,
Human
Mind, 3 parts, 1792-1827
; ed. of his works
Edin. 1854 ff.).
Lond.

and

Edin.

and

1885,

in

Beid

art.

Sense

(died 1793, Appeal to Common

Beattie
(died 1805, Essay

Oswald
and James

Enc.

in

1647
at Carlat, led
Bayle, the type of sceptical polyhistory, born
finally a professor in
disquieted by twice changing his Confession, was

Pierre
a

life

Dictionnaire

Bayle
.

is embodied
His influential life work
and
died 1706.
in
Rotterdam,
Historique et Critique (1695 and 1697). Cf. L. Eeuerbach, P.

and

S^dan
his

nach

of

events

rest

in

Geschichte

die

Philosophic

der

und

Menschheit

interessan-

1833.

Ansbaoh,

le

(Francois Arouet

of Voltaire

Jeune, 1694-1778

; the

main

literary life are his flightto London, his stay with the Marquise
Frederick
the Great
in Potsdam,
and
his
in Cirey, his visit with
Geneva), the following are
country seat Ferney, near
age at the

his

Chatelet

du

fur

seinen

testen Momenten,
Of the works

old

les Anglais (1784),Metaphysique

sur
mis
la Portee
de
a
Philosophic de Newton
le Monde
tout
important de Mylord Bolinghroke (1736), Carir
V Optimisme (1757),Dictionnaire
dide ou sur
Philosophique (1764), ie Philosophe
de
Les
la Nature
au
Systeme
(1767),
Beponse
(1777), the poem
Ignorant
Systemes, etc. Cf. B. Bersot, La Philosophic de V. (Paris, 1848); D. F. Strauss,
N.Y.
V. (Leips. 1870); J. Morley, V. (Lond. and
1872).
natural
scientists
and
maticians
matheMore
sceptical in metaphysical aspects appear
with
the
such
as
Maupertuis
(1698-1759 ; active in connection
Berlin
de
de Cosmologie,
Academy
Philosophic Morale, 1750 ; Essai
; Essai
1751 ; controversial
him
and
the Wolffian, S. Konig, collected
writings between
d'Alembert
de
d'Histoire
or
et de PhilosoLitterature,
Leips. 1758),
(Melanges
such
Buffon
as
naturalistically,
phie, 1752) ; others proceed more
(1708-1788;
Generate
Histoire Naturelle
et Particuliere, 1749
ff.)and Jean Battiste Robiuet
tion
(1735-1820 ; De la Nature, 1761 ; Considerations
Philosophiques de la GradaNaturelle
d'Etre 1767).
des Formes

principally to

considered

be

here

(1740),iSUments
(1741),Examen

Newton

de

Sensualism

in

appears

(1709-1751;

Iiamettrie

de

Lettres

la

connection

Histoire

with

Naturelle

de

materialism

VAme,

1745

in

Julien

; L' Homme

Offrai

de

Machine,

him
F. A. Lange, Gesch.
; L''Art de Jouir, 1751 ; CEuvres, Berlin, 1751
; on
Mater., I. 326 ff. [Eng. tr. Hist, of Mater., Vol. IL 49 ff.]; Ngrge
Qufepat,
Bonnet
Paris, 1873) ; it appears
solely as psychological theory with Charles
1748

des

(1720-1793;

Essai

de

Psychologic, 1755

Essai

Analytique

sur

les Facultes

de

1769 ; Considerations
les Corps Organises, 1762 ; Contemplation de
sur
VAme,
la Nature, 1764 ; Palingenesies Philosophiques, 1769), and
with
a
positivistio

pointing

in Etienne

Bonnot

de

Condillac

(1715-1780 ; Essai sur V Origine de la

tions,
Systemes, 1749 ; Traite des Sensa1754 ;
des
in
Calculs
the
Paris,
edition,
Langue
complete
;
1798 ; cf. F. Efithorg, C. ou
et le Sationalisme,
VEmpirisme
Paris, 1864). The
last representatives of these theories
the one
hand, Pierre Jean George
are, on
Cabanis
(1757-1808; Les BappoHs du Physique et du Moral de I'Homme, 1802 ;
de
CEuvres, Paris, 1821-25),on the other side, Antoine
Louis
Destutt
Claude
Tracy (1754-1836; Elements d' Ideologic,in 4 parts, 1801-15, together 1826)."
Cf. Fr. Pioavet, Les Ideologues (Paris, 1891).
the
The
of the Enlightenment
in France
was
literaryconcentration
movement
(Encyclopedic ou Dictionnaire
des Sciences, des Arts et
Encyclopaedia
Baisonne
des Metiers, 28 vols.,1752-1772, supplement and index, 7 vols.,extending to 1780).
Besides
intellectual
and
the introduction, the editor
wrote
d'Alembert, who
which
'head of the circle from
it proceeded was
Denis
Diderot
(1713-1784;
Pensees
Philosophiques, 1746 ; Pensees sur V Interpretation de la Nature, 1754 ;
of the posthumous
publications the Promenade
d'un
Sceptique, the Entretien
Connaissance

ffumaine,
Logique, 1780

1746

Traite

des

'

Philosophy of the Enlightenment.

'444
archives.

consult
a

project vfhich

due

Here
was

his influence.

to

activity,and

he

later
He

gave
carried

the

stimulus

out, and

died, 1716,

at

for the

the

St.

[Part

foundation

of

an

academy,

Petersburg Academy

Hanover.

The

manifold

V.

also

was

nature

of

his

in which
his life was
way
views
for
the
most
part,
are,

also in the fact that

splitup, is shown
deposited only in fragmentary essays,
best
edition
of his philocorrespondence. The
sophical
recent
by C. J. Gerhardt, 7 vols. (Berlin,1875-90).

the

his scientific

incredibly extensive
writings is the most
The
metaphysical treatises have been cited above
(p.382). For his influence
of
the
the
the
following
come
Enlightenment,
chieflyinto consideration,
philosophy
upon
aside
from
the correspondence with
Essais de
Bayle and Clarke:
Theodieee
de V Homme
la Bonte
de Dieu, la Liberie
du
et VOrigine
Mai
""""
Essais
I'Entendement
sur
Humain, first
(Amsterdam, 1710), and the Nouveaux
G. W. Frhr.
Cf. G. E. Guhrauer,
published in 1765, by Easpe.
v. L.
(Breslau,
und
1842) ; E. Pfleiderer, L. als Patriot, Staatsmann
Bildungstrdger (Leips.
and

in

an

1870);

L.

art.

in

Ersch

und

"i-uber^s

Enc,

W.

by

Windelband

; L. Feuer-

L.'schen

Phil. (Ansbach, 1844) ;

bach, Darstellung, Entwicldung
E. Nourisson, La
Philosophie de L. (Paris, 1860) ; L. Grote, L. und seine Zeit
(Hanover, 1869) ; 0. Caspari, i.'s Philosophie (Leips. 1870) ; J. T. Merz, L.
New
Essays, Chicago, 1888 ; art. Leibniz
(Lond. 1884) ; [J. Dewey, Leibniz's
in Enc.
New
Brit., by Sorley ; Eng. tr. of Imp. Phil. Works, by G. M. Duncan,
and
N.Y.
Essays, by A. G. Langley, Lond.
Haven, 1890 ; of the New
1893].
"
influential
the most
Leibniz's
was
temporary
conAmong
Enlighteners " in Germany
and
Thomasius
fellow-countryman. Christian
(1655-1728 ; EinleiVernunftlehre, Ausfuhrung der Vernunftlehre, both in 1691 ; Einl. zur
tung zur
Sittenlehre, 1692 ; Ausfuhrung d. Sittenlehre, 1696 ; Fundamenta
Juris
Natural
Sensu Communi
et Gentium
ex
Deducta, 1705 ; cf. A. Luden.C.
Th., Berlin,1805).
The
centre
of scientific life in Germany
during the eighteenth century was
formed
He
by the teaching and school of Christian Wolff.
was
born, 1679,
in Breslau, studied
Privat-docent
at Jena, was
at Leipsic, and
taught in Halle
until he was
driven
in 1723 at the instigation of his orthodox
away
opponents ;
he then
became
Professor
at Marburg.
In 1740 Frederick
the Great
called him
back
to Halle
with
active
there
until
his death
in
great honour, and he was
1754.
He
treated
the entire compass
of philosophy in Latin
and
German
books
textthe title Vernunftige Gedanken
; the latter all bear
[" Rational
Thoughts,"
treating psychology, metaphysics, physics, physiology, botany, astronomy,
den Kraften des menschlichen
ethics,politics,etc.] ; in detail: von
Verstandes,
1712 ; von
Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen,
auch
alien Dingen
uberder Menschen
Thun
und
haupt, 1719 ; von
Lassen, 1720 ; vom
gesellschaftlichen
1721 ; von
Leben
der
den
Menschen,
der
den
Natur, 1723 ; von
Wirkungen
Absichten
der natiirlichen
den
Theilen
der Menschen,
Thiers
Dinge, 1724 ; von
The
und
Latin
Pflamen, 1725.
works, Philosophia Rationalis
sive Logica,
1718
Prima
sive Ontologia, 1728 ; Cosmologia, 1731
; Philosophia
; Psychologia Empirica, 1732 ; Bationalis, 1734 ; Theologia Naturalis, 1736 ; Philosophia
Practica
Universalis, 1738 ; Jus Naturae, 1740 ff.; Jus
sophia
Gentium, 1749 ; PhiloMoralis, posthumously
K. G. Ludovici, Ausfuhrliclier
pub., 1756. "Cf.
Entwurfeiner vollstdndigenHistoric der Wolfschen
Philosophie (Leips.1736 ff.).
Also
W.
L. G. V. Eberstein, Versuch
einer
GeschicJite der Logik und
Metaphysik
bei den Deutschen
Leibniz an
von
(Halle, 1799).
the Wolffians
be named,
Among
may
perhaps, G. B. Bilfinger (1693-1750,
Dilucidationes
Pliilosophiccede Deo, Anima
Humana,
Mundo,
etc., 1725) ;
M.
Knutzen
(died 1751 ; Systema Causarum
Efficientium, 1746 ; cf. B. ErdM.
Jin. und
seine
Zeit, Leips. 1876) ; J. Chr. Gottsched
mann,
(1700-1766;
Erste
Griinde
der gesammten
Weltweissheit,1734) ; Alex. Baumgarten
(1714und

1762

Kritik

der

Metaphysica, 1739 ; uEsthetica, 1750-58).

representatives of the geometrical method
1752 ; Ars
Imeniendi,
1727) and G. Ploucquet
;

As

Sammlung
Frankfort
1748

von

and

Logik,

(1671-1731
Chr.

1745

A.
;

1747.)

; De
Crusius

Weg
An

zur

appear

xoelche dem
Schriften,
logischen Calcul
Leips. 1766) ; as opponents
of the same,
1712

and

Sensu

1724
Veri

;
et

Lehre

vom

Falsi, 1709

position is

G.

des

Pierre

(1683-

Hansch

; cf. A.
P.
Hernn
Crouaaz

F.

Bock,

betreffen,

(1663-

Sehonen, 1712), Andreas

Rudiger
; Philosophia Synthetica, 1707) and
nothwendigen Vernunftwahrheiten,

(1712-1775; Entwurf der

Gewissheit
und
Zuverldssigkeitder

eclectic intermediate

M.

(1716-1790

taken

by

menschlichen
J. Fr.

Budde

Erkenntniss,
;
(1667-1729

Philosophy of the Enlightenment.

Philosophice Eclecticoe,1705)

Institutiones
and

Brucker

D.

Wahren,

des

1776 and

and

Tiedmann,
and

1775)

A.

also

by

and

445

by the historians

Joh.

of

philosophy, J. J.

(Die physichen

Lossius

(1744-1818 ; Philosophische

Flatner

Ursachen

Aphorismen,

1782).

independent importance are J. H. Iiambert

(bom, 1728, at MiilOrganon,
hausen, died, 1777, in Berlin ; Kosmologische Briefe, 1761 ; Neues
Nic. Tetens
1764 ; Architektonik, 1771) and
Ver(1736-1805 ; Philosophische
Natur
und
ihre Entwicklung., 1776 f. ; cf Fr. Harms,
suche iiber die Menschliche
stand
in literaryconnecJleber die Psychologie des N.
tion
T., Berlin, 1887). Both
whose
wise
with
Kant
Part
VI.
ch.
pre-oriticalwritings belong like(cf.
1),
in this setting ; these
are
principally Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und
Theorie
des Himmels,
1755 ; Principiorum Primorum
Cognitionis Metaphysicce
Nova
Physica, 1756 ; Die falsche SpitzfindigDilucidatio, 1755 ; Monadologia
keit der vier syllogistischenFigiiren, 1762 ; Der
einzig mogliche Beweisgrund
einer Demonstration
des Daseins
zu
Gottes,1763 ; Versuch. den Begriff der negader
tiven Grossen
in die Weltweisheit
eirnvfuhren, 1763 ; Ueher die Deutlichkeit
der natiirlichen
iiber
Grundsatze
Theologie und Moral, 1764 ; Beobachtungen
1764 ; Trdume
das
und
eines
Geistersehers,
Erhabenen,
Gefuhl des Schonen
Trdume
Mundi
iSensibilis atque
erlaiitert durch
der
Metaphysik, 1766 ; De
Lambert
der
VorCf. K. Zimmerman,
Forma
et Principiis, 1770.
Intelligibilis
and
phische
philosogdnger Kant's, 1879.
Tetens, cf. A. Riehl, Der
[On Lambert
Tor
the
Kriticismus, Leips. 1876.
pre-oriticalwritings of Kant, E.
N.Y.
Caird, The Critical Philosophy of Immamiel
Kant, Glasgow, Lond., and
vorkrit1889, Fischer's
systematischen Begriffe in Kant's
Kant; Cohen, Die
ischen
cited in first par., p. 536.]
Schriften,and the works
found
Deism
instructive
ous
numera vigorous and
support in Germany
among
Characteristic
of
added.
in principle was
Wolffians, though nothing new
this was
The
the translation
of the Bible
Schmidt.
standpoint of
by Lorens
maintained
Semler
historical criticism
of the biblical writings was
by Salomon
drawn
of the deistic criticism
were
(1725-1791). The sharpest consequences
WahrReimarus
den
vornehmsten
by Samuel
von
(1699-1768 ; Abhandlungen
Of

more

heiten

der

natiirlichen

Religion, 1754

[not pub.],
in

Edelmann

Beimarus

which

time,

recent

more

Chr.

from

was

mid

Schuizschiift
fiir

1760, especially his

edited

Lessing
Dav.

Strauss

Fr.

Spinozistic

Edelmann

Betrachtung
die

die

verniinftigen

the

"

edited

free-thinker

(Hamburg,

iiber

Wolfenbiittler
an

Triebe

der
Thiere,
Gottes, 1767
and,
Fragmente,"

Verehrer

extract, Leips. 1862). Joh.

(1698-1767).

Cf. K.

Mcinckeberg,

1867).

The
allied
of the
so-called
was
to
movement
Mysticism, which
Pietism,
with
begun by Spener
organising energy
(1685-1705),and carried forward
Francke
by Aug. Herm.
osophy
(1663-1727), had only an indirect influence upon philisolated
stand
the more
during this period ; at a still farther distance
members

of

mystic

sects

such

Dippel (1673-1734).
Empirical
psychology

was

century

by

numerous

as

Gottfried

represented among
comprehensive

names,

(1666-1714) and

Arnold

the

Germans

in

Conrad
the

teenth
eigh-

collections, text-books, and

Creuz
Casimir
special investigations. There
are
von
(1724-1770), Joh. Gottl.
Krtiger (Versuch einer experimentalen
Seelenlehre, 1756), J. J. Hentsch
such
(Veriiber die Folge der Verdnderung
der Seele, 1726), J. Fr. Weiss
(De Natura
Animi
et
Potissimum
Cordis
Humani,
1761), Fr. v. Irwing (Erfahrungen
mi
und
Vntersuchungen iiber den Menschen,
fl.)et al. The
Magazin zur
lecting
coledited by Moritz
a place for
Erfahrungsseelenlehre,"
(1785-1793), formed
"

contributions
science.
Further
literature
in K. Fortlage,
to this favourite
System der Psychologie, I. 42 f
A theory of art upon
the basis
of empirical psychology is found
in Baumgarten's pupil, G. Fr. Meier
(1718-1777), and
especially in Joh. Georg Sul1762 ; Vermischte
der
zer
(1720-1779 ; Theorie
angenehmen
Empflndungen,
der
schonen
Kiinste, 1771-1774, a
Schriften,1773 ff. ; Allgemeine Theorie
.

lexicon
Of

of
the

aesthetics).
Popular

Philosophers

may

be

mentioned

Moses

Mendelssohn

1755 ; Jleber die Evidenz

in den
(1729-1786 ; Briefe iiber die Empflndungen,
1785 ;
Metaphysischen
Wissenschaften, 1764 ; Phoedon, 1767 ; Morgenstunden,
Fr. Nicolai
Werke, ed. by Brasch, Leips. 1881), the book-dealer
(1733-1811),
who
der
scKonen
published successively the Bibliothek
Wissenschaften, the

The

446

die

Briefe

Neue

the

Jae.

highly

A
the

of

Philosopher

Lesslng's
the

are

the

(1738-1766),
J.

H.

(1742-1798).

by

Zeller,

J.

Welt),

die

Garve

occupied
Ed.

of.

him,

chief

of

Frederick

the

Gr.

als.

history

of

Fi:

and

Fragmente,
Leibniz

und

acobi-

Mendelssohn''

(Munich,

1861)

C.

Hebler,

[Eng.

1879).
of

BohnLib.;

1873,

Der

d.

Grreat,

Philosoph

Laoccoon,

Studien

Geschlechts,

1875

Dilthey

Sime,

Bace

Lond.

Lessing,

1879.]
Herder's

Among
Sprache,
Vom

1772

writings

Auch

Erkennen

Gott,

ch.

ff.

1793

Humanitat,

Cf.

2).

R.

later

his

(on

H.

Haym,

s.

System,

seinem

ff.

1784
1787

1778

[Eng.

Briefe

literary
Leben

und

Ursprung

der
1774

Menschheit,

Seele,

philosophical
nach

den

der

menschlichen

Menschheit,

der

Spinoza''

uber

Geschichte

der

der

TTeber

period,

this

Philosophie

Empflnden

Geschichte

der

Gesprdche

in

belong

eine

und

Philosophie

tr.,

Ideen

Lond.

1800];

Beforderung

zur

activity,
seinen

cf.

;
zur

der

below.

Part

(Berlin,

Werken

'

1877-85)
'

berg,
Cf.

(Preuss.

Human

of

cf.

Cf.

ff.)

126

Spinozismus

W.

Education

Lond.

I.

Lessing's

1862)

and

writings.

Kritiken,

uber

(Berrj,

Dram,

Phillimore,

by

Streit

sche

JSam.

the

und

{Studien

philosophy

menschen

controversial

theological

the

the

des

Erziehung

Leasing

Leasingof

tr.

for

importance

the

Draniaturgie,

Zimmerman,

Jahrb.

VI.

those

writings

Hamburger

Zirngiebl,

E.

On

Wolfenbiittler

Rob.

Chr.

Biblio-

Eberhard

Aug.

Abbt

fiir

V.

1886).

(Berlin,
Of

is

personally

position

Sanssouci.

J.

Thomas

Philosoph

(1747-1810),

Meiners

interesting

the

of

deutsche

further

(1723-1790),
editor

[Part

Allgemeine

Bibliothek

deutsche

Basedow

Chr.

(1740-1821),

reder

in

Bemh.

the

betreffend,

Literatur

(1741-1802;

Engel

Questions.

Theoretical

Allgemeine

Joh.

(1738-1809),
Joh.

deutsche

neueste

and

thek,

Enlightenment

E.

;
H.'s
also

Melzer,

H.

Witte,

Geschichtsphilosoph

(Heidi.

Philosophie
J.

als

Die

Philosophie

1889)

[art.
unserer

(Neisse,
Herder
Dichterheroen

in

Enc.

1872)
Brit,

(Bonn,

M.

by

KronenJ.

1880).

Sully].

CHAPTER

THE

"The

is characteristic

THEORETICAL

study

of

of

whole

proper

I.

the

QUESTIONS.

mankind

is man."

This

of

word

of

Pope's

the

Enlightenment, not
philosophy
that this philosophy finds the ultimate
only in the practicalsense
end of all scientific investigation to be always man's
happiness,"
"

also,in

but

aims

whole,

as

the theoretical

actual

base

to

of

processes

point of view,
all

the

knowledge

far

so

the

upon

life.

psychical

in

After

this

as

philosophy,

observation

Locke

had

set

of

the

up

the

that prior to all metaphysical considerations

and
versies
controprinciple,^
the general question must
be decided
of how
far human
bition
insightreaches, and that this in turn is possible only by exact exhi-

course

of

the

from

of

development by

sources

time

epistemology,the

front

rank

which
which

it is

of

theory

derives, and

knowledge

brought about,

knowledge,

philosophicalinterests,and at the same

and
was
"psychology
recognisedas the authoritative
should

for

be

judged by
psychology with all
it becomes

at once

world, and

the

the

instrument

As

in this

or

vievang

should

draw

one's

only

of

science

mediation

Germans

the

of

in

Republic
"

by

dilettante

was

self in the

image

of

accounts

the

its official

the

empirical
of

court

human

"

is at the

age, and

science

and

ideas

time

same

general

characteristic

predominant

large "magazines,"
in

of

between

Societies for the

all sorts

the

they arise. Thus experiential

are
assumptions which
customary in
the whole
philosophicalview of the

tacit

field,the

into

decisive
of

that

in which

way

basis

favourite
of

and

the

the

latter

Englishmen

the

time

legitimate reach

The

epistemology.

the

from

"

brought

was

of

last resort

of

literature.
both

among

ing
reflectand
depicting minds
so
philosophy
literarylooking-glass,

that

of

man

and

of

observation
of

and

remarkable
the

of

the
of

activities of
man

"

founded,

were

experienceswere
of

government

sciousness.
con-

the

nered
garFrench

instruction,''
phy
replaced "philoso-

system
title,
sounding
"Analyse

humain."

de I'entendement

1 Introduction
Cf. M. Drobisch, Locke, Der
to the Essay.
{Zeitsehr.f. exacte Philosophie, 1861).
Cf. the highly amusing Seances
des Scales Normal,
first

Vorldufer Kanfs

'^

447

his

year.

448

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

While

of

power

of

of

bodies

to

know

that

of who

or

them.

world

of

do

in it both

conscious

of

the

through
made
and

arranged
In

connection
in

surface

the

consciousness

into

nevertheless

step, until

it at
To

positivism.
modest

the

in

to

movement,
at the

science
of

this

its extreme

scientific

dissolution

truths

in turn

away
an

teleology,
they

became

alone
and

the

forms

they

of
were

deeper,step by
in

Hume's

metaphysics

which

thus

sense.

remained

hoped

Europe

to

and

attain

the

English free-thinking
of

life of

while

these

connection

with

preceding century, and

especiallylivelyinterest to
with

time

more

In the

conviction.

and
and

strife of

the

of

out

rational

from

of the

lightenment
vigorous in the Enreligiousconsciousness

the

shifted

and

which

itself to the

developedout

an

fostered

to
victoriously

consequence

positive views of the world

period became
concentrated,

devoted

herent
in-

was

been

content

the

of

which

had

farther

common

universal

over

methodical

interest

which
a

its dualism

popularly practicaland pretentiously

from
all speculation of more
than
all
the
more
profession of
express

of sound

to

extended

metaphysics

the

ment,
great develop-

terminism

the

reached

or

with

The

its way

relate,

outset

controls

presented by Locke,

which

last

endeavours

which

deism

is

important disciples,
empirical psychology,and
ordinary mind.

the

carried

religious Confessions

which

reached

world," to

was

metaphysical

those

things,

Descartes'

to

the

the

of

mind

Greeks,

was

had

of

"outer

turning

to

is

movement.

which

literature attached
and

it

new

this, however,

ordinary refinement,
Whatever

of the

the

experienced,corresponded

adherence

in which

modern

held

here

takes

language
comprehension of the

from

world

metaphysics

philosophy, and
England (Hobbes), forced
qualitativeseparation of

especiallyin

is

controllingposition
the
Enlightenment, and
popular

the

character

with

all

of

leader

of

for the

the

popular metaphysics,

ancient

substances

considerations

translated

now

This

Cartesian

expression

full

one

from

the

age

the

metaphysical

were

so

of

this author

and

of

ing
know-

reproduce within the mind

of statingthe problem
way

of the

like that

corporeal

entire

mode

empirical

"

it ?

respect the

and

and

else,

enment
Enlight-

and

were

V.

eighteenth century completely,and

and
decisive
perfect formulation
tion.
disintegra-

most

in this

Just

into

things,get

knowledge, which is
theoretical
philosophy

uppermost,

ideas,which

the

of

attains

what

knows

How

these

There, "without,"

realism.

native

the

origin,development,

of
the presupposition

beginning placed beneath

viz. that

stood

ideas

human

the

to

as

questionsof

theoretical

the

accordinglyamong
philosophy,those

[Part

and

in
the
more

lightenment
the En-

tions
convic-

the natural

consequence

problems
from

of
the

Innate

1, " 33.]

Chap.

the

metaphysicalto

Ideas

Camhridge Platonists.

from

moral,

the

theoretical

449
the

to

practical

domain.

" 33.

regard to the question as

the Enlightenment found

With
of

pronouncedantithesis
first

The

1.

in

far

so

is

he

as

All

ideas,in his

and

the

an

seemed

motive

same

in

combating

of

main

opponents,

and

ideas

arise

he

appeals

the

grounded

carries

The

sense

question
received

of

innate

Descartes

as

to

he conceived

the

; but

creature

weight

more

in immediate
the

origin
decisive

as

that
a

evidence

point

of the

less

was

in

the

the

of

his

the

mind,

corporeal

most

we

can

the

in

the

the

consensus

show

to

had

already

morals

communes
a

that

ent
differ-

somewhat
the

psychological

mind, although
idea

by

notitice.

this

(Med. III.)

Meditations

of

of

God

to

was

imprinted

upon

great metaphysician

had

laid

had

creator

wiwte

of

his

criterion
Hence
the

1, 108 ff. (p. 905

'

The

Cf. E.

chapter

respect ;

all human

religion and

Here

Systema Intellectuale, especiallyat

Descartes^

; the

one

Cherbury

disciples.

In the

fourth

of

in

lb.

Grimm,

; the

conceived

whole

and

man,

The

manner

doctrine

'

ff.

as

that

argument

natural

designation(almost stripped of

V.

doctrines

upon

these

senses,

arisingof

in this

world

to

Herbert

certainty.

or

the

lively opposition.

to

doctrine

outer

innateness

that

the

of Hobbes

in mind

extensive

passage

the

of

Such

opponents
also

man,

entirely
body.

an

the

ideas

sign which

the

upon

be

to

to

was

the

the -whole

on

of

held

dignity of

Hobbes

of

his

he

retical
theo-

treating the conception of God,

in most

ideas

the

explain the

to

the

on

In

claim

and

as

conceptions.

Ciceronian

"*

answer

of

had

doctrines

and

by

the

he

them.^

it out^

main

question, too, at

sharply

distinguished himself

mathematical

lays

Stoic

doctrine

the

beginnings.

orthodox

In like manner,

all the

aid of the

field

activityof

super-sensuous

opposition to
operation of the

he

this idea is innate.

the

these

completely correspond

hand,

gentium, and

phy
philoso-

impulses

the

held

in

they resemble

other

and

Neo-Platonists

atheism

the

never

say is that

the

the

especiallyto

phenomena

on

from

had
especially

from

the

Hobbes

by

origin in
was

of the

eyes

determined

Cudworth
in his

their

have

question

in the

only

not

defended

of association

bring

the

ideas

Rationalism.

sensations

psychicalstructures
to

and

been

the

to

view,

mechanism

all other

in

already

practicaldomain, inasmuch
object of scientific knowledge,

being, bound

sensuous

that

had

origin of

the

also upon

as

the

to

of Sensualism

these

o^

Ideas.

Innate

he

of innateness
had

consists

finallyextended

psychologicalmeaning
the

close, V.

5,

28

ff.

Mosh.).
is devoted

to this

Lehre

den

von

task.

angeborenen Ideen, Jena, 1873.

be-

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

450

longing
adduced

also

Cherbury

of

idece

as

had

assent

characteristic

the

V.

to all that

innatm

Direct

perdpitur.

distincte

et

Herbert

by

been

mark

of

ideas.

innate

of innate
polemicalattitude toward the maintenance
mined
epistemologicalpurpose, but is really deterhas, indeed, an
asks
He
primarily
point of view.
only by the psycho-genetic

Locke's

2.
ideas

world

In

answer.^

question deserving
this the
development

of

consequence

is

Essay

experience of

the

appeal to

theoretical

neither

that
known

(with

tion

since this is not

with

entirely lacking

does

Locke's

English
an

it

of

does

God,

of

but

men,

allow

Locke

demonstrar

idea

the

even

different

among

Nor

some.

this

from

except

against Herbert)
different

only very

of

thesis

gentium, by

consensus

and

nursery

Nor

turn

express

an

the

ethnology ; it finds
universally
practical principles are

the

nor

acknowledged.

or

of

into

negative

against the

than

first of all the

It combats

Neo-Platonists.^

first book

the

in
principlesin the mind"
directed
less against Descartes

innate

"No

of

this

finds

it,and

with

brings complete knowledge

soul at its birth

the

whether

only
the

dare

naturali

lumine

Latin

the

outset) of

the

it at

to

[Part

is

even

evasion

the

in
suggested by Henry More,* that innate ideas might be contained
ing
accordbut implicitly
could
the soul not actually,
: this
only mean,
the soul is capable of forming and
to Locke, that
approving

them,

which

mark

"

then

would

which
assent, finally,

innate, does

truths, just where

their

the

birth

is

soul

himself

pledges
Here

he

that

the

De

In

pursues
8

Cf.

Descartes
4

H.

cit.

p.

to

Veritate

order

show

that

of

out

(1656),

which, moreover,
opinion also that

to

all

p. 76.
Descartes
it

was

and

the

and

of

adv.

Ath.

"

"

"

former

for

to

be

womb.

I. 3

and

assumed

simple ideas,how-

the

completely agreed

not

in its mother's

Antidot.

assent

of the words

meaning

abstract

immediate

this

is

(cf.p. 203), white paper void

then
Locke
this positively,
prove
ideas
arise from
our
experience.
complex ideas in the assumption

(and also for the following) G.

(Strassburg,1887).
More,

where

the

general

most

sheet

In

arise

metaphysics

the

which

already apprehended at an earlier time.*

again strippedof all its originalpossessions: at

distinguishes simple
latter

; and

fact that

unwritten

an

of

diate
imme-

The

that

characterise

to

case

all ideas.

for

been

all characters."

of

and

has

it is like

the

upon

connection

Thus

the

it is wanted

it rests

is found

held

was

in

apply

not

hold

him, for it

with

that

mind

the

of

was

the

cartes'
Des-

child

Op. (C.) VIII. 269.

Geil, Die Abhdngigkeit

Locke's

7, and

Cf. Geil,op.

Locke,

I.

2, 22.

von

49.

Locke, I. 2, 23 f.

'

The

term

taken

"

idea
the

on

( Vorstellung')
.

"

more

"

had

lost its Platonic

general meaning

sense

of

any

lb.

already
mental

II.
in

1, 2.

later

Scholasticism

modification

whatever

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

452

Locke, as
minists, logic was
this

for

and

in

for

the

Ter-

signs, semiotics.'

held

was

of these

None

to rest.

which

upon

determinations

exposition in

hafe their

nor

basis

sensualistic

the

spite of

new,
philosophically

were

of

science

Hence

science of conceptions
gained for a demonstrative
of
the
abstract
knowing mind, quite
operations

all

of ideas

all content

then

V.

was

spiritof Occam,

in the

the

with

coincident

room

means

into

put

are

for

By

another.^

logicalrelations to one
formerly for the Epicureans, and

consciousness

[Part

Locke

any

originality independent power of thought : it is,however, smooth

and
simple, of agreeable transparency and easy to understand; it
despisesall scholastic form and learned terminology,glides skilfully
or

and

over

extensivelyread

of the most

one

thus

deeper problems, and

all

from

away

made

influential writers

and

its author

in the

history

philosophy.

of

Strongly

4.

as

Locke

the

emphasised

had

independent

existence

from
his
experience by the side of the outer (as followed
which
to Descartes, on
see
below, " 34, 1),
metaphysical attachment
the dependence of reflection upon
he yet made
sensation, as regards
of

inner

origin
the

and

content,

the

led

this transformation
extreme
the

This

doctrine.

the

proved

decisive

transformation

factor

of

'

Berkeley

consequences.

Eeality

with

abstract

Locke's

only

not

conceptionsto

be

English
declared

the

in

complete

to

proceeded along different paths.

epistemologicaland metaphysical development

sensualism
In

his

of

development

it

strong that

so

of

nalism
Nomito

successors

the

of

doctrine

extraordinary

most

of

like the extreme

Nominalists
metaphysics, but also
denied
the existence
of abstract
ideas within
of the Middle
Ages
The
itself.
of such
ideas arises from
the mind
illusoryappearance
of words
in connection
the use
as
general terms ; but in truth, even
with
such a word, we
idea, or the
always think merely the sensuous
all

in

errors

"

"

of

group

sensuous

ideas, which

at

to think

the

Every attempt

term.

idea,which

"sensuous

always

remains

the remembered
activity. For even
be separated out, have
other
no
"can

development of these
been
singled out

The

which

have

with

under

Locke,

well

by this

as

natural

knowing
terministic

With
nature"
which

the

to

obtain

the

name

intuitive

in

as

the

beginning

abstract
as

ideas
content

logical relations
fixed by means

of the

lumen

and
than

between
of

naturals.

demonstrative

alone

rise to

shatters

the sole content

and

also

gave

upon

that
the

of intellectual

partialideas which
the originalsenseideational

the
the

verbal

Descartes

knowledge,

and

contents

signs,appears
had

understood

had

set

all this

activityover against revelation ; Locke, who treats the intuitive

of the "light of
reserve
(cf." 34, 1), restricts the signification
of the principles
logicaloperations and to the consciousness
of the thinking faculty.
these, according to the nature

Essay,

IV.

Princ.

of Human

21, 4.

Knowledge,

5 ff.

Innate

1, " 33.]

Chap.

because
impressions,

activityof

actual

in the

exist,and
them,

of

some

David

can

originaland

"

is

that

idea

no

of

copy
which

this

others

represent
the

similar

Locke's

distinction

of outer

altered

inner

terminology, viz.

into

existence

otherwise

has

other

that

from

any

that

is either
"

or

"

come

the

on

and

of consciousness

content

to

term.

same

exteut, and

with

particular ideas

sensuous

or

than

schools

in its full

an

received

it has

than

an

there

by being
than

content

that

its

corresponding impression. It appeared,

therefore,to be the task of philosophy to seek out the original
abstract
for even
the
apparently most
conceptions in some
abstract

no

Locke's

of

mode

vision

of

value

the

of
he

for

Hume

sure,

which

knowledge
understood

of

elements

inner

great thinker

the
be

To

merely

reflection which

and

estimate

to

has.

means

also those

meant

to

thereby

conception

by
he

"

impression,or

an

for

fiction of the

doctrine

copied.

of

has

impression,and
the

the

copy

All

idea."

none

else

impression
original, either an
ideas,therefore, are
copies of impressions, and

the

originalor

but

453

anything

copy

being designated by

for
ground of this substituted
antithesis
perception another
of the

never

stand

can

adopted

Hume

idea

Berkeley, Hume.

thought

these

of

account

on

ideas,therefore,are

Abstract

idea.

another

an

Idem

pressions
im-

by

experience;

outer

It was,

ing
therefore, accordexperience.
expression,the simple ideas of sensation
declared
to be
impressions,and the wide
sighted
prevented him from fallinginto a short-

sensualism.
5.

took

development
in

place

Locke

had

connection

bodily

in the

functions

something

should

had

underlying

though he avoided
throughout treated

the

the

the

intellectual

incorporealand

as

the

upon

elaboration
work

of

to immaterial
activities

independent

regarded, that

related

goal,

physiologicalpsychology.

dependent

regarded

question as

led to

yet

of

as

reflection

the

be otherwise

aid

of sensation

but

senses,

sort,which

with

only thought

of the

as

of another

thinkers

the

activity
sensation

mind

; and

substance, he

in
of

of

the

the

should

narrower

body.
begin

had
sense

That

this

to consider

the

physicalorganism as the bearer or agent not only of the simple

ideas,but also of their combination, was
easilypossible in view of
the

indecisive
called

more

of

ambiguity

out

by

one-sided

the

Lockian

doctrines, but
drawn

conclusions

still

was

Cartesian

from

and

Spinozistictheories.
Descartes, namely,
animal
ascribed
res

as

mechanical

the

human

cogitans.

human

had

ideation

The
now

the

treated

process

of the

psychical life
more

evident

seemed

to

the

whole
nervous

the

psychical life
system,

immaterial

completely

in consequence

sensuous

of Locke's

while

of
he

substance,
nature

the
had
the
of

investigation,

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

454

the

the

position,that
in the

of

case

the

in

worked

in the

this

view

the

psychicallife,without

process

should

the
ble
capa-

be traced

back

immaterial

an

maintain

V.

seemed

stance.
psychical subthe

(cf.above, " 31, 9).

direction

same

animal

side,Spinoza'sparallelismof

another

From

"

activity of

the

to

man

the

in

processes,

nervous

as

possible to

was

which

processes

same

being understood

of

it

lay the question -whether

nearer

[Part

attributes

According

bodily life corresponds to every process

of
either
being the cause
process

to
of

the

originaland the other the derived.

(Such,at least,was the thought of the philosopher himself.) This
of at first by its opponents as materialism,
been
conceived
had now
the bodily,
that the fundamental
was
if Spinoza meant
as
process

other, or

and

the

the

being

process

But
only its -accompanying phenomenon.
scientists,
also,both physicians and natural
of thought inclining
of Leyden, a mode
Boerhave

psychical process
its

among
such

one

adherents
influential

the

as

materialism

strongly toward

substituted

soon

itself for the

with
the
place in connection
riences
expeof experimental .physiology which, following Descartes'
stimulus, employed itself largelywith a study of reflex movements.
is

It

in

1697

anonymous

out

is

only
of

thoughts

year

Correspondence concerning

the

Nature

to

recognised

given

are

is reached
In

and

England

to that

and

functions

as

of

Bacon, Descartes,

in which

as

between

the

in his

are

of

ried
car-

degree

and

animal

the

Soul

by pious

Hobbes

and

psychicallife of

of the

the

of

distinction

early
Cogita-

appeared

1713

screened

in which,
Seele),^

der

anthropologicalmaterialism.

an

; ideas

man

doctrines

brain, and

as

activities

mechanical
the

Wesen

the

Here

Germany.

Wolff taught

are

of

combinations

these

in

(Briefwechselvom
refutations,the

first in

Pancratius

body, especiallyof

human
the

named
that

Medico-legales

tiones

of

consequences

literaryform

physician

took

the

interestingthat

thought appeared
as

This

doctrine.

master's

that

garded
exception re-

activities

of

of

tion
and
nerve-fibres,
practiceand educathe higher position of man
by which

the

excited
means

the

will

are

without

maintained.
the

procedure

Locke

had

was

cautious.

more

carried

out

the Baconian

In

way

similar

programme,

men

ities,
activof the psychical
primarilythe internal mechanism
and the development of the higher out of the elementary states
according to purely psychologicallaws : such was the work of Peter
in the
Brown
epistemologicalfield,and that of others upon the
studied

now

domain

Of

of the

which

activities of the will.

Lange

gives an

account,

tr., History of Materialism, II. 37

In

Qesch.

ff.]).

the

des

same

proceeded

manner

Mat., I. 319

ff.

(2d

ed.

[Eng.

Innate Ideas

1, " 33.]

Chap.

Hartley also, who

David

association

he

before

used

the

was

so

body

of the

clear

that

him

to

made

he

excitations,which,

nervous

But

he

the

with

even

was

also

the

states

the

cian,
physi-

the

of

correspondence

constant

psychical functions

the

termed

time, were

at that

of

care

fast to their

held

processes,

relationshipof

mutual

the

and

two

the

and

and

binations
com-

wished

He

all the

life with

mental

the

of

connection

expression

this) for the

with

analysed

complete incomparableness with material

of corporeal motion.
most delicate forms
and

the

the elements.

scientist,solely as psychicfil
processes,

natural

455

use

common

arise between

relations,which

these

to conceive

been

already

which

relations

and

into

brought

had

(which

Hartley,Lamettrie.

"

vihra-

two

subject-matterof his psychology of association.

the
between
fast to the qualitativedifference
he held
this work
parallelseries of phenomena and left the metaphysical question,

as

to the

main

tions,"'the
In

to

:
lying at their basis,undecided
fell insensiblyinto materialism,

substance

causalityhe
of

of

mechanism

the

primary event, and that

accompanying

of

this

be

scientific

theory,

with

pious faith, and

his

to

and

fruitlesslyhe

true

of

desires

or

involved

made

even

in serious

This

contradictions

show

how

Quite

two.

nomenon
phe-

excitations

him

earnestly

the

concession

farther

the

the

complex, complex.

the

between

only

as

nervous

"

ceived
con-

ultimately the

as

simple

he

in that

; to

Observations

"

the

struggled

Priestley,who

To

event.

sure,

states

nervous

psychical activities

the

sensations

correspond simple

the

ence
refer-

with

but

to

is

same

ism
material-

the
psychical and
heterogeneity between
bodily processes, and desiring to replace psychology completely by
nerve
entirelythe
physiology. On this account he also abandoned
of

standpoint of
time

same

fall

letting

inner

desired

conviction

of

the

to

unite

with

the

Frenchman,

himself

upon

his

and

Convinced

Lamettrie.
others

of

worked

was

the

seemed

to him

between

for human

psychical activities

In

.Brown,
2

the
the

Instead

of the

the

mechanical

are

two, which

functions

"

of this

term

Erasmus

is

also
of

later,especiallythe Scottish
"
association
expression

sensorium."

the

observations

medical

by

no

the

other
brain.

and

the

latter

of

also.

the
The

degree, permits

explanation
On

men,

conception of

Descartes'

one

mind

the

of

of life in animals

only

form

in its baldest

out

completely applicable to

distinction

they

at

supported

warmly

complete dependence

body, he studied the mechanism

following Boerhave's
suggestions, and
former

the

system

the

upon

Scots, but

the

by

teleologicaldeism.

Anthropological materialism
by

defended

experience

this

than

account

and
in particular with
literature,
replaced by suggestion.
Darwin
introduced
the expression,

that
it is

Thomas

is often

' '

motions

of its
of matter

Descartes'

and

therefore

the

If

senses.

of

think

we

of this

only

is

fact that

is not

"

of

with

few

and

kind,

find in him

should

we

senses,

his

of

had

on

some

of

one

Arnobius
which

been

restricted

to the

other

ideational

no

of

is found

his sensualism

"

all connection

functions

Father

Church

It is

is materialism.

single content

proposed, so writes Lamettrie,' to establish

who
from his birth
had developed from Locke,
from

tion
abstrac-

Lamettrie,

the

of

one

mind

lives.

mechanics

excitation

the

as

man

not

to the

due

false

and

stantiality
sub-

needs

proved this,says

consequence

the

from

life which

mental

moves

psychical life

all

that

itself

V.

conception

and

dead

arbitraryand

has

which

The

of matter.

an

matter

inevitable

the

is evident

body,

that

shows

mechanics

And

in the

"mind"

the

to

is in itself

body which
moving principle,is
of

that

as

just

the

to that

in addition

own

spiritas its
: experience

or

ascribe

metaphysics to

of

encroachment

an

Questions. [Part

Enlightenment : Theoretical

The

456

excluded

experience
contents

brought to him through just these senses.

but all ^the more
6. Less
widely extended
important in principle,
other
Locke's
the
in the
re-shapings which
literaryworld, were
domesticated
it
doctrine
Voltaire, who
experienced in France.
his countrymen
pletely
by his Lettres sur les Anglais,gave it a comamong
those

than

sensualistic

stamp, and

showed

even

disinclined
not
sceptical reserve
of providing the
I, which
power
This
capacity of thinking also.

to

"

the

fundamental

who

the

at

defended

other

against

sceptical sensualism
the

Whatever
is

had

beginning

it

derived

the

of

note

in

mind

may

is

French

himself

entrust

the

to

with

though

"

the

Creator

corporeal body, with the

became
sceptical sensualism
Enlightenment.^ Condillac,
a

doctrine
only expounded Locke's
to
systems, professed his adherence
his

influential
the

be,

Traiti
of

content

and
this

Sensations.

des

activities

its conscious

solely from

sense-perception. Condillac develops the

the fiction
with
theory of associational psychology in connection
of a statue, which, equipped only with
capacityof sensation,receives
one

after

another

to

it, and

added

life like that

co-existence
with

note
2

it

At

of
of

the

by

close

this

of

the

of

the

Histoire

different

fundamental

different sensations
sensation

the

of

in the

idea

Naturelle

de

to

the

is that

Vlme.

each

are

intellectual

an

other

mere

brings

consciousness

same

their relation

which

senses

gradually unfolds

means

Here

man.

of itselfthe

the

excitations

and

to

the

Cf. also above, p. 225,

1.
The

mode

same

criticism in the
"imitation

form

of

of beautiful

(1713-1780)
(1746).

with

thought asserts

of the

his

Itself also in

principle that

Nature."

treatise,Les

The

the

type

Beaux

essence

of

Arts

this

the
of

heginnings of sesthetio
all art

conception

reduits

un

consists
was
meme

E.

in

the

Battevx

Principe

Innate

1, " 33.]

Chap.

the

objector

which

Oondillac, Diderot.

witli

accordance

all

in the
in

457

this

principlethe process is
psychical activities become

manifold

the

perception:

out of

unfolded

In

self.

depicted by

Ideas

theoretical

series,by

virtue

of the

repetitionof

sensations,there grow
intensityand
parison,
successivelyattention, recognising recollection, distinction, comjudgment, inference, imagination,and expectation of the

differences in

finallywith

and

future;

abstraction

language, arise
in addition

But

the

of

help

and

the

signs, especially

sensation, perception has

to

of

grasping

those

general principles.

also the

feeling-element

with
the
pleasureand pain, and out of this, in connection
and
of ideas,develop desire, love
hate, hope, fear,^and

of

of

result

the

the
finally,

all

such

moral

of

changes
So

will.

the

ment
moveas

"

consciousness

practical

and

knowledge

of

morality grow

"

the

upon

soil of the

sensibility.
This
systematic construction
impulse,which was repressed
itself with

threw
human

"

mind

woven

process,

part

as

so

the

or

tion

recognised

development
"

name

of

So

Ideology."

it

reference

in France

to the

of sensation
of the
went

from
"

Voltaire's

at

in
first,

express

activities.

This

development

of Diderot.

He

the

In

of
of

set

sensualistie

at

the

gave

the

the

by

Eevolu-

empirical
it later

beginning

the

of

our

mind

held

to

in which
take

these

formations
trans-

place,a great part

;

others

assertive
rialism,
mateproblematicalto Lamettrie's
going
Hartley's fashion emphasising the thorough-

maintenance

but

with

and

and

reserve
by Condillac's positivistic

of combinations

dependence
then

nomenclature

to

"

of the

nature

ment
develop-

opportunity

Government

that

the

usually called ideologists.

were
{sentir)

remained
ideologists
on

about

came

the

already

by slightchanges

philosophy only this study

and Destutt
de Tracy
intelligence,
^

With

found

as

century philosopherswere
7.

The

(of." 34, 7),

had

exposition of

adherents

deductions.

less valuable

more

of

his

systematic

"analysis of

himself

Condillac

as

into

throng

field

this

upon

completion of this structure

in
phases, by innovations

in the

shiftings of

whole

The

success.

metaphysical

energy

; and

observations
a

great

in the

greater

substitute

acute

many

take

all the

had

out

from

literature

of
of

the

ideas

upon

nervous

materiality

of

processes,
the

psychical
in the case
clearlyto be seen
positionof Shaftesbury and Locke,

is most
the

became

more

from

potent

step

to

step

development of the practical series of conscious

acts, the influence of
and
and
itself
passions asserted
Spinoza's theory of the emotions
and
his disciples,as also in part among
with Condillac
the
English associational psychologists.
2 It
in case
is not impossible that this nomenclature
of de Tracy was
intended
"
to he the
Science
of Knowledge
Wissenschaftslehre,"
counterpart to Fichte's
(cf.helow, Part VI. ch. 2).
the

Descartes'

"

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions. [Part

The

458

of

Editor

in the

followed

he

Encyclopaedia;

the

finallytook

hylozoism^ (of.below, " 34, 9), and

of

the

of

Cabanis

of

point
in

science

far

so

his

progress

of

the

secretions

natural

which

longer merely

Ideation

changes.

chemical

logical
physio-

to

nerves,

referred,no

be

must

other

brain, just as

of the

secretion

of

conditions

in

but

motions,

mechanical

the

genetic

ideologists

of

newness

of

account

the

seek

to

as

takes

; he

view

the

respect by

this

later

the

Among

the

metaphysics
their

treated

and

nerves,

done.

psychicalstates (Zemoral)

man's
in

had

just as Lamettrie
is prominent in

process

the

of

motions

fine invisible

the

as

position
com-

forth

set

of its

the framework

within

psychicalactivities

human

hypotheses
in the

part

work

This

Nature.

la

de

Syst"me

the

up

is the
other

produced by

are

V.

organs.

the

in

that

the

peculiarcharacter
line of

of this

Lamettrie, adverting
into

resolved

be

Nature

of the

of

mind,

the

proved by

be

theory

the

assumption of the
admits
an
activityof
this
; for

of

hypothesis
soul
its

takes

and

eethereal

an

on

dwelling-placein

This

of

union

passed over

to

evinces

characteristic

itself in

The

In

this

with

connects
ideas

speak in

sensualism

but

the

with
the

interrupted
un-

the

Bonnet

particularcase.
with

the

reaction

countryman,

qualityof

maintenance

of
the

on

the

of

the

self-subsistent
of

part

the

mind

combated

with

Encyclopaedists. He

found

Rousseau,

who

mind, the unity of

and
feeling (sentiment),

decisive
the

to him

seems

by
helps himself
the
with
body which is joined essentially
material
external
organism, according to

capacity of

Bonnet's

physical

spontaneous

only in connection
explain immortality and

mind.

psychologicaltheories

its aid the

this

each

sensualism

substantialityand

that

coarser

mind

substance

the

never

can

to

for the

mind-substance,

to

by

well-schooled

in the mechanism

hypotheses.^ Religious

this

to

commended

sees

He

consciousness.

leader

similar

manner

its relation
he

content

The

sensation

occasionalis

immaterial

of

activity

that

Hence

causa

in order

reason,

that

see

senses,

such

too

of the
substantiality

unity of
fantastic

of

all sorts

the

and

his

body

the

is much

he

motion,

analytic.

not

system only

nervous

reaction

of

but

fail to

to

elements

but
is synthetic,

states

to

of

investigator

an

as

Arnobius,

to

consideration

of

to the

due

itself.

shows

He, too, in

mode

the

be

fast to Locke's

combining

nature

Bonnet.

was

Condillae, adopts

of

that

thought

toward

mind's

of the

indeed

may

directed

functions

but

ideas

of

all content

principlethat

ideology held

line of

oppositionto this,another

In

opposed

transition-writingIs cfAlembert's

PalinginesiesPhilosopkiques.

this

its

function,

originalnatu-

Dream.

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions. [Part

The

460

analysisof
beginning
which

these
in

original truths,which

the

to

with

connection

in

themselves

assert

the

determining principles. Thus,

science

natural

of the
of their
the

essential

content

of

For

ideas

the mental

of

well

as

they everywhere
discovered

be

with
and
than
can

the

yet

confuse

demonstration

the

task,

in their

on

sive
exten-

in fruitful-

that

cogency.

which

can

tions,
psychical functhis is also geneticallythe original
philosophy has no other principle

that

in

analysis

content

the

demonstrated

to be

sum-total
such

all that

of

content

of

is held

criticism

mental

principlesis

these
to form

the

supreme

philosophicalknowledge.
the
philosophy of the German

In

mingle

Leibnizian

rationalism.

this

latter

the

agency

should

be

truths

and

with

Enlightenment all
after-workings of the Cartesian

the

both

regarded
from

realitythere
through facts,an

The

those

combine

that
is
a

of

from

the

priori science

result

psychology

must

show

which,

proceeding

in

the

clear

and

distinction

far retained

distinct

as

to

and

confused

eternal

the

On

the

in value

the
Psychologically,

two

and

intellect

the
These

sciences

two

pirical
that, for example, em-

way

existence

soul, and

in

from

fact

of

from

deduced
the

all

faculties

"

"

other

niz's
hand, following Leib-

of the

two

of

modes

edge
knowl-

regard only the intellectual knowledge

insight,while
idea of

from

psychology, were

the

time, historical)
knowledge

obscure

actual

rational

metaphysical conception of
resultingfrom this conception.
so

of

view

perception.

in such

the

the

of

contingent truths : for every province

knowledge through conceptions and another

the

precedent,

point

the

in

activities

was

and

twofold

posteriori science arising from

to

these

of
tendency in the method
system had taken on a fixed systematic form through
of Christian
Wolff. According to him, all subjects

of

that

of

for all

tendencies

as

this

observations

of

actual

9.

were

of

investigations lack

in this

ffl

kind

in the

valuable

without

rule

as

physiology,

solution

acuteness

of

these

The
truth.
as
activity,
self-evident
designated as common
sense, and as

an

help

determining : and since this

that of psychologicalfact,it regards
be

and

energeticallycomprehensive

in

as

assumption

manner

of

life is contained

universally valid

as

mind,

activities

perfected as

the

great

multitude

investigations.And
ness

In

and

processes

genetic processes

be

its

especiallyDugald Stewart, develop a

comprehensiveness of vision in the apprehension

and

inner

all

the

him

after

breadth

considerable

shall

observation.

of inner

himself, and

Eeid

putting aside

human

of

development

psychology

science

fundamental

the

nature

the

the

of

from

given

are

V.

empirical (or, as

was

regarded

as

they
more

said at
or

less

things.
kinds

of

knowledge

were

divided, in

Innate

1," 33.]

Chap.

the

with

accordance

laid less

direction cif his thought,

the

who

were

The

which

importance
increased

was

Leibniz

the

the

WolfE

and

the

to

and

conceded

such

of

nature

that-

Eiidiger and

like

ultimately not

of

only

of stages in which

because
interest,^

historical

with

Only

these

of

which

stood

method

attempting

of

of
their

but

he

thought,

mode

of

preciselyfrom
of the

possible to

this

Cf.

W.

Cf.

the

lichen

human
derive

point

no

of

the
the

demonstration

Erkenntniss

insight

in

d. sacks.

taught,

one

view
for

from

content.

The

d.

Gesch.
G.

neueren

and

the

of

of

nection
con-

enment,
EnlightLambert,
time,

his

into

had

worth

the

the

form

of

be

the

the

is

but

read
it

of

out

from

it,that

mere

form,

Lockers

Vergleichung mit Leibniz^

Q-es. d. Wissensch.').

Lehre

Kritik

proper

sharply and

so

this

it

point
of

of

the

neither

was

the

nor

the

ception
per-

which

Locke's

genetic consideration

Philosophie, I. ""

Hartenstein,

relation

of

And

first refuted

The

ideas.

in

given only by

conceived
Lambert.

as

reality,

knowing

without,

could

had

for

content

be

can

from

given

content

in

ofform

It followed

mind.

Windelband,

1861, Abhandl.

light in

to

mathematieo-logical

requisite

distinction

great importance

knowledge from
1

literary-

Heinrich

the

an

connection,

"

ideas

only

came

science

with

into

distinction

them,
thought between
This
of
the
mind.
activity
ambiguous exposition: but
of

has

turn.

natural

had

is not

was

lar
"popu-

all human

Organon, in
phenomenology of his New
limits
for the
psychological significance of
of the
knowledge, he disposed the mixture

is

view

the

irregular series

philosophy

fruitful

the

of

he

led to the

content-elements
:

German

posteriori constituents

that

way

of

the

fix the

to

priori and

in

in

and

elements

two

science

of

psychologico-epistemological

the

intelligent sympathy

experience :
these

summit

completely as

as

used

men

originaland

an

the

at

into

grown

arguments

new

prevailedin the

to make

who

no

chological
psy-

sensualism,

that

and

itself

completed

the

it.

one

dualism

this process

Lockian

the

men

doctrine

philosophers supported completely

arise from
sense-perception. The motley

empiricism

to

earnest

ideas

that

was

within

Lossius, but especiallya great part

the

and

preponderance

made

were

"

French

to

gained the
principles. The
the metaphysico-ontologicalstep by step, and
over
increasing concessions

opponents,

the

penetration

method

element.

genetic

of

the

metaphysical

development

had

more

and

innatoe

adherents

of

course

461

ideae

influence

by the
psychological method

more

the

upon

his

the

under

general

and

weight

with

case

already standing

English theories.
the

the

oppositewas

into

model,

himself, agreeably

Wolff

"

But

Wolff,Lambert.

Cartesian

Yet

idece adventitice.

Ideas

form

of

logicalrational53-55.
von

der

derselben

mensch-

(Leips.

The

462
ism

with

from

which

the

which

also

knowledge
this

for

grew

of

and

for

on

in the

of innate

manuscript in the
its publicationwas
had

Among
that
that

the

there

form

the

of the

the

soul,like

this

monad,

been
in

of the
and

and

in

In

also

as

mind
been

this

This

and

Essay

which

this

By

in

his

losophy
phi-

by

question

doctrine

maintained

the

mind

knew

him^

in the

principlethe

substance

the

into

brought

Leibniz, however,
is

are

distinct ideas
to
or

in

seen

of tlie latter.

1, 10

Essais,
of

he

pronounced

of

the

"

be

cannot

had

been

tesian
Cartion
ques-

denied
cussed
dis-

often

pointed by

was

his

position. Since, in his view,

representing power, it must have
"

but

since

".

all

monads,

even

those

souls, these
The

conception

of

perceptions cannot possibly

solution
of the problem lies,

unconscious
The

; its life

conscious,of

the

representationsor

soul

(as

every

monad)

always conscious,not
consists
in the development
not

obscure

and

confused

to clear

representations.

aspect Leibniz

II.

were

commentary

which

of

but
representations,

or

ideas

is best

ideas

Nouveaux

combated

cogitans was

res

sense

his

with

always.

distinct.

the

unconscious

the worlds
2

ideas

distinct

sought

Monadology.

that

the

moment:

matter,

clear

clear

human

deepest thoughts

petitesperceptions (cf.above, " 31).

always
always

Lambert

critical

Locke

characteristic

every

therefore, again
has

origin of

of his

which

schools.

every

constitute
all be

experience,

peculiar intermediate

perceptions at
which

But

Leibniz, in
it the

not

soul

In

moment.

between

the

with

thinks

essential

to

to the

as

within

nothing
principlehad

soul

for the

Monadology

of

mass

principle.

ideology with

be

definition
:

Lockian

innate, had

were

This

internal

produce.

to

arguments

nothing.

it at any

total

to content.

finest conclusions

could

that

from

away

of

contents

the

from

theories

embodied

the

ideas

the

literarymarket, the reconcilingword upon the

ideas had been
long spoken, but was
waiting in a
Hanoverian
libraryfor the powerful effect which

the

provided
and

basis

"

relation

any

all these

detail,and

the

the

perception the
was
immediately given. Out of
of metaphysics
the task
of dissolving

improvement

relating forms

based

flyingabout

had

took

out

"

While

problem

with

relations

their

other

V.

single unifying principle for this purpose,^and his

itself with
finally contented
making a collection

not

10.

"

clear

Archilektonik

of them

their

the

making

vain

in

of

; the

that

thought

these

out

[Part

spin all ontology and metaphysics

general principlesof logic,and ultimately from

most

sensualism,

Questions.

would

Wolff

principleof contradiction

one

"

Enlightenment : Theoretical

his

now

introduced

an

extremely significant

interestingcorrespondence

with

Kant,

printedin

the

in which

states

of

it is conscious

which

latter

the

He

epistemology.
merely

soul

them.

463

former

The

has
he

distinguished

ideas, and

those

designated as

in

tion,
percep-

apperception.^ He

as

apperceptionthe

the

Leibniz.

and

psychology

conception into
between

Ideas

Innate

1, " 33.]

Chap.

which

by

process

understood, therefore, by
fused
unconscious, obscure, and con-

raised into clear and distinct consciousness,

are
representations
and
and thereby recognised by the soul as its own
appropriated by
The
geneticprocess of the psychical life consists
self-consciousness.
in the

changing of

conscious

into

unconscious

representations

perceptionsinto the clearness and

In the light of the Monadology
consciousness.

in

taking

view
a

on

makes

of

the

of

things

virtue

of

the

confused
which

manner

takes
them

making

of

conceive

soul

the

upon

rather

must

fact that

The

of

and

logical
methodo-

(cf." 30, 7)
have

monads

ideas

of

took

windows

no

activities

as

clearing them

up,

or

sense,

the

soul,by

obscure

an

and

transformation
as

as

"

entations,
sense-pres-

which

harmony, develops in
pre-established
(as petites perceptions),and the
be regarded only
can
place in them
distinct

self-

perceptionmetaphysically as

the

thought

be

the

of

Leibniz's

truths

empirical or contingent

peculiarcolouring.
it impossible to

working

distinctness

up

ideas,

or

taking

of

process
up

into

as
self-consciousness,
apperception.

understanding, the

and
Sensibility
Leibniz

coincides

with

that

different

of

distinctness,
have, therefore, in
that

the

what

the

into
has

former
latter

the

soul

been

hand,

ideas

which

the
has

are

innate

by

been
the

in the

virtual

thought,

view

at

with

reference

the
in

; and

in

that

human

the

opening
to

the

is at
of

part the

Cartesians)

representation
Nothing

comes

consciously represents
it :

and

on

the

that

is,consciously,no

designates this

principlesof

relation,which
Monadology,

the

of ideas.
treated

once

the

here

content, only

same

within

sense,

He

in the

New

universal

burning question:

and

clearness

anything in its conscious

from
the beginning. Hence
sense, that is,unconsciously,

in another

innateness

which

it

soul.

with

forth

certain

previouslysketched

name

This

that

it

contained

within

been

not

the

distinct.

which

bring

cannot

decide

idea is innate

had

that

without;

soul

and

clear

of

confused

and

which

between

degrees

view,

obscure
as

possesses

from

must

all ideas

in

his

already unconsciously

other

Leibniz

has

distinction

the

or

one

maintained

as

the

controlling point

Essays,

is carried

eternal

truths.

out
This

especially
was

indeed

party (the Neo-Platonists,

that

these

were

innate

1 Princ.
de la Nat.
the relationshipwith
et de la Gr"ce, 4, where
reflection comes
Ess. II. 9, 4.
out
strongly ; Nouv.
2
N. E. IV. 4, 5.

of

the

and

"actu-

Lockian

The

464

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

fully formed
(fertige)truths;
would
explain them from
part Locke)

in

tional
such

elements.

principlesare

after
that

that

is,as

this

unconscious

is,raised

inheres

Leibniz

distinct

and

in the
while

thereto

When

soul

rooted

Locke

consciousness

and

recognised

so

in

Essais

literature

is clear

which

own

and
the

use

in

fuerit

non

in

printed

were

and

sensu,

1766, they

them.

That

excited

the

life of

distinctlyconscious, and is
an
insight of the highest

obscurely presaged depths, was

for the

quod

translating

was

all that

unclear

ipse}

nisi intellectus

Lessing

transcends

in intellectu

est

the Nouveaux

attention.

great

lectual
just struggling out of the inteldryness of the Enlightenment, and out of insipidcorrectness
and an
ble
valuaunfolding full of genius,
insightall the more
thinker
that Germany
honoured
coming from the same
as the
was

"

as

father

and

worked

hero

of

its

especiallyupon

views,^but
of the

still

the

Leibnizo-

Enlightenment.
Herder

in his

more

Human

Under

and

of the

preponderance
school

had

empirical knowledge
had

Academy

powers,

of

unity of

the

man's
are

different
monad

which

wished
and

to

the

schools

not

two
of

one

comprehends
soul raises

consciousness

JfTouv. Ess.

far

as

On

"

direction

only

the

in

Leibniz

his

aesthetic
and

Knowing

ing
Feel-

mutual

which

played
he

of

and

the

II. 1, 2.

same

itself in its

cf.

showed

of

in

Leibniz

Essais

treated
The

"

these

the

in his treatise

two

rated
sepa-

had

latter

the

living

standing
and undersensibility
knowledge, but only the

that

living activitywith

within

Berlin

knowledge,

human
as

standing
under-

against the prevailing

"

of

sources

universe

its immediate

has

emphasised

different

the

true

Nouveaux

when

had

relation

each

the

rational

oppositionbetween

separate faculties.

the

share

the

possible,and

two

see

the

methodological pointof view, the

as

and
psychicallife,

stages

the

this

it not

see

strained

sensibilityas

investigated: Herder
developed himself in
system

we

In

Soul."

Wolffian

and

prize essay

that

perception,as petitesperceptions,
of relating thougM, but that
them
they are apperceived,

representation,
though
had appropriated for his

sensuous

principlenihil

adds

11.

an

of

employment

clear

Hence

scholastic

to

involuntary forms

thought

with

already

confused.

value

already in

the

out

of the
soul's
experience. The form
activity
is afterwards
lectual
brought to clearness and distinctness of intelapprehension as a universal
principle,an eternal truth,

which

the

the

to

connection

in

contained

(Hobbes, and
co-operationof sensa^

the

carries

Leibniz, however,

V.

others

the

ally," as

[Part

itself.

All

the

the

which
ideas

with

development, step by step,from

environment

principallythe

to

fourth

the

the

knowledge

Kritische

Wdldchen.

of

of the

the harmony

and

unity

this

by

within

innate

also

which

still

important

More

embraces

another

was

than

thinker

no

less

of

the

(of." 34, 12).

The

Konigsberg

of

the

most

completed it in

his

It

was

doctrine

the

work

out

to

one

and

the

examination

with

following Lambert's
Leibniz

they

inhered

is the

function

objectand

content

to

of the

much

intellectual knowledge
on

this

perhaps in
had

as

been

treatise De

time.

he

Kant

mundi

are

(cf." 8, and

sensibilis et
the

"

pure

not

innate

in

from

the

data

the
of

"

that
sense
sciousness
con-

principleof
the

Dissertation

to
activity,'

enter

then

to

him
such

the

fruitful

he
than

even

was,

become

manner

opposed
the

this to

WolfSans
there

whether

are

originalform-relations
world

by

Leibniz

Sectio

whole

forma
intelUgihilis
Forms

in

knowledge.

This

and

new

intellectual

the

in

out

for

was

distinct

and

reasons

just

senses

himself

discovered

They

question

in

understanding.

sharply

more

the

of

pointed

abstracted

not

world

the

recognised by
thus

the

account

in

methodical

From

knowledge.

in

within

its

not

work

the

at

forms

of

of the

view

could

truths

Inaugural
laws

and

basis,and

new

experience,and

knowledge,

appliesthis point of

now

sensuous

but

of

occasion

on

as

up

proceeding

understanding.

soul

yet

was

to clear

brought

of Kant's

nerve

lie in the

metaphysical truths
into active

and

of the

reflection

the

virtual innateness

Kant

raised

niz.
Leib-

already grown
long employed

eternal

involuntary relating

as

be

experience itself,to

the

to

to build

content
"

of

development,
had

and

to

is 'raised

work

beginning

reference

with

already

by

He

of iorm

distinction

showed

Now

his

upon

of

epistemology
stimulated
by that

contrary, he

the

to make

attempts

the

with

connection

in

turns

establishing metaphysics

of

the direction

On

of

system

philosopher was

important

them.^

like

senses

undertook

who

into

the

school-metaphysicsand had been

of the empirical theories,and

with

satisfyhimself

internal

as

Horens)

Inaugural Dissertation}

Wolf"an

all

effect of

Kant

Essais

Nouveaux

of the

soul

psycho-physical mechanism

the

which

of

means

in

{Tonens
producingand hearing sounds
of thought.
the expression
become
12.

the

understanding,Herder
inquiry ae to the "Origin of

his

function

the

found

Language,"he

465

unity of sensibilityand

in

called feeling; and

Kant.

Herder,

universe, are

deeper

This

powers.

Ideas

Innate

1, " 33.]

Chap.

et

IV.

and
of the

principiis):

and

"

sensibility
space and
ordinary sense, but acquired,yet
of the

but
sensibility,

"

ab

ipsa

mentis

shown
The
has been
Essais
by
dependence of this essay upon the Nouveaux
Windelband, Vierteljahrschr. f. wissensch.
Philos., I., 1876, pp. 234 ft.
2
removed
farthest
This is best.proved by the essay which
apparently stands
from
VI. ch. 1.
Cf. also Part
of a Ohost Seer.
metaphysics, The Dreams
' De
Cf.
Mundi
dantur
intellectus.
Sens, et Int., "6:
ipsam naturam
per
" 8, also the corollary to " 3.
W.

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

466

secundum

actione

formulation

Anothet

human

on

essays

received

impression

the

the

be

to

accordingly,

"

natural

the

that

itself

" 34.

of

background

attached

the

as

which

of

assumes

from

to

latter

the

This

world.

is thus

There

beginning
which

in the

after-working of

exist

was

ended,

asserts

itself

determining

the

was

world

inner

worlds

qualitypeculiarto
a

certain

gives
itself

degree

itself in this world

of

which

are,

nature

the

to

world

the
as

mind

contrasted

difference
of

in kind

consciousness
sented
prethis

knowing

in

connection

language

of

with the

empirical

philosophy from
experience,by virtue

modern

inner

problematical.

which

the
a

and

self-evident

by the metaphysical
(cf." 31), and the same

whole

view:

nature

once

becomes

the

mind's

of
possibility

at

to

the

difficulties that

greater the

taught

throughout
of

of

which

between

Terminism, with

mode

essential

World.

greater the

epistemologyof

the outer

the

ciples
prin-

epistemological
purpose.
beginning a somewhat

the

the

superiority attributed

knowledge of

prove

is their

that

; but

reference

fact

Outer

development immediately after Descartes

was
now
repeated in the most various forms
translation
of these
same
thoughts into the
psychology and sensualism.

time

learn

universal

the

self-knowledge

bodies, the

with

themselves

the

are

presuppositionof the naive realism which

Cartesian
metaphysics. The principleof

doubt

and

space

in which

the

of

originalcertainty,as

conceived

was

that

and

"

to consciousness.

comes

made

sum

free from

immediately

Inaugural

thought

The

its

and

philosophical knowledge

"

theories

the

to

cogito ergo

appear

all

all these

the

place under

became

of

Knowledge

This, however,

as

Kant's

of

acts

virtual innatenature

from

"

of thought.

subjectivenecessities

of the thinking soul

narrower

laws

basis

the

lie at

w^hich

The

the

"

original relation-thoughts( Verhdltnissgedanhen) : we

when
we
think; and thus they
by applying them

themselves

and

his

wrote

He, too, declares

Dissertation.

the

recognised

are

experience,

principle of

the

given to

was

He

by Tetens.
development under
ness

them

to

of mathematics.

business

first

V.

the

according

they
of

occasion

activityon

mind's

the

by attending to

intellectual Forms

like the

perpetuallaws],and

[from

coordinate

sua

co-ordinatingits sensations

mind

the

of

action

very

leges sensa

perpetuas

[Part

the

extent

with

uncertaintyand

of
an

Ages had

Middle
of modern

heterogeneity of

proud

In this

its

thought
the

outer

feeling of a substantial
things,but at the same

doubtfulness

is to it strange and

foreign.

in

orienting

In

this way

is

minute

particlesstreaming

Locke's

But

has

sensation,
relation
to

of ideas

the

to

In

of

basis

with

world,

outer

his

its value

this

knowledge

Like

do,

to

with

the

the

he

given by
with

not

relation

it stands

idea

Occam,

knowledge

has

knowledge

as

fore,
whole, there-

analysis of

and

by

nerves

extended.

purport.

but

Epicurus,
theory of

the

the

widely

knowledge

[Part v.

mathematical

more

even

knowledge:

demonstrative

another.

one

intuitive

of

objects.^On

from

and

affection

the

to

entirely different

an

from

distinguishes

Locke

that

in connection

decision

substance

the

out

reaffirmed

is here

of Nature

follows

Cartesian

fundamental

the

and

stimulations

tracing

in

oifthought of Democritus
fact

the

in

also,

shown,

images

of

the mode

relapseinto

decided
as

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

468

the

of ideas

after

the

tive,
intui-

superiorto the sensitive.^ Demonstrative

thinkingis then
conceived
of entirely terministically,
something as in the case of
ing
Hobbes, as a reckoning with concept signs. The necessityattachholds
to the demonstration
only within the world of ideas ; it
but

as

concerns,

class,general

one

reality corresponds
be formed
judgments may
in

between

natura

them, quite apart

it is

and

knowledge

has

with

to

do.

modes

of

ideas

abstract

or

the

concerning
from

such

any

ideas

If

rerum.

which

to

alone

no

proper

present,

once

are

relations

reference

judgments

to

the

which

exist

things

selves
them-

demonstrative

that

Such

"complex" ideas are thought-things,

into the
which, after they have been fixed by definition,can
enter
union
with
others
in each
determined
tents,
case
by the respectiveconwithout
world.
relation
the
outside
to
thereby acquiring any
these

Among

union,

that

which

expressed by the idea

of substance (the category of inherence)is conspicuous in an especial
For all other
manner.
and
contents
be thought only
relations can
to
as
substance.
This relation,
belonging some
therefore,has Eeality,
the idea of substance
is,according to Locke's
expression,ectypal,
but only in the sense
that we are forced to assume
a real substrate
is

"

"

for the
any

modes

assertion

given

in

particular ideas, without

to what

as

this substrate

supporter, itself
to

assume

This
hinder

view
Locke

unknown, of known
belong together.

that
from

substances

taking in

Cartesian

are

hand

itself

is.

unknowable

Essay,

lb. IV.

lb.

to

Substance

which
qualities,

we

does

have

make
is the
sion
occa-

not, indeed,

passage,'in an entirely
and
into
substances
cogitative

at another

fashion,a division of all

incogitative." On the other hand, he applies the

und

able

being

"

view

to his treat-

II. 8, 7 ff.
Cf. also B. Riittenauer,
Zur Vorgesohichte des Idealismrts
Kriticismus (Freiburg,1882), and Geil,
66 ff.
cit.,
op.

II.

2.

23, 29

; IV.

10,

9.

pp.

Chap.

1, " 34.]

ment

of the

cogitoergo

refers

case

it shows

to

of

The

are.

we

carries

of

"

Nevertheless,Locke
the

certaintyof
the

first of

and

adds

of

we

the

are,

the

soul

body)

whaf'^of

possibleto gain a

is

any

For

this

he

purpose

in

proofs (cf." 30, 6)

demonstrative

adopts the

somewhat

modified

An
ordinary cosmological argument.
ultimate
be thought, an
perfect being must

in Locke's

of which
and

of

contradictions

which

the

eddies

he

which

presuppositions. But

of his

unfolded

psychology

as

infinite,
of

cause

to be

motifs which

one.
cross

exposition,apparently

diluted

come

himself

the

are

The

knowledge.

transparent, to
from

intuitivelyknows

man

full of

doctrine

its historical
nature

that

to
"

essence

the

So manifold

away

it to be

of God.

existence

finite substances

and

holds

Cartesian

eternal,and

and

our

in

whatever.

substance

easy

to

substance

(and accordinglythe question also as to its relation

the question as
to the
as
answer
as incapableof an

form,

; intuition

doubt,

the

to

over

seij^e

without

as

469

entirely
empirical psychology.

activities,not

and

question

Berkeley.

internal

"

and

states

our

that

the

indeed, immediately

us,
what

but not

only

that

World

principlehe

into

realm

Self -certaintyis for him

this

This

sum.

metaphysical

the

from

Knowledge of the Outer

so

Cartesianism, glides over

of

the dark

up

out

the

ambiguous,

itself in

the

of

depths

indeterminate
in the

antithesis

developments,so, too, this epistemological metaphysics

pointsof departure for the most varied transformations.

lowing
fol-

offered

'

2.

The

in contrast

ness

the

with

end

the

to

question as
of his

He

demolished

to the

held that

real;

should
but

(cf." 31, 2), is

this

separated

qualities of

bodies

are

Berkeley

are

ideas

in

of matter

as

the

of

us, Locke

substrate

"

had

by putting

taken

This

he

did

return

to

the

the

upon

with

the

aid

doctrines

of
cording
Ac-

it
secondary qualities,

all

has

substance

which

out, and

the
as

Hobbes
case

as
part-retained
already taught

had

The

erroneous.

ideas

truly

within

of

bodies

retained

their

of sensible

; in

as
a

us

similar

qualities.

He

as

attacks

Democritus).

qualitiesof
"

matical"
"mathethe

exactly this point

Theory of Vision.

(and

was

perceptionpresents

another

demonstrated

Descartes

view,

superfluous unknowable

had

in his

distinction
this

with

distinction,as
of

while,accordingto

bodies.

primary and
complex of ideas

nature

of the

Locke

of

analogous arguments

warrant

complete

Berkeley brought

dominance

conception of corporeal substance.

in the

qualities,and

sense

with

be

and
the

distinction

part of that

body

alone

of

knowledge

of one-sided-

energy

of Locke.

positionwhich

Nominalism

extreme

Hobbes.

as

the

audacious

an

experienceto

wavering

to

shows

the indecisiveness

ascendency of inner

an

us

first of these

very

without
real
way

the
But

tion
excep-

supporter
others

speak

Enlightenment: Theoretical Questions.

The

470

[Part

Y.

of us to
Berkeley, it is demanded
regard an abstraction as the only actual reality. Abstract ideas,
in the mind, to
however, do not exist, they do not exist even
say
then
Locke
in
was
natura
quiterightin
rerum.
nothing of existing
all these

in

But

says

cases,

"

that

saying
think

it;

it is

the

For

schools.

fiction of the

"

"substance

this

know

could

one

no

: no

one

can

even

consciousness,

naive

Berkeley professesto maintain

common
bodies are justexactly
againstthe artificial subtletyof philosophers,
and no less ; it is only the philosophers
what
is perceived,no more
is perceived, something
who
seek for something else behind what
for

sense," whose

"

cause

"

they themselves
mysterious,abstract,of which
the
is. For
unperverted mind, body is what
hears

tastes, smells,and

Body is
a

is left ?

what

senses,

than

farther

nothing

; it should

man

that

other

"

"

appears

The

of

abstract

we

which

idealism

ideas

is the

view

qualities.They

of

the

Bodies

body

common

possess

It is false

to

but

no

suppose

within

nothing

are

in

from
of the

any

sees

inherent

substance

touches,

sees,

perceivedthrough

being perceived.

to this

in their

If

ideas.

philosophers also.

of
of

is in addition

there

which

that

be

can

bundle

one

it

percipi.

complex of

Nothing.
a

be

realitythan

that

is

esse

qualitieswhich

the

cherry all

but

nothing

then

its

say what

cannot

them,
the

sum

of these

qualities.
replyto the question that

In

consists

between

constitute
the

spirits. Of
existence

their

are

origin of
The

with

Cartesian

bodies

communicated

of

the

to

body

bodies

outer

worlds

ence
the differ-

in what

world
one

which

that

and

ideas

The

activities of

are

substantial

has

substances,the

res

extensm

spiritsthe ideas are given,and

in
sought only in the infinite Spirit,

the

finite

consists,therefore,in this,that their

God

finite

is

only perceived,

are

only

real

cogitantesare

all ideas is to be

realityof

all

hand,

spiritualistic
metaphysics.

two

But

at

actual

or

of, if

existence

res

"

real

the

only the

ideas.

"

dreamed

only imagined or
Berkeley answers,
which

the

lies close

of

Ood.

ideas

are

succession

by
Hence
habituallydoes this we call laws of Nature.
in supposing that
Bishop Berkeley finds no metaphysical difficulty
in

which

God

mind
and

without
And

God.
into

certain

circumstances

especialend, and
hand, a body is

other

according

the

of

and

case

unreal

which

to the

problem.

time

same

the

order

order

is

the

usual order for

of miracles.

presented only in
of

memory

communicated

or

to

On

the

vidual
the indi-

imagination,
the

mind

by

corporealworld is thus changed

by God, the purposivenesswhich its
its changes exhibit gives rise to no

actual

of

speaks

man

mechanism

ideas willed
the

departs from

in this

being at the
since
finally,

system

arrangement
further

and
spirits,

God

under

some

to

Knowledge of the Outer World

1," 34.]

Chap.

parallelismbetween

The

and

Malebranche

force

active

is the

Berkeley
in

world,

at

the

Realism

extreme

Nominalism

of

grounds on

which

easilyremoved
and

Englishman

the
the

result is the

the

had

world, but

by

world
God

man,
the

are

of

held

that

only

on

the

hand,
in

bodies

actual

the

ideas

human
remains

knowledge

Collier

world

in

the

God,

and

if

same

this

regard

could

two

we

as

be

contemporary

of

his

g/

as

showed

duces,
pro-

other,

the

that

in

now

completely
the corporeal
a

between
of

God

the

on

in

bodies

which

played

value

is assumed, the

quite

different

ideas

bodies, and,

theory the realityof the corporealworld

actual relation
superfluousrole : since no
and

The

thing.

the

with

this

world

extreme

realityof the corporeal

the knowledge of this

that

finite minds.

is
see

(1680-1732) in
Malebranche,^ indeed,

understand

hypothesis

the

thing

more

separated

original,in accordance

one

these

could

we

be

not

to the

directlydemurred

common

the

on

ideas

not

alone

Collier

Universalis}

Clavis

; and

God

the

same

proved by

was

Berkeley's,Arthur

interestingtreatise
Cartesian,had

still

and
the

to

could

This

way.

that

extremely interestingto

amount

what

and

individual

no

Frenchman

based

are

For

of the

of

countryman

views

same.

out

the

of

Locke

holding that

that

It is

471

is unmistakable

in

one

and

operative(cf." 31, 8).

efficiently
how

from

Descartes

also

are

the

inference

from

had. drawn

Malebranche

which

this

Collier.

ideas

human

for

poreal
posit only an ideal corthe real object of human

knowledge.
The

along

sum
a

proceeded in this way from the cogito ergo

attended
by still another paradox as
paths, was
of
in the literature
is occasionallymentioned

idealism, which
several

by-product,which

the

eighteenth century without

any
individual mind
has certain,intuitive
of

definite

does
it know
anything of
states,nor
through ideas,which refer primarily to bodies
from

whole
is

analogy

corporeal world

ultimatelycertain

else,all

other

demonstrated.

Egoism,

now

indicate

interpretedto

are

minds

only

only
not

This
it is

is

of

idea

an

his

usually

was

called

^ The
alternative title of the book
Demonstration
of the Non-Existence

in

other
and

minds.
the

itself

of

minds

by

an

Each

every

; the

and

except
argument

If, however,

mind,

existence

own

the

individual

realityof

all

problematical and cannot be

that
time
at
designated as
Solipsism. It is a metaphysical

excluded,

doctrine

only

knowledge

its

form.

or

name

is

New
Inquiry after Truth, being
World
Impossibility of an External
Berkeley's treatise in the German

reads, A
or

edited
(Lend. 112.S). It was
together with
of the Principal Writings which
deny the Beality of their own
Body ( //) and of the whole
Corporeal World,''''by Eschenbaoh
(Eostock, 1756).
^
Whose
known
doctrine had become
in England
especially of
by the agency
John Norris
Ideal, Lond.
{Essai d'un Theorie du Monde
1704).
','Collection

472

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

sport which

left

be

must

himself

solipsistrefutes

the

to

the

of

taste

by beginning

to

[Part

individual; for
his

prove

V.

the

doctrine

to

others.
in the

Thus, following

as

scandal

to

reality of

the
The

in

farther

nominalistic
Scot

of

denial

of

his

Intuitive

of

that

of

What

by Berkeley leads
knowledge. To the

intuitive
has

simply

in

make

have,

mistake

no

of

affirmation

in

pressions,
im-

coincident

and

kind

own

the

into

demonstrative

and
its

profound

functions

impressions;

impressions

can

keep within the bounds

possessingthis or that
conceptions which
any

of

copies

are

knowledge

present impressions.
absolute
certainty. I

doctrine

all intellectual

of

consists

knowledge

none

theory of
ideas
the penetrative and

abstract

is that

kind

Each

of

sea

Hume's

to

which

distinction

the

demanded
for
proof was
adequate could be found.
Berkeley's doctrine was
an

Locke's

distinction

ideas

and

in

later characterised

Kant

that

Descartes

irrefutable.

line

his

and

declared

was

direct

attached

with

world,

outer

transformation

The

3.

the

delusion, but

insane

which

which

rock

rescuing

was

materialists

French

the

as

finallyreached
philosophy ; namely,

result

the

Meditations, in

of the

self-consciousness

recognised
doubt,

train

edge.
knowl-

certainty.
actually

of

declare

can

this, in

so

with

far

as

simply stating that I have a perception

adding
simple or complex content, without
of

would

put

this

interpretationupon

any

content.
As

the

among

immediate
and

intuitive
of

time

the

contents

succession

or

which

important
certaintyHume

most

the

of

these

impressions which

reckons

fixing of

the

sensation,

"

perception present

relations

the

elementary impressions.

of

contents

of

of

in

the

have
space

ence
co-exist-

spatialorder

The

themselves

is

in

undoubtedly

likewise
given immediately with the contents
themselves, and we
a
sure
the different contents
are
impression as to whether
possess
time
in succession.
or
perceived at the same
Contiguityin space
and
time
is therefore
intuitivelygiven together with the impres'-

sions, and
which

of

these

facts the human

is

perfectlycertain
characterisingHume's

in

and

in

mind

nowise

doctrine,it

possesses
to

be

questioned. Only,
be

not

must

knowledge

forgotten

that

this

matter-of-fact
absolutely certain
belongs to
quality, which
In
states.
mental
impressions,is solelythat of their presence
as
this meaning and restriction intuitive knowledge embraces
not only
the

facts

of inner

experience, but

at the

price of recognisingthat

of the

former,

"

also

the

knowledge, that

Contiguityin space

and

time

those

latter

but
experience,
properly only species

of outer
are

is,of mental

is,however,

but

states.
the

most

elementary

Knowledge of the Outer World

1," 34.]

Chap.

of association

form

laws,

between

those

besides

perceptions;

Hume.

473

this Hume

reckons

of resemblance

and
(or contrast, respectively)
of these
of relation,
forms
causality.As regards the former
tw(j^
clear and distinct
have
a
impression of the likeness or unlikewe
other

two

sensations,and

of

ness

action,and

degree

belongs

therefore

the

upon

comparison

given

is mathematics

science

with

reference

concede

our

is

takes

and

of

and

space,

it

the

inner

perform

we

This

the

concerns

but

nothing

laws

of

which

place.

develops the

tive)
(sensi-

own

based, consequently,

magnitudes

higher epistemologicalvalue

still

this is

ideas, and

numbers

to

On

in

impressions

the

to

this

; it

these ; it consists

complete certainty;

our

which

of

degrees

resemblance

between

of

contents

regularitywith

of the

of

knowledge

of that

of

reflection.

called

demonstrative

forms

different

the

Locke

sense, which
a

of

knowledge

in the

of the

analysis

an

demonstrative

equalityand
Hume

tion
propor-

is inclined

arithmetic

to

to

than

to

geometry.^
But

4.
that

just because

tions between
of

principleof
but

these

proceeds

theory to

pure

knowledge

ideas, and
real world.

still

In

is in

external

is

world

limited

the

to

relations

the

science; and

than

the

this

complete

the

way

capable

Hume,

his limitation
that

no

mental

of

tion
asser-

; all

verifying

and

ascertaining
these

terministic

demonstration

of

to

as

with

control

declares

Hume

of

whatever

is

relar

possible

nothing

consistently with

more

For

to

else

asserts

mathematics.

is

and
impressions,

sole demonstrative

nothing

(cf." 30, 3)

respecting the
our

to

the

to

of

Hobbes

the latter

this

it relates

contents

relation

any

is also

mathematics

states

of

each

to

other.
Hence

beyond

it
its

Hume

to

seems

unauthorised

an

territory,when

own

the

of

trenching

thought

between

resemblance

ideas

as
interpreted
meaning

employment

every

of

metaphysical identity; this is the

Whence
the conception of substance.
perceived,it is not found as a content

conception ?

It is not

in

sensations

particular

unknown,
Whence
whole
to be

indescribable
this

idea

by
virtue
their

for

which

in reflection.

conjunction of
the

of the

ideas.

law

of

the

the

the

known

as

its necessary

It

is the

either
is

of

contents
is to

be

original?

copy

of

ideational

Its

ideas.
in

found

the

the

origin is

process

there

of ideas the necessity

feelingof
Treat.

is this

substance

in

frequertlyrepeated
sions,
repeated being together of impres-

like

association

and
co-existence,

of

relations

impression

no

the

By
of

custom

their

support

circuit of sensations

sought

in

or

case

is

1.2,1;

this associative

I.

3, 1.

arises

of the

idea

necessityof

by
of
the

ideational

the

at

explained,
psychologically
sponds
rejected; nothing correepistemologically

time

same

since

and

conjunction;

is thus

feeling of

the

than

to it further

anything

know

never

can

we

in the

likeness

is

ideational

of

existence

the

the Eeality of
sense-perception,
incapable of proof. It is clear that Hume

except by immediate
substance

of the

substance.

inherence

thought-form of

The

.[Pakt V.

belonging together

real

as

of association,i.e. as

elements

and

thought

is

process

Questions.

Theoretical

Enlightenment:

The

474

idea of

thus

makes

corporealthings.
Berkeley's doctrine his own, so far as it concerns
the idea of substance.
But Berkeley had but half done his work
upon
that bodies
found
He
are
only complexes of sensations ; that their

or

in

meaning

substance

tantes, stand

regarded them

; he

the

as

supports
Hume's

activities inhere.

agents

or

no

sense

unknown

an

the
psychical substances, spirits,

let the

he

ideational

all these

is

there

their belonging together,as

hypostatising

but

that

perceived;

their being

with

identical

being is

res

cogi-

in which

appliesto

argument

of the cherry is true

Berkeley showed
self."
Inner
also of the
perception,also (such was the form which
it had
actually taken on already with Locke; cf. above, No. 1),
ing
and noththese away,
shows
states, qualities. Take
only activities,
of
of Descartes'
custom
remains
res
cogitans either : only the
constant
conjunction of ideas in imagination is at the basis of the
'
bundle
of perceptions."
conceptionof a mind
; the self is only a

this latter class

What

also.

"

"

"

"

"

The
that

ideas

of

under
is

which

the

usually thought
certain.

; all that

we

time, according

to

The

can

which

thought interpretsthis
into

propter hoG,^this

causally related
deduce

to

the

holds

consideration

same

form

"

to

each

logicallyits

within

it that

causal

relation

of

"

also,mutatis

connection

necessary
but

mutandis,

this

relation

into

too

has

other.

effect
its

"

cause.

no

basis

From
; the

idea

It

Its
analytically.'

"

cause

of

an

contents

effect is not
is

monstrative
de-

the

other.

content
"

ceived
per-

relation

the

consequence,
in the

causality,

nor
intuitively

and

cause

perceive by the senses

one
regularlyfollows
sequence

between

is neither
of

for

in

If,now,

this post hoc

of the ideas

it is not

effect does

possible
not

tain
con-

possibleto understand
explanation is, according to

is not

resulted from
The
which
I., Part IV.
objectionable consequences
when
religious metaphysics perhaps occasioned
working over
Hume,
Ms
Treatise into the Essays, to let drop this which
deeply of all Ms
cut most
investigations.
2 In
this respect Hume
had
forerunner
in his countryman
a
Joseph Glanml
point
the mechanical
natural
(1636-1680),who combated
philosophy from the standthis

TVeat.
for

of orthodox
'

by

The

the

1665.
scepticism in his ScepsisScientiflca,

physics
thought lay already at the basis of the Occasionalistio metafor its taking refuge in mediation
(cf." 31, 7); for the essential reason
will of God
the logical incomprehensibility of the causal relation.
was
same

476

Enlightenment: Theoretical Questions.

The

[Part

V.

the idea (^e.g.

that fire will bum) so
makes
the problem is, What
lively. Hence
the solution
in it ? and
is, that as I find this belief
"lively" that I believe
a
conjunction of
single instance, but only from the constant
arising not from
be due
i.e. to the habitual
to custom,
the two
impressions, the liveliness must
"
All probable reasoning is nothing but
association of the ideas.
a species of
sensation."
This

doctrine

same

this

Por

does

nothing new,
produce something
its usual

explains

arise

not

from

attendant.

the

it

idea

idea of necessary

the

from

but

produce anything

mind,

The

of

instance,

one

does

nor

in

origin

the

i.e.
of

necessity

in tlie

new

determination

several.

must

to pass
arise from

connection.

covers
Repetition disobjects,but it does
from
one
object to
some
impression.

be an
pression
imimpression that can
give rise to it, hence it must
available
is that propensity which
of reflection, and the only one
custom
produces to pass from ah object to the idea of its usual attendant.
Necessityis
by comparsomething that exists in the mind, not in objects. This is confirmed
ative
psychology (animals infer from experience through custom), by the theory
of probabilities,and
of the will,since
belief
(in the Inquiry) by the freedom
be reached
in all these without
necessarily holding to any objective necessary
may
connection.
Tr.]
There

is

external

no

"

In

this

theory
conceptions about

fundamental
of the

seventeenth

century had
between
ideas, and

relations

are

either

by

fictitious
those

Hume's

way,

experience

of sensation.

of
But

knowledge

which

disintegratesthe two
metaphysical movement

the

revolved.
be

cannot

Substance

and

proved

substantiated

by logical thought

or

substitution

of

impressions
with

this,the

derived

or

they

rest

from

causality
the

upon

reflection,for

completely taken
from
the feet of the ordinary metaphysics, and
under
in its place
only epistemology. The metaphysics of things gives place
appears

to

is

ground

metaphysics of knowledge.

Hume's

6.

contemporaries .characterised

this

gations
of his investi-

result

with
especiallyout of regard for its consequences
respect
to religiousmetaphysics (cf. " 35, 6)
as
Scepticism: yet it is
torically
histhis name
essentiallydifferent from those doctrines to which
"

"

belongs.

The

settling of facts by sense-experienceis,for

intuitive

Hume,

relations
for demonstrative
certainty; mathematical
pass
for
all
of
certainty: but, as
alleged assertions
by means
conceptions ["by abstract reasoning"]with reference
to a reality
other

than

that

belonging to

existence"], Hume
knowledge of what
what

what

This

further

is

that

the

shall

of

resemblance

fire with

how

they

work

arrangement
we

absolutelyconsistent

matter

it!"
:

and

of fact

can

in space

and
is

There

we

experience

no

say

only

and

time
them.

between

empiricism: it
perception,nothing

honest

if the

of knowledge is
only source
with
this than
what
it actually contains.
mingled
all
of the
examination
theory,
of cause, all doctrine

be

"With

this,all

"true

Being"

and

relations

doctrine

demands

cries, "Into

[" concerning

things are
perceive by sensation, what

we

and

ideas

behind

"phenomena"

is excluded.^

Berkeley is,therefore,correctly understood

only

from

If
the

we

characterise
point

of

view

of

Knowledge of the Outer World

1, " 34.]

Chap.

this

standpointas Positivism, in

our

century,

we

may

accordance

with

Hume.

by

knowledge

basis

indeed,attended

are,

of

instead
has

thinker

characteristic

lie at the

which

in

intuitive

neither

life and

is

for

he

knowledge

the

of

7.

For

to

it is

which

science,for

at

attempt

fundamental

criticism

than

had

been

Besides

this,there

tendency that belongs

furthered
"

to

efficacious in France
us

anything

here
of

all its

something
Hume's
^

the

of

Discours

willed

the

entire
for

an

the

temper

the

tion
renuncia-

its appearance

made
and

time

immediate

preva^

the

the

realityof

doctrine,

likewise

influence

fetters

with

to

all

physics.
to all meta-

literature
had

whose

the rational

applied

therefore

which

by

the

by Bayle,

French

world,

Bacon's

of

,been

of

of the

freer

lishmen,
Eng-

system

life instead
its

one

no

any

premieres,"

and

positivism.

bodies

we

fall of

by God, to

Preliminaire.

this

He

Baconian

extension

of the

wishes

was

to

"

know

platform
laid down

Encyclopmdia}

lays especial weight upon the point

seek
for something abstract,
have
to minds, we
principle be extended
Berkeley's spiritualistic
metaphysics, the
which
he had
reduced
causality,falls also.

are

If this

the

basis

longer

of

limitation

"

in itself.
with

had

and

strip off

philosophical

is half

; for

phenomena

the

the

causes

the

ideas

existent

doctrine
of

In

as

his idealism

order

the

Here

same

time

would

step ;

every
"

the

the

same

role

intellectual

chieflyagainst

sensuous,

the

Hume's

vision

open

the

rests

more
anthropologicalexperience,became
in his own
The
home.
point de systeme

than

at

With

philosophy ;

in

the

of

ends

into

came

any

things lay already prepared

encyclopaedicand programmatic

d'Alernbert

behind

and

which

practical

this

playing

which

at

of the

men

Thus

physical

but

was

demanded

conceptions.

of science

Hume

to

by Bayle, and at
a tendency which

schools,and

abstract

of

indeed, in principledirected

was,

ideas

certainty;

man's

especially furthered

grounding of religious truths ;

knowledge reaching beyond the

that

never

of

causality

conviction

inadequate.

Cartesian

the

and

On

in France.

metaphysics

from

lence of this temper

by

these.

from

sceptical tendency

repeatedly

of

attainable

unites an
philosophicaldepth
practicallife.
the reception of this positivism the

England

with

the

he

of any

so

for

to

this

prevent

in

meets

theory

demonstrative

question this

To

less favourable

of the

radical

victoriouslyin

relating

of

earnestness

needs

life.

wishes

only

experimental

in the

established

substance

nor

completely adequate

experience of daily

was

of

was

which, unperverted by
belief,

itself

asserts
theoretical reflections,

terminology

associations

accompanied by

are

natural

feeling,a

procedures,and

The

conceptions of

of the

by

this

to

gave

supplement.

this,however, they

its roots

mind

477

"

England's deepest

But

the

its.systematic basis

that

say

Hume.

not

still to

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

478
In

syst"me
and,

"

by

Wolffian

the

Germany

like

men

points of attack.
prided itself
be

cannot
is useful

Dreams

system;

ophy
Philos-

developed by

as

to

that which

find

fine

of

Ghost-Seer, where

worlds

many

as

the

artificial

taste,

offered

itself

of

Popular

all subtleties

from

refrain

various

of

of

grounds

German

V.

the "point de

philosophy

this the

its absence

upon

in Kanfs

temper

architects

the

with

contrast

with

opposed
Maupertuis on
was

this text-book

of

experienced,and employ
for men.
And, lastly,we

this

with

In

it would

Mendelssohn

and

Crousaz

fact,the pedantry

in

system

[Part

with

more

that
of

example

which

harmony
he

lashes

of

thought with sharp

metaphysical endeavour

upon
irony, and pours out copious scorn
which
touches
his
in a
inclination
own
with
a
gallows-humour
is in this
the German
sensitive
most
point. Among
poets Wieland
spiritthe witty anti-metaphysician.
sam,e
taken
in the
8. A
was
by positivism,finally,
very peculiar turn
later
and

perfectexpression of
des

Langue

essentially
upon
them

consciousness
is that

relation

bring out the

analysing the
and

then

with
the

soul

of

the

are

equality.
of

them

composition

needed.^
of

The

ideas

into

together again
des

idAes.

is

The

requisitefor this
the aid of signs or language.
analysisof phenomena, and every
different

The

language:

kinds
such

of

signsgive

Condillac

All

for

these

This

is

only

des

phkio-

effected

language

is

method

"

by

constituent

the
be

dialects

to

elements

however,

"

in

is done

constituent

is

no

fundamental

thinking

method

all

are

consists

decomposition

such

different

humous
post-

ideas

isolation of
can,

his

the

ideas.*

and

knowledge
of

their

most

It is built up

and

ideas, and

business

the

Human

suth,

All

equalitybetween
of

Logic

doctrine.

of

French

as

regarded

signs" {signes)}

relations

complexes

which

elements

the

relations

putting

and

mines

of

"

this

lines of the

synthesis
positivistic

His

transformations

sensations, or
of

developed

of

be

may

terminism.

Calculs

theory

especialpowers
the

modern

finds

he

rationalism, which

and

the

converge

and

English Enlightenment,

the

of sensualism

of

In him

of Condillac.

doctrine

a
a

of

"

only
for

language."
the

human

distinguishesfive, the fingers (gestures),

tesimal
infiniof
the
the
and
sound-language, numbers, letters,
signs
calculus.
the
of all these
universal
Logic, as
grammar

After

as

text-book

for

"

Polish professors."
Langue des Calculs became
known, the Institute of Paris and the
Berlin
at the same
Academy
out, almost
gave
time, the theory of signs as the
were
of elaborations
subject for their prizes. At both places a great number
presented, mostly of very inferior value.
3 This
maintains
Condillac
against Locke, and indeed
already in his Traits
des Sensations, and his school do the same
the
Scots.
against
* In
Hume.
these
lie suggestions from
determinations
well
Hobbes
as from
as
the

"

Knowledge of the Outer World

1, " 34.]

Chap.

Condillac.

also,and
languages, determines, therefore, mathematics
higher as well as the elementary, as specialcases.
to make

always

is

done

contains

thus

All science

is

unknown

shall put the

which

this

for

just

that

out

that

end

the
It

to

composition of
of perception

evident

that

this

sensualistic basis ; it denies

the

constructive

equation
ideas

be

of the

element

it

must

but

new

method

purely

upon

be

seeking,

the

is

expression for Galileo's doctrine

composition; but it rises here

and

resolution

is, to

of

mode
generalising

is

one

find

the

thing to

that

structures

is

indeed

The

which

unknown,

equal

previouslydecomposed.
of

the

already known;

really something

is

only transformation^.

479

which

Hobbes

of thinking a reckoning with

sharply emphasised and makes
only given quantities. In doing this it rejects all thought of a
in scientific
to metaphysical reality,and
relation of these data
sees

had

so

knowledge only
human

world

consists
world

Indifferent

Even

principlele

mime

between

contents
The

le mime.

est

completely isolated within itself,and

be expressed within
equations that can

this

as

truth
this

sensations, there

said

to be

was

still remained

sensations

metaphysically,its
materialistic
metaphysics.
be

Ideology professed to

basis,nevertheless, involved

though nothing

idea that

equations

is

the

in

the

of

up

signs."

"

sensualistic

to

ideas

of

only

by

9.

with

in accordance

of ideas

built

structure

as

to

in

the

produced by

are

the

reality corresponding
the

background
On

bodies.

this

popular
the

account

positivistic
consequences
the
to
convert
only
neglected
logical
anthropowhich
in
the
had
materialism,
psychological
developed
into
materialism.
And
and
a
theories,
so
dogmatic
metaphysical
what
Lamettrie
with
recklessness
others
out
spoke
coquettish
many
did not
dare to confess
to themselves, to say nothing of confessing
or
defending it openly.
But
other
lines of thought in natural
science, independently of
also
materialism.
had
Lamettrie
Ideology, were
driving toward
cautious

restraint

of sensualism

Nature

moved

by

answer

that

natural
of

he

action

Natural
a

forces

did

had

lives

in

of

the

God.

first
Kant

History of
world."

He

the

tolerate

the

went

Heavens,

pledged

in

Laplace

explanation

addition
the

gave
the

of

matter

to

well-known

deity"

French

standpoint. That the world

Newton's
opinion also; but he

this

was

impulse

mechanical

"hypothesis

attained
itself

the

nothing

before

long

need

not

philosophy
that

principleof

ultimately

own

gravitation

believed

you

its

the

these

be

to

that

would

to

belonged

needed

rightlyseen

very
of

that

for its motions

step farther
"

Give

himself

me

to

must

be

sought

when

he

cried

matter,

explain

the

and

in

I will

whole

in

an

his

build

universe

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

480

fixed

of the

forces

fundamental

Kant

that

convinced

was

of
the

explanation which

applied

when

shatters

systems

planetary system,^and

individual

the

primitivecondition
fiery-fluid
two

the

of

analogy

V.

heavenly bodies out of a

solelyto the opposed working of the
and
repulsion. But
matter, attraction

originationof

the

traced

tlie

after

stars

[Part

caterpillar
; the organism

to be

to him

seems

of

blade

the

to

is sufficient for solar

miracle

and

grass

the

( Wunder)

in

of mechanics.

the world

this obstacle
sought to overcome
philosophy of Nature
Among
also,and to put the problem of organisationout of the world.
also those which
the countless atom-complexes, it taught, there
are
the
capacity of preserving and propagating themselves.
possess
Buffon, who pronounced and carried through with full energy this

French

The

frequentlyexpressed thought, gave to such atom-complexes the name

organic molecules,and by assuming this conception all organic life
might be regarded in principleas an activityof such molecules,which
develops according
world.^

This

"

Nature

"

accordingly,the
if

should

the
if

be

which

thing

and

Hartley
that

showed

system,

it

"

thinks

Priestley
change
but

was

activity

of

step

form

matter, only

Voltaire

While

had

in

and

more

this

is
to

expressed

the

it

longer was

no

probable, that
and

moves,

in

France

Lamettrie

teach

only a special
particularkind

occurrence.

transformations

function

of

of

opinion that

the

of

that

case

of God

mechanics,

is extended

and

England

from

their

seemed

that

same

external

theoryof

in

corporeal

and

organisms, if

in consciousness

transformations

their

is the

all

ideas
of

whose

found

naturalism

that

now

the

latter,alsojspeaks

principle for

common

ideology taught
regarded as functions
regarded as impossible,but more

But

; the

This

synonyms.

with

by Spinoza, of

been

as

in contact

laws,

already done
us
frequentlyreminds

Buffon

Nature
and

had

mechanical

to

the

its forms
motion

nervous

with

ideas

and

all

mechanical
of

motion.

sensation

unknown
might perhaps be attributes of the same
substance, this
as
materialism
soon
hylozoism changed suddenly into decided
as
the dependence of the psychical upon
the
the physical was
given
of
in
likeness
new
kind between
the two, and it is
interpretation a
often
only by soft and fine shades of expression that the one is

The
also

suggestion
came

later

in

for

near
very
similar
a

this

brilliant astro-physical hypothesis, to which'

in

his

Kosmologischen Briefen,

and

which

was

bert
Lam-

oped
devel-

by
due
by Laplace, was
perhaps to a remark
Analysis der Wirklichkeit, 2d ed., p. 376.
2 This
further developed later by Lamarck
principle of Buffon
was
{Philosophie Zoologique, Paris, 1809), who
attempted to explain the transformation
of organisms from
the lower to the higher forms
Influence of
by a mechanical
the outer world, by adaptationto the environment.
Buffon.

Cf.

manner

0. Liebmann,

Zur

of the Outer World

1," 34.] Knowledge

Chap.

the

into

converted

writings of

This

other.
He

Bohinet.

transition

in the

Finding support
Monadology, he regards
forms

of
multiplicity

infinite

of

and
psychical
corporeality
that the
relations possible,
so

of

in the

unfolds

holds

This

of
lost

is

fundamental
translated

back

ideas and

; and

only the
In

will

the

of

Systime

It

its

shall

be

able to

out

anything

faded

will,of
the

materialism

shown

activityof

after-imageof

soul

world

and

of Materialism"

in

presents

instructive and

the
of

the

of

ing
Noth-

no

No

mistaken.

heavy

armed

has

who

talks

activity,of

nervous

form.

This

his

was

idea

and

body

and

in its

of

greatness

fully
pain-

certain

stroke

in

of presentation,

piquant play

all belief

upon

earnestness

longer

no

been

that

exposition yet
harsh

the

rest, this "Bible

super-

ever

of

arguments

or

is

attack

the

For

with

only

character

He

doctrines

new

is

one

supersensuous

of

guised
undis-

of the

supersensuous

material.

last

at

fear

from

systematicallytedious

to be

thoughts,but

of the

It introduces' itself

weight in its conception taken as a whole,

drawing the lines of its Weltanschauung,a
is not

regards

that.

appears

sensuous.

abstract

an

the

that

thinks

God,

again

over

be later

to

thus

into

the

not

was

la Nature

de

of

not

which

motion.

own

invisible form
think

tally
men-

whole,

assume,

again

sensuous.

as

form

vital

use

transformations

back

changed

other.

the

they

Eobinet

purely dogmatic metaphysics.

of wishing to free man
Epicurean motive
as

to

the

predisposed in the physical

body, accordingly, receives in psychical impulses

the

reaction

which

able

an

different

of

case

special

mechanical

as

be

can

the

form.

original

place psychicallywhich

form

as

appears

its

activities of the

takes

the

into

activitywhich

nervous

life

as

particularthing

conversely. Regarded

activityof things is

again

in

of the

factors

two

activityin

force

; the

the

the

ophy
philos-

things

in all the
of

is its

Eobinet,

to

creatures

psychical
material

less

of

which

nature

the

system

scale

mixed

are

the

more

physically,and

the

however,

individual

graded

function

true, also,according

movements

the

481
in

presented

development

existence, in

direction,the

one

is

gives a metaphysical flightto

of Nature.

Leibnizian

Materialism.

in the

terial
imma-

world.
10.

In
as

spite of psycho-geneticopposition,the problem

conceived

too unlike

the

view

by

the

which

supporters of
obtained

istic presupposition assumed

the latter to understand
the
in the mind

almost
a

more

world

by

bodies

by

with
both

independent

of

it,by

means

made

which

the

themselves.
that
of

"

ideas

sensualists.

classes

bodies

difficult still to understand

innate

the

conformity

bear to the

"

the

the

of

edge
knowlnot

was

The

dual-

it difficult
ideas
But
mind

all

for

called out
it seemed
should

development

of

nise
cogthe

The

482

thought-forms
is

exactly this

an

the

the
It

reflection.

after-workings

most

in

self-evident

as

mission

the

was

in

modern

of

And

human
and

but

consciousness,

naive

active

were

part

[Part

nature.

are

for

only

not

course,

Questions.

grounded in its o-wn

assumption so deeply rooted

which

for

it passes

that

Theoretical

Enlightenment:

the

yet

thought,
matter

also

for

Terminism,
shake

philosophy, to

V.

of

sophical
philowhose

this fundamental

for consideration
dogmatic conviction, and push forward
the question as to the ground of that conformity between
necessity
Even
cartes
Desof thought, on the one
hand, and realityon the other.
it necessary
to support the
had found
knowing power of the
lumen
naturale
by the veracitas dei,and thereby had shown the only

metaphysical solution of the problem could take.

that philosophicalimpulse was
To be sure, where
lacking which
is appardirects
its 6au/idfav
its wonder
just that which
upon
ently
the difficulty
self-evident
of course,
and
matter
a
tioned
just menwhich

way

the

"

"

of

weighed

less

all his power

of

The

and

to

and

fineness

all their

case

with

Wolff,in spite

systematic care,
of

and

with

psychological analysis.

ogy,
ontolgeometrico,an extensive
proceeds to deduce, more
metaphysics with its parts relatingto God, to the world,

former
and

the

was

logical clearness

Scots, in spite of

the

This

heavily.

soul, all

the

from

the

general

most

formal

laws

of

logic,
"

and that of sufficient reason

principleof contradiction
(and
vis even
this second
reduced
to be
to the
principle
first). Wolff,
the
bounds
of this logical
so
indeed, stands
completely within
schematism
that the question never
to occur
to him
at all,
seems
whether
his whole
ence
undertaking
namely, that of spinning "a sciin so far as it is possible out of logical
of all that is possible,
in the nature
of the case.
This problem
propositions is authorised
the

from

"

"

"

concealed

was

him

the

more

empiricalscience

as

he

confirmed

every

rational

ogy,
by Empirical Psycholetc.], an agreement, indeed, which was possibleonly because
his a priori construction
of metaphysical disciplines
from
borrowed
less,
Nevertheunnoticed.
experience step by step, though the loan was
science

by

for

an

Rational
\_e.g.

"

this

system,

didactic

great

value

thought,

clearness

supreme

rules for

in with

which

these

was

with

so

had
disciples,

many

the

naturalising strictness in
of conceptions,and thoroughness in proof,as the
Science,and the pedantry which unavoidably stole

found

of

blessed

setting up

sufficient

and

counterpoise in

other

intellectual

forces.

The

Scottish

principlesof
Reid

philosophy contented

sound

too, thinks,

as

common

Every

sense.

as
terministically

object; thinking guarantees

the

itself with

this

"

realityof

seeking

sensation
of
the

is the

out

the

sign

"

of an
presence
subject;whatever

the

Enlightenment: Theoretical

484

The

the

beautiful. When,

developed
of logicas

was

side

took
as

branch

to

the

on

the form

of

knowledge,
philosophical

world

possibleworlds, could

all

the

than

art

it remains

set

sensualistic

for

founded

have

in the

part

of interest

out

it ; and

as

the

service

to

in modern

disciplinethat
further
development

beautiful

most

poetics.

for her

own

pedantry. Moreover,
Leibniz
in regarding the

tedious

great

not

up,

among

principlefor the theory of

imitating Nature, and developed

general conceptions of

the

from

way

corrsj

other

no

of

first time

the

intellect,
a

intellectual
followed

up

one

Baumgarten's

again, and

the

understanding

therefore, as

principleessentiallyinto

this

systematisation
to place by the

depreciationof

little

very
cool

best, and

the

as

Baum-

of logic she
nachgeborene Schwester']

rationalist,who

last-named

actual

with

and

grew

decided

"

peculiarnature,

V.

this discipline
perfectionof sensation, an aesthetics,
of a science of the beautiful} Thus
aesthetics,"

but with
subject-matter,
posthumous
step-sister [lit.
treated
was
by the latter with

this

impulse

particularlyhigh degree,
of
science of the perfectuse

in its
""

toward
wished

of the

science

sponding

architectonic

the

whom

in

garten,

[Part

Aleoainder
disciples,

of Wolff's

one

now,

Questions.

have

But

in

spiteof this,

treated

the

beautiful

philosophy, in a systematic
philosophy, and by so doing to

destined

play so important a
philosophy,especiallyin that of

was

of

to

Germany.
12.

The

Leibnizo-WolflB.an

and

understanding,

of

conception

the

relation

between

and

especially the geometrical method

introduced
for rational knowledge, encountered
numerous
opponents
of
the
whose
in the German
tion
opposiphilosophy
eighteenth century,
from
French
the
and
not
of
incitements
proceeded
only
English
and empiricism,but from
sensualism
as to
independent investigations
the methodical
and epistemologicalrelation between
and
mathematics
sense

philosophy.
In

this

latter

line

successfullyagainst

most
to Wolff's

definition

that

Eiidiger asserted
and, therefore,
mathematics,
tionless

some

Cf. H.

The

have

Lotze, Gesch.

name

ideas

and

der

"aesthetics"
at

of

the

first,for

of

with

its

the

art, and from

latter's writings into general use.

then

which
the

Mathematics,

another;

adopted

at

the
over

the

of

methods

the

the

possible,with

contradic-

philosophy

true

actual,and such

(Munich, 1868).

in Deutschland

passed

of the

actual.

imitates

one

designationof
him

the

opposition
possible,

In

doctrine.

the science

conceptions to

Aesthetik
was

tended
by him, Crusius, con-

Wolffian

is to know

philosophy
do only with

of

stimulated

philosophy as

its task

to

of

real relation

resistance

beautiful

also

agreement

the

needs

Budiger, and,

later

time

by

Kant, after

philosophicaldoctrine
to

Schiller,and

of the

through the

Knowledge of the Outer World

1, " 34.J

Chap.

be

relation is to

bis

pointof view

than

istic manner
from

manner

; and

ontological
proof

the

for the

existence

his

his

part he

own

to

oppose

the

up

the

Scotist

the

real

this

Leibnizo-

same

Wolffian

of

of

or

and

divine

the

maintained.

will

and

The

the

turning

divine

lay in all these inferences,made

the
favourablydisposed toward

doctrine

grounds

especiallyto
will

of

set

the

the

relation

the

ists
rational-

religion,which
Protestant
orthodoxy

natural

stricter

the

For

ideal

which
intellect,
from

away

Crusius

reason.

real and

determinism,

effects

and

which

ground

between

conceptions

causes

consequent,

principle

difference

of

out

(as Kant expressed

the
line,also, was

relation

and

ground
the

the

rejected the

free
conception of the unrestricted
opposition to the Thomist
conception of

Creator, in
between

of

used

In

He

since

God,

; existence

ideas.

of

treatment

of

inferred

be

never

can

logical relation

in

urged

this

although
thought in a less sensualpredecessor,he yet criticised in a quite similar
point of view the eif ort of the geometrical method

own

be dug out
of
it) cannot
between
exact
distinguishing
and

made

he

his

that

existence

485

gained only by perception. Crusius

realityby employing only logical forms.

to know

alone

Kant.

of Crusius.

The

difference
in method
investigationas to the fundamental
between
philosophy and mathematics, that cut deepest and was
most
that
undertaken
by Kant, whose
important in results,was
On
But
in his prize treatise
writingsvery early refer to Crusius.
the Clearness

brings a
in

of the Principles of Natural

decisive

The

statement.

respect. Philosophy

every

mathematics
its

conceptions,the

former

seeks

the
defi.nitions,

former

needs

experience,the

of the
activity

is

latter
latter

sets

try

out

latter does

to

not

latter

Philosophy,therefore, in order
not

its

imitate

; the

the

the

the

definitions

the

former

rests

of the

upon

ity.
sensibil-

proceed

real,must

of

method

constructive

the

former

magnitudes

that

upon

know

to

from

site
oppo-

as

of conceptions,

science

magnitudes:

constructs

understanding, the

it must
zetetically:

of

related

are

analytic

an

synthetic science

receives

the

sciences

two

he

Morals

and

Theology

mathematics.
With

this fundamental

cognitive foundations
the

grades

of

proves

that

may

of

geometrical method.

understandingcan

many

insight into

clearness

of

be

very

be

exchanged

obscure

distinctness

metaphysics
and
for

exploded

to his

can

in

confused.

another, and

The
Kant

lower

that

the

system
and

of

clear

distinct,and

and

intellectual

old distinction

attempts

higher

Mathematics

knowledge.

be very

proves

the

of

and
view, sensibility

distinguishedas

be

knowledge

character

sensuous

Kant

Por, according

and

sensuous

system

mathematics,

longer

no

the

knowledge
must

fore
there-

substitute

by

Questions.

Theoretical

Enlightenment:

The

486

[Part V.

faculty of receptivity,understandingas
does this in his Inaugural Dissertation,
that of spontaneity. He
and
this builds
a
leaning upon the
new
system of epistemology,'
upon
(cf." 33, 12).
psychologicalprincipleof virtual innateness
the

defining sensibilityas

The

of the

outlines

main

system

are
sensibility
space and time ;
most
general conceptions. Out

the
the

arises mathematics

the

give only

those

following
the

of

niind

the

Forms

of

understanding

of reflection upon

the

class,metaphysics ;
of

certainty. But "Forms

knowledge of
necessary

of unconditional

sciences

the other

; upon

the

are

class

one

both

"

are

priori

sibility
(receptive)sen-

the

of

appearance

sensibilis

phcenomenon) ; the
the contrary, give adequate knowledge
of the understanding, on
Forms
essential nature
of things {mundus intelligibilis
of the true
nowable to do this
of the understanding are
menon). That these Forms
selves,
is due to the fact,that the understanding, as well
as
things themdivine
has
its origin in the
mind; that we, therefore, by
in

things

the

of

means

human

it,see

{mundus

certain

" 35.

Natural

things

to

epistemologicalmotives

The

"

extent

in God."

Beligion.

which

ruled

the

eighteenth century
were
metaphysics : if,in spite of this,
they brought their scepticaland positivistic
tendency to complete
due to the religiousinterest
expressionin but few instances, this was
which
expected from philosophy a decision as to its problems.
The
from
which
religiousunrest and wars
Germany, France, and
not

England
been

in

general favourable

had

suffered,and
with

connected

century by
in creeds

it,longed
extended

on

the

the

"

for peace.

and

wretched
In

quarreling over
been

and

century

of

the

continent

dogmas

which

had

followed

surfeit

England

the

on

teenth
already in the seventions
distincfor
the
disgust
called
Herder
as
strife,"

temper

of

the

effortstoward

Latitudinarians
union

taken

were

in

spiteof frequent failure. Bossuet and Spinola

one
side, and Leibniz on the other,worked
long in this direction :
latter projecteda sy sterna theologicum,
contain the
should
which
again

fundamental
and

them, had
feeling of

and
itself,

again

up

the

to

The

when

system

development
and

doctrines

; he

in this

of

the

of

the

gave

Christianity
common

negotiations

with

to

the

Catholics

is only one
Inaugural Dissertation
again forthwith ; hence it belongs

it up

sions,
Confes-

all three

stage
in his

longer

no

in

Kant's

pre-critical

period.
2 This
doctrine, presented with an appeal to Malebranche
(SectioIV.), is
accordingly just the system of the pre-established harmony between
knowledge
and
Kant
later rejected so
reality which
enereetioallv
Herz,
fLetter to M.
^
Feb.
21, 1772).
time

Natural

1," 35.]

Chap.

the

on

body,

in his

hand,

other

of the

theory

protect

threaten

disturb

to

the

But

the

toward

of

and

Spener

all the

of the

and

is

nearest

faith

be

historical

upon

in

to

the

the

the

with

the

this

taken

it is
harmony with reason;
knowledge. That is revealed

has

can

understand

taken

place.

Proceedingfrom
further.

be

Hence

as

the

in

by
ference
indif-

compensation

lays

and

upon

stands

universal,

natural

or

forms

in

religion,

of

positive,
Christianitywas
the complete
but
religion,

universal

maintained.

was

Leibniz,
the

and

relation
with

revelation

is above

harmony

idea; the Socinians

the

reason

with

had

This
the

by

natural

example

of

but

in

reason,

supplement

necessary
the

also

between

accordance

too, recognised very

tendency

Christianityis

True

reason,

and

which

the

cannot

to

find

itself after the

alreadytaken

natural
out

of

tion
revela-

step

necessity of
they emphasised, on the other hand, that nothing
revealed
that does not prove
accessible
to rational knowledge.
what
is
rational
in
the religiousdocuments
is to be
only

revelation
can

They,

this

in

fore
there-

was

personal piety

reason

in

(cf.p. 321)

with

certain

different
a

and

but
itself,

allows

establishingthe

the

conceive

Thomas

of

toward

Locke

Wolff.
disciple,
They
revealed
religion quite

efforts

founded

life,and

movements

with

by

the

Pietism

but

revealed

Mystic sects,

with

of conduct.

first,such

revelation

the

harmony

Church

increase

from

of

of

life

The

religionof

out

character

position

and

not

logians,
of theo-

resistance

eighteenth century

the

latter's

Albert

erate
tol-

it does

far. as

so

the

of philosophy.

means

dissolved

of

agreement

in

appear,

all these

Christianity. At

still allowed

the

were

to

the

with

identiiied
to

demand

the

personal opinion,and

as

This, nevertheless,

Christianityby

sense

into

tutelage,should

by

to

Enlightenment philosophy

this

belief

came

religiouscolouring

connection

"

true

kept

weight
and

into

"

all Church

tion,
Tolera-

movement

state,"

thwarted

was

spread

dogmatic

more

In

without

concerning

toleration

interesting manifestations.

successful.

purity

1.

which

and

toward

was

union

Francke

most

the

association,in

nourishment

more

union,

multitude

"

above

free

Letters

in the free

tendencies
supra-confessional

whose

to

between

order.
political

the

more

of

religious

every

religioussocietyas

every

the

church

"free

state,raised

that the modern

and

union

this,*too,indeed

"

three

brought together the thoughts

the

bring

to

Reformed

about

relations

result.

immediate

Locke,

Berlin

and
the

and

the Lutherans

his

attempted, at least,to employ

of Hanover

the courts

any

he

hope,

offered any

487

Deism.

Religion : Locke,

regarded

vigorously

the

; but

as

revealed

truth

; i.e. reason

decides

what

shall

be held

to

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

488

revelation.

be

Trinity
truths
under

to

he

This

did

reveals

God

What

position.

in

and

Moses,

to

he

in Christ

so

not

"

moral

new

gave

God

all its

of

keeping

religion,which,

blessedness

of eternal

condition

the

with

authority of what is determined

strongly Scotist elements.
solely

in

rationality of

the

by

divine

criterion

the

If, however,

2.

the

the

is

the

same,

God

been

and

made

the

boundless
contain

to

seems

power,

revelation

of

merely

by

principle of

to

its resort

if

by
juridicalconception of

"

But

even

has

alone

law.

the
fulfilling

is

revealed

law

subjection to the
prescriptions. This

but
disposition,

peculiar

law.

doctrines,nor

of theoretical

acceptance

an

religion

metaphysics,but

religionobjectivelyis law-giving, subjectivelyit

law,

theoretical

their

constitutes

is not

man

of

comprehend

They

this

law, and

of

characteristic

the

field.

entirely different

an

revelation,and

realm

the

V.

separated the

of

content

from

revelation

transferred

general

in

the

from

Socinians

the

standpoint

Incarnation

the

and

this

From

[Part

ultimately to

lie

consistent

completely

theory is,that historical revelation should be set aside

This
done
was
as
superfluous,and natural religionalone retained.
in so far as he
is their leader
by the English Deists; and Toland
first undertook
i.e. the universal
to strip Christianity,
religionof
reduce
of all mysteries,and
it,as regards the knowledge
reason,
of the "natural
which
it contains, to the truths
light,"i.e. to a

result

of this

the
But
which
the
content
philosophical theory of the world.
Enlightenment
philosophy sought to give ,to this, its religionof
theoretical
and
As
Nature, had two sources,
practicalreason.
"

regards

the

Deism
first.

contains

metaphysicsbased

philosophy ; in the second aspect it involves

from
the point of view of moral
philosophy.
involved
religionof the Enlightenment was
theoretical,and
elements

stood

development,
isolated.

the

in

doctrine

called

of

of

this

of

enthusiasm,

living out

of

"

his

for

the

of the

the whole

soul

mutually

become

constituents

two

elements

Shaftesbury.
is formed

above

of

more

the

positive

the

the

in
The

what

is true,

itself to

peculiarpower

by

as

was

religionas

is found

for all that

particular

history of natural
to
they sustained

two

its two

these

each

and

of

movement

the

nature

enthusiasm

found

diverge

movement,

own

but

these

which

union

and

the elevation
the

between

relation

the

practical problems

could

they

in its influence

thinker

of

connection,

relation

religions.
The
complete
his

that

close

common

important

in

that

so

The

determining
was

also

the natural

In this way
in

world

the

of

theory

natural

upon

most

centre
he

himself

good, and

universal
individual

of

tiful,
beau-

values,

by

the

devotion

something higher.

to

and

life of increased
be

The

of

source

the unavoidable

and

admiration

and

beauty
received

impression

With

enthusiasm.

anything else: a
personality,a knowing one's self to
all of reality. 'Swt this noble
sion,
pasand

heart

warm

perfectionof

from

this

perfection

purposiveness of their
formation,the harmony of their life,and shows
in itself evil
nothing which
entirelymisses

that

in

another,or
member

evil

in

discord
This

for the

existence
the

everywhere
of his

of

of

of

the

sensitiveness.

both

his

; like

that

teleology also

Giordano

in the

their

is nothing

itself in
necessary

is

of

wave

is the

the

tasteful

of

each
in

mechanical

Germany,

instincts of

delicate
artistically

its individual

of

the

It

1
2
s

animals,
work

in
shows
of

is, for

Nature

and

verse
uni-

structures.

is

here

carries

was

poets,
stand

themselves
of

all
this

on

Enlightenment

least

For

the

German

the

at

world.

universalistic

concerning

the

for
sensibility

the

his reflections
at

is

sion
apprehen-

of artistic

that
poeticworld-glorification

Eeimarus

detailed

tion
concepuniverse

feeling.

allowed
height. Voltaire and Diderot^
first to be swept along to such
view
enthusiastic
an
had
also something of the
Maupertius and Eobinet
in

highest

teleologioalthought

philosophers

ness
loveli-

man

moral

this

tendency;

the

cultivated

through Shaftesbury's writings.

that they worked
the
account
so
powerfully upon
Herder,^and upon Schiller.^
upon
the

the

the

of

one

of

bears

fundamental

it goes

Few, indeed, of

Nature

purposiveness of

the

proof

one

with

phenomena

of

seeks

utilitarian

and

but

unfolded

religious and

is the

beauty

has

admiration

taste

he

Bruno

harmonious

petty
strippedoff,and a
before

Its

Weltanschauung.
of

of

Beauty

Shaftsbury,the
reason

artist,who

charm

the

therefore

physico-theological.

the

in the

basis

knows

character,

God,

nature

own

this

in

essentially
eesthetic,and

upon

of

of

ever
What-

one

marks

and
intelligence

3.

order

of the whole.
All imperfection
purposeful structure
in the perfectionof the universe
particularvanishes
; every
is lost in the harmony of the world.
universal optimism, whose
pletely
theodicy is in its conceptionscomNeo-Platonic

All

in the

of the

this

as

awakens

there

system of individuals, proves

higher connection, to be still a good, as a

an

well

its mark.

"

to

the universe

Shaftsbury portrays the

inter-play,the beauty

things,the

appears

emotion

strong

religion is, therefore, objectivelyas

the harmony
subjectively,

489

is religion

Nor

from

other, grows

like every

love.

enhanced

great connected

with the

one

Religion: Toland, Shafteshury.

Natural

1, " 35.]

Chap.

for

Erkennen
und
Herder, Vom
Empfinden.
Schiller,Philisophische Briefe (Julius).
Particularly in the Pens"es Fkilosophiques.

the

internal

490
end

which

Enlightenment:

she

realises

organic

her

in

Theoretical

of

writers
the philosophical

of

mass

The

by the
philosophy that it investigatesrather
of

universe

the

Thus

teleology is

Besthetic

the

and

Clark

had

could

in view

of

thought

not

"

Leibniz, Newton,

of mechanism

ogy,
to teleol-

to this utilitarian

be favourable

but

like

subordination

the

still do

happiness."
doctrine of utility,

Stoic

men

of

the
principally

every-day

the

by

arrangement

nature, they

which

analogy, with

technical

and

off

cut

the

yield for the wants

parts

and

of usefulness

view

despisethe point of

which

have

of

great

eighteenth century is so
the practicalaims of

iises

its

the

V.

and

higher temper
perfecting of the moral

and

furthering

the

activities of

the

and

if those

and

man;

the

[Part

But

structures.

anthropologicalinterest

controlled

Questions.

conception. For
consists just in yielding an advanthe purposiveness of machines
tage,
just in the fact that their product is something else,something
this analogy was
in addition
to their
own
working. And
quite
welcome
also to the
Enlighteners," who
frequently praised the
harmony of their philosophy with natural science ; they employed
not

"

"

this

mode

of

view

machines

to
intelligence

the

the

was,
in

come

of the

end

afterwards,
into

trade

German

Things)

which

he

excites
the

assigns to
vied

pictures the

with

each
and

neat

fitted up

for the

homo

he

himself

well.

bears

nobler

his

thought, even

Natural

conception,but

world

for

man,

and

displaysitself in
and

in the
the

by

ethical

of

This

term

of

that

most,
of

perfect

asked

was

the

of

what

Enlightenment

of created

usefulness

tasteless

beings

(NiUzlichin the

manner

portraying

in

comfortable

way

in

sapiens,and

how

well

the

he

look

of

of

adopted

the

talk

toward

of God

seventeenth

as

in

it if

in

when

Kant,

Leibnizo-New-

about

the

of the

use

the

perfectionwhich

the

heavenly bodies,

constitution

he, too,

is

universe
live

may

that

pleasing

and

this

esteems

that

with

him,

always

their

; and

creatures, appears
But

existence

broad

one

of
multiplicity

systematic

the

in

which

was

all that

his

elevation.

into

time,

Heavens

happiness

points back

if it

other

left behind

for the

to

mirth

infinite

perfecting and

need

creative

of their

the

unworthy

most

in

only bunglers

But

wares

the

found

empirical teleology {Designs of

by the petty points of view
and the Popular Philosophers
intelligence,

one's

directed

the

harmony

side

theologicaPproof
^

out

at that

History of

tonian

in

at

miracle

of

it is

answer

small

Wolff's

Enlightenment.

Natural

position.

the

that

that

perhaps

or

in

carried

keitskrdmerei)was

and

is,the

happiness of man,

general.

such

world-machine

This

conception

too, held

positivereligion. Eeimarus,
assist their

the

against

as

which

century,

and

the

physico-

is the

seems

to

most

have

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions. [Part

The

492

sin, and

follows

finiteness

necessity that

evil

without

its creative

in

latter

will ; the

divine

the

of

world

independent
activityis bound

truths

impossibility.Metaphysical

an

logical

much,
evil,the

makes
dternelles,"

viritis

des

avoid

to

of

out

However

desire

might

God

goodness of
wisdom, the "rigion

divine

it is then

sorrow,

evil is unthinkable.

the

therefore,

sin

of

out

without

world

physicalevil,that

further

and

first moral

follows

evil

cal

V.

are

to them.

But,

of
evils

other

the

ou

are

God

as

If

much

with
from

now

the

been
made

the

ception
con-

of

the

contains

which

one

guided
the

which

be
of

him

least

in

only have

can

he has

doing;

so

the

and

wisdom

God's
it

world,

this actual

that

best

the

infinite number

an

possibleworlds,

created

he

him,

choice

numerous

all these

among

real

to the

evil, but some

entirely without
and
heavy evils than others.

them

more

before

spread out

of

none

is

There

it is.

than

other

thought as being
possible worlds,
affected

belongs

truly as does his wisdom, is a guarantee that

possible. The world is contingent, i.e. it may

as

few

as

goodness,which

the

hand,

fewest

evils.

many

contingency of the world consists in the fact that it exists,not

metaphysical necessity,but through a choice exercised among
possibilities
proceeds from the all-good
; and since this choice

will

of

The
with

best.
evil

God, it is unthinkable

Theodicy

world

contains

with

law.

best among

without

arises

the

of

be

the

matter

that
did

the

this

necessity of
the
"

"

and

Scotist

God

has

so

of

; but

it

in
can

the

than

the

world,

for

that this

prove

way

left

view
physico-theological

undecided.

as

world

that

in

The

though

it

is the

most

which

aim
can

the

of
be

ceived
con-

Leibniz

thought;

metaphysical
in

fashion, scarcely noted

characteristic

time,

essential

perfect that
presuppositionof

the

world

the

of

eighteenth century

the

was

this

Whether

itself

was

through

and

through

its

worthy
thought. In a historical aspect the most notethis theodicy is the peculiar mixture
of Thomist
is such as it is only because
metaphysics. The world

willed

another

divine

truths."

evil

expression, optimism.

only under

optimistic in
thing in

the

God's

the

evil,was,

literature

chosen

world

the

other

is any

possiblein accordance
goodness would
gladly have produced
him
his wisdom
only the
permitted

evil,but

of

may

succeeds,

he

deny

is in any

as

common

experimental proof

that

world

possibleworlds.

Hence

to prove

the

to

of the

little evil

as

world

idea

very

metaphysical
a

proceed

cannot

to the

belongs

that

will

Above

it ;

; but

by
in

is bound
all

virtue
the
to

of

his

choice

of

the

divine

realityhovers

the

omnipotence he might
before
the
possibilities
fate

intellect

as

the

have

him

"eternal

prescribedby logic.

1, " 35.] Natural

Chap.

5. In. the forms

believed that

Religion:

hitherto
could

they
of

Voltaire,Diderot.
the teachers

developed

attain

of natural

religion
physico-theological
path to

the

along

493

conception
deity as creative intellig^ce,and for this
Deism
is customarily employed.
phase of the development the name
which
survived
in this proas
The conception of God
personality,
cedure
the last remnant
from
offered a hold for
as
positivereligion,

the

the moral

side

support.

But

also

of natural

where

itself

by naturalistic

taken

downfall.

Toland

admiration

of

theoretical

involved

already

Nature, which

the French

among

God,

well

as

natural
his

as

the

and

for

him

with

the

found

the

which

the

to

essential

the

end

an

mechanical

the

development
this finallyits

in

(cf." 34, 9)
at

its

of

course

hylozoism

personality,was
of

in that

ural
pursued, nat-

was

constituted

scientists

complete dominance

found

completely pantheisticturn

gave

in turn

element

in

metaphysics,

religious feeling,and

of

the

religion,and

the

only

found

religion

of

the

tent
con-

developed

transcendence
when

; and

explanation

of

then
Nature

also was
the organic world
recognised as in
proclaimed,when
of Nature, the
mechanism
principlethe product of the universal
the mind.
In addition
physico-theological
proof lost its power over
to this the premises of the argument
were
questioned. The Lisbon
in
shocked
all Europe
made
waver
earthquake (1755) which
many
their ideas
of the perfection and
rangement
adaptedness of the world's arwas

and

all its content

for

blind

with

indifference

; the

of

ends

necessity

in

which

worth

and

all that

point

of the

of

of

Syst"me

atheism
a

and

conformity
which
as

with
man

to

to

should

through
norm

The

should

or

make

the

aimless

us

or

we

and

upon
with

for

this

Nature

in

it there

ends

or

the

order

this revolution
to

make

natural

of

itself
are

sport

ophy
philoswith

its

is

only
only the

Nature,
knows

worih-determinor

no

of

more

teleological

consequences

norms

value.

rigour

same

much

in

Nature's

those

things

unpurposive,irregularor anomalous,
to their agreement
judge with reference
and

approve

indifference
of

This

last

life

human

or

customs,

of
relativity

order.

mind.

is active

things which
designs

our

human

motion,

law

the

adaptation,all

All

dependent

are

appear

in the

the

in

atomic

tions,which

drew

la Nature

materialism.

necessityof

than

Voltaire, in whom

de

phenomenon

place

became

in natural
The

speak

to

world-process.
complete, began in Candide
of
possibleworlds," and the element
to pieces.
religioncrumbled

view

best

"

destroys

seemed

takes

of the
disposition
in

Nature

all

as

his

Nature

conceptions

purposeful.

of

own

ends

; he
; there

The
should
is

no

wise
see

real

principlewas applied by Piderot

is accordingly the only thing that
art
of
that
it
the
should
and
only thing
display,
give back ;
grasp

correctness

to aesthetics.

Nature

494
is

beauty

copy

knows

While

the

thus
to

foundations

also at that

exhibited

within,

all attacks
; for

waver

struck

from

crumbling

but

system

its

of

the

was

epistemologioalbasis began
of a metaphysics
possibility

he

sought

But

he

laid bare
to

their

only as revelation and combated

doctrines
by the aid of reason, or even

prove

they

uncovered, also,the

weak

with

in

controversy with
Eeligion is,therefore,possible for him
even

contradiction

all

keenness

for himself

natural

Deism

; he

not

were

than

the
he

less

twofold

might

indeed,

to those

the
the

even

maintain

have

dangerous

which

with

truth.

Leibniz

And

credit

especiallythe

Finally Hume,
union

denied

the

to the

that

of

for

articles

faith

contrary

of his much

theoretical

read

doctrines

of

to

reason,

Dictionnaire

ion
positiverelig-

the
epistemological grounds dissolved
other
English empiricistsand nominalists, and
like Hartley and Priestley,
materialists,
sought to

religion.

the world

on

purposiveness
which

If there

is

the

the whole

and

all

in

indeed

Hume,

spiritof

makes

rational

metaphysics

no

the

his

things

(as Cleanthes
practicalproh-

incontestable

ord^r,and

of

sion
impres-

finds,therefore,that

the

experience rests,is applicablealso

(physico-theological)
assumption of a unity in creation and

the

direction

of

(as Philo) he
by

of
principles
on

the

the

cannot

reason.

the

"

also, on

natural

belief,on

worsted.

not

was

of Deism.

dialogue),acknowledges

abilism

he

therefore,although perhaps

all,philosophicalreligion falls also.

in the

even

reason.

only as positiverevelation
with
philosophicalknowledge. He defends

with

writings and

that

in

the

"

light "

at

contrary to

were

philosophicalarguments for the existence of God and

immortality of the soul, and took specialoccasion in connection
the problems of theodicy to prove
the inadequacy of the
ural
nat-

the

his

worked

penetratingkeenness
for

points

He

Bayle.

doctrines
with

supported

one

of the

cogency

in

Pierre

absurd

were

No

reason.

contradictions

that

in its contents

stand

of knowing its
possibility
into accord with
of merely bringing them
than
this standpoint more
energetically
systematicallyto show that all dogmatic
; he

philosophy

In this respect
of
the deistic doctrine.
dangerous foe

most

the

reason

indifferent

natural

on

which
indeed
religion,
religious metaphysics.

religionto

It allowed

based

the

upon

the

natural

survival

Baconian

of

Deism

of

V.

objectivevalidity.

no

of ideals,only

void

art

an

of any

were

also

only

realitywhatever.

6.

-whicli have

valuations

of those

one

Materialism

the

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions. [Part

The

In

our

whole.

But

regard this

from
belief

to

in

standpoint of science
lished
capable of being estab-

the
as

particular he asserts,

in

that
it
theory of probability,
hypothesis of a purely mechanical

accordance
is

with

the

quite explicable,
theory, that amid'

well

and
So the
is

professto

not

The

7.

view

from

the

the

more

in

pale and

vanishing

indefinite

idea

should

of

be

receive
notice

the

high

lines

for

and

which

this

view

the

it

and

philanthropy, respect

of

appreciation
the

on

taste

of

would

ethical

position of

other

the

hand,

form

of

it is also

with

earth, and

the

lost also.
of the

There

is

nothing

lightenerswrote
they only proved
the

books
how

great

world
to

are

be

still

has

as

clearness
been

mass

acknowledge no

all

moral

possibledegrees

of

remnants
theoretical

merely
this

point rules

longer

seized

any

of
in

no

tion,
soul's salvaance.
deliver-

; it

was

to

an

En-

German

children,

religion.
in

standpoint

uncertainty prevail

religious view
the

religious life

the

this

grounding,

constituents

far

the

life.

been

never

feeling of

real

supporters

purely
in personal

social

religious power

of

of

the

of

morals

the

for

tion
opposibrought

Enlightenment

preach the deistic

little they understood
of
of

it

the

ardent

society, and

fail to

religion has

depths

to

on
so

vital

will

Its

the

capable of

regarded

Full
he

those

in

zeal

has

anxiety for

the

in

and

when

"popular philosophy "

far

which

the

of

strugglefor redemption, of

artificial product of cultured

how

for

there

this.

than

more

will

modesty

literature

that

mysteries

Deism, therefore, failed

Among

in

true

tolerate,understanding

not

to

disposition,and

religious life

virtue

one

confessional

honour

an

moralising Deism,

of

toleration

very

happiness,

such

in this

but

duct
con-

will exercise

who

No

remained
for

that

for its

of

gave

man

of

has

because
historically,

of

farther

essence

There

it here.

lived

belongs to

the

life,and

life,so

had

quite definitely

alone

created

virtuous

which

stood

seriousness

in itself

who

This

religious life

and

lacking to

thought

which

been

the

This

eternal

is

had

Weltanschauung.

an

who

Cherbury,
to

Deism

conviction.

ideals

meagre

Here

moral

strife

more

are

for these

and

But,

as

retreated

one-sidedness

opinion, to

the

it should

to

all-good God,

noble

value

but

to the

human

was

this.

worshipped by

pure,

religion

Christianity,"which

duty,

upon

by

an

reward

the

the

or

the

fixed.

Natural

iu Deism

of

action,

equalisingjustice in

an

become

practicalman,

According

moral

of life determined

who

and

true

"

Herbert

content, deliberation

true

about

philosophy, and

Spinoza.

religionconsists

the

restricted

natural

expressed by

for

durable, purposive,

was

problematicaldecision.

already prepared by

removed

at last come

metaphysical factor

to be, became
professed

been

which

one

495

scientific doctrine.

reasons,

atoms,

should

of

the

more

other

or

be

of

with

mode

reasonable

ordered

remains

case

Religion: Bayle, Bu,me.

combinations

countless

the

Natural

1," 35.]

Chap.

and

how

ethical

Voltaire's later

of
far

the

they

ness.
conscious-

thought.

by Bayle's scepticism as to
the deity
metaphysical authorisation:
upon

Enlightenment : Theoretical Questions.

The

496

immortality

and
moral

and

conduct,

perish with

for

hone

order, would, he thini

of social

in which

forms

individual

these

are

as

condition

n'existaitpas,ilfaudrait I'inventer.

it: si Dieu

Different

8.

the

foundations

the

thus

postulates of

as

is

belief

this

If

action.

moral

valid

regarded as only
should
perish,the motives

in them

faith

feeling;

only

him

for

now

are

'

[Part

natural

reli

point, in their depreciato:

developed, they all agree on one
true
criticism of positive religions. Only that is regarded as
these
they all agree with each other and wii
religions,in which
natural
religion; all that is taught beyond this,with an appeal to

ion

"

special revelation,the deists turn from the door, and it was

free thinkers.
ciselyin this respect that they called themselves
claims

made

by

revelational

the

pi
Tl

encountered, therefore,;

doctrine

refuted
Collins
the proof fro
especiallyvigorous contradiction.
the proof from
miracles, both by seeking
prophecy, Woolston
in the religious documents
give for the corresponding accounts
natural
explanation so far as possible. This attempt, which aimi
in doubt
the credibility
of the biblical narratives,b
not to involve
to explain them
by purely natural
causes, frequently in a very fa
tastic fashion
and excluding all that is mysterious and supernatur;
characterised
has
been
and
in Germany
employed
especially
rationalistic interpretation. It was
here, too, that Reimarus, in h
Schutzschrift,
proceeded in the sharpest manner
against the posi
unthinkabl
bilityof revelation,which he declared to be superfluous,
"

and

Others

untrue.

of

trines

directed
Diderot

dogmatics.

Christian

conception

sparing derision

their

of

attacked

God,

of the

criticism

and

the

Voltaire

and

dogmas

against individual
exercised
of

bottom

the

in tl

attributes

moral

ceremonies

dc

wit

his
all

in

religionsai

Confessions.
But
that

in
all

his
these

obscurations

also

case

additions

and

the

other

the

conviction

of

that

felt

the

set within

of

called

natural

at

was

corruptions

deists,he

conviction

there

positive religionswere
the

religionis

the

nature

therefore,the originalstate

of

of

the

of view

all

positivereligionsappear

entered

in

the

of

course

to

the

to

Tindal

old

as

tated

primitive,pure,
the

creation.
the

true

true

and

depraved

as

every

worship

did
of

progress

case

in

of

God

coincides

with

we

poi
ha

which

forms

nothing

it

this

From

in

all men,

that

and

the
but

uncorrupted religion. Hence

not

lil

filled wi

were

inheritance

religious life.

which
Christianity,

Jesus

They
himself,

man

history,and

religionconsists, therefore,in

an

mai

so

religion,for which,

true

contend.

to

thougl

earnest

history
retu

aecordii

Deism,

is

bring a revelation,he only rehabi

in

the

face

of

the

decay

of

t'

religions;

aucient

and

work,

his

Natural

1, " 35.]

Chap.

but

the

it

now

of

devoid

false

be

to

them

historical
to

were

the

was

only

true

to

then

general

doctrine

other

of

way

religion,could

have

and

hatred

of

this

Such

9.

of

felt

and

point also

incapacityto

religionsagreed

about

entirelythey held

were

to

proclaimers
It

is

basis

of

Shaftesbury knew

which
of

constitutes

true

superstition. The
sharply

most

was

pressed
ex-

Reimarus.

historical

universal

seemed

historical

Schutzschriftof

the

their

interests.

Even

the

tion.
inven-

that

the

own

fanaticism

justiceto

with

well

that

the

Enlighteners

in the
do

that

deceit.

the

the

evidence

teachings

their

enthusiasm,

to

by

in

deists

how

the

all other

only

invention

of

deceit, and

the

distorted

priests

on

acted

explaining

be

tfiat brought

Enlighteners

that

system,

seemed

positivereligions is

Christ.

comprehension for these : what

them
possible onlj''
through voluntary

explicableonly by lying
the

So, too, Lessing

religionof

causes

strongly convinced

so

again corrupted

to him.

the

the

"were

497

have

to return

religion,the

of these

no

what

true

seemed

They
Deism

of

any

churches

Christianityand

asked,

was

distortion

this

Christian

free-thinkingdesires

between
distinguished
If

Religion: Deists, Hume.

lack

of

nature

in historical

tive
posisense

and

was
philosophy of
imderstanding which
peculiar to the whole
the Enlightenment. This
had
its ground in the fact that modern
its growth, hand
in hand
with
natural
science,
thoifghthad made
in investigatingthat
which
is either
or
timelessly
always valid.
Only in a few instances was this ban broken through.
"

This

done

was

Hume.

While

first

he

found

rational
to

the

origin

separated
he

apprehension
and

of

of the

and

lay
to

the

he

showed

also

the

human

mind

strative
demon-

upon

the

that

question

be

must

the

of

This

Nature

treats

in

and

blessing,which
course

form

of

these

to

feelings

associated
with

to the

designed

the

are

of Nature

incitements

worship

primitive
and

religion in

based

be

religion cannot

David

by

as

completely

new

solely in

"Natural

there

that

consciousness

clearest

question
speculativeinvestigation.
accordance
with
as
a
psychologicalprinciples,
in the primitive
shows
how
History of Religion." He

treated

terror

with

knowledge,

of

from

and

the

formation

appease

or

of

with

it,and

of ideas

of

hope,
the

human

of

parison
com-

life,

higher beings,

flatter.

religion is, therefore, polytheism,

higher

in

of

vicissitudes

to

and

fear

The

natural,

which

thinks

completely anthropomorphic
ance
by myth fuse in accordwith the laws of the association
into
of ideas ; myths pass over
each other, and ultimatelythe whole
body of religiousideas becomes
into the belief in a singledivine being, to whom
condensed
the purposeful
order
of the universe
is due,
which
be
a
faith,to
sure,
manner.

But

the

manifold

powers

forms

in

assumed

"

cannot

in

itself

preserve

in

is associated

but

form,

pure

Questions. [Pakt

Theoretical

Enlightenment:

The

498

variou

originalpresuppositions.The history of religioni

it
the gradual transformation of polytheism into monotheism, and
the
world
whiol
that
with
teleologicalview of
coincides
result
of the intelligent
not, indeed
had developed as the view
man,
Hume
capable of scientific proof,but bound up with the natural feelingo
its

with

ways

belief.
the

apprehending the subjectfrom

of

mode

This

point of

view

reinforced
by tha
psychology and the history of civilisation was
the history of literature
of philology and
the point of view
from
found
which
expressionin the historical biblical criticism founded bj
This
Semler.
Salomon
began to carry out the thought formulatee
be treated
must
that the biblical books
just as othe:
by Spinoza,^

regards

writings

as

history;

that

their

they
the

and

time

find

Christians

respect

have

that

scientific

may

the

certainly not

he

but

eally;

after

now,
ness

of

him

from

thousands

the

three

the

and

God,

to

and
revelation,

out

tions

of

God,
the

assumes

In

what

Germany
Schmidt, the

in

editor

of

few

from

But
of the

like

God
the

is the

to

shall

in thii

came

which

tru(
deistii

the

raised

hii

still another

side.

H(

bend

to

histori

transmitted

playing
decide

whicl

limitation

the

been

tenet

judge, wh(
the genuine

the
to

as

it is not

merely this that separatei

Enlighteners; he is himself a deep

Herder,^

sees

in

Hence

man.

religion a living

religionis

history of religionsis

education

earl]

Testament

therefore

others,

well

years,

o:

par

the

is nevertheless

conviction

himself

mass

religiousnature, and,
man

his

make

has

of

view

Enlightenment.

which

rings.

great

Semler

that

in

guarded

and

New
he

into

questionsfrom

rejected,as

will find its sole truth

of

of the

the

which

to

radicalism

shown,

to

of

thei:

directed

parties of

science,it

later

the

these

man

and

through

saw

the

books

of

point

Semler

different

the

the

the

authors.

their

by

here

in

part

from

hypotheses

of

out

was

run

took

Leasing
he

in

against the spokesmen

voice

was

of

left behind
way

contents, their origin,and

understood

point that

that

been

had

be

character

be

it

movement

must

expression

While

theoretical

to the

attention

ticular

their

of

the

well-planned succession

the

human
of

race

these

not

series

by

relatioi

possiblewith
of the

God.

revelations

revela

Lessinj
to be

such

degree Spinoza's writings were

known
to the religiousEnlightener
other
things, from the interestingfact that Loren
among

appears,
leader

book

of the

Wertheim

translation

of the

Bible, is the

anonymou

in

o
of the Doctrine
of a "Refutation
which, under the mask
translatioi
Spinoza by the Famous
Philosopher Christian Wolif," an excellent
of Spinoza's ethics is offered,and
finallyonly a few paragraphs from WolH'
German
writings are appended
and
(printed Frankfort
Leips. 1744).
^

Cf. Herder's

treatise

on

the

Aelteste

Urkunde

des

MenschengeschUMs.

II.

CHAPTEJR

QUESTIONS.

PKACTICAL

religionof the eigliteenthcentury sought in morals

the support which
sort could
a
metaphysics of the natural-science
of the fact,
not permanently afford it. This was
possibleby reason
this branch
also of philosophicalinvestigation
that in the meantime
its complete independence of positivereligion. And
in
had
won
had already begun in the train of
fact,this freeing process, which
indifferent
the religiously
metaphysics of the seventeenth
century,
had completed itself in a relatively
and
But
speedy
simple manner.
of the new
itself here also,in the
the peculiarcharacter
age asserted
of the point of interest in these investigationsto
very early transfer
the psychological domain
here
the literary
philosophy encountered
; and
inclination
of the age, which
directed
toward
was
a
profounder
of
with
ings
toward
man
an
himself,
overhauling of his feelemployment
and an
analysing of his motives, and toward the "sentimental"
The
individual
fosteringof personal relations.
revellingin his own
inner
is the characteristic
life,the monad
phenomenon
enjoying self,
natural

The

of the

age

sance,

which

of the

in the

the

stiff

seventeenth

broke

forces,now

dignity

of

century
again with

forth

ceremonious,

broken

through, externalities

of

brought

man

But

the

The

Enlightenment.

had
a

been

life:
and

away,

Eenais-

repressedby
inward

more

formal

cast

of the

individualism

from

power

bounds

the

nal
exter-

pure,

to

were

be

life

natural

out.

important the individual thus became to himself,and

the more
many-sided his view in weighing questions regarding the
import of his true happiness, the more
morality,society,and the
state
runs

more

became
the

to

authoritybeyond
that

determinate

problem.

of

the

with

in his natural

goes,

Through
tacit

(as it was

originaldatum,
finn

extends

as

individual

"

so

osophy
Enlightenment phil-

of the

himself

problems

is the

the

comes

others,which

individual

these

the individual
character

How

practical question

life connected

discussions
view

him

fundamental

"

and

to

in influence
aU

mated
the ani-

assumption,the

always conceived)

is that which

is self-

Practical

2.]

Chap.

and that all

intelligible,
to be explained from
are

the

relations

him

of the

as

metaphysics
analogy of atomism,

ology

"

the

became

clear

more

and
found

principlesof ethics
this

first be

establish

to

by

reallyis,and
to be

appeared

the
follow

to

was

the

other

the ethical

life rests

something foreignto
the question as to

more

ethical

commands

and

natural

the

motives

asserted

the

regarded

the

itself,side

be

plained
ex-

what

on

the

morality
of

which

hand,

to

more

essence

thing
some-

one

thing

the

the

discussions

was

on

the

the

Monad-

result,that

investigate
:

more

individual,as

what
to

the

presuppositions

life

necessary,

hand,

ralistic
natu-

here

eighteenth.

in

up

of the

essence

of

it the

ethical

discrimination

on

wortl^and validityof

these

the

explained,it

exact

an

in which

clearing

as

to'the natural

added

that must

valuable

of the

with

individual

far the

so

that

morals

brought

inasmuch

For

period.

something

as

distinct

In

thought

"

after

more

for the

the

beyond

go

century

there

background

501

starting-point.

constantlyprogressing process

The

of

which

seventeenth

after the

forms

Questions.

the

vidual,
indi-

induce
side

by

man

with

the

And
validityof those commands.
so three main
involved,
questionsappeared, at the beginning much
and
then
is the
of
what
content
becoming complicated anew:
laws ? what
morality? on what rests the validity of the moral
The principlesof morals
action ?
to moral
set forth
are
bringsman

question as

to the

according to
and

the

the

motive.

that the

various

being

three

clearingand

of

analysis
to

answers

with

the

points

This

combined

of

ground

each

separating

view
and

of

the

criterion,the

showed

explanation,however,

these

separate questions

other

in the
above

process

sanction,

various

most

named

capable

were

ways

results

the

so

precisely from

the

motley variety and changing hues exhibited

by the doctrines
moral
philosophy in the eighteenth century. Shaftesbury stands

the

of the

centre

and

movement

controls

reaches

definite

no

mind

that

lines ; while, on

in many

differences in the

the

as

conclusion

in this

of the

statements

stimulates

the other

typical feature

this ethics

of virtue

the

was

and

sharply,was

of

hand,

period, on

happiness
that

raised to be the

the

final outcome,

the

of

satisfaction

practicalphilosophy built
the varied development
Utilitarianism,

up

the

of

complicated courses

But

out

of this

the politicaland

arose

of these
the

much

social order,

"

of

expressed
ethical
upon

of which

ment
move-

of the

tendency
the

or

impulses
functions.

this
forms

of

relation

more

individual's

the

\system

value

the

for

standard

of

consideration

in

individualistic

repeatedly renewed

the

account

question (cf " 39)

fundamental

the

of

in all directions

of

less
was

The

principle is
the

centre

in

reflections.
more

the

burning question,as
question,namely,

as

to

regards
the value

Enlightenment : Practical

The

502

historical

social

the

of

for happiness

lost

it should

valuation:

and

has

immediate

come

critical

tieir

into

being
naive

consciousness,

it yields
advantages
by
right to existence
this point of view
From
for the
was
happiness of individuals.
and social philosophy of the eighteenthcentury;
developed the political
its critical
this standpoint this
philosophy assumed
upon
and

its

prove

attitude

the

V.

and

validity and

the

justifyitself before

[Pakt

institutions

public
exists

its

more

once

of

which

That

development.

historicallyhas

union,

Questions.

reality,and

historical

toward

Nature

of

historybecame

and

impressive formulation
the

worth

The

civilisation.

excited

movements

of the

problem

and

Rousseau,

by him,

Eevolution,

accordance

of civilisation

thus

from

in
of the

the results

it examined
standard, finally,
human

which

and

in

this

historical progress
itself and

which

the

received

which,

in

of

relation

its most

oppositionto

conjunction with the

to the
beginnings of

form

gave

with

vulsions
con-

the

Philosophy of History.

" 36.
Fr.

The

Principlesof

Schleiermacher, Grundlinien
W.

H.

W.

III. Vol.

Sidgwick,

The

The

bisherigen Sittenlehre

(4th ed., Lond.

Theory, Vol. II.]
Ethics.'^

Ethical

fruitful

most

der

of Ethics

Methods

Types of
Courtney, Constructive

L.

Kritik

(1803),

1.

[J. Martineau,
[W.

einer

llorals.

incitements

to the

and

N.Y.

discussion

1890).

lems
prob-

of ethical

in both

positiveand negative directions from Hobbes.

The
"selfish
its influence
extended
system" propounded by him
carried out into
throughout the entire eighteenth century. It was
proceeded

all of

its consequences,

was

opposing theories,which

out

upon

it.

defended
to

and

In

certain

just for

this

this is true

sense

the

validityof ethical laws

and yet at
psychologicalrelativity,

universal

1.

welfare regarded

as

their

to draw

ever-powerful stimulus

an

reason

of

the

same

essential

truths
time
and

dependent

who

Cumberland,

eternal

as

also

were

in

indeed

opposition
have

the

determining

tent.
con-

would

The

positionof Locke with reference to these questionsis still

less definitely
formulated
than
cal
his attitude with
regard to theoretidoubt
the
of practical principles
questions. No
treatment
the larger space in his attack
innate
occupies almost
ideas,"
upon
"

as

is natural

against the

from
Platonism

the

fact

that

his

opposition

is there

directed

the positive
But
Cambridge school.
indications
ethical subjects(and indeed
there is nothing that
upon
which
found
scattered through his
goes beyond indications),
are
of

the

Principlesof Morals

2, " 36.]

Chap.

writings,do

it has

because

referred,and

are

which

by

imperative character
such

with

them

Locke

"

sense

laws

law

certain

of

three

he

the

found

the

such

he
principles,

the

again

of

God.

the

the

of

"

mon
com-

equally

was

And

point

these

will.

deviating from
adduces

his

disregard of

not

he

of

also

expectation of

upon

the

existence

and

reward,

state, and

"

The

law-giver,but

work

which

instances

instances

only

with

authority, public opinion,the

of these

edge,
knowl-

"'\} Accordingly

ethics.

with

man

average

of

only through

holds, can

of the

the

in

his

; for

philosopherwas

If the

secure

to

for

not

presupposes

punishment

consequences,

as

judged

are

essential

to visit obedience

power

they

seems

however,

norms,

judgment

psycholo-

mere

demonstrative

object a relation,namtly, the agreement

action
with
of a man's
law
a
["conformity or
voluntary actions have to a rule, to which they

men's

disagreement

moral

for its

non-agreement

or

transcend

important degree

regards the

Locke

gism.

in any

not

503

Locke.

law-giving
in the

est
high-

attachment

for

his empiricism had

metaphysics which
will of God
is known
lation
by revepreserved. For identicallythe same
natural
and by the
light (accordingto Locke's
philosophy

the

Cartesian

of

remnant

"

"

of

its content

is,that

consequences

others,and

in

other

to

certain

moral

the

need

of

the

to

and

necessary

were

More^

so

and

proceeded

in

whole

inmost

reasonable

arguments, they

and

gains

law

by

of Nature.

God

useful

But

attaches

rious
injuto

consequences

forbidden, the

are

metaphysical

in

still

of

basis

latter

manded.
com-

without

root

school

seconded
it in

natural

regard right

of

right insight.
throng

philosophy

later,especially, Richard

thought

that

reality which
written

being.
defended

has

with
With
the

the

moral

law

proceeded

eternal
much

will

to

the whole

by

itself also

asserted

morals

stronger degree, though

consequences

to

the
of

former

Cartesian

Cudworth,^

that it is therefore
every

part

was

hostile

nature

fixed

actions,

law

inevitable

from

is the

of Nature

metaphysical

respect Cartesianism
who

of God

content.

and

forms,

common

order

utilitarian

The

2.

the

therefore the

that
Thiis

losingits

law

The

religion;cf. " 35, 1).

and

"

was

the

as

In

this

Platonists,

first,Henry

at

Price.^

They

is

given

with

the

from

God,

and

forth

unchangeable

enthusiasm

Stoic-Platonic

of

it

but

doctrine

with

all

letters
few

in

new

in its Christian-

theistic transformation.

Cf.

Encheiridion Ethicum

'

Whose

JEssag

cone.

Treatise

by Chandler,
*

Questionsand

Sum.

Un., II. 28, 4 ff.

(1667).

concerning
in

Eternal

and

Immutable

1731.

Difficultiesin Morals

(Lond. 1758).

Morality

was

first

lished
pub-

50J:

The

in
intellectualism,

This
took

direction

Practical

Enlightenment:

that

removed

widely

was

rationalistic

with

connection

Questions.

the

from

revived

[Part

V.

metaphysics,

Scotist

recourse

Descartes

still
by
the
more
proceeded to determine
by Locke, and instead
of the
moral
law
content
solely by metaphysical relations,and,
accordingly,in the last instance, by logicalcriteria. Just in this
theories,
appeared its contrast to all the psychologicallyinfluenced

divine

the

to

will

which

had

been

of

in

which,

form

some

pain

and

in the

is clearest

principleof

the

central

in the

analogous

Cartesian

of

for the

the

to

determinations.

convinced

that

since

by Clarke,
action

every

underlying relations,the
in the

wrong
or

ethical
of this

wrongness
3.

Pierre

he

questions:

his

In

the

Ethical

things.

ancient

fashion

(cf.
Wolr

opinion.
the

thought

same

the

upon

the

turn,
to

as

act is

its

right or

rightness(correctness)

peculiar positionwith
rationalism

of

whether

to

as

depends
judgment.

supports

of

(theoretical)
judgment

sense

the

to

decision

takes

Bayle

in

obligation,
appropriateaction,develops

gave

involves

self-

truth, and

feeling

to the
by which the will is determined
inevitablyfrom such an insightinto the fitness
inferiority,
accordingly,appeared quite in the
" 7, 6) to be the result of ignorance or of erroneous

laston, stimulated

this fitness

of

the

objective
determining

to its

of mathematical

that

This

find the

action

an

knowledge

knowledge

spiritwas

feelings of pleasure

to

professed to

"fitness"

claimed

who

returned

of ethical

nerve

Clarke, who

of

case

morals

relations,and
evidence

the

as

this

other, always

or

and

without

to these

reference

ground.
metaphysical back-

any

interest of

fixingmorals upon a firm basis,

active in
as
opposed to all dependence upon dogmatic doctrines, was
the strongest and
radical
physical
most
in declaringmetaWhile
manner.
knowledge in general to be impossible he opposed the
rational
grounding of natural religion as well as that of positive
he

dogma,

yet

case

back

gave

what
practicaldomain
Incapable of knowing

according
its

duty

it lacks

he

with
had

the

full

hands

taken

from
of

essence

it in the

powerless without,

in science

it has

it is

with

complete

in conscience

"

"

reason

in

the

theoretical realm.

things, the

him, completely furnished

to

the

to

human

of

consciousness

the

master

is,

reason

of

itself.
of

knowledge

What

eternal and

unchangeable truth.
The
the

ethical

however

same,

theoretical

but
to

Bayle

holds

different men,

insight.
the

reference

reason,

He

teaches

practical reason's

this,too, he

theology.

is

glad

Revelation

therefore, remains

peoples,and
for

the

times

first time

may

with

everywhere
be in their
clear

complete independence of
to

bring
and

to

faith

its
are

sciousness
con-

retical;
the theo-

sharpest point with

regarded by him in

Principlesof Morals

2, " 36.]

Chap.

the Catholic

they

this account

on

ethical

the

admired
in the

While,

Bayle
sense,

where

of

logic. In

evidence

this

it in
miich

so

about

the

believed

the

psychological
point of
epistemological

about

through

innateness

virtual

proclaimed by

originalCartesian

about

the

brought

not

the

sense

not

rather

as

this discussion

did

truths," he

innateness,

of immediate

view

in

centered

interest

questionof

and

community of atheists.
favourable
scepticismmight seem
attacked
her
as
philosophy was necessarily

principleswere
eternal

"

as

heathetism,

well-ordered

foe.

ethical

also

ancient

theoretical

his moral

dangerous

If the

of

morally

therefore,his

Church,

to the

most

seem

excellence

of
possibility

505

theoretical illumination,
and just
essentially
to him
to be indifferent
for morality. He

as

manner

Clarke,Bayle.

of

ethical

the

medium

truths

was

in the spiritof both that Voltaire,

by Leibniz, and it was
who
in proportion as
approached Bayle's standpoint the more
his attitude toward
more
metaphysics became
sceptical(cf." 35, 5),
said of the ethical principlesthat they were
innate in man
just as
Ms limbs were
learn to use
both by experience.
must
: he
he
4. Bayle very likelyhad the support of general opinion when
of

held

ascribed

course

to the

ethical

all difference

and

perhaps, just
known

to

of

he

did

exalted

opinions; but

enter

above

he

the

upon

work

all

change

successful,

was

convictions

those

treated

not

worth

theoretical

because

all,and

as

something
their

bringing

of

expressing them as a unity. Whoever

attempted this seemed
hardly able to dispense with a principle
taken either from
metaphysics or from psychology.
Such a determination
of the conceptions of morality by a principle
made
was
possibleby the metaphysics of Leibniz,though it was only
of indications,and
was
prepared by him incidentallyand by way
first carried out by Wolff
forms.
in systematic,but also in cruder
content

The

into

convictions

system,

Monadology

whose

restless

regards
In

perfection}
coincident

with
with

The

with

perfection.

Leibniz
"law
the

Since

moral
now

ethically
good

follows

with

that

which

is the

Aristotelian

of

"

conservare

purposeful

striving of

all

(cf.

vocation

disciplesdesignated
for this ontology also
beings

as

is

toward

this

the

of

ancient

well-beingor happiness.
1

esse

suum

conception

nected
perfecting,as such, is conretrogressionin life's development

process

every
from

"

German

Nature,"

every

pleasure, and

pain,there

of the

his

law,

this

with

into

and

of

as

in

idea

transformed

which
destiny,

system of living beings,

unfolding and realising their

universe

connection

fundamental
Spinozistic

" 32, 6) becomes

or

the

activityconsists

originalcontent.
the

of

or

Leibniz, Monad.

41 ff.

identification of

the

The Enlightenment

506

of

law, therefore, demands

Natural

('

Questions.

Practical

he

that

man

all that

forbids

[Part

should

threatens

do

V.

all

to

bring
perfection,and
Wolff
this
develops the
him
loss in his perfection. From
thought
the
his
aid
especially
whole
principle
system of duties,bringing to
,
for
his
needs
own
furtherance:
man
perfectingother
of mutual
in
his own
toward
and works
perfection helping them toward
men,
that

the

his

serves

from

for not

perfecting;

his

right insight into the

the

view

the

pre-eminent
the

from
"

ment

is the

clearing up

(cf." 31, 11). Wolff's

of pointing out
form
It remains

knowledge.
which

before

5.

the

monad.^

German

the

positive,
of its

tendency

the

"

understanding

this follows
monad

perfect,

more

scholastic

it shows

more

fashion

its
of

law

natural

appears

immediately

is the

genuine

as

in
activity

its

develop-

originalobscure^representativecontent
deduction

circumstantial

takes

the

rather

of
experience the useful consequences
thus quite within
the setting of the homely
set
teacher-philosopher(Kathederphilosoph)

in

clearness

the

in

"

eJGB.cient,
by
of

The

defines

work,

father

of

Leibniz

With

his scientific

This

"

; the
representations

distinct

and

perfection.
knowledge, of
this pointof
things. From

and

man

to

further-

ethica.l

of

need

clearingup

of the

la r"aliti.

de

clear

the

"

ethical task.

conception

grandeur

aim

of

perfectionLeibniz

and

in

be

toward

permanently a step

nature

enlightenment or

truly conduces

felt to

momentarily

is

throughout

is

morality

Hence

all that

what

know

must

man

truly and

of life proves

ance

that

premises

these

it followed

particular,however,

In

vocation.

of their

fulfilment

viz. to make

Wolff

of
had

philosophy usable

conceptions
from

adopted

Enlighteners,a

and

tically
prac-

plainness of proofs.

his teacher

who

man

and

Thomasius,

wanting

indeed

was

in

the mind
of Leibniz, but was
pre-eminence that characterised
of his time, a
an
given all the more
understanding for the wants
the public
capacity for agitation, and a spirit for efforts toward

the

Intellectual

good.

in

checked
Thomasius
real

the

seventeenth

would

life,
"

put

of

movements

century

it into

the

service of the

little

criticism of

public institutions.

whole,
and

is hence

the

revived

of

well

natural

as

in that

Reason

the

of the individual

been

at

its

close.

hall into

lecture

weal

; and

turned

interest

only

had

again

general

science, his

that

should

since

it.
uses

he

toward

rule in the life

ably
fought honouragainst
narrowness,

: so

he

victoriouslyagainst superstition and

witch-trials.
of Thomasius
Enlightenment in the sense
far from
the
having
metaphysical dignity which Leibniz
It gains its value for individuals
for societyfirst by
and

and

torture

gave

as

Renaissance

transplant philosophyfrom

understood

of the

the

which

it

yields and
1 r.f

which

T.ofV.r.ir,

can

71'r""",7

expected from

be

AS

ft

it alone.

508

Enlightenment : Practical

The

[Pakt

V.

ference
by a doctrine which, in spite of the difby Leibniz,
carried
in
which
it
had
in the conceptions
in its
was
out,
of
the
with
that
German
temper the closest relationship

it

than

Questions.

was

ethical

"

metaphysician.
had

less

given

with

morality coincides
natural

with

and

essence,

congenial

him

to

of

idea

of

became

form

this

toward

Cumberland

egoism

as

the

rather

with

with

which
and

true

directly

thought. Hence,
the

as

cannot, like the latter,regard

He

in

former

the

nation.
imagi-

truly human,

characteristic

originalinborn

an

inclinations

in these

Hobbes.

the

was

complete development of his natural

at the outset
Shaftesbury's attitude

sole fundamental

agrees
as

the

of his

the

as

appears

the

to

fortune, was

true

living basis

the

is fixed

and

his

that

of man's

unfolding

with

ethical

life,as
In

undisturbed

therefore

and

man's

endowments.

to

the

Shaftesbury,the

flower

he

the

perfectiona
impressive and clear
systematic but all the more
ancient
The
conception of life,in accordance

Shaftesbury

of

root

the

natural

recognising the

endowment.

sole

of

morality ;

nations
altruistic incli-

neither

But

man

him

to

he

can

see

moralityis
its principle

completion of the entire man, and therefore he seeks

in symmetrical development and in the harmonious
interaction
of the
does not
demand
two
systems of impulses. This theory of morals
the suppression of one's own
weal
in favour
of that of others ; such
the

suppression

of

development

as

for the

universe.
in his

the

set

be

But

the

this

the

reason

control

of

will to

of

an

asserts

norms

entire

or

is the

of the

lines

and

the

same

Diderot
himself

their

in the

not

standards,

egoisticand

right,and

of

impulse

own

this

poet

axes

that

in the

relation

but

of

strata

for

rich

and

highest manifestation

of

humanity,

the

in

not

ual's
individ-

the

full living out

sovereign personalitywhich

none

individual's

the

altruistic

this thinker

of

the

with

fully

most

him,

is the

allows

the

man.

subordination
in the

of

the

life is with

consists

ter
charac-

system

itself

It

virtuosoship,which

Pope compared

sun

the

ideal

Morality

individuality.

its ethical

realm

between

ethical

one.

general maxims,

the

conflict

stages

for himself

individual

plays so large a part in the lower

completely adjusted in the ripe,mature

entirely personal

an

as

lower

truly

as

own

which

for

in the

in
perfect member
Shaftesbury'soptimism expresses

belief,that

must

lives

man

just by unfolding his

himself

Here

motives,

only

necessary

fully cultivated

whole,^ and
he

does

to it to be

appears

double

of

the

forces

endowment

motion

ethical

in the
and

to be

of the

planets

none

stunted,

about

the

(Essay on Man, III. 314 ft.). Moreover, it was through

Shaftesbury'stheory of life worked
Voltaire, while
on

the Inquiry concerning Virtue

(in his work upon
directlyto Shaftesbury.

and

Merit) attached

brings all

but

thus

ideal

of

Weltanschauung
the

While

7.

received

the

of the

sesthetical

an

either

of

nature

the nature

it

implanted
other

within

life-ideal

ends,

functions

own

they are

not

man

him

"

sense

Thus

immediate

the beautiful
a

beautiful

which

For

world

harmonious

; it

in

of

"

the
the

source,
edge
knowl-

individual
ethical

Nature

weal, or,

impulses that
man's

in

contrary,

The

which

others'

and

own

the

demonstration

feeling.

work

has

on

the

against

such

as

within

form

they

of the

the

the

inner

"

the

the

The

action

beautiful, the

understood

again
the

in

and

the

opment
perfect devel-

blesses

does

as

original

an

parallelruled

Shaftesbury

on

"

the

taste

This
aesthetically.

was

but

turn

with

"

ism.
Shaftesbury's individual-

from

in

the

purely
tially
originalfaculty,essenalike
in all men,
and
with
the
function
of judging what
is ethicallyto be approved. The
metaphysical accessories of the
Platonists and
Cartesians
were
overboard, and in
gladly thrown
their stead he held fast the more
eagerly
especiallyin opposition
to the "selfish
the
to
a
system"
principlethat man
possesses
psychological meaning

by

consists,like

object of

This

nature.

soul,and

good appeared

it

manifold,

faculty ethicallyas
led away

the

feeling-sideof

; it satisfies

deepest

transplanted from

was

aesthetic.

of the

endowments

man's

ethical

of will and

unity

is, like

degree

some

make

ability to

distinctlyexpressed by Hutcheson,

most

he

This

in rational

impulses

unnatural

vicinityof

fundamental

to

tasks.

with

empiricallyuseful

upon

literature of the eighteenth century from

perhaps

deals

on
virtuosoship,
the depths of

those

cognition to

in the

approval fixed
is the

in the

sense.

of the natural
the

"

psychological root

beautiful,in

of

his

he

capable

rest

the field of intellectual

set in the

Thus

his
on
judgments
"reflection"
the object of study, i.e. upon
(Locke);
of
one's
a
own
knowledge
states, but
merely, however,

the moral
the

when

found

were

from

approves
to further

and
of reflection,

emotions

whole.

expression

new

of the

grounded

was

these

"

of#the

alike,was

things or

hand, disapprovesthe

those

as

of

morality

which

judgments by

are

sensualists

its individual
for

welfare
finds

duct
perfectconhappiness

individual's

for ethical

of knowledge

principlesresulted that
The
morals
universallyvalid.
take

the

yet' stronger degree

cases

must

in

harmony

both

about

kalokagathia

questionas to the source

by metaphysiciansand

and

into

509

Monadology (of." 7, 5).

principlehas thus with Shaftesbury already
colouring in its contents, this colouringappears

moral

in
consistently

both

relations

brings

Hutcheson.
Shaftesbury,

efficient working for the

his most

the Greek

manifold

the

life,and

of
and

ofMorals
Principles

2," 36.]

Chap.

of

"

"

innateness

moral

sense

"

"

"

an

"

"

"

natural

feelingfor

analysisof this

the

good

feeling to be

as

the

and
for the beautiful,

business

of

declared

philosophy.

the

The

Questions.

Enlightenment : Practical

The

510

carrying

principleinto

of this

over

[Part V.

theoretical

the

domain

the True

parallelwith
(cf." 33, 8) to making
of
originalapproval,and
and the Beautiful, as the object
the Good
kind
of
But
a
logicalsense."
sense
thus assuming in
common
of feelingas source
proclaimed in a far
the principle
of knowledge was
in the Scottish School

led

"

"

"

based
his deism
by Bousseau, who
upon
pronounced manner
' of
in opposition to the cool
the uncorrupted, natural
feeling
man,
the purely theoretical
which
intellectual analysis with
ment
Enlightencarried
This feeling-philosophy
was
treated
the religiouslife.
out in a very
philosopher,
by the Dutch
indefinitelyeclectic manner
more

Franz

It was,
that

however,

the

above

monistic

morals

moral

commands,

more

the

to

quaint

Wizard

far

not

was

was

Leibnizian

for

of the

tions
investigathe

more

the

it to

able

be

eudee-

common

invest

to

the

pleasure,with the garb

the
permitted to commend

natural

be

akin

to

this

in this

fundamental

The

to
intelligible

to

from

ideas

developed Shaftesbury's
the

it

something

as

(esthetic

and

felt.

most

manner

objectof

the

as

taste

School, also,
to

attractiveness,and

and

grace

in

convenient

the

good

with

feelings,prepared by Shaftesbury

of the

treated

ethical

fusion of

its influence

was

mind,
of

in the

theory

made

Hutcheson,

and

the

enthusiast,Hamann,

"

"

North."
8.

talented

the

singularityby

and

(of Groeningen, 1720-1790),

Hemsterhuys

beautiful.

the
mode

of

view,

with

manner

Scottish

The
and

Ferguson

especialreference

conception of perfection.

effect

The

that the
however, was
complicationof thought for cesthetics,
a
Shaftesbury
beginnings toward
metaphysical treatment, which
had
from
the system of
brought to the problems of the beautiful
Plotinus, became
by the psychological
completely overshadowed
of this

method.
how

The

feelingof

the

asked

question
the

beautiful

question the explanation

less close

connection

the

of

the

case

those

sensualistic

conceives

purely

of the

holds

of man's

arises ; and

the

aesthetic

ethical

writers

was

relations.

upon

the
in

beautiful

is,but

solution

of this

the

brought
This

into

or

itself,
too,

shows
stood

sesthetics who

more

closer to

Thus
Henry Home
psychology than did the Scots.
enjoyment of the beautiful as a transition from the
intellectual
of desires to the moral
and
pacification

sensuous

joys, and

with

of

not, what

was

that

the

sensuous

arts

have

been

dispositionwhich

"

invented
is

"

for

requisitefor

that

ment
refine-

his

higher

Savoyard Vicar in Smile, IV. 201 ff.

ed.
(of Konigsberg, 1730-1788
; collected writings
this line of thought with
by Gildemeister, Gotha, 1857-73) combines
a pietism
not
far removed
from
unclear
and
orthodoxy in his thoughtful, but illogical
1

Cf. the

Johann

form

of

creed

of the

Georg

expression.

Hamann

Principlesof Morals

2," 36.]

Chap.

highersenses, hearing
a

the

to

manifold

into

sense,"and

men

of which

of

is for

the

aesthetic

the

beautifulto

selfish

which

fills

sublime

be

sort of

the

on

the

the

while

we

of

danger
is

feelings either

of

from

That

the

is held

to

agreeable shudder,

an

far

so

pain

to call forth

sexual

relation

also,had

proceeds

immediate

adapted

very

porary
contem-

the

Home,

ourselves

are

sensation

problems by

impulses.

vice
ser-

in his

psycJwlogy, is

"

in

the

of

states

success

terror

of

tially
essen-

Burke,

which

at

social

basis,

look

determine

to

task

"

Edmund

to the

attempt

little

contrary, which

the

manner

from

His

the

combination

ethically,in

associational

given

with

us

delightfulhorror,"

feel removed

we

of

the

as

relations

elementary

form

and

finds

in

further

good

from

very

of the

beautiful

distinguishes
immediately an "object

is

common

sublime

with

laboured, though
antithesis

the

then

which

method

stronglydependent upon the

moral
philosophy.
of

he

Even
placed.-"^

the

the

the

relation,"these

"

is thus

with

in accordance

When

beauty

derive

of

511

order, regularity,
aq^

beauty

beauty

what

realm

especiallysight,and
for

unity.

the

toward

effort to

and

"intrinsic"

the

between
of

all

common

taste

the

seeks, therefore,

destiny. He

Some, Burke.

love

in

of

or

that

away

that

"a

is beautiful,

agreeable

an

human

love

in

general.
In

similar

manner

the beautiful
that of the
The
which
him

to

good, forming

following

"

feelingof
But

valuable

moral

and

perfect

in

and

which

Kant

and

instituted

Sublime," at

the

time

'

band
^

For

more

in- Ersch

detailed
und

According to

with

in

richer

his

when

" 34, 11)

beautiful

the

the
II.

esprit

of
the

are

Feeling

art.

is sublime

was

Home

the

morals
so

long

its task.
"

Observations
Beautiful
the

from
of

for

was

and

art
"

senses.

man
handicrafts-

of the

knowledge

32, 213

the

of the

mechanical

the

as

further

to

service

factor

appeared
"

beautiful

he, too, pursued,

admirable

it

who
aesthetics,

but

the

and

other.

intellectual

able

was

into
on

the

perceived by

conception

in

feeling of

to

one

beautiful

(cf.

it

writer

treatment, see
Enc, Vol.
the

of the

when

himself

Gruber's
Home

the

in the

manifold

"concerning

standpoint,and

found

drawn

the

moralising

freer
infinitely

from

the
presuppositions,

only

the

placed

sensuously agreeable

Leibniz

in the

shows

Germany,

of Philistine

How

of

these

Enlightenment,

celebrated

view

Art, also, is thus

sense.

of the

he

apprehension

unity
of

reason

of the

transition

transfer

the

Sulzer

Home,

that

thus

our

harmonious

just by

him

the

this

co-operates in

of

between

midway

of
possibility

that

to

the

(Kames)

logical
psycho-

world,

by W.

and

the

"Windel-

f.
if it is

great.

between
the qualitativelyand
the
quantitatively pleasing
basis of his unclear
and
wavering characterisations.

seems

The
to

antithesis
lie at

the

612

The

fine

ramifications

Enlightenment : Practical Questions.

peoples !
Finally these thoughts

aesthetic

and

ethical

the

of

in

life

[Pakt

V.

individuals,

families,and
//

that

theory
/psychological
the

been

custom

Aristotelian

feelings,which
that

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of

their

either

various

the

into

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group

knowing,

rather

expression,in part lay

of

the

significance,

; it seemed

disadvantage

peculiar mode

practical. But

recognised in

willing, without

feelings,as

the

and

theoretical

in

it had

psychicalactivities according to

incapable of being brought

seemed

this

the

thus

became

change

Before

results.

in

to

rich

into

example

Germany

was

divide

to

in

occasion

gave

that

at

the

of the soul.
part followed, both of the above functions
the Leibnizian
from
Monadology.
Here, too, the suggestion came
first
have
to
his
Berlin
i
n
seems
lectures,^
'Sulzer,
pointed out that
in

basis,and

the

obscure, primitive states

the

developed

and

willing,and

of these
with

forms

obscure

Jacob

these

the

basis,as

common

decisive

the

former

the

of

since

and

then

Leibniziaji

Mendelssohn

(1755)
later

and
[sensations],

"

terminology

on

It

for

which

power,

lies at

exercised

was

and
GefUhle),^

or

later

has

Kant

their

Tetens

But
and

made

basis

of

the latter

used
the

ion
tripledivis-

willing( Vor-

ideation,feeling,and

into

Wollen) the systematic

this

by

the

(Empfindungen)the

sensations

he, too, who

was

psychical functions

stellen,Fiihlen,und

from

way,

Weiss?

psychical

substituted

exclusively.

pleasureand pain given

of

similar

Empjindungen

expression/eeZmgis(Fuhlungen
almost

be

.*
faculty of approved (Billigungsvermogen)

influence

The

Kant.

conditions

Friedrich

designated the

author

same

states

should

distinguishing characteristic

the

also,in

done

was

presuppositions by
first named

to be the

states

separatedfrom
completely conscious
knowing

in

seen

already found

he

This

them.

life

of

monad

of the

his

philosophy,*

authoritative, especiallyfor

remained

psychology.
9.
the

The

counter-current,which

profitor injury of

of the

human

individual

will,maintained

In
a

the

this

proceeded

theory, the

itself in the
criterion

purely psychological manner

1

1751

J. F.

f.

Printed

"Weiss, De

in the

Natura

to be

in

VermiseJUen
Animi

from
the
face

sole

possiblecontent
ments.
develop-

of all these

of ethical action
the

declared

and

Hohhes

of

consequences

soughtin

was

action

such

Schriften (Berlin,1773).
potissimum

et

Cordis

(Stuttgart,

Humani

1761).
3

In

this

Mendelssohn,

with

his

directlyto Shaftesbury.
*
Cf. Mendelssohn, Morgenstunden,
5 Cf.
Tetens, Versuche, X. pp. 625
"

In

the
to

under

the

article
the
title

Letters

concerning

the

Sensations,

refers

1785, oh. 7 (W. I. 352).

ff.

written
between
1780
and
1790
designed at first
into
has
Critique of Judgment which
passed over
Ueber
Philosophie iiberhavpt. Cf. Pt. "VI. ch. 1.

as

his

an

duction
intro-

writings

Principlesof Morals

2, " 36.]

Chap.

only his

and

woe

; but

point of

view

of

whether

is

this alone

regarded

the

513

Morality exists only within

and
by himself
alone, knows
societyhis optionsare judged

if

individual,

weal

own

the

fellovtmen.

our

The

body.

tlie social

from

of

advantage

for the

Utilitarianism.

in

they profitor

standpoint

of

injure others, and

ethical

judgment. This
conceptionof the ethical criterion corresponded not only to the
view, but also to the felt need of finding for ethics a basis
common
of metaphysics, and
rest purely on
that should be destitute
cal
empiri-

psychology.
last

resort,and

Cumberland

and

the

it.

worked

men

becomes

ethical

ideal

became

the

This

greatestnumber.
This

formula, however,

the
quantitatively
The

the

thought

of

ethical

it

demonstrative
strictly
therebyto have found
mode
of thinking.

and

This

who

more

is

ethicallythe
happiness, and in
this

of

thought

happiness

relations.
of

knowledge

principle,seemed

the

to

determining
and

cases

utilitarian

form, welcome

enticement

this

Utilitarianism.

grounding

the

upon

of

individual
of

of

greatest happiness of the

watch-word
the

formula

share

can

is the

for

definite

action

produces

Locke,

ethics

the

(jikeButler/and

classical
An

suggested

values

Hobbes

The

out.

pleasing in proportion as
of
proportionas the number
:

it in

to

psychologists like Priestley and

to

more

greater

acceded

even

theologicalmoralists

themselves

gradually

was

Locke

associational

the

Hartley, attached
tendency

only

not

also

Paley, but

as

natural-science

pursued by Bentham, and

in this Consists the peculiarelement
of utilitarian thought as carried
out by him,
work
which
he performed with
a
a warm
feeling for
the public good, and which
The
later much
referred
to.
was
point
is to find exact, definite points of view, according to which
the value
was

"

of every

mode

of action

community to which
partlyin its relation

he

this table

and

scheme

both

of

Hume

with

which

The

it

their

opposites,with

and

of

social

pain
of

operates

relations

balance

human

for

and

activities

the

eration
consid-

sketches

needs,

reckoning

in

Bentham

extensive

an

of the

partly in itself,

"

; and

conduct

and

useful

and

institutions.

and

As

in

this

are

process

solely the

feelings

of

pain.
close

assumption
of

determined,

modes

pleasure and

after

"

be

himself

actor

uable
(cf.below, No. 12), the reckoning of the ethicallyvalfalls to the province of the measuring intellect ; but the factors

pleasure and
10.

of the

other

individual

injuriousconsequences
with

weal

belongs, can
to

of values

of

for the

of

connection

Hobbes
the

with

the

the

this

selfish

stood

utilitarianism

system

"

that

is,with

of

human

separationof the question as

kind
of knowledge by which
it

to the

essentially egoistic character

led necessarilyto the

morality and

in which

is

torically
histhe

nature

criterion

apprehended,

that

from
for

For

them.

obeying

eternal

the

of

personality,for the following

under
self-explaining
morality was
the

who

thought

being determined
to his own_Ee"l
of

way
a

or

be

can

morality

woe,

of "such

declared

determined
of

not

was

how

it

especial

livingout

of

inclinations;

presuppositions: Butjie
he

held

who

him

to be

into

nature

being,and

obedience

to

this

man's

such

means

If

requirement.

nature,

it must

be

without.

from

him

by what

to

in

inherent

itself

comes

solelyby regard
what
right an altruistic
"^^^^^^TigTini5f"as""with

acting is required

being

such

of man,
pessimistically
and in hisown
originally

more

and

ethical

innate

of

of Nature

further

no

V.

sanction

law

perfection,for the

effort toward

for the

needed

motive

to be

seemed

also,there
psychologically,

'and

of the

truths

[Part

the motives

metaphysical theories,the

the

lay in

the ethical commands

and

commands

moral

of the

to the sanction

as

Questions.

Enlightenment : Practical

The

514

by Hobbes
principleof authority,already adduced
the
and Locke, performed its service.
Its most
palpable form was
carried out with more
finelywrought conceptions
theological;it was
to the common
mind,
intelligible
'by Butler, and in a crude manner,
Here,

Utilityis

by Paley.
divine
But

while

Butler

conscience

Paley, it

which

he

is rather

the

is authoritative

; and

because

only

with

is the

This

which

the

God

; the

Supreme
reward,
11.

the

Paley

the
/for

positiverevelation

fear

requirements.

the

of

and

ethical

the

to

"

common

moral
of

the

ethical

weal

moral

motive

will

divine

to him

seems

"
"

that

able
explicits

connected

"

sense

is the
the

reflection

"

mandment
com-

threateningsof punishment.
and that perhaps
principles,

suppliesthe

the

of

has

power

divine

term

to this command

of reward

which
the

; and

of

neighbour;

is the
is the

man

which

will

revealed

is the

in

Christian

the

one's

sanction

punishment,

of

will

of the

hope

of the

fixed for

has

God

of

disobedience.
thus

man,

explained the fact

in himself

of

commanded

of ethical action

is
egoistic,

by

the

esis
hypoth-

the

last

by
agency
brought
about
roundthe
and
and
fear,
hope
by
of
theologicalmotivation, to the altruistic mode
The
sensualistic psychology substituted
by God.

equally egoisticmotives

theologicalagency
forces of

resort

of

also the

uses

authoritative

most

ground

the

and

way
action

real

and

that

himself

knowledge

our

Being

obedience

of

of

ground

ethical

of this

the

action,and

will in the
knowledge
of Shaftesbury'semotions
re-interpretation

promises

criterion

the

the

sharpestseparationof

The

of

ground

obedience

the

corresponds

world.

his

"

criterion of ethical

the

the

still seeks

for
reflection,

for

for both

is for both

command

natural
of

the

now,

the

social life.

always determinable

at

of

authority of
If

the

only by

his

will
own

the
of

weal

state
man

and

and
is

in

woe,

the

straining
con-

the

last

his altru-

had

of

consciousness

duty

such
of

good, yet thought that in the case

it should
start with
gives to men
low these might be ; for he granted
a

as

is

genus

be

and

the

V.

for himself

free from

all

highest ethical

education

their

[Part

who

Great/
pure

to

the

which

the

state

closest

however
interests,
Encyclopaediststhat man

to the

determined

to be

never

the

strict and

so

declared

selfish considerations,and

Questions.

Frederick

king
philosophical

too, Prussia's

Practical

Enlightenment :

The

516

else

by anything

than

by his

In this respect the French

Enlighteners,
personal interests.
sought to analyse the motives, by awakening which the
especially,
own

state

Lamettrie

with

fine

takes

repute

the

as

how

of

of

factor

Helvetius

the

forms

constitution.

to the

already done,

powerful

the whole.

different

forms

different
had

peoples, and

civilised

interests

psychology

under

most

the

for

care

Mandeville

pointed, as
or

among

to

this relation

which

honour

citizens

showed

Montesquieu
are

the

win

can

sense

of

in the social sentiment

carried

out

this

thought

looked

for

man's

ethical

farther.

from

education
this

sensualistic

if the

But

of

Holbach,

public
and

the

and

raise

citizen

the

Hume's

12.

above

moral

embodiment
of

completely
ethical

the

motives

upon
is to

public life

the

basis

be

contend

adapted

produce

the

which
in

ancients

the

adapted to

were

endeavours.

the

within

as

the

most

plete
com-

most

refined

eration
consid-

it.

It, too,

stands

of

utilitarianism

from

the

selfish

approval and disapproval is,for

quality or action to be judged is
of feelings of pleasure and
pain,

ethical
the
form

interpretsthis in the
widest
he regards as objects of ethical pleasure,
as
sense, inasmuch
social virtues," such
not
only the
as
benevolence, etc.,but
justice,
^
also the "natural
abilities,"such as prudence or sagacity,fortitude,
and,

like

to

effect

of

little

how

the

understood

criterion

as

perhaps

man's
:
psychological method
by a genetic investigationof his
in
The
most
significantelement

of

and
volitions.
passions,feelings,
Hume's
teaching is the separation

system. The
him, too, the

time

regarded

and

movement,
that

of that

be

may

is

book

dry

which

estimatingthe
drawn
was
by

it tries to show

of selfish

meanness

philosophy

of this

the

life

the

for

of this

which

with

success

consequence

feature

with

of

standard

This

energy

of

thus

degree

as

serve

winning

most

conditions

rotten

must

institutions.

the honourableness
the

alone, the

state

accomplished

was

value

the

psychology

and

Shaftesbury,he

"

energy,

etc.

But

we

feel this

approval,

67

Cf. especially what

is adduced
by E.
fE.,105ff.,and also especiallyFrederick's

Here, too, the old ambiguity

abilityor excellence,plays a part.

of

virtus

even

Zeller, F.

when

d.

G.

"AntimacchiavelM."
moral
=
(virtue)

these

als

qualities

Philosoph, pp.

virtue, and

also

Principlesof Morals

2," 36.]

Chap.

indifferent
completely

are

the

to

same

of

relation

which

rious
inju-

even

traced

back

to

psychologicalassociation.

mere

these

judgments sustain
experience forbids the assumption

the

hand,

the other

medium

be

possibly

cannot

517

indeed

welfare, or

own

our

this

and

throughthe

egoism

to

Smith.

Hume,

On
the

to

of their
relations of
complicated
rather
be reduced
to a simple,elementary
innateness.
They must
capacity to feel
form, and this is sympathy? i.e7primarily our
his

another

with

action,for

will.

the

explain ethical

to the natural
of

standards

the

which

Hobbes.

their

abilityto

reflection

as

of

reflection

of
of

of

alone

are

the

For

Hume

treats
law

But

in

the

but

last

originalmotives
the

decisions

of

not

adequate

to

complicated

more

ordering, and
clarification,
this

feeling,and

is the

arise,therefore,in

reason

artificial

"

to

the

only

"

parative
com-

business
addition

virtues,as

system of
justiceand the whole
in this, evidently,still dependent
these
resort
principles,also, owe

judgment and volition, not

the feelings of sympathy to

influence

such,

"

weakened

not

the

causes

action.

factors

rights and

upon

the

are

in

are

also

originalvalues, derivative

and

of

and

is need

of the

From

type

least

at

own,

originalimpulses

life,there

of

reason.

the

feelings

judgment

valuation
of

the

Still,these

relations

our

as

judgments, but

of moral

impulsivegrounds
of moral

woe

or

sympathetic feelings, however,

Such

form^

weal

to

rational
this

which

appeals.
is refined
sense"
by
conception of a "moral
Hume's
investigationto a finelyarticulated
chology
psysystem of moral
with
its carefullydifferentiated
conceptions, as the centre
farther
of which
A
find the principle of sympathy.
step in
we
of
ethical work
taken
in the
carrying out this same
theory was
Thus

Adam

the

crude

Smith.

utilitarianism

pleasurable or

As

Hence

externality

attention
rather
far

Smith

the

to

the
this

as

found

the

sentiment

of him

aims

the

at

And

conscience

is then

Cf.

with

acts, and

extending farther and farther

sympathy, the judgment which the
in the

ically
energet-

proval
approval or disap-

the

the

one's
to

Treatise, 11. 1, 11,

one

self

thought

as

and

not
who
into

of

in

the

question.

only

in

the

experiences
the disposition

feel his motives

individual

conceived

in

consequences

sympathy,

of

essence

who

had

disposition manifesting itself

capacityof feelingthese consequences

them, but also in the abilityto transfer
or

ethical

fact,that

in the

judgment

act, Hume

the

ordinary

which

with

ethical

of

placed the criterion

of
painful consequences

concerns
so

the

had

directed

action,in

against

transfer

with

him.

through

self
himupon
pronounces
through
reflex,mediated

II.

2, 5.

The

feelings of

sympathy,
exercises

and

others
All

and

the

and

feeling an

the

he

believed

himself

in

demand

life,in

reference

mechanism

the

the

of

The

fundamental

The

its
own

the

which

with

individual
he

finds

Enlightenment

the

of

philosophy

hold

the

to

as

is

Enlight-

products of the activities of individuals

the
tendency to single out those interests
in3ividual may
expect from^ such general
exist,and

these

once

and

motives

the

treat

to

sufficient

of human

great institutions

the

as

But

societyand
historical movement,
was
prescribedfor it in advance, partlyby
metaphysics, and partly by its
dependence upon natural-science
in these
institutions
to see
psychologicaltendency. This was

(Bnment would
its

and

of Civilisation.

Problem

thought,

strait-

supply

in which

body, which he does not create, but

himself
actually placed, the philosophy of the
already pointing beyond itself.

" 37.

exchange

the

social

upon

great

transfers

the

to

competition of labour.'
thoroughgoing dependence of the
with

connection

insights into

these

with

is conducted

of the

realm

in the

his

similar to that which

interests

discovered

of

with

sympathetic

of

mechanism

of individual

to have

conditions

the

of

ness

from

rooted,according to
psychological basis is

politicaleconomy,

of

in the

goods, which

of external

receives

V.

thus

are

life,whose

social

founder

adjustment

life

ethical

friend,sees
philosophical
of

he

which

judgment

[Part

others.

the

in

Smith,

sympathy,

the

of

upon
of

phenomena

Hume

Questions.

Enlightenment : Practical

518

them

in

this

from

wEoiF
social

followed

Tatipaction the
connections

genetic mode

for the

causes

; and

of

origin of the

when

explanation
institutions

time
question,while at the same
regarding them^ from a critical
for estimating the value
of the same.
point of view, as the standard
Whatever
was
regarded as having been intentionallycreated by
in

should

men

show

also

whether

it

really fulfillingtheir

then

was

purposes.

track
and juristic
guided into the political
conception was
The state appeared as the work
of individuals,
primarilyby Hohhes.
This

1.

constructed
of

with

war

system
the
The

of

same

them

each

under

other

rights,it

citizens

Middle

by

and

into

of

stress

need,

in fear for life and

regarded

was

entered

the

with

as

each

from

Epicurean compact-theory,which
with Nominalism
Ages, passed over

Inquiry

into

the

Nature

and

Causes

of

the

Wealth

goods. With

restingupon
other

in

when

had
into

its whole

compact which

the
the

condition

above

revived
modern

of Nations

motives.

in the

later

philosophy
(Lend. 1776),

'

of Civilisation

2, " 37..] Problem

Chap.

and extended its influence

the

over

of

construction
the artificial

Compact-Theory.

whole

619

eighteenth century.
which

absolutism,

Hobbes

had

But

erected

and
in consequence
of politicalevents
/upon
it,gave place
Ito the doctrines of popular sovereignty. This lay at the basis of the
more

more

of

EnglishConstitution
Locke

which

tfee

gave

well

1688, as

of the theoretical

in his doctrine

same

of

of the

the

the

executive,and

fe(Jgrative. It controlled,also, as
in

writings of Montesquieu, who,

the

law

of

administration

his

at

would

time,

out

to a

in the

united

as
respectively)

complete

monarchical

one

of

system

Social,in which

was

to

In

of the

antithesis

he must

realities

between.
If

background.
be

man

and

regarded

to

the

keep

finally

was

Rousseau's

Con-

the

politicsis obvious, but

the

has

social

expected

interesting

eighteenth century

to

now

The

rightof

"

the

individuals

natural

in their

different

leading
the

compact

to

Cf. his

that
had

the

of

made
the

secure

show
were

derived

in

interest

he

it

on

mutual

ancients.'
this

introduction

to

the

of

the

in

the
of

from

the

rightsof
carrying out this
in German
osophy,
phil-

this the

in

Yet

from

in
extremely characteristic
the conceptions of right (or

Wolff

account

Juris

of

merely psychological

themselves

furtherance

Codex

his

will

theories

those

proceeds also

the
of

perfecting,enlightening,and

(Erd.),11,8 ff.

the

to

derive

other.

that

arm

in

general principlesof practicalphilosophy,

example

of their mutual

tendencies

Leibniz

most

respect also,but

to each

results

to

their differences.

the

relation

to

time

social

of him

also

have

not

this

of
seeks

individual,and

principletwo

from

right

did

"

and

strong

compact-theory

the

itself

communicated

philosophy of right which

-basis.

that

see

the

by

originallygood

as

its theoretical

essentiallyegoistic,

compact

always take part in carrying out,

whole, the life prescribedby the compact.
is

of

also

nature

himself

'

It

without,

Hobbes,

by

as

it is to be

feelings,as by Rousseau,

Works

in

doctrine

Eousseau

is

is regarded

if he

the

of

historical

of

Hobbes

compelled

of the state

law)

and

hea,d.

democracy

executive

the

transformations

all these

influence

the

the

principleof transfer and representation

much
be limited
ereignty
as
as
possible,and the exercise of the sovalso to be assigned directlyto the whole
body of the people.

trat

It

rotten

complete independence

judicialpower, while he thought of

within
departments (as administration

federative

ment,
require-

the

considering

have

and

legislative,

ideal

an

to the

given

carried

departments

ing
shap-

separation

state,the

equilibriumof

and

three

at that

as

Gentium

him

followed
end

of

the

individuals

in

lowing
folthis

political
in behalf

happiness ; according

Diplomaticus

(1693),

him, therefore,the

to

also

safety, but
The

and

duty

of

who

men

are

not

welfare

in

Wolff

this is that

of

consequence

care,

to

general

the

for

has

state

the

great

mass

state

right
unenlightened

of

intermeddling

private relations in the way of education.

paternal despotism of the
theory for that

Thus

the

gave

which

police-stateunder
mixed

"

"

the

of

Germans

his

extent.
the

of

in their

even

external

broadest

to the

passion,and

and

[Pabt V.

for

merely

assigns

the

of

thorough tutelage
controlled
by error

Questions.

Practical

Enlightenment:

The

520

time

Wolff

benevolent

lived

with

very-

feelings.
itself

attached

exactly opposite result

The

separation of the philosophy of right from

had already been prepared by Thomasius,
way
of the

and

justum

the

this

In

honestum.

the

solelyas

the

ordering of

with

sharp parting
masius,
discipleof Tholaw

right or
of

relations

external

the

his

the

that

the

for which

morals,

line

Gundling (1671-1729),maintained
treated

theoreticallyto

be

to

was

individuals,

fore
preservationof peace without, and thererelations.
This
its decrees
be enforced
can
only as to outward
limitation
of the state's activityto the external
protectionof law
evidently corresponded most fully to the dualistic spiritof the
If the individual
has
conformed
to the
Enlightenment.
political
from
he
will
be
inclined
need
and
to
want,
evidently
compact only
few concessions
make
and will be willing
to the state as possible,
as
is uncondito sacrifice to it of his original rights only so much
as
This was
it is to fulfil.
not
ditionally requisitefor the end which
merely the thought of the Philistine
citizen,who is indeed ready to
call for the policeat once
when
anything is the matter, but privately
that it has

for its end

the

"

"

regards

the

his throat

much

as

lightener

of

inner

only

life
to

spiritof

of

order

the

high intellectual
the

interest

the

enjoyments

the

small

"

Ideas

of the

is

the

the

toward
State."
from

"

the

life and

and

art

this

higher
the

is restricted
of the

Written

in

had

William

the

of

man

1792, published

1851

by

E.

the

the

is

Caner.

thus

preciation
de-

cultured

Humboldt's

von

of the

Operation

cluded
carefullyex-

service of

citizen.

petty

ideals, must

authority,and
lower

lested
unmo-

life which

among

Enrich

his

stage which

the Bounds

interest

for

of

public

respect

by

of the

fact, the

In

from

kept

himself

devote

to

its lack

state's
to

feeling

who

lowest

to determine

of

the

toward
The

be

must

science.

characterised

every

property

able

states, with

province

public govcTnment

also

was

being

reached

best

Here

the

of

that

enemy

indifference

Attempt

an

it

expression.

state

perhaps

an

development,

of

German

its theoretical
of

classes

as

possible;

as

necessarilyproduce
found

laws

the task of

protecting

Problem

2, " 37.]

Chap.

this respecb German

in

If

2.

the

toward

appearedin

there

actual

it also

life of

the

to order

of Civilisation

the

that

of

the

it is

If

ferent
indif-

quite

the

on

of *he

general tendency

society,as

521

remained

philosophy

politicalcondition,

of philosophy.
principles

the

Voltaire.

other

hand,

Enlightenment

individual, according
for

glory enough

this

to

period

historical lumber
that had
successfullycleared away much
accumulated in the house-keeping of European peoples, Thomasius
to have

Mendelssohn

Wolff,

and

their share

the

in

forward

came

degree with

work

in
the

and

(cf. " 36, 5).

French

this

But

incomparably

an

It

Enlighteners.

is

he

carried

publicopinion of
in

countrymen,

all

to

on

Europe

criticism

for their

taken

was

social

of

a
improvement :
r
eflection
philosophical
proceeds

in

And

here

by

side with

the

criticism

weakness
its

for

it loses

to the

universal,

from

sight

believes

the
that

eternal

it is

bar

his

of

fellow-

by proposals

once

the

state.

appears

side

standards

man

or

vital

and

the

force

to make

of

for

proposals

of

needed

only

at

its

nature

authorisation

the

reforming

takes
of

the

But

its

their

of

things;

of

histori-

tabula

rasa

themselves

contrary
they show
to be able to build up societyentire in accordance
the principlesof philosophy. In this spiritthe literature
of
Enlightenment, especiallyin Erance, prepared for the actual

with
the
break

vnth

history,
"

Deism

the

which,

its "rational"

their

wherever

in order

of

then

abstract

the

because

realisation

of

Contract.

And

abolish

of

human

The

de

pens

that

acts

la

Nature,

for

characteristic

the

decree

"

numerous

preference

Church, is

to

"liberty, equality, and fraternity,"the

Social
rights according to Kousseau's
of

very

glorify the procedure.-'

superficialEpicureanism standing upon

Systlme

in

put

Nature.

justifyand

positivism

all and

them

Revolution, too, attempted

state
"

none

criticism,would

French

natural

the proTypical in this was

cedure
stood
of the positivereligions with-

Revolution.

place the religionof

So

'

of

task

always, it

ing
work-

rank,

by

and

recall

to

passionate discussion

often

and

Enlightenment

As

existingconditions

to reason,

to

the

strength.

the

'calreality,
and
of the

of

institutions

existing institutions,and

change, from
thus

broad

detail

in

efficient

here

before

for

matter

and

justice.

extent
up

the

first

and

certain

the

credit

of

enough

of

appeared as a literarypower
unweariedly and victoriouslyfor reason
which

side

powerful

more

who
Voltaire,

contest

deserve

Nicolai, certainly

as

the

spokesman.
the

source

catechism,

of this

literature.

of

is

It

the

for

the

basis

most

of

all the

evils

designed

of

for

part

Condillac's

Volney seeks,

Thus

form

quality hastened

moderate

the

with

societyin

education

in

the

the

and

ignorance

frightened

be

shall

restrained

been

hitherto

has

away
have

organised society will

"good" is only what

toi."

pour
of

that

I'environne

de

et

St.

in

rule

the

and

man,

"Conserve

tes semblables, afin

is the

whom

from

Lambert,

comes

chism
catetoi

"

qu'ilsvivent

in which

form

the

the

theory

the

tion
defini-

"

L'homme

de ce qui
reqoitI'intelligence
the
most
With
consideration
superficial

sensible ; il

besoins."''

ses

of

interests

in later literature

discussed

organiseeet

masse

une

with

appears

much

was

materialistic

more

Eevolution

the

est

Still

the

vis pour

"

V.

all "illusions"
by religions. When
these
with
religions,then the newly
rule of conduct, that
its supreme
as

comprehended

toi

modere

"

[Part

capacity for perfection

whose

man,

furthers

citizen is

for the

instruis toi

of

covetousness

Questions.

Practical

Enlightenment:

The

522

Revolution
the
in the
final
history, he celebrates
time
this Epicurean
in history,and
at the same
victory of reason
that the democratic
deduces
beginnings of this great event will be
pitch of self-complacent
completed in Csesardom ! The extreme
reached
boasting in this aspect of parliamentary dilettantism was
of

Lancelin.^

Gar at and

by

glitteringgeneralitiesand declamations
the earnest
of the people and the reign of reason,
the welfare
over
Bentham
sought to make the utilitarian principle
reality with which
in an
useful
for legislation,
light.
extremely favourable
appears
This work
he sought to accomplish by teaching the applicationof
of pleasure and
the
quantitative determination
pain values (cf.
In

" 36, 9)
a

to

showed

this he

the

above

to the
his

question

of the

ends

existingconditions

insight into the

at issue

particularstatutes, with

of

fact

in

that

in

in

case.'' Just

every
the

ment
politicalmoverights,but
political

is not

merely that of
all that of social interest,
siastic
and
along just this line an enthuand successful
in Godwin,'
arose
champion of the Eevolution
not uninfluenced
But
was
by Bentham.
along other lines,too,

Volney,

St. Lambert,
the

close of the

at the

this literature
la

these

consideration

the

regard

careful

who

with

contrast

Catech.

it should

Analyse

not

Vbomme

de

Catechisme, OEuvr.,

Introd., ffiuvr.,I. 53.

remain

I. 310.
For

unmentioned

is followed

in

that
second

the
in

of

characterisation
St. Lambert's

book

by

was

the

an

chism
cate-

Analyse

de

femme.

"

The

organ
sophiqiie,which
of the
*

It

of

this

movement

and

saw

eighteenth century.

is the
to

to

more

give

kind

in radical

most

defended

be
of

Cf.

lamented

of

esteem

Eevolution

the

Decade

Fhilo-

of the

phy
philoso-

triumph
Picavet, Ideologues, 86 ff.
Bentham' later in his Deontology
that

popular catechism

one-sidedness, in rancour
systems, equals the worst products
6

worthy

in the

and
of the

of

lack of
time

the

utilitarian

understanding
of the

tempted
at-

morals, which,
for

other

moral

Revolution.

(1756-1836) published his Inquiry concerning Political

Cf. C.
General
Virtue
and
Influence on
Happiness in 1793.
Kegan Paul, W. Godwin, his Friends and Contemporaries, Lond.
1876, and L.
Stephen, English Thought, II. 264 ff.
"William

Justice

and

Godwin

its

/ broke

shows,

\Indeed,

masses

But

those

if in

classes,if
that

must

appear

all the

of

the

connection

this

In

of

estimation

for the

standard

the

the

things

the

and

"higher"

of

way

For

tion
civilisa-

or

of the

yielding

also,its value

masses

philosophy regarded

more

greatest

"

culture

luxury

the

of
the

problem of

"

little in

so

doubtful

more

"greatest happiness

the

do

to

for the needs

be used

could

fruits

able

been

appearedin

as

consequences

it had

hold

it first took

in which

strata

such

had

against itself.

Enlightenment necessarilyturned

the

which

of

V.

democratic.
beginning decidedly more
off
the
ment
enlightenagitativetendency to play
of
the
against the exclusive self-seeking
upper
with this was
completed a revolution,by virtue

the

thousand.

ten

[Pakt

the

from

was

it had

of the
"

Questions.

Enlightenment : Practical

The

524

number"

the

as

proper

actions.

civilisation

shaped

itself out for

how
far civilisation,
and
philosophy : the question whether
i.e. intellectual
improvement (which is a historical fact),and the
life,which
impulses and in the relations of human
change in human

modern

has

has
The

with

connected

been

served

to

praised the

progress

its summit

of

the
It

more

is raised

and

moral

in how

and

order

of the
and

burning

and

human

rational

distinct

uncomfortable

"

first,
though

not

in

had

Enlightener
in him

reached

life in

theory and practice,

question became.

this

direct

happiness.

true

average

which

mind,

far this civilisation

man's

and

self-complacentlythe

clear

whether

"

the

further

proudly

more

it

and

square

statement, by

of the selfish
adherent
psychology an extreme
system, he sought to show, as against Shaftesbury,that the whole
the struggle
of the social system rests solelyupon
charm
life and
interests
a
in their own
which
self-seekingindividuals
carry on
In

Mandeville.

his

"

also upon
Adam
in his doctrine of
Smith
principlewhich worked
If we
should
think
of man
as
strippedbare
supply and demand.^
of all egoisticimpulses (thisis the meaning of the Fable of the Bees),
and provided only with the "moral"
qualitiesof altruism, the social
would
stand
still from
of regard for self.
absence
mechanism
pure
motive
in civilisation
is solely egoism, and, therefore,
The
power
be surprised if civilisation displays its activity,not
must
not
we
guising
by heightening the moral qualities,but only by refiningand disegoism. And the individual's happiness is as little enhanced
increased, the egoism,
by civilisation as his morality. If it were
\

on

the

which
In

material
new

and

progress

truth, it

of

civilisation rests,would

appears,

condition,brought
stronger

Ci.

wants

rather, that
about

in the

Lange, Gesch.

d.

every

be

ened.
thereby weak-

improvement

of the

by intellectual advance, calls forth

individual,in

Mater.,

I. 285

consequence

[Eng.

tr. I.

295J.

of which

of Civilisation

Chap. 2,"87.] Problem

becomes

he

only

cost of the

at the

the

egoism,whose

attained

them

given

and

more

history

its worth

And
all

he

in

growth

but

he

found

the work
In

of

the

Heloise.
for

mis-heard
For

had

he

The

Gessnerian

the

admonition

did

not

wish
He

in the

first

the

as

salon

lead

to

back

of

the
mately,
ulti-

enlisted

self-seeking.
barbarism
in this

morally
all in the

with

this

siasm
enthu-

they

account

Genevan.

to

convinced

was

that

was

away

on

course,
Dis-

and,

paradise,and

carried

were

great

it

writings, above

pastoral idyl; but

of the

the classes

intellectuallyand

time

pure,

step by step.

of civilised

lost

rated
deterio-

for its result

service

condition

nature.

in his second

had

this

made

and

good

iNature

which

but

society has

Rousseau,

in Rousseau's
of the

human

his true

and

from

passions

of

yearning

the

"

permanently
at

all

of

life,had

of

separationof

this unnatural

ladies

society.

no

of all evil

its nourishment

worth

of Nature

him

property,

this the

appears

sentimental

hlasi found
New

Nature

of

suggestion, and

question concerned

civilised

hand

separated

with

the

of

degeneration

intellect

comparison with

sense

"

awakening

of the

state

has

the

vocation

true

the

from

in the creation

labour,and

the

the

forth

came

individual.

cynical commendation

all refinement

to his

untrue

development
beginning of this

division of

and

accomplished

happiness of individuals.
Enlightenment the reproach that

the

of

that

out

and

morality

face

his

The

than

its artificial structure

man

the

the

more

with

History

less

the

525

public benefits."
They
through the brilliant

him

With

is

mild

"

world-literature

nothing

knowledge,

and

more

man

for

for

into

cast

of

"

Housseau.

by

nothing

in

appear

repellingform
are
private vices

"

importance

an

"

thoughts

it turns

so

happiness ftf

the

time, in

same

of the

turn

morality and

; and

of the whole

development

these

In Mandeville

4.

discontented

more

brilliant

so
apparently

the

at

and

more

Mandeville, Housseau.

that

that

state

of

is

man

Nature

which
his

provided by

which
capacity for being perfected (perfectibility)
makes
the development of his natural
both a duty and
endowment
natural
a
necessity. If this development has been guided into
has hitherto
paths by the historical process which
prevailed,
wrong
has led to demoralisation
and wretchedness, history
and, therefore,
with

creator

must

be

begun
the

to

and

falsehood

For

this

The

extended

in order

anew;

must

man

pride

return

simple
of

English
by

relations

Deists'

Eousseau

from

natural

end, according

to

to find

to

the

state

of

of

his

history

of

as

narrowness

unstunted

pure

Rousseau, humanity

the

the

feeling,from

societyto

conception of
all history.

of intellectual

condition

the unnatural

opment
his devel-

toward

right way

whole

self.
needs

religion (cf. " 35, 8)

is

affords

politicalconstitution,which

needs

humanity
of

endowments

constitution

of

him

hope that
naturallywe can
5.

While

synthesis
understand
natural

this

of

our

condition

will

be

the

in

is found

find

in

Kousseau

life,which

that

ideas

of

its

by

the

manifests

better, the

more

different

scheme,

the

nations

its
had

thought

of

remained

details

Rousseau's

advanced

with

of

in

man,

makes

the

freely and

its

all

off

Italian

one-sided-

first

stirringof

literature,with
sance,
Renais-

natural

development

law

of the

the

Grotius,

history of

development.

and

more

the

had

frequently uses

the

purpose

for

of

as

in

prove
if'in

between

biological

fundamental

this

limited

But

correspondences

inter-relation

"mile

to

and

purposeful
foreign to him,

much

endeavour

is the

metaphysics of
educated
by Bodin

naturallynecessary
a

reconciling

peoples as well
great learning had sought to

systems

torical
his-

history itself as the

this thought the osophy
phil-

of

appearance

Neo-Platonic

the

in its stead

put
last

the

The

identityof all natural

the

to

consummation.

with

historical

had

vitality

finds

livelyoppositionto

Enlightenment

itself in the

individuals, and

conceptionof

In

highest

isolated

an

principleof the

such

the

of

especiallyby Campanella, and

grasped the idea of a general

of

natural

develop.

reaches

had

of

viduals,
indi-

as

own

nature

of

body, and

the

his

V.

freedom

allows

Eousseau

God-descended

natural

[Part

rights; and

from

unfold

to

of human
previous course
nature
development of human
; in
of the
eighteenth century strips

he

Locke

whole

optimism, which

the

thus

we

Vico.'' Influenced

of

the

life of the

the

and

ness

the

full

development, and in the zealous endeavour

development "according to Nature,"

new

this

an

The

constraint.

without

individual

education,^which

individual

the

the

equalityof

principleof

the

with

with

connection

personal activity in
in accordance

Questions.

Enlightenment : Practical

The

526

the

destinies

previously found
"Thoughts,"
the

education

which
of

higher station in society : there, too, the complete development

young
of the individuality was
the
main
from
which
the
thing, from
turning away
learned
the
one-sidedness, the direction of attention
to the
real and
practical,
in
of individual
instead
of general truths
appeal to perception and the use
instruction
and
of course.
education, followed
matter
These
as
a
principles,
thought out for the Englishman of superior rank, Rousseau
adopts as elements
in an education
which
of a definite
the member
sought to develop in man,
not
class or of a future
man."
In this spirit his pedaprofession,but only "the
gogical
doctrines
passed over to the school of German
philanthropy, which, under
of Basedow
the lead
the principle of natural
(1723-1790), combined
ment
developwith
that of utility,
and
of an education
thought out the appropriate forms
for a community
the individual
should
be trained
by which
to become
by the
natural
of human
a ugeful member
way
society.
2
Battista
Vico
Giov.
influential chiefly through his
(1668-1744) became
cC
scienza
d'
una
Principj
nuova
intorno
alia commune
delle nazioni
natura
K.
Cf.
Oiambattista
V.
Werner,
als
und
(1725).
Philosoph
gelehrter Forscher
(Vienna, 1879) ; R. Flint, Vioo (Edin. and Lond. 1884');and likewise for the
following,Flint, The Philosophy of History in Europe, Vol. I.,1874.
man

all the

the

centre

christianisingof

modern

into

Great, regarded

the

the

and
providence,

the

but
philosophy,
of

point of

of

fruitful

soil.

the

of

the

of

treatment

universal

ideas

his
and

by the Genevan's
especiallyCondorcet, as

infinite
it

past, also,of the

Eousseau

of human

graduallyformed
invented

enough,

themselves

defended
1

the

of the
2

Isaak

sur

'

in

the

phere
atmos-

believe

to

would

in

regard
that

taken

as

better

fineness

and

the

place

in

St.

Lambert,

future, and

the

race,

explanation

nothing

but

as

Herder
for

the

the

terrupted
unin-

of

of divine

of

has

to

saw

an

It

ning
begin-

arbitrary
has

but

as

neither

Characteristically

become.

origin of history, asserted

language,as

Sussmilch^

as

determination,

The

language.

invention

not

connection.

the

The

history.

of

of

is manifest
man,

individualism

"

divine

particularly
supra-naturalism,

inspiration;here

eloquent divine, wrote

(1627-1704),the celebrated
tion
(Paris,1681) originally for the instruc-

Universelle

Dauphin.
Iselin

of

Muthmassungen uber
*

Bossuet

VHistoire

the

perfectibilitywas

such

understood,

natural

as

in

saw

Condillac,^

Germany. by

from

respect, also, a

has

perfecting of

but

theories

an

Jacques Bgnigne
Diseours

the

views

psychology
of

in

or

commanded,

earliest in

case

reflection

opposing

associational
in the

nor

these

be

of

sideration
con-

trivial lucubrations

him

man's

beginning

is to

result

modern
the

convinced

which

is

of

development.

all,the

society

this

principle of

by

the

Genevan

for

one

Eousseau.

rather

family. History

above

life of

act,whether

as

of natural

concerned,

of the

been

voucher
the

"

human

progress
This

the

divine

and

society
in

versal
uni-

the

for

yielded

adherents,

perspective toward

against

"

French

of

of

aside

allow

of

Charles

world

matured

the

have

of

of

the

in

not

the

work

human

had

pushed

epoch

receptiveness

optimism, which
Shaftesbury, did

treated

an

of

first found

tinues
con-

would

dominance

results

which
of that aberration
possibility
of previous history. He was
the nature
as
is just that
natural development
of man
Eousseau's
conception
history. While

used

is the

the

the

and

decisive

energeticallyput

of Herder's

But

He

prelate

empire

individual

Eousseau's

Leibniz

of

been

meagreness

mind

feelingthat

of

and

psychology ^s seen
in spite of his leaning upon
Iselin,^

in

was

the

which
is

had

events.

theological view

history by

view
of

It

which

French

which

through
of

527

world's

concluding

of

indeed,

now,

the

course

goal

The

history

nations

the

as

Such

Church.

history had

of

whole

history, the
Catholic

of

patristicphilosophy

Eedemption

Vico, Herder.

Bossuet}

in

forcible support

more

the

the

of Civilisation

Problem

2, " 37.]

Chap.

Basle
die

(1728-1782) published
Geschichte

des

Menschheit,

Logique and Langue des Oalculs.

Beweis, dass der Ursprung der menschlichen

in

1764

his

Fhilosophischen

2 vols.

Sprache

gottlich sei (Berlin,

Enlightenment

The

528

language
Herder

V.

saw

in

he

nature.'

(of.above, " 33,

own

all man's

consistentlyto

it also

extended

he

11), but

his

conception

this

made

only

not

[Part

essential

of man's

natural, involuntary unfolding

when

solution

of

word

the

already spoken

had

Rousseau

Questions.

Practical

activities in

proceeds, therefore, in his philosophy of history

that of
position in Nature, from
the
point of view of man's
the
of life which
planet affords him, and from that
conditions
He

civilisation.
from
the

the

at the
fall

the

time

same

of

developments

in his treatment,

apart

he

of

and

with

wise,
like-

makes,

relations.
nations

various

case

in

its historical

and

the

still the

was

as

and

endowments

natural

its

from

proceed

the

sources

development:

history

people

each

of

peculiar character

the

universal

of

exposition

his

of

progress

historical

his

of

direction

the

and

beginnings

these

frpm

understand

peculiar constitution, to

of his

Vico

But
do

the

on

nifican
signot
trary,
con-

of ascending
all arranged organicallyas
a great chain
they are
whole
the
connected
in this
they all form
perfection. And
of human
nature.
realisation of the general constitution
ever-maturer
his history is the
of creation, so
himself
is the
As
crown
man
of

unfolding

human

complicated
had

characterised

this

great

And

this

nature, and

realise

to

from

the

in

consciousness

all the
and

presage

words

schon,

Stehst
In

Mystic
Seances
In

the

which

form

every

natural

in

product

all

the

future,

stirrings

ripe fruits
this

the
a

task

of

of the

human

historical
"world-

the

of

to

Enlightenment,

meaner

epoch,

new

bring

to

"

Schiller could

philosophical century," the

joyful

"

"Wie

With

of

anticipation of
"

the

of

pride

as

of

the

living unity

out, in valedictory to the

call

development

the

literature,"far

which

task

thinking

peoples" united to form,

humanity is the theme.

the

history,of
the

overcome

valued
of

of

mode

was

was

"voices

also

fuller

In

full of

the

world's

development.

Enlightenment

sprang

and

richer

destinies.

unhistorical

development

of the

of

out

ever

of

course

harmony

the

the

conditions, and

its

of

the

explains the

of Humanity

Idea

of national

movement

consideration,

this

In

The

nature.

his

attacked
des

rude

du

Mensch,

mit

crude

though

in

Palmenzweige

deinem

des Jahrhunderts

edler, stolzer Mannlichkeit

arguments,
the

an

Neige
!"

"

part of another
of Condillac's
presentation

opinion,
doctrine

Scales Normales, III. 61 ff.

paraphrase :
How
with victory's palm,
fair, O man,
Thou
standest
at the century's wane
In noble
pride of manliness.

St.

Martin

by Garat;

the

of.

PART

the literature

H.

M.

bis

Hegel.

K.

and

348

pp.

Philosophie

"

speculativen Philosophie

der

and

[Tr. Edin.

Andover,
Kant

von

bis

von

1854.]

auf

Tage.

unsere

f.
der

Michelet, Entwickelungsgeschichte

L.

add

we

Entwicklung

deutsche

Die

437,

1837.

Dresden,

Biedermann,

Leips.1842

on

Historische

Chalybaeus,

Kant
F. K.

cited

PHILOSOPHY.

GERMAN

THE

To

VI.

deutschen

neuesten

Philosophie.

Berlin,1843.
Geschichte

C. Fortlage,Oenetische
0. Liebmann, Kant
Fr.
A.

Harms,

Paris,

Histoire

1846

de

la

Philosophie

Lotze, Geschichte

Flint,Philosophy of History

E.

Fester,Bousseau

in

The

der

.^sthetik

und

Spiritof Modern

fortunate

of

union

Germany, during the

Greek

during the

wealth

of
on

within

so

short

narrow

growth, out

They
of

in

1874.

Lond.

1892.]

produced,
beginning

movements

the

of

Socrates

Aristotle.

to

In

opment,
devel-

intensity and extent, the German,

four decades
(1780-1820) produced

its
of

again
of

in

in their

germs

of

all of

these

the

thoughts
and

characteristic

form

to

totalityas

the

as

ceding
pre-

impressive

ripe fruit of

development,

new

of

long

yet scarcely

spring.

spiritwith

with

and

combine

appear

to

brilliant phenomenon

vigour and
movement

Boston,

intellectual

from

span

space

"which

recognisable,
are

up

and

systems of philosophicalWeltanscliauung, grandly projected

all sides,sucih as
has at no
other time
been
compressed

structures.

took

1868.

Munich,

preceding and at the

bloom
of philosophy,-which in the history
the great developbe compared only with
ment

close

alike

philosophy

This

jusqu'a Hegel.

Geschichtsphilosophie. Stuttgart,1890.

various

philosophy

powerful
mind

Kant

depuis

Edin.

I.

Europe,

Philosophy.

present century, a
European thought can
of

Allemande

in Deutschland.

in

die deutsche

of the
of

Berlin, 1876.

ff.

K.

1852.

Leips.

seit Kant.

Stuttgart, 1865.

Mpigonen.

H.

[J.Koyoe,

Philosophie

der

Philosophie seit Kant.

Die

S. Willm,

die

und

had

its

which

general

the

cause

529

nation

German

strength,and carried
civilisation which
began in the
new

in

to

its

the
at

able
incomparthat

time

completion,the

Renaissance

and

had

530

been
of

its inner

reached

its lowest

thinkers

league

and

and

these

are

Its victorious
and

philosophy
and

Goethe,
the

and

decisive

stimulus

connection

fell

aesthetics.

in

she

which

she

now

matter

as

well

the

this

had

motives

abstract
The

thus
had

mainly
begins

which

mantic

School

work.

And,

wealth

of
of

upon

in

analogy

conceptions q/

her

world,

new

glimpses, and

Promised

Land.

In

the

interwoven

their

mastery,

with

in

of

those

the

sphere

true

thus

the

from

; the

appropriation
The

history.

Eo-

representativeof

the

as

Herder

world-literature

them,

all human

Germany

ophy
philos-

upon
With

universality.

culture
of

exercised

this

this,philosophyalso developed out of a

with
conscious
suggestions ; it resorted
deepening
to

to the

Hegel

and

ideas

by

of

antiquityand

what

the

of

the

Eenaissance,
had

Enlightenment

understanding itself

formative

as

of

comprehension

thought.
mighty work

this

which

all those

remained
ideal

appears

significance

all

shown,

systematically

the

the

that

human

hitherto

for

without

of

into
intelligently

penetrating
But

in

in

had

This

principlesgained

call,after

we

out

appears

thought

ended

mind

before

the

its historical

what

historical

plunged

without

material

is its

of

the

solution.
The

suggestions
This

history dwelt

incomparably high

and

it needed

effect.

His

work

unfolded
principle

not

is the
of

his

only
mind

from

conceptional basis,

new

general

literature

philosophicalpower

within

the

doctrine

would

to master

of Kant, and

historical

greatness of his

succeeding philosophy
sides.

"

and

occasional

literature

great thought-creations

all the

their

by Schiller,

produce grand poeticalcreations

to

of

newness

ideas

forth.

scientific thought became

of

working

this

of

problems

of

conscious

the

contemperaneousness

finallydecisive

but

aesthetic

form,

ensnaring magic
Goethe

have

the

thought.

rested

and

however, lay just in

and

opened

possessionas

their

of artistic vision

it

no

time.

the

and

the

to

hitherto

took
as

heightened
found

Philosophy

which

and

history
history.
world-conquering
equal in

its

their

of

continuously back

run

which

of

The

of

characteristics

the

and

power,

combination

the

has

created

poetry.

in
characteristically

into

process

the summit

its outer

that

that

VL

woven
history of philosophy at this point is most intimatelyinterthe lines of mutual
with that of general literature,and
relar

The

tion

"

poets.

between

Kant

condition,

time

same

lay politicallypowerless,it

it

When

the

at

development

[Part

attained

Germany

force.

external

interrupted by

Philosophy.

Grerman

The

its

importance. Kant, by
points of view, prescribed to
problems, but

that

immediate

also the

determines

and

successors,

in

itself in all directions

and

which

finished

his

the
for

means

controls

the

on

all
new

its life histor-

CHAPTER

Reinhold,

L.
1786

M. Desdouits, La

Caird,

E.

Cantoni,

J. B.

Kanfs

fact

that

took

he

Glasgow,

Kant,

Lond.,

and

N.Y.,

of
the

with

profound

; the

and

and

of

knowledge

knowledge
work

himself

the

Enlightenment,
a

of the

the

rests

of

motives

various

cal
by their reciproconception of the
passed through the
and

was

that

which

in

found
to

world

natural

English

Voltaire, the

him

of

the

origin

literature,Deism

spiritof

honourable
the

"

conviction, who

ment
improve-

found
with

in the
a

rich

sagacity,and also,where it
and
all self-complawit, though far from
cency
within
himself
the best features
typically
and

wrought

gave

in

Enlightenment urged
conditions, all these had

social

connection

he

for Eousseau's

enthusiastic

was

rigourof the Newtonian

psychologicalanalysis of

co-worker, full

true

the

and

French

place,with taste
and boasting,united
Enlightenment.
it

Konigsberg philosopher

mathematical

in

But

the

volitions

and
political

Kant

of the

into

up

Shaftesbury

which

with
of

the

problems,

fineness

ideas

Toland

young

of

statement

human

freedom

1882.

of

gospel of Nature
philosophy,the
from

1879-1884.
Lond.

completely new
procedure
philosophy. He
the
Wolffian
metaphysics and through an acquaintance
German
popular philosophers; he plunged into Hume's

and

problem
school

the

1876.

Berlin, 1870.

Psychologie.

thought in the literature of

supplementation matured

was

and

pre-eminent position of
the

upon

Oxford, Edin.,

Kant.

Meyer,

The

of

I.

(3 vols.). Milan,

Kant

Em.

Wallaoe,

W.

Critiques.Paris,

1876.

Lond.

Kant.

Philosophy of

Critical

The

les Trois

Kant.,d'apres

de

Philosophie

Paris, 1842.

Kant.

de

vols., 1889.]

2
C.

Philosophie

Philosophy of

The

[E. Caird,

la

sur

(JDeutsch.Merkur,

Philosophie

Kantische

die

ff.

1790

1). Leips.

Cousin, LeQons

V.

ilber

Briefe

REASON.

OF

CEITIQUB

THE

C.

I.

admirable

with
out

his

the

from

difiiculties of
all these

the

problem of

foundation

peculiar significance.The
S32

elements
more

he

Critiqueof Reason.

533

prizedmetaphysics justbecause it claimed

originally
and
religious convictions,the
certaintyto moral

had

working

its

was

his

by

The

1.]

Chap.

when

he

progressivecriticism

own

rationalistic

little the

how

him

upon

the

But

it made.

in

school

forc*i

was

his

also,

convinced

search

satisfied

his

lasting

more

to become

constant

system

tific
give scien-

to

that

for

truth,

claim

which,

vision

sharpened for the

limitations of that philosophy which
empiricism developed by the
In studying David
aid of psychologicalmethod.
Hume
this came
more,

to his consciousness

aid which

making

the
a

science

possible. But the epistemological

the principle of virtual
innateness

he

erected

upon

this
in

inadequacy of

rational

the

with

permanently

of
starting-point

things,which
in

is

of view

exhibition
upon

any

order

influenced

the

from

content

method
to

the

task
as

which

Kant

the

of

the

in

method
as

circuit

to

itself

and

their

was

the

to

to the

Cf.

" 38.

Kant

Critiquein

the

relation of the predicate to

of
He

man's
shared

take

to

the

apprehension of
presuppositions,but

found

in

extend

this

dependent
fix upon
rational

human

by them,

to

grounded
these

judgments
in
activity,

relations

their

the

upon

consciousness, nor
to

latter

all experience,

beyond

to

the

their

understand

the

be

and

Critique of Season,
the

method;

applied

he

deduction

Season,

of

the

II. 118

this

subject-matter

considered

possibilityof syntheticjudgments

This expression took form

Kr. d. r. V. through the

questions

our

he

from

of

claims.

beginning of the transcendental

understandingin the Critique of Pure

acquired.

in

made

of

the

tendency

It is his task

transcendental

or

Cf. the
of the

formation

designated as

critical

this

mvestigation

be

nised
recog-

solution

its value.

to

which

life determined

limits

for the

various

most

which

Kant

development

the

neither

entire

system of the rational

that

was

actual

itself; but

of innateness.

throughout

This

by

and

1780,

to

separated

relate

judgments

actual

their

the

which

reason

their

form

authorityor

and

toward

Meason.

this

completely

validity can

of

in

Pure

investigations, not

universal

whose

1770

Enlightenment

his

considering the

point

and

those

the

from

offer

to

f.),very soon
proved
tedious
investigations

psychologicalmethod

origin

from
activities,

485

the

to

decisive

the

philosophicalproblems,^

him

Critique of

and

seemed

f. and

period

in the

essentiallynew

surround

led

the

Leibniz

465

(cf.pp.

their conclusion

which

the

metaphysical
to mathematics

the

grasped eagerly for

of

and
untenability,
which
occupied him

The

he

Essais

its

found

that

degree

Nouveaux

system, which
extended

in such

was

pure
ff.

to
a

be

the

priori."

conceptions

the origination of
with
gradually in connection
the
importance which
conception of synthesis
tion
in his introducdevelops the above general formula
the
following way : judgments are analyticalwhen
the subject, which
is therein
asserted, has its ground

The

534

This

rests

[Part VI.

the

insight that

fundamental

the

upon

Philosophy.

Grerman

validityof

the

is entirelyindependent of how
they rise in the
principlesof reason
empirical consciousness
(whether of the individual or of the race).
seeks
even
All philosophy is dogmatic, which
to prove
or
merely to
of
those
principles
judge of this validityby showing the genesis
out

of

elements

of

by

sensation, or

their

innateness, whatever
The

the

critical

method,
metaphysical assumptions in the case may be.
in
which
the
form
these
transcendental
or
philosophy, examines
with
in connection
the
their appearance,
principlesactuallymake
of being employed universally and
capacity which
they possess
necessarilyin experience.
this there

From

followed

of reason's

the

for Kant

functions

in

order

to

task

of

tigation
systematicinves-

fix upon

their

principles,

validityof these ; for the critical method, which

of itself
its significance
first gained in epistemology, extended
was
to the other spheres of the reason's
activity. But here the newly
of psychologicaldivision
acquired scheme
(cf p. 512, note 6) proved
and

examine

to

the

authoritative

for his

analysis and

treatment

of philosophicalproblems^

distinguishedas the fundar

in which
the criticism of
mental
forms
reason
so
itself,
expresses
must
reason
separately
keep to the division thus given ; it examined
the principlesof knowledge, of morality, and of the working of things
pendent
the reason
of feeling,
a
province indethrough the medium
upon
As

thinking, feeling, and

willing were

"

of the
Kant's

doctrine

and
of the

Pure

in

saddler,
1740

natural

in

the

Kant,

accordingly divided
of the

born

educated

was

the

from

is

Reason,

at

his main

Practical

April 22, 1724,

the

into
works

Reason,
at

a practitheoretical,
cal,

are

and

the three
of the

Konigsberg,

Judgment.

Prussia,

Collegium Pridericianum,

Pietistic

Critiques,

and

the

son

of

attended

of his native
city to study theology ; but subjects of
After
him.
philosophy gradually attracted
concluding his
in various
families in the vicinity of Konigsprivate teacher
berg

University

science

studies, he

two.

cesthetical parb, and

an

Immanuel
a

other

was

1746

and
a

to

1755, habilitated

itself which

in

forms

the

autumn

of 1755

as

Privatdocent

in

subject ("explicative judgments");

the addition
of the predicate to
have
its ground
else vfhich
is logically different
from
both
of syn("ampliative judgments"). This ground is, in the case
thetical
a
judgments
posteriori ("judgments of perception," cf. Prolegomena,
of synthetical
" 18, III. 215 f.),the act of perception itself ; in the case
judgments a priori, on the contrary, i.e. of the universal
principles employed
for the interpretation of experience, it is something else
it is is just that
; what
which
is to be sought. A priori is,with Kant, not a psychological,
but a purely
not
epistemological mark
a
chronological priority to experience, but
; it means
a universality and
necessity of validityin principles of reason
which
scends
really tranall experience, and
is not
capable of being proved by any experience [i.e.
a logical,not
a
who
does
make
this dear
not
chronological priority]. No one
has
to himself
hope of understanding Kant.
any
concept

synthetical, when
the subject must

this

is not

the

the

case, so that
in something

the

The

1.]

Chap.

Critiqueof Reason.

faculty of Konigsberg University, and

philosophical

there

cheerful, brilliant

The

in 1770.

time

with
years gave place

to

an

and

animation

earnest,

535

was

made

full Professor

versatilityof

rigorous conception

of

his

life and

middle
the

to

ting
manifigted itself in his unremitduty, which
fulfilment
of the
his great philosophical task, in his masterful
labour upon
and
in
the
inflexible
rectitude
academic
of
his
which
of
his
profession,
life,
duties
uniform
of the pedantic. The
of his solitaryand
course
not without
a shade
was
disturbed
not
by the brilliancyof the fame that fell upon
modest scholar's life was
of
his life's evening, and
only transiently by the dark shadow, that the hatred

control of

had

orthodoxy, which
to

of

strict consciousness

his

cast

obtained

path by

upon
of old age
life and
Kant's

weakness

the

on

control

under

prohibition

12th

personality

of

Frederick

his

William

II., threatened

philosophy.

He

died

from

1804.

February,

after

his

upon
earlier

works

has

been

drawn

most

Fischer
Philos., III. and
IV., 3d ed.,
(^Gesch. d. neueren
completely by Kuno
has
treated
of his youth and
the first part of his
Munich, 1882) ; E. Arnoldt
activity as a teacher
(Konigsberg, 1882); [J.H. W. Stuckenberg, Life of Kant,
Lend.

1882].
change

the end
of the
taking place in the philosopher toward
especially in his activity as
eighteenth century appears
"
earlier
works
those
writer.
His
most
a
(of which
important
pre- critical
have
been
distinguished by easyphilosophically
already cited, p. 445) are
admirable
occasional
as
flowing,graceful presentation, and present themselves
of fine thought who
versed
in the world.
His
later
is well
writingsof a man
works
show
the laboriousness
of his thought and
the pressure
of the contending
of the investigation with
heaviness
its circumstantial
motifs,both in the form

The

seventh

which

decade

of

was

the

"

and
which

artificial architectonic

structure, and

in

the

formation

of

his

sentences,

Minerva
frequently interrupted by restriction.
tone
of a deep thought and
; but instead, the devout
which
here
and
earnest conviction
there rises to powerful pathos and weighty
an
expressionhovers over his later writings.
For
Kant's
the
Leibnizotheoretical
between
development, the antithesis
WolfiSan
natural
at the
metaphysics and the Newtonian
ning
beginphilosophy was
of decisive importance.
at
The
former
had
been
brought to his attention
the University by Knutzen
(of.p. 444) the latter by Teske, and in his growing
alienation from the philosophical school-system, his interest for natural
science,
to which
for the time he seemed
himself
to desire to devote
entirely,co-operated
entitled
tion
strongly. His first treatise, 1747, was
Thoughts upon the True Estima-

highly involved,
frightenedaway the graces
are

and

of the Vis Viva, a controverted

question between
physicists; his great work
the
Natural
General
upon
the Heavens

Cartesian

History

and
and

Leibnizian

Theory

of

besides
production of the first rank, and
small
a
articles,his promotion
propounded
treatise, De
Igne (1755), which
also
hypothesis as to imponderables, belongs here.
His
activity as a teacher
into his later period, a preference for the subjects of natural
showed, even
on
sciences,especiallyfor physical geography and anthropology.
In theoretical philosophy Kant
reversals
(mancherlei
passed through many
Umkippungen) of his standpoint (cf."" 33 and 34). At the beginning (in the
Leibniz
Physical Monadology) he had sought to adjust the opposition between
and Newton, in their doctrine
of things-inof space,
by the ordinary distinction
themselves (which are to be known
metaphysically), and phenomena, or things
as they appear
(which are to be investigated physically); he then (in the writ^
ings after 1760) attained
of
in the
sense
to the insight that
metaphysics
a
rationalism is impossible, that philosophy and mathematics
cally
diametrihave
must
opposed methods, and that philosophy as the empirical knowledge of the
given cannot
self
himwhile
he allowed
step beyond the circle of experience. But
to be comforted
of meta-"
and
for this falling away
Eousseau
by Voltaire
physicalinsight,
feeling" for the
through the instrumentality of the "natural
rightand holy, he was
of the
still working with
Lambert
at an
improvement
method
of metaphysics, and
aid of
the
when
he
found
he
this, as
hoped, by
Leibniz's Nouveaux
in bold
lines the mystico-dogmatic
Essais, he constructed
system of his Inaugural Dissertation.
The
and
there
to the System of Criticism
is obscure
verted.
controon
progress from
Cf
in
which
he
this
which
the
in
time
was
development,
concerning
influenced by Hume
which
and the direction
that
influence
took
are
especially
was

natural

science

in

Philosophy :

German

536

Michelis, Kant

Pr.

question,the following:

Kanfs

Critique.
1770

nach

und

vor

[Part

VI.

(Braunsberg,

der
kantischen
Entwicklungsgeschichte
;
und
Methode
des phiGeschichte
A.
Riehl,
Erkenntnisstheorie
(Leips. 1875) ;
Kant's
Kritieismus
B.
Erdmann,
(Leips. 1876) ;
losophischen Kriticismus
Phasen
der
kantischen
verschiedenen
Die
Windelband,
(Leips. 1878) ; W.
Ct. also
wissensch.
Philos.,
1876).
Vierteljahrschr.f.
Lehre
(
vom
Ding-an-sich
Rousseau
and
under
relation
Kant's
to Newton
on
tlie writings by K. Dieterich
inneren
Entwicklungsgeschichte,
kantische
title Die
the
Philosophie in ihrer
einer

1885.

i. B.

Freiburg

Versuch

Paulsen,

Ft.

1871)

of Kant's
tendencies
thought proceeded
the
Beason
Critique
of Pure
philosophy,
"Doomsday-book"
edition
the
and
second
in
of
series
received
It
(1787),
changes
a
(Riga, 1781).
after attention
had
been
the object of very
these
became
vigorous controversies
ing
(W., IL 291). Cf. concerncalled to them
by Schelling (W., V. 196) and Jacobi
K.
K. d. r.
Commentar
V.
cited
above.
H.
zu
Vaihinger,
this, the writings
the
collected
literature.
has
1887
diligently
[Vol. II., 1892]),
(Vol. I., Stuttgart,
of

adjustment

the

From

of the

editions

Separate

various

the

of

the

German

Kehrbach,

Kritik, by K.

basis

the

upon

of

first edition,

the

basis
of the
the
second
[and E. Adickes] upon
Library,
edition.
[Eng. tr. of the Critique (2d ed.),by Meiklejohn, in the Bohn
MuUer
and
by Max
(text of 1st ed. with supplements giving changes of 2d ed.),
2d
Bernard,
and
Loud.
1881
ed.,
Commentary
by Mahaffy and
; Paraphrase
J.
H.
Text-book
translations
in
to
1889
Kant,
Lond.
and N.Y.
Stirling's
; partial
and

and

1888.

N.Y.
and
Selections, Lond.
the
writings and from

Watson's

in

Erdmann

B.

by

This

last

contains

also

tracts
ex-

Critique of Judgment.}
in his critical period are : Prolegomena
main
additional
The
writings of Kant
178-3 ; Grundlegung
der
Metaphysik
zur
einer jeden kunftigen Metaphysik,
zu
1785
der
1785
Naturwissenschaft,
Anfangsgrunde
Sitten,
;
; Metaphysische
der
Kritik
der
Urtheilskraft, 1790 ; Die
praktischen Vernunft, 1788 ; Kritik
from

the

ethical

der O-renzen
der blossen
Vernunft, 1793 ; Zum
ewigen FrieBeligion innerhalb
Rechtsund
der
Tugendlehre, 1797 ;
den, 1795 ; Metaphysische Anfangsgrunde
1798 ; [Eng. tr. of the Prolegomena,
Streit der Fakultaten,
Der
by Mahaffy and
of
and
tions
Lond.
and
N.Y.
1889
the
Metaphysical FoundaBernard,
Prolegomena
;
ing
of
ethical
Bohn
the
Natural
writings, includScience, by Bax,
Library ;
of
the Bounds
the first part of the Beligion within
Beason, by T. K.
of Pure
1889
Critique of Judgment, by J. H. Bernard,
Abbott, 4th ed., Lond.
; of the
1887 ;
1892 ; of the
Lond.
and
N.Y.
Philosophy
by "W. Hastie, Edin.
of Law,
on
Perpetual Peace, by W. Hastie,
Principles of Politics, including the essay
of Kanfs
The
Edin.
1891.
contents
Treatises, 2 vols.,Lond.
1798,
Essays and

given in TJeberweg, II. 138 (Eng. tr.)].

and
of his works
have
been
prepared by K. Rosenkranz
Complete editions
W.
Schubert
P.
(12 vols., Leips. 1833 ff.), G. Hartenstein
(10 vols., Leips.
J. v.
Kirchmann
1838
f., and
recently 8 vols., Leips. 1867 ff.), and
(in the
Philos.
articles, etc., his lectures
Biblioth.).^ They contain, besides his smaller
his letters.
A
of all that
has
been
logic, pedagogy, etc., and
upon
survey
also
the
physics
Metawritten
of
the
Transition
by Kant
manuscript
(including
from
is without
value
for the
to Physics, which
interpretation of his critical
in
Xleberweg-Heinze, III. " 24 ; there, too, the voluminous
system) is found
is cited
with
literature
Of this we
give here only a
can
great completeness.
is

choice

of the

best

and

arranged according
in
contains

Ersch

most

to

its

instructive

material,

Gruber''s

und

articles

numerous

of the more
; a survey
is offered by the article

[The

Enc.

upon
1879

Kant.

We

Schurmann.

"

literature

The

works
transfer

E.

in the

Philos.

citations
the

Adickes

refer

convenient

of the

citations

has

begun an
Review, 1893.]

to the
editions
to the

older

by
other

mention
may
in Enc.
Brit.,
in

Hartenstein
K.

Philos.

exhaustive

Kehrbach
editions.

Kant,

literature,

by W.

band
Windel-

of Speculative Philosophy

Journal

Philosophy
of Kant, Edin.
; art. Kant,
Vol.
arts, in Mind,
VI., by J. Watson, and

valuable

also
the

by

Beview,

The
Adamson,
author;
same
1893, by J. G.

bibliography of

the

edition

In

{Beclam.

Bib.')make

the

case

German

of

many
the

easy

H.

der

Sohinid,Kritik

Grundsdtze

Stadler, Die

A.

Philosophie. Leips.
Job. Volkelt,

kantischen
der

GrundriMe.

Berlin,

Jena, 1786.

1871.

Tubingen, 1873.

Erkenntnisstlieorie.

reinen

Erkenntnisstheorie

in

der

kantischen

1876.

Erkenntnisstheorie

Z. KanVs

Knowledge.

im

Erfahrung.

der

der

A. Holder, Darstellung

Vernunft

reinen

Theorie

Cohen, Kant's

of

Object

The

" 38.
Erh.

537

Objectof Knowledge.

1," 38.]

Chap.

naoh

Grundprincipien analysirt.

ihren

Leips. 1879.
Pfleiderer, Kantischer

E.

Kriticismus

und

Tubingen,

englische Philosophie.

1881.

Stirling,Text-Book

J. Hutchinson

Turbiglio,Analisi, Storia, Critica

Seb.

G. S.

Critique of

Morris, Kanfs

Criticism

[K. Fischer's

Kant

[J. Watson,

delta

of Kant,
his

and

1881.

Pura.

Bagione

1881.

Rome,

1882.

Lend.

by Hough.
Lond.

Critics.

KanVs

zu

Lend.

1884.

trans,

English

[H. Vaihinger, Commentar

and

Season, Chicago,

Pure

Darmstadt,

Staudinger,Noumena.

Fr.

Edin.

Kant.

to

1888.]

1886.]

Kritik

d.

II.

Vernunft,

r.

the

(on

Esthetic). Stuttgart,1892.]
Kant's
from
of

theory of knowledge

the statement

which

knowledge (cf.pp.

in the

realism

naive

followed

modern

Terminism

466

and

482).

of

the

Wolffian

The

from

the

ban

this

of

of determining
impossibility

logicaloperations
^

existence

the

or

the

are

have

relation first in the

geneticconnection

the

the

Dreams

In connection

of

the

part

in

of

with

the

but

who

was

the

as

mere

to

known

shaken

from
that

air;^

in

by
this

but
this
the

science

matic
"dog-

precisely

of

the

cians
metaphysisought

be

given

seeing

in the
now

conceptional knowledge
not

his

experience,since

demonstrated

causality,are

The

thought

realityto

he

his

; and

whatever

Kant

up
close

i.e. through

things.

reality.

to

on

the

reality,especially

perception,but

of God.
Proof for the Existence
Negative Magnitudes, especially the

are

conclusion

(W.,

I.

Ghost

Seer, I. 3 ; W., III. 75.

this frequently mentioned
thought of that he characterised

not

also

the

empiricism

of

the

the

and

declared that

Seattle
he

had

entirely.
been

freed

The

of

confession

Kant,

it is for

not
only
"dogmatic"
earlier theory of knowledge, and
this expression (in the preface to

classical passage
he uses
at which
Prolegomena, W., III. 170 f.)does not contrast

Locke, Reid,
Kant

consisted

with

but
rationalism,
that

identical

realityas

real

grown

without

Sole Possible

Essay

most

of

problems

had

which

conceptions given through

of the
of

to

given

philosopher

world

relation

by Hume,*

Form

Cf. Kant's

^Cf.

the

of many

immediately evident,

constitutive Forms

had

"pure reason,"

relation

of these

slumber"

no

school
of

consistency

conceptions, anything

causal

architects

their structures

seemed

with

out

tenacious

school,

scrutinyregarded logicalnecessityand
liberation

with

as

with

Hume

dogmatism
through Hume
was

from
that

Wolfl, but

with

which, therefore,
of empiricism.

Philosophy:

G-erman

538

products of

And

conceptions,either.
the

with

ness,

known, might
Being,

and

in

that

this

soon

showed

of

aid

the

"

not

solve the

his

Inaugural

of

he

Dissertation
of

the

"

grounded

of

But

thought

and

himself

cool

was

in

is to be

convinced

had

problem.

innate-

which

relation

the

the

virtual

monad

harmony
pre-established

this

that

the

and

knows

mystery

solution

the

was

purifiedconception of
harmony
pre-established

which

monad

the

between

God

the

whether

more

once

VI.

"given"
ated
by Leibniz,deliber-

Kant, prompted

then

[Part

demonstrable

any
from

to be known

not

Eeality was

real.

relation to the

Critique.

without

of association

mecharism

the

Kant's

reflection

metaphysical

to support a scientific
assumption, incapable of proof and unable
system of philosophy. So it appeared that neither empiricism nor
the relation of knowledge
had solved
the cardinal question,
rationalism
"

object,in

to its

1.

Kant's

Pure

of

what

Reason.

fact of

in

the actual
sciences

theoretical

and

the

does

it rest ?

'

of syntheticjudgments
mathematics, in pure

; viz. in

the

criticism

design

from

priori in

three

natural

their

is to examine

proceeds

claims

science,and
to universal

validity.

necessary

In this formulation

of

activity,which

reason's

what

on

his

Prolegomena,

presence

and

metaphysics ;

and

to this question is the Critique

long-weighed answer
found
In its final systematic form, which
an
lytical
ana-

own,

explication in
the

it consist

does

the

problem

Kant

had

the

insightinto
in the

gained

the

of

nature

of his critical

course

into play.
This
development, came
activityis synthesis,i.e. the
This
uniting or unifying of a manifold.^
conception of synthesis' is
a

which

element

new

separates
found

in it Kant
of

sensibilityand

the

expositionof
with

1770

It
respectively.'*

of

Kant's

This

the

those

attributes

doctrine

"Which

is introduced
of

the

in the

between

the

sertation;
Dis-

Forms
in

which

his

entirelyseparate, in accordance
of receptivityand
spontaneity

that

the

synthesis of

the

fundamental

theoretical

the

conception of

mental
proximity to the funda11.
31,
"
with the
Analytic in connection

in closest

appear
of the Monadology.

Transcendental

categories. Sections

Inaugural

understanding,

knowledge

of

metaphysical conception
8

the
as

the

element

letter to Marcus
Herz, Feb. 21, 1772.
frequently repeated definition makes

critical

doctrine

of

appeared

now

Critique from

common

regarded

were

characteristic

their

the

the

10

and

15

Cf.

^of

the

first edition

of

the

Critique).
*

Hence

conception of synthesis

the

of the
Critique of
present form
psychological presuppositions which
passed over to the Critique out of the German
of tlie Inaugural
working- over
forms
the Transcendental
Dissertation, which
JEstlietic and the beginning of the
Transcendental
Logic (this was
originallyto have
appeared immediately after
Pure

1770

Reason

under

comes

the

in

collision with

title Limits

of the

in

the

the

and
Sensibility

of the

Understanding).

these
Prolegomena
psycholo^calpresuppositions became
Earlier, sensibilityand understanding were
set
over
against
receptivityand spontaneity ; but space and time, the pure Forms
the

In

obliterated.
each
of

other as
sensi-

the

the

are

the

of the outer

form

of

sense,

particularsenses

the

alone

that

time

of the

They

away.
cannot

we

escape,
with

And

further, space

inner

; all

sense

is

objects

spatial,all objectsof

perceivedas

are

[Pakt VL

mentally represent

can

we

sensations.

of

manifold

the

syntheticunity

which

perceptionfrom

of relations,in which

them

think

cannot

but

them,

of pure

given Forms

laws

the

from

everything away

Critique.

Kant's

Philosophy

Grerman

540

self-

in time.

perception as

time

and

If,then, space

"unchangeable

the

are

of

Form

our

ous
sensu-

by these two kinds of perception

cognitionsdetermined
receptivity,"
without
regard to the particularempirical content,
any
of
and
validityfor the entire compass
necessary
possess universal
all that

can

we

the

if space

man's

and

time

perception.

sensuous

of

the law

"

only

Form

of

the

this

nothing hut

are

the

bility,
sensi-

the

only

"

synthesisof

arrangement

necessityof

of

teaches,

Esthetic"

object of a priori knowledge is

given through sensation,
and
the universality
time.
But

realm

the

In

experience.

"Transcendental

the

so

"

perceive and

the

ifold
man-

in space

knowledge

the necessary

and

is intelligible
Forms

of

they possessed a reality independent

If

perception,the a priori character of mathematical

themselves
and
time
be impossible. Were
space
knowledge would
things or real propertiesand relations of things,then we could know
sal
in a univerof them
only through experience,and, therefore, never
is possible
last mode
of knowledge
This
and
way.
necessary
of

of the functions

and

the

The

only

the

Form,

and

holds

While

Kant

good

the
would

in

element

for

all

things in

our

principlethe a priori
interchangeable conceptions.

in it.

even

which

this

to

Kant

necessary

things appear

"subjectivity"of
3.

and

universal
which

for

become

phenomenal

under

Form

under

nothing but the Form

appear.^ According

if

they are
perception must
only

man's

Rationalism

this

only

at

knowledge
limits
the

is the

itself to

price of

the

same.

thus

have

the

spatialand

lations
chronologicalre-

objectsof perception regarded as wholly a mode of mental

which
does
coincide
with
the
not
realityof things
representation,
themselves, he distinguished this conception of their idealityvery
which was
of the qualitiesof sense
subjectivity
exactly from that
and
held by him, as by all philosophy after Descartes
Locke, to be
the point at issue here again is solelythe ground
self-evident.^ And
As regards colour, taste,etc.,the phenomeof the phenomenality.
of

"

"

nalityhad
to

be

Cf.

based, since

the

time

of

Protagoras and

Democritiis,

in contradiction
throughout, and stands
philosopher (cf.,
e.g., above, p. 465 f.).
thought is developed with especialplearness in the Prolegomena, "
Critique, " 3, b. W., II. 68.

inborn

express
1 This

been

ideas, is

declarations

un-Kantian

to

of the

9.

Objectof Knowledge

1, "38.]

Chap.

of

Forms

the

while

individual

only an

universal and

and

space

"

phenomena

"

of

time

and

space

all.

Even

the task of natural

to the

found

science

Democritus

and

alone

but

Galileo;

representingNature

phenomenon, though
individual

gives an

universallyvalid
merely
the

different

stages of

differed

exception

beyond

they

The

for

have

main

all

extended
the

in

of

sense

the

actual

his

of

fact

as

an

which

but

behind

are

which

time

and

for

hold

nothing
ideality."
the

gural
Inau-

principlesare

same

the

to

the

to

and

both

beyond

these

mode

necessary,

transcendental

Reason

in

Sensation

perception,but

belongs

with

appearance
word.

world

"

sees

predecessors

Space

that

this

mathematical

completely parallel investigation

value
epistemological

of

validity

in

appearance,

Critique of

the

the

qualitative

universal

the

unknown.

objects

in

the

theory gives

phenomenal

of the

Dissertation consists

to

of

of

the

even

empirical reality and

advance

Forms

"

from

"

"

the

are

only as
objective Forms

"

regarded only

rejnains
thing-in-itself

true

things, but

worth

reduction

mathematical

the

that

sensation

basis, agreeing

deeper

perception

without

4.

idea,

of

necessityand

he

be

can

in the

of

in which

have
as

All

ground, therefore,Kant, too,

lie in the

to

holdingthat,philosophicallyconsidered,
of

of

hand, present

essence

that

latter

mathematical

upon

Forms

appear.

contents

former

this

on

in which
quantitative,

be

can

the

true

than

sense

other

things

the

subject,the

states of the individual

for
perception

; but

such;

are

the

not

quite another

in

the

on

which

in

phenomenon

or

appearance

time,

mode

necessary

contains,is,indeed,
perception
an

for the

phenomenality precisely from

him, therefore, the" qualities of sense
and
of representation
contingent mode
;

their invariability. For

offered

541

their

deduces

time, Kant

space and

Time.

and

relativityof impressions ;

the difference and

upon

Space

question

as

syntheticForms

of the activity
of the understanding.^
Natural

science

needs

general principles
as
such

that

as

besides

to the

change

every

basis

its mathematical

connection
must

have

of

things.

its cause,

These

principles,

of

are

of

number

synthetic

nature,but, at the same

time, are not capable of being established
by experience,
to consciousness
through experiT
though they come
euce, are
applied to experience, and find there their confirmation.
Of
and

such

principlesa

treated
the

basis the

^This

few

hitherto,and

"system

of

parallelism is

indeed

it remains

but
principles,"

knowledge

Prolegomena.

have

of

seen

Nature

most

would

been
for

incidentallypropounded
the

Critique

it is clear
be

plainly by comparing

to

cover
disthis

without

that

deprived

itself

of its necessary

""

and

14

of

the

542

and

universal

of

spatial and

but
think
of

the

at

the

are

and

time

If

Forms

of

the

are

the

and

Understanding;
ing

of

manifold

the

Kant

through conceptions.

time

same

thinking

Critique.

[Part

V]

is not merely an aggregat(

validity. For "Nature"
temporal Forpas, of corporeal shapes and motions
we
perceive through our senses, bul
system, which

connected

Kant's

Philosophy:

Crerman

the

categoriesor

pure

synthesisof

the

conceptionsof Understand
Understanding, just as space

synthesis of perception.
real
a
our
knowledge, were

of the

Forms

facultj

synthetic unity, the

in

perception

calls the

connected
objectof
of our
we
system of things, independent of the functions
reason,
could know
of it only through experience and never
versal
unia priori; a
and
is possibleonly if oui
knowledge of Nature
necessary
of synthesis determine
Nature
itself. If Nature
conceptionalForms
have
should
prescribed laws to our
understanding, we
only an
empirical,inadequate knowledge ; an a priori knowledge of Nature

Nature,

now

as

is

thereforepossibleonly if the case

But
prescribes laws to Nature.
our
Nature

in

far

so

it exists

as

think

we

of ideation; the

objectof
6.

In

in

attain

to

itself of

assure

have

do

to

logic,and

formal
these

not

be

only
according to

modes
of

the

of

Hume.

those

Kant

given

as

"

Here

the

Forms

with

to their

which

contents

the

of

the

understanding
the

which

alreadygiven

outset

are

substance

and

accident, are

just this
completely new
(analytic)Forms
relations

of

For
ceptions
con-

But

tion
the relanot

tained
con-

had

been

task

of transcendental

of the

shown

perceptions are

the

by

understanding,

conceptions which

established,
appear

of understanding,through which

them.

affirm

we

that

treated in

are

within

present when

as

an

proceeds

principleof contradiction.
establishingrelations between

of

mode
is

the

the
are

Nature

Reason

it is clear from

here the

with

our

vection
con-

phenomenon."

analyticalForms"
side

thought.

our

nothing but

analyticrelations

contents

effect,

also

of

system

possibleonly if the

Critique of

synthetic

upon

or

discovers

logic.^ Side by
accordance

only

rules for

combination
and

cause

in

in

grounded

contain

such

those

determine
a

in

also,in which

this result,the
these

with

it appears

as

perceptions is

systematic completeness.

we

far

so

is therefore

must

understanding

our

understanding
or
as
thing-in-itself,

conceptional relations

knowledge,

our

order

first to

between

in

and

cannot

as

but only
things-in-themselves,
A priori knowledge of Nature
which

be reversed

are

syntheticForms

made

objectsof

conceptional knowledge. Images of sensation,co-ordinate in space

changing in time, become
objective only by being thought as

and

"

Cf. M.

Stpckelmacher,Dieformale
(Breslau,1878).

transscendentalen

"

Logik

Kant's

in ihren

Sesiehunaen

zur

Objectof Knowledge

1, " 38.]

CuAP.

Categories.

543

thingswitli abiding qualitiesand changing states ; but this relation

of the category inheres
neither in the
analytically
by means
expressed
iu their

nor
perceptions

perceptionalrelation*

relations of formal
and

ultimatelywith

appears

The

magnitudes.
contrary,let

of

the

Kant

assumed

had

"the

the

be

guided by

them.

other

than

of

reason

But

forms
while

it

most

these

transcendental

objects by

of

way

Greek

The

of

deepest kernel
with

that

and

predicateis

itself.

thought

is

judging.
understandingare
synthesisby which
as

there

are

kinds

as

holding

be

as

objects arise,there
of

judgments, and
predicatewhich

the
must

is

set

other
viz:

new

involved

(cf. " 12),

the

science

of

subject
ing
objectivethink-

conceptionsof
forms

relating
be

between

radical

every

spontaneity
idealism.

the relations

objectively; all

regarded

to

analyticallogic

thought

categoriesor

the

processes

This

the

element,

relation

and

upon

consciousness

clear

common

the

if the

to

connectingsubjectand
of

judgment

Hence

theory

themselves

of his transcendental

completely

had

asserted

edge
knowl-

objects of thought

the

each

the

of

Greek

allow

or

copy,

subsuming ready-made conceptions under

In

antithesis

intellectual

the

in

judgment.

dental
transcen-

theory

time.

of

discovered

products

both

and

fundamental

of

that

function

entirely dependent

mission

was

the

the

as

the

thus

the

his

to

up

formal

epistemological
logicof synthesisby the side
of Aristotle,
which
had as its essential content
he yet held

the

logic,on

in its creative

between

processes

Kant

the

he

lytic
ana-

"given" independently of thought,

as

intellectual

reproduce

none

of

first time

the

prevailed

to

are

Forms

conceptions of

objects"

regarded the

objects;at

the

and

which

as

distinction

for

logic,appears
between

the

perceptionsthe objectsof thought itself

point,in

this

At

right

synthetic

producing out

of

In

dependent upon its objects,

only a reckoning with given

recognise the understanding

us

such.

as

logic thinking is

as

the
the

of

categories

many

category is the mode

operativein

its

of
kind

own

judgment.
Kant

accordinglythought

categoriesfrom

that

he

could

the

deduce

table

of

the

judgments. He distinguished from the

four points of view
of Quantity, Quality, Eelation, and
Modality,
three kinds of judgments for each : Universal, Particular,Singular,
junctive,
Affirmative,
Negative, Infinite, Categorical,Hypothetical,DisProblematic, Assertoric, Apodictic; and to these were
to correspond the twelve
categories: Unity, Plurality, Totality,
that

of

the

"

"

"

"

Reality,
Negation,Limitation,
and Dependence,Community
"

Inipossibility,
Existence
The

and

of
artificiality

Inherence
or

and

ality
Subsistence, Caus-

Eeciprocity,
"

Possibilityand

Non-existence, Necessity
this

construction, the

and

looseness

tingency.
Conof

relations

the

unfortunatelyhad
it

architectonic

the

as

confidence

much

for

frame

that

system
number

great

evident, but

is

in this

[Part

categories,the

and

this

all

"

so

Critique.

judgment

categories,

the

of

of

Forms

between

value

Kant's

Philosophy:

Cferman

544

VI

equal
un-

Kant

he treated

of

his

later

investigations.
The

6.

in
of

the

The

the

the

how

Understanding"

idea

of

the

here

in which

in space

time

and

judgments

for the

here

strate
demon-

Conceptions
the

objectsof

investigation

brightened up by
distinguishes
judgments

relation of sensations

individual

consciousness

i.e. those

in

of experience,

Pure

profound

only the

to

was

"make

is best

Kant

Prolegomena.

of perception, i.e.those

the

which

into

obscurity

the

categories

philosopher necessarily came

fortunate

of

Deduction

"Transcendental

the

experience."
of

task, however,

difficult part of the

most

which

is

expressed, and

such

relation

is

objectivelyvalid, as given in the object; and he finds

in epistemologicalvalue
them
the difference
between
to be, that
in the judgment of experience the spatial or temporal relation
is
regulated and grounded by a category, a conceptional connection,
asserted

as

whereas

in the

of

judgment

mere

perception this

is

lacking. Thus,
objectiveand

for

becomes
example, the succession of two sensations
it is thought as having its ground in the
universally valid when
All particular
fact that one
of the other.
phenomenon is the cause
constructions
of the spatial and
temporal synthesis of sensations

objects only by being

become

In

understanding.

which

individual

unite

and

separate

is

in

any

in

wholes,

according to

whatever,

for

all,

which

the

bound

connections

the
of

ing,
objectivethink-

stands
is

and

of

themselves,

order

may

rvle

mechanism

individual

the

sensations

way

valid

equally

ordered

with

contrast

which

ideation, in

combined

to

herent,
fixed, co-

governed by

are

conceptions.
This

is

of

phenomena
tions
the
to

of

Form
show

in the

especiallytrue
our

of
that

outer

mind,"
the

belong

sense

all

inner

to

phenomena

sense,

between

of relations

case

the

i.e.

of

the

inner

without
time.

categoriesand

in time.

sense

as

exception

since

For

"determinar
stand

under

Kant, therefore,sought
the

particularForm

of

it
first makes
perception in time a "schematism"
obtains, which
of the
possible at all to apply the Forms
understanding to the
consists in the possessionby every
images of perception,and which

individual

similaritywith a particularform of
the time
In empirical knoadedge we
relation.
this schematism
use
to interpretthe empiricallyperceived time relation by the corresponding
category

of

schematic

category [e.g.to apprehend regular

transcendental

nhilosonhv.

conversely,has

succession
to seek

as

the

causality]
;
justification

Objectof Knowledge

1, " 38.]

Chap.

the

procedurein

of this

between
no

its

beyond
validity
a

the

consists the

recognised

now

valid

reference

time

(and space) relation

rule

of

the

of the

production of
; for this

therefore
of the

be

is

which

hand,

itself

other

termed

with

lies

he

that

already
into

comes

its

in the

bound

this

rather

Critique,transcendental

tion
co-opera-

his

hension
appre-

in

on

go

this

of

the
sciousness
con-

must

empirical consciousness

functions, but only

with

the

apperception, or

their
in

consciousness

Prolegomena,

that

consciousness

common

accepts the

basis

the

at

the

not

by

fact

of

nothing

object,therefore, does

which

ity
activ-

an

be

to

hand

result.

general;

"I"

in

[or "self,"

"ego"^.

Experience is accordinglythe system of phenomena

spatialand temporal synthesis of sensation is determined
of the
of

it claims

its determination

in

knows

production,a higher

assumed,

contiast

Only in this dependence

an
object. But if it was
objective validityof the

the

on

individual

the

individual,not

This Kant

or

it

the

only

rest

can

consciousness,but

individual

the

co-operationas the objectivenecessityof

synthesisof sensations in space and time.

result of this

The

of

to

categories in experience,and

of the

the

the

of

the consciousness

the

rational

in itself

it knows

thought

ground

understanding,

of

for all others.

of

the

that

which

of

case

is likewise

that

way

finds

(say of the fancy), for

sphere,and, on the other

own

rule

relations

of ideas

movement

of experience,in
in

time
*

consciousness

fact,the individual

545

category, as

objectof experience.

as

In

the

corresponding

understanding, gives the

basis

that

fact

Experience.

an

7. The

universal

find
in which

main

the

which

by

the rules

as
understanding. Thus "Nature
phenomenon" is the object
for all experience,
a priori knowledge
; for the categories hold

because experience is grounded

medium

in

and

expression
the

of

the third
group,

schematism.

But

the

Kantian

and

thus

the

it is at

doctrine

of

Pure

once

the

the

gories
cate-

Understanding,

themselves

unfold
here

validityof

and

Principles of

conceptional Forms

of the

weight

force

necessary

in the

them.

only through

through

evident

that

the
the

falls upon

categories

he hoped
problems in which
"to solve Hume's
From
doubt."
the
categories of Quantity and
Qualityresult only the
Axiom
of Perception," that all phenomena
are
extensive
the
magnitudes, and
"Anticipations of Empirical
upon

those

which

the

"

Perception accordingto
"

magnitude
of the

; in the

case

of

sensation

object of

Modality

there

under
possible,
actual,and necessary,
of Empirical
On
the other
Thought."
Escperience
substance
that in Nature
prove

result

the

name

hand,
is

is

only

definitions

of the
the

sive
inten-

an

"

lates
Postu-

Analogies of

permanent,

and

that

its

quantum

increased

neither

be

can

changes take place according

of

[Part

diminislied, that

nor

law

the

to

Critique.

Kant's

Philosophy:

Crerman

546

all

effect,and that

and

cause

VI.

inter-action.
or
thorough-going reciprocity
prinThese, therefore, are the universally and necessarilyvalid ciples
which
versally
uniare
and
highest premises of all natural science,
empirical proof; they
and
any
necessarilyvalid without

all substances

what

contain

they

of

is the

Nature

Nature.

the

Nature

all

occurrence

that

given through
formulation,

perceivedin

the

Forms

ordered

of

least,science

At

reduced.

order

according to the categories. This

through the empirical conception of motion, to
is theoretically
to be
and change in Nature

effected

transition is

In

mathematical

sensations

of

system

and

time

and

space

which

metaphysics of

employed, however, upon

they must
pass through

senses,

because

calls the

Kant

be

may

our

in

are

Nature,

in

the

proper

reaches

sense,

excluded
Kant
: hence
can
employ mathematics
only so far as we
natural
science as being merely
psychology and chemistry from
of Natural
descriptivedisciplines.The "Metaphysical Elements
be inferred
Science"
universally
contain, accordingly,all that can
and necessarilyconcerning the laws of motion, on the ground of the
The most
important point in Kant's
categoriesand of mathematics.

philosophy
in

of

Nature,

which

he

deduces

now

that

Heavens,"

is the

product
varying degree,
8.

in

But

of

the

substance

forces

two

those

"

Nature

the

general principlesof the

Natural
in the
History of

of that

with

which

maintain

which

ter,
theory of mat-

"

down

of attraction

accordance
of

from

already laid

Critique the doctrine

the

thus built up, is his dynamic

as

and

Kant's

is movable
an

in

space

equilibrium in

repulsion.
presuppositions,the

above

be

only a metaphysics of phenomena :

for the categoriesare
Eorms
for relating,
and no other is possible,
in themselves
refer to an object
and as such
are
empty ; they can
of perceptions,which
only through the medium
present a manifold
This
to be combined.
content
perception,however, is,in the case
of us men,
only the sensuous
perception in the forms of space and
for their
have
only
time, and as a content
synthetic function we

metaphysics

given

that

in

can

sensations.

Accordingly, the only object of human

ion
the divisknowledge is experience,i.e. phenomenal appearance
; and
which
of objects of knowledge into phenomena
and
noumena,
usual since Plato,has no
has been
A knowledge of things-insense.
themselves
is
But

"

nonentity,a
at

objectsof

all
our

sheer

reason,"

and

ence,
extending beyond experi-

chimera.

rational
thing-in-itself
any
is not, together with this,the designationof
? and
knowledge as
phenomena," also without meaning?

has, then,

meaning
all

through
the

conception of
"

the

Critique.

Kant's

Fhilosophy:

Gferman

548

[Part

VI.

nothing is real except what appears to man, or to other sensuously

pletely
receptivebeings. But this assertion would be a presumption comidealism
must, therefore,
incapableof proof. Transcendental
remain
conscious
it must
only
not deny the realityof noumena;
in any wise become
knowledge,
objects of human
that they cannot
knowable.
In
not
be thought, but are
Things-in-themselvesmust
the
of
back the right to designate
Kant
objects human
this way
won
knowledge

this the

With

9.

critiqueof

the

is

supersensuous,
historical

of the
and

attempts

which

be

for

shown

by

with

made

been

have

of the

part

metaphysics
prefers to say, of

Kant

as

must

example

his actual

chose, as

Kant

Dialectic}

experienced,or,

impossible. This

third

the

for

out

Transcendental

the
be

cannot

marked

was

way

reason,

which

of that
the

"only phenomena."

as

criticism

this in

view,

this,the Leibnizo-Wolffian

of rational
with
its treatment
mology,
psychology, cosschool-metaphysics,
it
be
shown
that
must
at the same
and theology. But
time,
which
be
cannot
which
is incapable of being experienced,
that
known, must
yet necessarilybe thought ; and the transcendental
have
the great thinkers
be discovered, by which
even
illusion must
must
into regarding this,which
been seduced
at all times
necessarily
be

thought,

as

this end

attain

To

the

activity of

which

of

aid

objectof possibleknowledge.

an

Kant

of the

the

process

former

relation with

into
sensibility

phenomenon

every

the

is determined

thinking, which

The

and

understanding
alone

from

proceeds

is conditioned

understanding,

the

between

perception by the
produces objective knowledge.
by the categories,
puts the data
the

one

by

in order

antithesis

the
sensuous

another

other

phenomena

to think

needs

in such

way,

but

individual

the

the

the

that

in

this

phenomenon
by

conditions

totalityof
completely,must
grasp
is
determined
in its connections
this
which
particularphenomenon
with
the whole
experience. But, in view of the endlessness of the
of phenomena
in its relation to space and time, this demand
world
the categoriesare
be fulfilled.
For
cannot
principlesof relation
conditional
between
or
phenomena ; they cognise the conditionality
of each
character
phenomenon only by means
of other phenomena,
and

determined
1

for these

demand

As

by

others, and

so

regardsthe subject matter,

Dialetic,

the Introduction

as

their conditional

again insight into

infinity.^Out

on

to

the

Transcendental

shows, form

the

three

of

nature

this

as

relation

.(Esthetic,Analytic, and
co-ordinate
parts of

main

from
of the division
Imitated
which
Kant
Critique; the formal schematism
of logical text-books
usual
the
the arrangement
at that time, is, on
contrary,
The
of Method"
"Doctrine
is in fact only a supplement
entirelyirrelevant.

the

extremely
2

rich

in fine

similar

observations.

thoughts in Nicolaus
metaphysically applied ; above, pp. 347 and
C".

the

Cusanus
419.

and

Spinoza, though

there

faculty

requisitefor

human

Kant

Reason

as

knowledge

calls

syntMfesis of

highest

designates

549

for

these

problems;
this

he

understanding

the

of

yet insoluble

and

necessary

Ideas.

result
sensibility

understanding and

between

the

Objectof Knowledge

1, " 38.]

Chap.

Ideas,

the

in

and

cognitions

the

narrower

sense.

If

the

now

will

reason

of
sought totality

thus set,the

to

itself

conditions

must

represent

thing unconditioned, which, indeed,

infinite series

for the

This

conditioned.

knowledge

of the

nevertheless

be

aims

at

ideas

connection
be

in
set

through which,

produced, but
is constrained
raiderstanding
in the

Of such Ideas
of all

Kant

phenomena

of

of all the conditioned

the

criticism

Pure Reason
for

the

"

of

only in

takes

the

inner

as

material
The

of

Ideas

the

data
hence

are

which

must

only imposed

are

constitutive

not

farther

conditioned

or

ciples
prin-

of

sense,

of

farther

and

necting
con-

experience.
for the

unconditioned

; the

general, is

of

rational

the

all data

of

the

totality

outer

thought respectively

as

psychology in
of pointing out

form
the

soul, the

logical subjectwith

persists in

the field

of the soul

are

for

the

an

of

the

and

space,

external

unconditioned

real

in

"

sense,

the

soul,

maintains
of

all

proofs
of

terminorum

our

it is therefore

and

unity

usual

the

to

of

Paralogisms

substrate

is bound

that

sense,

real

the

quaternio

that the scientific conception of substance

of that which

which

understanding,

they

they

seek

to

of the

substantialityof

confusion

contradiction, must

unconditioned,

whereas

truth

finds three

in

the

God.

world,and

10. The

realm

the

for

edge
through the categories,objects of knowlthe
only regulative principles, by which

as

are

links

longer

no

becoming object of knowledge,

into which
sists
metaphysics falls con-

given,

[aufgegeben).In

task

as

the

some

conditions

series,which

infinite

the

the

as

ever

illusion
as

of

thought

is itself

performed.

as

without

them

regarding

which

itself

the

representationsof

transcendental

the

with

regarded

necessarilybe thought
and

task

be

in itself

infinite

an

is in

if the

thought,

mental

or

of

understanding

is to

but

phenomena,

conclusion

in
totality

of the senses,

of

contains

solved, a problem

as

; it shows

perception
applicable

that

Idea

the
of

phenomena

the

inner sense, is indeed

little capable of proof as it is of refutation,
as
but is at the same
time the heuristic
principle for investigatingthe

inter-connections
of
In

similar way,
the Idea of God.
a

the

psychicallife.

the

section

on

the

"

Ideal

of the

Eeason

"

treats

Carrying out with greater precision his earlier

treatise on
of the
the
same
destroys the cogency
subject,Kant
combats
He
of God.
for the existence
arguments brought forward
the rightof the
the concepfrom
ontologicalproof to infer existence

; i he

tion alone

Kant's

Philosophy:

German

650

involves

proof
cUsltiologieal

that the

shows

Critique., [PaetVI.

is

of all that

principii-wk^n it seeks the "first cause"

in an
"absolutely necessary" being; he

proves

petitio

"contingent"

that the

teleolbgical
granted
beauty,
the

argunjent at the best

physicoythedlqgicdl
leads
harmony, and purposiveness or adaptation of the universe
of the
Architect
to the
apcient conception of a wise and good
existence is a
he emphasises that the denial of God's
But
world,"
knowledge,
iclaimwhich steps beyond the bounds of our experiential
that rather the
the opposite"and
is as incapable of proof as
and
"belief in a living, Real
unity of all realityconstitutes the only
powerful:motive for empirical investigationOf individual groups of
"

or

"

"

'

phenoinena.

antinomies

in,' the.

world

the

of

Idea

is Kant's

characteristic by far,however,

Most

the

express

Antinomies

of

the

These

Season.

Pure

transcendental

of the

thought

funda;mental

of

treatment

by showing that when the universe

the
is treated; as
are
object of knowledge, propositions which
mutually contradictorycan be maintained with equal right,in so
of the understanding
far as we
hand, the demand
follow, on the one
dialectic in the sharpest manner,

for

completion of

of

demand
the

the

have

it

substance
have

must

end

presents

free,I.e.

of

"thesis," that

proves hence, in the

and
beginiiiii-g

series

sensuous

Kant

same.

the other, the

phenomena, and on
perception fOr an endless

the

no

in

and

space

time,

continuance
world

the

that

as

of
must

regards its

in it
that
events
divisibility,
and
beginnitigs^
longer causallyconditioned,^
limit

to

its

absolutelynecessary
being, God; and in
the contradictoryoppositefor all four cases.
the antithesis he proves
time the Complication is increased
At the same
by the fact that the
proofs (with one exception) are indirect,so that the thesis is proved
the antithesis
by refuta,tion of the
by a refutation of the antithesis,
to it must

that

belong

assertion is therefore

thesis ; each

of the antinomies:

solution

takes
third

loses

the

which
sure,

can

third

impossible
that

thinkable

the

theses, oti: the^

themselves.

freedom;
our

matical,"
mathe-

with

case

to

the

universe.

"dynamical,"
(what, to be

the
show

theoretical

way), that it is perhaps

the
for phenomena, and
hold true
the unknowable
of things-inworld

this

latter,

and

God, whereas
of

seeks

"

principle of excluded
edge,
the bbject of knowl-

antinomies,

God, Kant

for

is made

The

refuted.

and

first two, the

the

is the

fourth

antitheses

knowledge

that

siich,as

purely

proved

of the

case

something

and

hand,

both

showing

and

in

other

For

certain,in

of

become

never

freedom

concern

to think

form

of ;the

case

is

the

in the

where
itsivalidity

which
In

an

world,

it is at least
neither

phenomena.

not

is to be

contradiction

met

with,

it is

The

" 39.
Cohen, Kant's

H.

Idee

Arnoldt,

B.

Piinjer,Die

[N. Porter,
[J.G. Schurmann,

of mental

Ethics

understanding ;
of the

objectsof
1. For

It

critiqueof
there

is to be

found

priori,without

objectof

in

the

the

and

Ideas.

presented

relatingForm
the

tent,
con-

Kant

knowing

category of the practical

objects of knowledge,

the

to

rises

from

makes

reason

but

this

to

of

be determined

the

form

there
the

instead,
the

; the

else than

the

moral

law

toward

directed

is determined

by

the

trary,
con-

It is hence

necessarily
this

impulses, and

natural

the

against

over

rational will, on

itself.

pure

activity,must

such

experience

and

law.

activity of

will

The

demands

universal

imperative, as

pure

only through

something else,which

lem,
prob-

whether

or

moral

the

is any

action.

relations of
them

call the

we

of

will and

something

This

outset, that

if
itself,

in the

its end

empirical motives.

from

particular
objectsand
these and dependent upon
toward

there

reason

practicalreason

the

directed

to

This

fundamental

no

which

for Kant

can

tion
combina-

universallyvalid objectsof willing; or

proposing ends

as

will

1882.]

practicalsynthesisa priori,that is,whether

the

command,
empirical motives

appear

the

end.

an

the

regard

any

it is clear

reason

is
and

necessary

is the

reason

primary conceptions of

gives

necessary

anything

For

it is instead

Lond.

perceptions,judgments,

relating of

the

of Evolution.

theoretical

into

the

1874.

will.
the

are

the Ethics

in the

from

reason.

whether
there

and

this latter becomes

carefullyexcluded
use

Jena,

Kantian

presentations

which

by

Konigsberg, 1874.

Chicago, 1886.]

practicalsynthesisis

The

Gut.

Ethics.

syntheticfunction

The

Berlin, 1877.

Ethik.

Beligionsphilosophie Kant's.

Kanfs

der

hochsten

vom

551

CategoricalImperative.

Begrundung

Kant's

E.

CategoricalImperative.

The

1, " 39.]

Chap.

requires as

against

over

our

is called duty.
inclinations,

Hence

the

predicates of ethical judgment

of determination
the act

or

Kant,'can
and

this

restrained

of

the

to its external
be called
remains

'

But

good

external

it becomes

Orundlegungzur

consequences.

good

by
disposition
conformable
2.

will; they,refer
without

to

its

Morality

causes.

this

kind

not
to
disposition,
Nothing in the world, says
to

the

except
qualification

though

even

only

concern

execution
as

is

Good

Will

completely

quality of

is

man

duty.

all the

Metaphysik

more

der

necessary

Sitten, I. (W., IV.

to

10

investigateas
ff.); Abbott,

to

p. 9.

Philosophy

G-erman

552

is such

there

whether

consists

[Part

VI.

duty, and in what

quite
required by the reason
this
Kant
To answer
question

is

obedience

law, to.which

Critique.
of

priori command

an

Kanfs

independently of all empirical ends.

of the actual volitional
proceeds from the teleologicalconnections
brings with it the
life.
Experience of natural causal connections
forced
to will according to the synthetic
that we
are
consequence,
relation

and

of end

practicalreflection

on

volition
this the

moral

the

But

law

be

cannot

dependent
moral

already existingin experience,and

command

be

must

It does
but

demands

the

only truly

what
of

moral

without

has

action

must

not

its worth

the

its

such

The

It holds

only,and

command

consequences.

sake.

grounds,

in itself

which

as

moral

own

other

on

will

appear

of

solelyfor

absolute,a categoricalimperative.
the

object of

requirement

in

one

other

to any

absolutely,while

and

is

any

already wishes

man

which

action

upon

fulfilled

and

the

will

regard

The

ends.

propounded

act

an

command

other

appeal to

not

fulfilled

of

service

in

means

is

terity
dex-

prudence. They all assert,

must
will this or that, then you
proceed thus or so." They
this account
a
hypotheticalimperatives. They presuppose
the ground of
on
as
actuallypresent already,and demand
is required to satisfythe first.
further
act of will which

If you

are

From
of

of

("practical")counsels

and
"

another.

rules
(technical)

arise

relations

such

on

of

sake

the

thing for

one

means,

is

moral

law

ally
uncondition-

hypothetical imperatives

only

are

relative.
If

it is

now

asked,

tive,it is clear that

of

the

act

moral

of

law

will."

what

it

this

morals
the

laws

the

best

the

demand

natural
make

demand

the

to

of

"

the demand

adapted

not

of the

matter

is

happiness

already

Eudsemonistic

reason.

us

infallible
which

is
"

morals

of

the

law

moral

moral

law

is

exists

just
for

had
wished
happy. If Nature
in happiness, it would
have
done

instincts

than

continuallyin
is even,

always
1

"

"

method

is that

Orundlegung

for

with

conflict with

Kant, the type

I should

zur

the

do

der

will other

higher

to

better

our

to

it,

ing
adviswill.

than
than

purpose

place

for

the
to

destiny and
equip us with

of conscience,
practical reason
our
happiness
impxilses.^The
"

of

false morals, for

something

Metaphgsik

for

the

be

to

merely hypothetical imperatives;

counsels
of prudence or sagacity
only
of going to work
to satisfythe natural

are

will ; the

vocation

law

categoricalimperar

leads, therefore,to

ethical

But

the
not

in relation

happiness is
striving after

reason

principle of morals, for

present empirically,it is

the

empirical element

no

stand

not

of

content

contain

can

does

For

is the

because

Sitten, IV.

12

I desire

f. ;

Abbott,

in

this

the

something

p. 11.

CategoricalImperative:. Autonomy.

1,"39.]

Chap.

morals

of

Every such system

else.

553

is heteronomous

; it makes

tlie

thing given outside of itself,

dependent upon some
and this reproach applies to all attempts t(".seek: the principle of
morality in metaphysicalconceptions,such as that of perfection.
with
the
The
theologicalmorals is completely rejected by Kant
all kinds
of heteronomy -when
it
greatestenergy, for it combines
reason
practical

expectationof reward
categoricalimperative

3. The

the

of

autonomy

practical,reason,
will.

rational

of the

It

i.e. of

the

pure

according to impulses
such

according to

and

will

beings who

you

act

rationally.

"

rather
for

Act

through

the

Form

of

universally valid

law.

empiricallygiven impulse ;
law given it by itself.
out
a

an

adapted

are

become

to

were

as

should

we

the

self-determination

therefore, solely
be

of

expression

categorical
imperative demands, therefore, that

The

all

the

it carries

where

only

it is autonomous

be

if it follows

will is heteronomous

the

and
utility,
punishment.

should

this

in

must

concerns,

requires that

willing,and

criterion

and

in the

motive

The

will,the

divine

in the

the sanction

sees

instead

according

act

universal

the

if

as

will

your

of

ing
act-

maxims,

to

legislationfor

maxim

which

from

universal

law

of

nature."
This

purely formal principleof conformity

import by reflection upon the various kinds
of ends

kingdom
therefore

be

has wm-th

or

that

which

is serviceable

the condition
This

for

the

is

sake

of

other

rial
mate-

In

end,

some

price,but
in

absolutelyvaluable

which

gains

of worths.

for

replaced by something else,has

dignity,which

to law

things

the

and

can

that

only
able.
valu-

become

may

worth

belongs in the highest degree to the moral

which
stimulates
to obey
itself,
man
and, therefore,the motive
law must
be nothing but
reverence
for the law itself. It would
dishonoured
The

worth

to the man

his

if it

who

or

is able

to be its agent, and

Man

of

for

reverence

should make
means

to

do his

himself,and

From

alone

himself

the

it.

sake

of

in his intercourse

maxim,
his

of

never

ends,

own

the

by
Hence

law

but

of

itself,
for

reverence

his

to treat

over

extent

science.

advantage, bu't

with

be

tage.
advan-

principleof moral

material

for

not

whole

the

this

passes

moreover,

in

with

external

any

law

of

out

he

fellow-man
him

always

as

mere

in

to honour

of personality.

this Kant

this

of

law,

determine

the

supreme

for the attainment

him the worth

to

sake

moral

identifyhimself

duty

it his

the

by

is for Kant

man

should

dignity of

is determined

and
experience,

the worth

fulfilled for the

were

is

itself,and

deduces

proud

MetaphysischeAnfangsgrunde

and

der

strict

system

Tugendlehre, W.,

of

V.

morals

221

ff.

in

which,

of

rooted

deeply

certain

his

in

Critique.
fail

cannot

we

age,

of the

characteristic

fundamental
lies

old

his

rigourism and

of

features

in

forth

set

as

Kanfs

Philosophy:

German

554

between

The

system.

discern

to

stiffness.

pedantic

contrast

[Part VI.

But

and

duty

principle of

the
the

tion
inclina-

autonomy

recognises as moral, only acts of will done in confotmityto duty,

in all motivation
of
and wholly out of regard for maxims
; it sees
action by natural impulses a falsification of pure
moral
morality.
The
empirical
Only that which is done solelyfrom duty is moral.
of

impulses

; but

indifferent
of the

moral
of

command

nature

bad

become

they

law,

and

duty

in the

the

the

of

the

oppose
in

consists

man

demand

realisingthe

inclinations.

rational

the

themselves, ethically

they

as

soon

against his

warfare

the

condition

individual

of each
as

in

will

is, therefore, the

morality. But it is impossible

is thought and
known
of the experience which
realm
mination
only the detercategories: for this experience knows

in the

through

as

life of

moral

and

requirement

supreme

therefore,

are,

self-determination

The

4.

human

phenomenon
series

begin a

to

power

of all

of

others

by

the

tion,
; self-determina-

conditioned, is impossible

with reference
principlesof cognition. This power
is not conditioned
call /reedom, as being an action which
to the will we
is determined
of causality,
but which
by others according to the schema
endless
of an
only through itself,and is on its part the cause
to the

according

natural

of

series

is limited

knowledge
of

also

shown

has

Reason

whatever
is

there
the

real if

It

thou

realm
hold

Thus

as

it is evident

to be

be

which

Freedom
but
of

of

the

the

in the

the

in the

in the

is not
faith

the

which

of

assert

that

Pure
thing
any-

that, accordingly,

possibilityof

for the

freedom

for

freedom
must

theoretical

herewith

that

not

of

feelest the

rily
necessa-

must

reason

guaranteed.
proof,but

moral

that

of

canst, for thou

law

within

thee,

of following it,so truly

possibility

conditions

holds
as

as

the

experience,

practicalreason

thereby reject

cannot

reason

reality

the

to

Critique of

for

this,viz. autonomy

object of knowledge,

an

supersensuous,
realm

the

consciousness; thou

thou

truly as

believe

But

whose

reason,

possible,the realityof things4nrthem-

sure,

upon

believest

also

freedom.
"

so

thou

truly as

faith,

rests

Just

oughtest.
must

thinking

morality is

guarantee is,to

postulate.

the

But

in

always merely problematical,is

This

so

life.

theoretical

of the supersensuous,

selves and
remain

the

contradiction

no

moral

and
things-in-themselves,

to

supersensuous.
be

the

that

as

theoretical

experience,had to decide as
necessarilydeny it,but would

possibilityof

the

if the

to

it would

freedom,

Hence

processes.

"

becomes

but

an

and

objectof

universallyand necessarilyin
ing
principlesof the understandan

priorifaith.

completely independent

of the

Critique.

Kant's

Philosophy:

Grerman

656

synthesis of practicalconception, however,

last

thought only

of

demand

The

necessityof

causal

the

by

be

can

VI.

morally

worthy of happiness.

is

consciousness, here

the moral

satisfied

not

vii-tue alone

that

in the form

[Part

theless
expressed,is neverNatural
experience.

ethicallyindifferent,and affords no guarantee that virtue

will
necessarilylead to happiness; on the contrary, experience
of empirical happiness,
teaches rather that virtue requiresrenunciation
with
poral
temis capable of being united
of virtue
and
that want
is

law

realityof the highestgood, faith

the

of

life

the

existence

temporal

the universe, which

of

the

beyond

beyond the order of Nature, on into the superextends

postulates a reality of personality which

It

sensuous.

order

reach

must

requires
empirical

and

man,

beyond

consciousness

ethical

happiness. If, therefore, the

is

grounded

in

and

life

immortal

the

"

"

Eeason

Supreme

moral

in

"

God.
Kant's
not

proof

of

conditions

knowable

as
theoretically,

The

6.
baldest

dualism

the

the

postulatesare

Its

in

believed

be

all this

with

fore,
is,there-

God

realitymust

But

latter.

little

they

remain

before.

as

morality appears with Kant in its

Philosophy of Religion, the principlesof which,

of Nature

in his

form

their

life,and

moral

of faith.

but

knowledge,

reality of

the

fully as

as

the

of

freedom, immortality,and

for

proof

moral

and

theory of knowledge, he could seek only in the

; universalityand necessityin relation to the superafforded
Only that
are
sensuous
only by the ethical consciousness.
Kant's
morals.
which
is based
be a priori in religion,
can
upon
moral
but
is,therefore, not a natural
religion,
religion of reason
his

agreeably to
practicalreason

"

theology."

Eeligion

rests

conceiving

upon

moral

laws

as

divine

comTnands.

the

of

religiousform

This

twofold

nature

the

of

There

man.

and

sensuous

morality
the

willing personality neither

relation

Their
the
a

subordination
of

matter

obtains

with

they

as

Kant

should

The

of

the

man,^ and
merely

; on

Kant,

since the

resist the

to

the

the

there

ff. ;

[Abbott, p. 347].

doubtless
himself

evil with
d.

r.

as

natural

guards

but

the

F.,

I.

of
as

naturally

evil

are

man

essence

he

that

moral;

relation

is in

against the identification of liis doctrine of tiie radical

conception of hereditary sin; cf. Mel. innerh. d. Grenze
201

the

impulses

natural
pessimistic conception of man's
in his religious education
; but

its occasion

to

the

other.

the

to

demand,

moral

pulses,
im-

of

unity of

of the

reverse

sensuous

moral,

systems

relation

from

more

once

two

account

impulses

sensuous

to

him

without

be, according

fact,according

even

be

develops
in

are

moral
can

Kant

has

soon

bent

with

expressly
theological
4; W., VI.

be

would
it is

this for

no

is the

man

But

in

majesty of

the

him

its

as

this

From

moral

the

to their

into

love,and

rooted

in the

are

in

form

which

the true
of

God,

the

manifestations

they need
they have
moral

the

man

mystery

the

him

for

the

of

of

moral

him

the

moral

upon

love to

of

fall into

service

with

ethical

had

historical

this

his
the

of

of

of

men

of

restores

the

restriction

which

into

in

But
of

the
the

upon

hypocrisy.
by

judgment

his
the

treats

morals.

faith.

service

ethical

disposition,that

Churches

weight

main

of

historical

the

the

and

But

dom
king-

moral

The

are

into

this

does

orthodoxy.

"statutory"

reward,

Philosophy of
far

so

same,

distinguished (even

Kant

morality of dispositionand

between

obedience

voluntary

he

redeemed.

they lay

valuation)

ideal

thus

though

"

means

direction

He

invisible,the

the

and

the

been

faith

of the

for

portions of

displaced by the
which
truly religiousmotives

the

this

essential

birth.

new

community

putting

legality
of action,between
and

his

help of redeeming

redemption,

possible,independentlyof
regard to

support

Logos^ redemption through-

they

revelation

of

making it apply only to

Bight Kant pursued that
with

the

the

moral

T. It is connected

as

of

community

if instead

statutory,
they

be

that

terror

religion," viz.

also,is only

ethical

task

life,and

the

which

felt need

means

the

in

Enlightenment,

of

the

moral

"pure

is free from

Church,

to

interpretsthe

Kant

rightfulplace,from
of the

is to

evil

with

man

imposes

him

grants

from

principle
perverted condition,the

upon

which

fact ;

follows

and

good

needs, therefore,

power,

standpoint

rationalism

works

law

he

perfectionof

vicarious

the

there

it.

doctrine

Christian

moral

which

it is

springs,which

moving

between

but also

obey

to

task

above-described

the

divine

command,

enable him

but
inexplicable,
The

the

of

warfare

and

down,

motives, faith in
law

reversal

the

by

within him.

dashes

It is

557

for otherwise

necessary;

freedom.
of intelligible

brought about
brazen

is not

for it.
responsibility

deed

evil"

"radical

This

evil.

to

CategoricalImperative : Religion,Law.

1, " 39.]

Chap.

to

the

law

moral

by positive
conformity of action to what is demanded
law.
Actions
never.
are
subject to compulsion, dispositions
While morals
law or
of
the duties
of the disposition,
right
speaks
is employed with
be enwhich
forced,
the external
duties
of action
can
external

and

does

not

ask

as

to

dispositionwith

the

which

they

are

fulfilled
or
broken.
And

yet Kant

his whole
For

freedom,

practicalphilosophy,the

rightor

this its

makes

product

law

is also

priori,valid
of

demand

which

is the

of the

principle: it
empirical interest,but

conception of

of his science

also

basis

central

practicalreason,

cannot

must

therefore
be

be

understood

of

and

right.
has

deduced
from

in
as

the

vocation

that

natural

and

disturb

each

its task

one

can

united

be

of

will

but

yet

those
in the

which

they mutually
activity. Law has

of

will of the

the

according to

another

VI.

is the

of

are

which

under

universal

conditions, to make

freedom, and, by enforcing these

of

consists

men

spheres

conditions

the
the

with

their

in

other

to establish

of

[Part

latter

This

man.

arbitrary will, in

caprice or

check

for

law

of

state

Critique.

freedom,

ethical

for

destined

are

destiny of
community

or

The

freedom.

to

beings

vocation

rational

general

Kanfs

Philosophy

G-erman

558

sure

of

personality.
this
Erom
analytically,according to Kant's
principle follows
law.
At
deduction, all private law, public law, and international
the same
time, it is interesting to observe how the principlesof his

the

freedom

morals

of

theory

everywhere authoritative in this construction.

it is a far-reachingprinciple
corresponding

are

in

private law
categoricalimperative

Thus,
to the

"

that

"

the

So, too,

task

maintaining

of

law

penal

thing.

the

of

be

never

state

is

grounded

right,but

by

the

the

of

state

must

man

used

by

not

ethical

as

the

necessity

of retribution.
in

Law

of

state

way;

it is

the

state,but

nature

valid

is therefore

in

only

provisory
validy only
peremptorily,
a

completely, or, as Kant

says,
The supreme
it can
be certainlyenforced, that is,in the state.
when
finds in this,that nothing should
rule for justicein the state, Kant
which
and
carried
out
be decreed
might not have been resolved
into existence
The
if the state had
come
tract
conby a contract.
upon
theory is here not an explanation of the empirical originof
kind

any

of

of

Its

realisation

which

is not

by

this means,

be

secured, so

far

; and

the

of Nature

Upon
law

Cf. besides

the

by

this

can

exist

until all states

in which

is

up,

now

of

the

treatises
a

really rules, and

if

surest

the

not

public'

three

representativesystem,

monarchical

executive.

the

of

freedom

without

now

state

adopted

this

law.

become

of

vision
pro-

only
will

freedom

constitution

can

tions
in their rela-

Then, too, the

philosophy of religion and

theory

It is

to the

find themselves
of

"

individual

the

detriment

only provisory,will

Kant's
finally,

History from

law

fulfilled with'

be

can

judicialprocedure are
is organised
legislative
power

have

they

other, give placeto

foundations

is built

norm

and

if the

thinks, that

as

not

nations, which

of

excluded

Kant

of others

to each

is

legislation,administration

independent of each other, and

of
in the
"republican'' form

state

This

constitution,provided only

arbitrary caprice.
functions

its task.

for

norm

"

law

peremptory."
philosophy of

history.^This

took

form

cited on pp. 417-422, the treatises,Idea

versal
of a UniCosmopolitical Point of View
(1784) [tr.by Hastie in

Natural

1, " 40.]

Chap.

Kant

of the

good condition

of

development

human

man,

the

that

was

Since then
human

moral

happiness,but
takes

of the

it

If

there

ever

was

task.

The

beginning

possible only through

was

in

was

connection

with

consciousness.

to

came

rule

the

that

the

of individual

cost

break

its transgression

This

ically
(theoret-

and
increase,

this refutes

by

the less is the

the

opinion

vocation.

The

practicalreason,
of the

the

of

the

in

individual.

inverse

And

since

He

civilisation

ceeds
suc-

who

this

the

do

Enlighteners,

an

in

earnestness

takes

vital

ratio

if

as

of the

wants

But

just

happiness

whole,
the

to

energy

individual

satisfyingthem.

ethical development

grows

of

more

more

of

prospect

growth of

retrogression in history.

the

become,

much

so

deep

development

happiness.

perfection,and

With

in

not

ethical

to

speak only of

must

of civilisation grows,,

consisted

ethical freedom.

of

complicated relations

more

man's

necessary,

ethical

approximation

in

latter for his standard

of

his

of historyhas

up-the thought

only at
The

law

the progress

the extension
Kant

originallyself-intelligible
an

the
was
incomprehensible) "Fall"
beginning of history.
became
impulse,previouslyethicallyindifferent,now
evil,
to be opposed.

Natural
and

Nature, since

of

the state

from

authors.

the state of innocence

humanity, it was
living entirelyaccording to his natural impulses,

as

with

the

those

of

of
yet entirelyunconscious
however,
of the work of civilisation,
was

between

original constitution.

man's

Herder,, a dependence

aberration

nor

race,

paradisiacalstate
primitive
in which

the

559

and

antithesis

historyneither

in

see

can

of Eousseau

the

from

follows

which

theories

the

dependence upon

in

Furposiveness.

the

were

control

faction
empirical satis-

history represents

the

outer

social life of

the

humanity, its goal is the completion of right and law,

of the best political
all peoples,
constitution
establishing
among

perpetual peace
lies at
ideals,

"

an

goal

whose

attainment,

H.

Kanfs
Stadler,
Cohen, Kant's

[J.H. Tufts,The

By

his
of

case

with

all

Furposiveness.

Teleologie. Berlin,
Begrundung
Sources

sharp

is the

infinite distance.

" 40. Natural

A.

as

and

der

Development

formulation

necessityand

1874.

JEsthetik.

of

the

Berlin, 1889.
Teleology. Chicago, 1892.]

of Kant's
antithesis

of

Nature

purposiveness (or adaptation

Principles
of Polities']
von
; Becension
"Anfangder Weltgeschichte
(1786) ; Das

Herder's

Ende

dom,
Free-

ends), the

(1785); Muthmasslicher
Dinge (1794).

Ideen
aller

to

and

that the

unity

the

of

of its

endangered.
that prefiguresthe

manner

system,^a

third

in which

the

mediation, and

system,

critical

above

the

synthesisof

osophy
phil-

methodical

shall afford

principlethat

VI.

[Pakt

in Kant's

widely

so

The

seems

reason

needs, therefore, in

development

diverge

reason
practical

aud

theoretical

Critique.

Kant's

Philosophy:

Crerman

560

itive
defin-

opposites

shall be effected.
this

which

in

sphere

the
Psychologically,

1.

is

problem

be

to

tripledivision adopted by,Kant

approval." This, in fact,
(cf." 36, 8),be only the facultyof feelingor
ideation and desire.
Feeling
takes an intermediate
positionbetween
solved

the

with

in accordance

can,

"

approval presupposes

or

theoretical

in the

this

and

sense,

synthesisas

in

The

thus

whatever, characterise
and
end

be

must

The

in

these

somehow

critique

upon

tion
quesits

to

or

there

but

injurious;

conscious

in
are

purposes
agreeable,
dis-

agreeable or

as

reference

with

determination

reason,

approvals
that
of

nature

useful

as

volition,and

intentional

of

case

beforehand

existed

being referred to any

objectsimmediately

also

the

it is clear

the

the

or

to

an

authoritative.

of

feelingsa priori,or
and

their

have

may

termed

feelingswhich, without

also

approval

as

purpose.

design,,
forming
the objectsare

eases

pain, or

this ;

to

object in
purposive, i.e. adapted

be either

of this valuation

standard

conscious
such

the

to

not

or

"

that

way

some

complete

object,

syntheticrelation

feeling of pleasure or

disapproval,always expresses
is felt by the subject to
end,

sustains

and

"

the

of

idea

complete

that have

the

the

accordingly,has

decision

ends

and

universal

this

upon

Are

there
ity?
valid-

necessary

dependent
feelings and

is

case

determine

which

ask.

to

the

of the will,this
approvals in question. With regard to the purposes
question has been already decided by the Critique of the Practical
the
will which
has
a
Reason;
priori
only end of the conscious
is
the
this
o
f
the
and
on
validity
fulfilling
categoricalimperative,
side,therefore,only the feelingsof approval or disapproval in which
we
employ the ethical predicates good and
bad," can be regarded
"

"

as

and

necessary
restricts

which
be

conscious

no

the

from

seen

universallyvalid.

itself

to

the

purpose

or

beginning,are

For

"

this

priori character

the

reason

of

lem
prob-

new

feelingsin

those

design precedes. But these, as

the feelingsof the Beautifuland

may
the

Sublime.
2.

But

the

consideration

VII.

Cf. note
38

f.

at

problem

widens

upon

the logicalfunctions

the

close

of the

side, when

another
which

Introduction

are

of

the

concerned

take

we

in

into

all feel-

Critique of Judgment,

W.,

in

The

good,
worth

but express the

the

basis of

lies at the

which

in

the

Critique of

Pure

Now

its end.

of the objectto

the

faculty of subsuming

the

as

in

561

expressed
agreeable,useful,
are

in

reference

contain

adaptation,and

of

estimations

are

such

object with

the

of

these

analyticallycantained

not

are

Judgment.

whicli

judgments
ings and approvals.
evidently all synthetic. Predicates
are
and
beautiful,

the

Purposiveness:

Natural

1," 40.]

Chap.

to

all

the

subject,

end

an

the

cases

they

dination
subor-

psychological scheme
Reason,

Kant

the

particularunder

nates
desig-

general by

the

regarded as playing among

Judgment. And this,too, was
Reason
theoretical functions,also,the mediating part between

and

Understanding,in

the

name

such

that

sort

in

But

the

use

the

is

Judgment

gives principles,
task of applying

analytical,since

it

objects by general conceptions according to rules

conclusion
of a correct
formal logic; the attainment
depends only
for
minor
vice versa.
the
a
or
given
major,
finding
appropriate
its

determines
of
on

with

In contrast
"

theoretical

its

former

performs

while the Judgment

objects,
to the objects.
principles

the latter

the

the

this

Kant
Critique,"

the

Evidentlythis

is the

the

subordination

Critique of

It is clear

the

to

the

practical

be

Nature

of

And

no

which
ingly
accord-

this

critical

lation
formu-

to

end ?

an

philosophy ;
the

to

objectof

applicationitself

this

the

from

case

adapted

reason

that

outset

needs

takes

Judgment
to

thus

end.

an

practical,neither

nor

: it is only a
willing
looking at

adaptation

the

of

from

neither theoretical

or

the

to

highest synthesis of

applicationof the category

be

in the

Judgment,
reflecting

priori possibleto judge Nature

the theoretical.
can

of

problem

Is it

the

the

sets

synthesisconsists just in
the

which

determining Judgment,

knowing

point of

view

nor

of

posiveness
pur-

ends.

If the
of

tion
reflecting
Judgment
gives to this contemplation the direcplating
with
judging Nature
regard to her adaptation to the contem-

i.e. having regard to

subjectas such, it proceeds aesthetically,
*
mode
our
of feelingor sensibility
if,on the contrary, it regards
;
Nature as if she were
purposive in herself,then it proceeds teleologi-

callyin

the

narrower

divided into the

3. In

the

sense,

first

part

from

Empfindungsweise;

28 fE. of. II. 60 f

;

and

Kant

with

feeling
or
approval
proceeds

so

investigationof

(estheticjudgment

end he

and

thus

upon

point of

Kant

above,

aesthetic

from

border

the

Critique of

view

the
it

on

kinds
both

of the

f
.

to

of

separate

judgments

sides,and

feelingof

in

is

Judgment

teleologicalproblems.

and

his change
justifies

p. 483

the

primarily concerned

is

exactness

which

the

the

to

the
of

this

beauti-

terminology, W., VII.

Jul.

good

the

moral

this

For

be

beauty shall

impossible;

judged
to the

investigationas

only

"

the

norm

impossible to set
content
according to
is

up

whic

sesthetic doctric

An

Taste,"

the

Critique of

of
possibility

priori character, bi

presentedas

logicalclearness.

with

contrary, pleases witlim

the

shall contain

end

the

[Part

Critique.

the

good

also, it

reason,

is

there

Kant's

beautiful,on

criterion which

universal

with

agrees

the

law, while

conception.

is

-which

is that

the

with

shares

beautiful

The

the

Philosophy:

Grerman

562

that

is,a

priori validityof sestheti

judgments.
hand,

other

the

On

beautiful

the

conceptionless quality, the

absence

distinction

here

object of

the

there

is

that in matters

of

pie

that

of

fact that

the

the

and

universal

standard

impression.

agreeable is
the

contingently gratifying,whereas

individually and
forms

lies in the

agreeable i1

conscious

immediacy

judgment, and, therefore, the

the

of

the

with

shares

necessary

Bi

somethin

beautifi

pleasure.^ The

princ

disputing over tastes, is true only in the sens

taste nothing is to be effected by proofs with coi
of an
the possibility
does
not exclude
appeal \

no

ceptions,but this
universallyvalid feelings.
Finally,the beautiful distinguishesitself from both the good an
it is the object of a completely disintereste
the agreeable,in that
pleasure. This

in the

appears

that

circumstance

the

empirical realit

for the eestheti

complete indifference
the material presenc
judgment. The hedonic feelingsall presuppose
excite them
of the phenomena which
; ethical approval or disapprovi
concerns
just the realisation of the moral end in willingand acting
of

object is

its

sesthetic

the
pure

of

matter

feelings,on

delightin

the

the

contrary, require

represented image

mere

of

the

as

their

condition

object,whether

tl

aesthetic lii
The
knowledge or not.
of the feelings of personal weal
and woe, just as
lacks the power
of a universallyworthy work
for ethical ends
lacks the earnestness
it is the mere
play of ideas in the imagination.
Such
a
delight which relates not to the object,but only to tl
the objectivematerial
of the objec
cannot
concern
image of the object,
in relation to the interests of the subjec
for this always stands
the object is presented to the mine.
but only the form in which
and in this,therefore,if anywhere, is to be sought the ground of tl
a priori synthesiswhich
belongs to the sesthetic judgments. Tl
is

same

objectively
present

for

"

"

purposiveness of
to

interest

some

Cf.

F.

Blenoke,

sesthetic
other

or

Kanfs

(Strassburg,1889), where
experience

is

emphasised.

the

objectscannot consist in their adaptatic

be only in their adaptation to tl
; it can
Unterscheidunffdes Schonen
analogy to the judgments

of

vom
Angenehm
perception and

relation of the

Critique.

Kant's

Philosophy

German

664

Yi

[Part

these objectshare an exalting

beiiig,
produce the feeling of a delightof the reasor

sides of

two

our

subliming" effect,and
it is based only upon
and this feeling,again, because
ideational
our
FormSj is universallycommunicable
"

the

and

relation
of

prior

operation.
tive
tion

aesthetic

Kant's

5.

theory, accordingly,in spite of

its

essentiallythe

an

point of departure,takes

"

through

same

sublime

the

and

beautiful

of the

ideational

the

of

relation

the

and

Nature;

in

of

course

"subjec
explana

determines

th

Herice

th

Forms.

aesthetic
the
judgmeu
philosopher finds pure beauty only where
with
th
that have
relates
no
meaning. Where
solely to forms
delightthere is mingled a regard for the meaning of the forms fo

This

beauty.

indefinite,there

however

whatever,

norm

any

everywhere

appears

aesthetic

the

where

have

we

dependen
i

judgment

our
thought puts a reference to ai
objectsin which
of dependent beauty rise necessarilyas soon
end.
Such norms
as
w
contemplate in the individual phenomenon the relation to the clas
of beauty for landscapes
is no
which
it represents. There
norm
arabesques, or flowers,but there may be such perhaps for the highe

toward

directed

types

of the

ideal

true

The

of the

ajsthetic

to

tiful

only

from

the

beauty

end, its

an

it

when

to

attempt
ends

are

adapted

the

feeling
be

in

and

as

involuntary work
In

the

art

realm

impression of

it,viz.

that
the

of artistic
the

mind

same

way

The
disinterestedly.

lOorks
of

the beau
fre

of

whic

structures

work

must

upo:

; it must

Nature

"

Nature."

the secret

; he

produc
performed wit

with th
conception,as is the case
produces structures correspondin

general rules; he

telligencethat

the

purposeless product

works, nevertheless, in
to

which

man

make

is

undesigned, disinterested, and

represent

This, therefore,is

according

of aesthetic

power

"

regarded

designs

will

as

Technical

does

istic element

product

of

th

man.

according to rules and designs,

satisfydefinite interests. Fine art

to
as

is

is art, the

function

appears

of Nature.

to definite

to

this is

while

But

reference

out

ideal

aesthetic ideals,and

are

norms

judgment

presentationof the

tion.

able

Such

world.

organic

is

originaland

like Nature.
man's

creates

creation,and

which
as

great
the

with

builds

Nature,

which

artist

rules

the

charactei
purpos
witl

builds

does

not

in

themselves

prototypal.

Genius

creat

is

an

hi
ii

'

rational

activitythe desired synthesis(

and nature, of purposiveness and
freedom
of practical
an
necessity,
theoretical
wit
function, is then
represented by genius, which
undesigning purposiveness or appropriateness creates the work (
fine art.

Critiqueof

6. In the

Purposiveness: Organisms.

Natural

1," 40.]

Chap.

the

of transcendental idealism, exist

theoryof natural

The

her.

is not

{Zweck)

"End"

between

of the

consideration

the

and

which,

relations

task is to establish the

of Nature

science

can

nent
promi-

most

of view

points

scientific

explanation

dwells

within

in all lines be
or

only mechanical.
constitutive
principle of

Nature

consists

in

pointing

phenomenon

one

made

be

never

the

adaptation that

can

category

from

the

knowledge : all explanation of

objective
out the causal
necessity with which
another; a phenomenon

the

TeleologicalJudgment

565

produces

intelligibleby emphasising

adaptationor fitness. Such "lazy" teleologyis the death of

The
all philosophyof Nature.
apprehension of purposiveness can,
never
professto be an act of knowledge.
therefore,
But, on the other hand, the standpoint of the mechanical
tion
explanawould
of Nature
give us the right to completely rejectteleological
consideration
of Nature, only in ease
in a position to
we
were
its

make

with
intelligible

aid

the

system of experience, even

But
the

should

points be

explanation of

limited nature
but

of

determines

this

material

hitherto

material, then

in

knowledge by

be

the

mechanicallyinexplicablemakes
Critical

purposive.

limiting
conceptions of
The

first of these

has

not

only

is
not

We

through the
other and

with

bringinto

the mechanical
A

Life.

its capacityof reaction,as

An

of Nature
archaeologist

origination
of
as

far

one

as

originalorganisation
mechanism

of

the

which

connection

of

; but

shall

we

factor

trace

another

he

will
he

the

Nature.

the organism

is,,according

to

Kant,

of

of organisms

functions

individual

peculiar nature

species from

possible;

only

explained only through

be

can

is

impression

explanation of
it

must

which

that

inevitable

explanation of

life

may

'

the

that

the

us

yet succeeded, but

the

principlewhich
points the possibilityof
of

appears

mechanical

environment

account

our

it

the

ence,
experi-

teleologycan, therefore,

mechanical

the

in human

teleological consideration

upon

to understand

are

least.

of

account

on

concern

impossiblein principle. All

other life.

principleat

available

these

time,

same

indeed

form

permanent

supplementingour

of the

whole

whe;?e scientific theory is inadequate for

of the

conceded, if, at

in

last remnant,

given material, not

the

account

on

found

the

the

to

scientific conceptions the

of

their

parts

always

be

organised

be

to

and

matter

reduction.
of

life,the

to mechanical

ciples
prinwith

obliged
stop
always
cannot
explain through the
to

each

obliged

incapable of further
back the genealogy
according

with

an

mere

inorganicmatter.
r

JThe

Kant
passages, in twhich
anticipated the latter theory
collected in Fr. Schultze,Kant
und
Darwin
(Jena, 1874).

of descent,

are

566

organism is,that
determined

part is

effect

that

"

mechanically: the organism is the miracle

experience.^ It is just this inter-related play of

which

in the

adaptation to
is necessary

else than

anything
be

satisfied

with

purposeful
seeking

this in

the

by
the

limit

second

of the

name

themselves
Their

of the

of

knowledge,
shows

Forms

of

the
be

to

together

the

as

form

of

purposefu

Kant

of

aris(

reason

[i.e.
causality,etc.]
do

Nature

but

designate;

pure

Nature

laws

of

there

is

time,

this

indeed

follow

do not

rang(

from

them

adapted
on

whole

to

the

world

concrete

and

not

of

ordered

hand,

Natur(

reference

of fact in

matter

be

othei

some

with

hand,

one

other

varied

this

particular aspect

of the

It ii

priori necessity].

just

the

on

wealth

and

experience,
to

principle fo:

this

which

From

Nature.

fact,^[not that

"

also,inasmuch

heuristic

of Nature

general laws,

same

since

itself

never

by

knowledge

coinpletelypurposive;

proves

organismi

is

why

the

at

of

o:

particular

particular

understood

But

content.

purposive, or

only empirical,i.e. from the standpoin

contingent,and has only the force and validity

matter

be

forcei

case.

uniformity

those

it is

reason

to

never

ence

The

;
as

serve

Specificationof

beneath

actual

an

our

the

particularcontent

of pure
of

of

case

connections

itself in each

general Forms
only these.

but

rather

mechanical

the

out

individual

an

profess to b(
neve;
Thought must
but the insightinto thii

consideration.

of

activity must

vitalityrealises
7.

mode

it must

But

universallyvalid.

and

world
and

view
teleological

the

Therefore

end.

an

the

forms

the

impression of

the

makes

organism

causi

incomprehen

in

sible

th

as

is both

member

VI

of _ai

parts just

the

every

[Part

nature

reciprocal causality is

This

whole.

the

of

the whole,

by

essential

by

is determined

whole

the

Critique.

the

explanation is impossible because

This

and

Kant's

Philosophy:

Q-erman

under

experi

our

the

t(

prior

in itself

purposive
multiplicityof the given fits
of reality,
is objectively
which
as

unitary.
In

this

lie the

the

point of

from

reasons

mechanism

of her

of

But

reason.

reason,

this

end

view

of purposiveness,

causal
in

can

priori for regarding

connections

accordance
be

none

teleologicalconsideration

with

other

issues

the

than
in

the

as

whol

for

and

the

Nature

seeing in the vasi

em
realisingof a supreme
primacy of the practica

the

moral

moral

law,
faith

and

in

thus

the

tb

divin(

world-order.

Finally,if
1

Cf.

Here

above,
Kant

eine

consider

Nature

as

purposive, in

the

sense

that

ii

p. 480.

joins on

in

extremely interesting
to the latest specu
manner
thispoin
; cf. above, p. 425 [cf.further on
Entdeckung, etc.,and J. Dewey, Leibniz's New
Essays, last chapterl

lations of the
Ueber

we

Leibnizian

an

Monadology

it

creates

with

each

thp

content

perception

intellectual
ideas

the

of

Critique

(Halle,

1876).

the

of

the

at

"

77.

Cf.

run

G.

Thiele,

567

completely

contents

mind,

with,

understanding}

Critiques

three

Judg.,

time

same

intuitive

or

divine

the

then

other,

particular

the

and

Forms

universal

the

Purposiveness.

Natural

1, " 40.]

Chap.

as

its

the

In

which

reason

Forms,
this

monise
har-

appears

conception

together.

Kant's

IntelUctuelle

Anschauung

as

II.

CHAPTER

DEVELOPMENT

THE

R.

Haym,

development

The

Kant

From

[A. Seth,

systems of German
of
of

was

experiencingthe
first raised

was

of

University

Jena,

of

as

standard

made

and

the

hensive
compre-

under

the

and

stood,
misunder-

by the leading spiritsof

centre

of

operation
co-

criticism, after

being neglected

of

^fortune

of

doctrine

to the

Externally,it

circumstances.

the

that

primary importance

first

at

Hegel.']

to

kinds

different

very

Berlin, 1870.

by Kant,
principleswon
philosophy,took place

the

of

Schule.

romantische

Die

IDEALISM.

OF

brilliant

the

teaching

activity. But in this lay the incitement to build out a unified and
impressive system of instruction,the foundations of which Kant had
fine arrangement of philosophical
laid by a careful separation and
thought at
problems. The systematic impulse ruled philosophical
no
period so energeticallyas at this,and this was due in good part
the

to

desires

excitement,

of

an

audience

demanded

which

in

state

the

from

of

teacher

high and many-sided

a complete scientific

Weltanschauung.
But

in
of

philosophy

Jena

Goethe,

and

the

itself close

found

by Weimar,

the

dence
resi-

main

In constant
literarycityof Germany.
each
personal contact, poetry and philosophy mutually stimulated
other, and after Schiller had joined the thoughts of the two, their
interaction became
intimate
and
constantly more
deep with their
movement.
rapid forward
A

third
that

factor
was

was

rich

of

purely philosophicalnature.

in results

willed

dence
coinci-

that

just at the time when the

"all-crushing" Konigsberger began to

of the
Critique of Eeason
break
its path, the most
most" influential of
and
firmlyarticulated
all metaphysical systems, the type o'f dogmatism," became
known
"

in

Jacobi and
Spinozism. Through the strife between
related
Mendelssohn, which
to Lessing's attitude
to Spinoza, the
latter's doctrine was
brought into the most livelyinterest,and thus,

Germany

"

568

deep opposition which

the

spiteof

in

Development of Idealism.

The

2.]

Chap.

the

between

prevails

poles

two
Spinoza became
moved.
following generation

and

Kant

569

about

which

the
the

thought

of the

predominanceof

The

in that the

in Kant's

the lead in the

to

the

of

the

against the

Kantian

the

and Herbart

the

while, on
construction

of

and
doctrine,

with

Common

other

feelingfor

of

an

of
the

the

the

the

needs

treatise

des

den

System

disciples

of

motive

edge;
knowl-

unfolded
in

Irrational

human

in

the

later
Schelling's

wealth

the

is the

of

creative

thoughts,

culture,and

point of

view

of

all-sidedness

the

the

fineness

victorious

principle,of

of

power
the

torical
his-

of ideas.

the

bears

Pure

the

found

Reason

title, David

(1787);

Kriticismus

Von

took

like Schleiermacher

limits

however,

systems,
of modern

from

Critique of

tind Bealismus

as

numerous

men

same

Hegel

metaphysical speculation
by

in

appears

world

little

regard

at

violent opposition. The most

important impetus to this was
Heinrich Jacob!
of the Munich
(1743-1819, finallyPresident
main

woven
inter-

were

Schopenhauer.

elaboration

The

extended

was

hand,

all these

material

the
of

energy

reminder

interest,the
philosophical
of

which

After
conception thing-in-itself.

bold

Metaphysics of

to

systems is idealism;^

effort to understand

unresting

many-colouredvariety,there

of all these

chieflyrecognised

be

may

antagonistic thoughts

thinkers, which

of these

influence

critical hesitation,Fichte,Schelling,and

Over

of Reason.

Kantian

treatment

of

time

short

of

out

"

character

common

they all develop

the

two,

die

in addition

Vernunft

Hume
to

uber

this the

Verstande

zu

den

oder

Olauben,

treatise

l/eber

das

(1802).

hringen

zu

first,and then later

given by Friedrich
His
Academy).
Idealismus

Unternehmen
treatise

The

directed
against
Offenharung (1811) was
second
to his philosophical writings in the
Schelling.Cf. also his introduction
volume
of the complete edition
disciple
(6 vols., Leips. 1812-1825). His main
Fr. KSppen
was
berg,
der Philosophie, Nurem(1775-1858 ; Darstellung des Wesens
1810 ; cf. on him
the art. K. by W. Windelband
in Ersch
Oruber's
u.
Enc).
As

gottlichen Dingen

further

of

opponents

the
(1761-1823),

und

ihrer

Kant

are

to

be

named

Ernst

Gottlob

Schulze

Oder uber die

writing, JBnesidemus
Fundamente
der Elementarphilosophie (1792), and
der theoretischen
of a Kritik
Fhilosophie(Hamburg,
1801) ; J. G. Hamann
(cf. above, p. 510), whose
"review"
of the
first printed in 1801
in Eeinhold's
Beitrdgen,
Critique was

Let

it be

author

remarked

of

here

the

at

anonymous

the

outset

that

only

not

the

main

series

of

the

and
developmentfrom Reinhold
Schleiermacher,
to Fichte, Schelling,Krause,
Hegel is idealistic,
but also the series which
is usually opposed to this, Herbart
and
the
is understood
Schopenhauer, in so far, that is, as by "idealism"
dissolutionor resolution
in
the
o
f
the
world
of
experience
process
{Aufi'osung)
of

consciousness.

degree

as

Kant;

Herbart

they posit

and

Schopenhauer

are

"idealists"

the
but
things-in-themselves,

world

in
of

the
the

same
senses

to them
also a "phenomenon
"With
of consciousness."
Schopenhauer this
he
that
With
usually noted.
circumstance
the
the
on
Herbart,
contrary,
called the things-in-themselves "Reals"
the fact
with
(iJeaien),in connection
that for
he opposed the
entirely other reasons
Fichte-Hegel line of thought,
has led to the
of expression which
and
distorted
completely
misleading mode
has run through all
of the history of philosophy,of terming
previous text-books
his doctrine "
realism," and him in opposition to the " idealists " a "realist."
IS

IS

570

Crerman

Philosophy.

[Part

VI.

und
zur
Vernunft, eine Metalcritik
treatise, Verstand
Vernunft (1799).
die
Jac. Sig. Beck
(1761-1842 ; Einzig moglicher Standpunkt, aus welchem
more
werden
tively
posiRiga, 1796) worked
kritische Philosophie beurtheilt
muss,
Maimon
in the development
of the Kantian
doctrine, as did also Salomon
1790
Versuch
1800
Versueh
einer
Transseendentalphilosophie,
;
ejner
(died
;
neuen
Logik, 1794 ; Die Kategorien des Aristoteles, 1794 ; cf. J. Witte, 8. M.,
Berlin, 1876).
Erh.
introduced
Schmid
In Jena
the Kantian
by Professor
philosophy was
;
which
there
after
the
its main
appeared
was
Allgemeine Litteraturzeitung,
organ
for extending the
The
greatest success
1785, edited by Schtitz and Hufeland.
of Criticism
doctrine
Briefe iiber die kantische
was
gained by K. L. Reinhold's
Merkur
Deutscher
first appeared In Wieland's
(1786).
Philosophie, which
The
author
same
begins also the series of re-shapings and transformations

and

G.

Herder

Kritik

der reinen

of the

doctrine.

the

Barnabites

in

his

Karl
in

Versuch
Kiel) wrote
(Jena, 1789)
gens

and

1788,

einer

(1758-1823 ;

Eeinhold

Leonh.

Vienna

Theorie

neuen

Das

Professor

in
des

des

Fundament

Jena

fled
; from

from
1794

the

cloister

Professor

of
in

menschlichen
VorstellungsvermoWissens
philosophischen
(1791).

and
was
changes in his standpoint, he fell into fantasticalness
in crude
outlines
period gave
forgotten. His teaching presented in his Jena
the
became
soon
exposition, which
school-system of
a superficiallysystematic
"Kantians."
from
of these
the
To
tear
numerous
forgetfulness the names
is not for this place.
men
the
work
which
Much
Fr. Schiller
finer,richer, and more
independent was
Of
his philosophical writings are
here
to Kant's
ideas.
principally to be
gave
named
and
the
On
Grace
Dignity, 1793 ; On the Sublime, 1793 ; Letters
upon
^sthetical
Education
1795 ; On
Naive
Sentimental
and
of Man,
Poetry, 1796
such
as
[Eng. tr. Bohn
Library]. In addition to these the philosophical poems
Die
und
Groethe,
Leben, and the correspondence with Komer,
Eiinstler, Ideal

Later, after many

and

"W.

Humboldt.

V.

Cf.

Johann

Gottlieb

Sch. in seinem
Verhdltniss
Tomaschek,
zur
WisSch. in seinem
Verhdltniss
Twesten,
zur
Fischer, Sch. als Philosoph, 2d ed., 1891 ; Fr.
und
Philosoph, pub. by Brasch, Leips. 1884.

K.

Wissenschaft, Vienna, 1862 ;

senschaft, Berlin, 1863 ; Kuno
TJeberweg, Sch. als Historiker

K.

in Lusatia, educated
in
University of Jena, after he had
and
had
become
experienced many
as
a
changes of fortune
private teacher
famous
aller
by his Kritik
Offenbarung, which
appeared by chance
mously,
anonyand was
to Kant
called in 1794, while
universally ascribed
(1792), was
Reinhold's
After
at Jena.
Professor
living in Zurich, to become
successor
as
a
"
brilliant activitythere, he was
in 1799, on
dismissed
of the
atheism
account
and
the Qerichtliche
Verantcontroversy " (cf.his Appellation an das Publicum
to Berlin, where
he came
with
the
into
connection
wortungsschrift), and went
Romanticists.
for a time
In 1805 he was
assigned to the University of Erlangen ;
in 1806 he went
to Konigsberg, and
then
returned
in the winter
to Berlin, where
of 1807
he delivered
the Beden
to 1808
die deutsche
the newly
Nation.
At
an
founded
Berlin
and
He
the first Rector.
University he acted as Professor
as
His main
died, 1814, of hospital fever.
writingsare Gh-undlage der gesammten
des Eigenthiimlichen der
Wissenschaftslehre, 1794 ; Grundriss
Wissenschaftsother
lehre, 1795
minor
translated
[these two, together with
by
works, are
A. E. Kroeger, under
the title The
Science of Knowledge, Lond.
Natur1889] ;
recht, 1796
Science
[tr. by A. E. Koeger, The
of Bights, Lond.
1889] ; the
Introductions
two
to the Wissenschaftslehre, 1797
; System der Sittenlehre, 1798 ;
Die
des Menschen,
1800
Bestimmung
geschlossene Handelsstaat, 1801 ;
; Der
das
Wesen
des Gelehrten, 1805 ; Orundzuge des gegenwartigen Zeitalters,
Ueber
1806
zum
seligen Leben, 1806
; Anweisung
[of the last five all but the second
afe trans,
also
1889.
There
by W. Smith, Fichte' s Popular
Works, Lond.
are
criticisms
translations
and
in Jour,
8 vols., Berlin,
of Spec. Phil.'\; Works,
1845
f. ; Post,
works, 3 vols.,Bonn, 1834 ; Life and
Correspondence, Sulzbach,
1830 ; Correspondence with Schelling,Leips. 1856
J. H. Lowe,
Philos.
cf.
Die
;
Fichte's, Stuttgart, 1862 ; R. Adamson,
Fichte, Lond. 1881 ; [also art. in Enc.
Brit. ; C. C. Everett, Fichte' s Science
of Knowledge, Chicago, 1883].
the

"Princes'

Fichte,

School"

at

born

Pforta

1762, at Kammenau
and

at

the

572

Grerman

Development of Idealism.

[Part

VI.

I. (Lond. 1892) ; of the Phil, of Meligion and

of the State, in part in Jour.
literature
extensive
we
From
the
mayvery
Spec. Phil., Vols. XV.-XXI.].
C. Rosenkranz, H.''sLel"en
name
(Berlin,1844), and if. als deutscher NationalG. S. Hall, St. Louis, 1876] ; K.
Haym,
philosoph (Berlin,1870) [part,trans.
H. und
seine Zeit (Berlin,1857) ; K. Kostlin, H.
(Tubingen, 1870) ; J. Klaiber,
Jugendjahren (Stuttgart,
Solderliii, Schelling und Hegel in ihren schwdbischen
(Lond. 1865), 2 vols. ; Hegel, by
1877) [The Secret of Hegel, by J. H. Stirling
E. Caird
(Edin. and Lond. 1883) ; Hegelianism and Personality, by Seth (Edin.
and
Lond., 2d ed., 1893) ; Critical Expositions in Griggs series (Chicago) ; of
the Esthetics, by J. S. Kedney
(1885) ; of the Philosophy of the State and of
T. Harris
(1890) ;
(1887) ; and of the Logic, by W.
History, by G. S. Morris
in
last-named
cited
Phil,
articles
the
Jour.
in
work].
numerous
Spec.
Vol.

at
1768, In Breslau, educated
Niesky and Barby, and at the
University of Halle, after private positions took a vicarship in Landsberg, and
Charitl. In 1802 he went
in 1796
began his duties as preacher at the Berlin
court
Extraordinary to Halle ; in
as
preacher to Stolpe ; in 1804 as Professor
1806 returned
in 1809 he became
to Berlin, where
preacher at the HreifaltigkeitsHe
well
and
in
1810
Professor
the
at
acquitted himself
University.
kirche;
in both
offices,
position in the ecclesiastical
occupying at the time a successful
His
movement
philosophical writings form
(Union) until his death in 1834.
the third
collected after his death
part of his works
(Berlin,1835 ff.). They
contain
his writings are
his lectures
to
on
Dialectic, Esthetic, etc. ; among
be mentioned
ihren
Uber die Meligion an die Gebildeten
Verdchtern
unter
: Heden
der bisherigen Sittenlehre
einer Kritik
(1799) ; Monologen (1800) ; Gruiidlinien
is
The
the
most
important
Ethik,
work,
given in the coll. works, in
(1803).
the edition
by Al. Schweizer
published in an edition by A. Twesten
; it is also
and
W.
Dilin Briefen, ed. by L. Jonas
(Berlin, 1841). C". Aus Sch.''s Leben
Schleiermacher'' s. Vol. L
they, 4 vols. (Berlin, 1858-1863) ; W. Dilthey, Leben
(Berlin, 1870) [art.8. in Enc. Brit., J. F. Smith].

Friedrich

the

Daniel

Ernst

bom,

Schleiermacher,

educational

Herrnhuter

in

institutions

"

Johann

Friedrich

and
there
at
Herbart,
born, 1776, at Oldenburg, educated
in Berne
and
University, for a time private teacher
acquainted with
in 1802
Privatdocent
in Gottingen, was
from
1809
to 1833
Pestalozzi,became
Professor
in Konigsberg, and
then
returned
to
G"ittingen
as
Professor, where
His
main
he died, 1841.
der Metaphysik
writings are : Hauptpunkte
(1806) ;
Allgemeine praktische Philosophic (1808) ; Einleitung in die Philosophic (1813);
Lehrbuch
zur
Psychologic (1816) [Eng. tr. by M. K. Smith, N.Y. 1891] ; Psychologic
als Wissenschaft (1824 f.). Complete
edition
by G. Hartenstein, 12 vols.
ed. by K. Kehrbach, since 1882.
The
(Leips.1850 ff.); in process of appearance,
edited
in 2 vols. (Leips.1873
by 0. Willmann
pedagogical writings have been
and
und
Grundlehren
der allgemeinen
1875). Cf. G. Hartenstein, Die Probleme
Metaphysik (Leips.1836) ; J. Kaftan, Sollen unci Sein (Leips.1872) ; J. Capesius. Die Metaphysik Herbart's
(Leips. 1878) [Ward, art. Herbart, in Enc.
the

Jena

Brit.}.
Arthur
Schopenhauer,
philosophical life,studied
at

Jena

Reason,
in

with

his

treatise

lived

for

in

Berlin

born, 1778, in Danzic, passed

in

1820, but

the

on

time

over

late to

somewhat

Gottingen and
Weimar

at

withdrew

his degree in 1813

Berlin, received
Fourfold Root
of the Principle of Sufficient
and
Privatdocent
as
Dresden, habilitated

after

he

had

won

no

in

success

work

as

'

frequently interrupted by journeys,

the
private, after 1831, in Frankfort
on
Main,
which

teacher
life

in

His

main

Will

and

was

work

is Die

Idea,

by

als
R.

B.

Wille

Haldane

und

spent the rest of his

where

Vorstellung,1819

he

died

[The

in

1860.

World

as

Boston, 3
attached
Ueber
den
Willen
vols.,1884-86]. To this were
in der Natur, 1836;
der Ethik, 1841 ; finally,Parerga und
Die
beiden Grundprobleme
Paralipomena,
1851.

as

Complete

tr.

Welt

and

edition

in

6 vols.

and

J. Kemp,

Lond.

and

(Leips. 1873 f.),and since then

frequently
Fourfold Boot and of On the Will in Nature, by K. HilleLibrary, 2d ed.,1891 ; of selected essays by Bax, Bohn
brand, Bohn
Library, also
and
by T. B. Saunders, 5 vols.,Lond.
N.Y., 3d ed., 1892.] Cf. W. Gwinner,
Soh.'s Leben, 2d ed. (Leips. 1878) ; J. Frauenstadt, Briefe Uber
die Seh.^sche
edited.

[Tr. of

the

: Jacohi.
Thing-irirltself

2, " 41.]

Chap.

573

R.

Seydel, iScft.'s System (Leips. 1857) ; A. Haym,

Jellinek, Die
Leibniz''
nnd
Weltanschauungen
Schopenhauer's (Leips. 1872) [H. Zimmerrij Schopenhauer, His Life and Phil.,
2d ed., Lond.
189t
In Mind, 1876].
Lond. 1876 ; J. Sully, Pessimism,
; Adamson
side
of
the
main
the
metaphysical development runs
a
By
psychologiced
side-line, a series of schools which, in an eclectic way,
frequently approached
of the great systems
the doctrines
by the path of the psychological method.
Philosophie (Leips.1854) ;

relation

is the

Such

Jacobi

of

J. Fr.

(1773-1843 ; Beinhold,

Pries

Glaube
und
Ahndung,
; Wissen,
1820 f
Cf
Psychische
Anthropologie,
;

Vernunft, 1807

der

and

to Kant

Schelling, 1803

und

Fichte

G.

(Berlin,1864) ;

Sch.

A.

Schulen

kantischen

1805

; Neue

Kuno
.

Acad.

Die

Address, Stuttg. 1862), to Kant and

of Wilh.
Fichte
der
Traug. Krag
(1770-1842 ; Organon
Philosophie, 1801 ;
Sandworterbuch
derphilos. Wissenschaften, 1827 ff.), to Fichte and Schelling
of Fried.
Bouterwek
and
(1766-1828; Apodiktik, 1799; ^sthetik, 1806),
of Fr.
Beneke
finally,to Herbart
(1798-1854 ; Psychologische Skizzen, 1825
and 1827 ; Lehrbuch
der Psychologie, als Naturwissenschaft, 1832 ; Metaphysik
und Beligionsphilosophie,1840 ; Die neue
Psychologie, 1845).
beiden

Jena,

Kritik

Fischer,

in

"

"

"

" 41.
The
minds

compelling

power

and

of

hearts

greatness of
had

been

given

Critiqueof
and

men

the

chieflyto
of

conception

the

and

earnestness
^

world

the

over

the

of

progress

form
which
primarily to the new
principlesof the theory of knowledge in the
Reason.
Kant
took
the antithesis
of phenomena

the Pure

from

uoumena

itself

earlier

widened

of human

compass

due

was

attached

philosophy gained

Kant's

to the

analytic he
whole

Thing-in-Itself.

which

its ethical

thought,however,

The

but

philosophy ;

the

realm

knowledge,

of
and

his

by

phenomena

dental
transcen-

include

to

the

survived
thing-in-itself

the

only as a problematicalconception,like a rudimentary organ, which

for the
historical
characteristic
might be indeed
genesis of this
theory of knowledge, but which performed no living function in it.
1. This was
that without
first seen
he confessed
by Jacohi, when
the

system, and
of
causal
tion
must

In

with

the

the

realism
could

same

not

sensibilityintroduced

which, according
not

this

yet

the

reason

the

not

enter

in it ;

remain

for

the

Kantian

the

tion
concep-

the
beginning involves
by things-in-themselves, a revelar
the

at

"

of the

doctrine

analytic that categories

be

it is forbidden
to think.
applied to things-in-themselves,
of professing to think
contradiction
things-in-themselves
of not

being permitted
; and

moves

does

not

Kant, the
is

all

at

the

even

'This

to

could

one

relation of being affected

and

mind

help

presents

especially

Jacobi,W.,

at the
to

to

think

same

II. 304.

to

be

to

guarantee
itself

recognised

to

in

from

the

them,

time

slightestrelation

leant.Ph.
"

of

presupposition

this
to

whole

critique of

contradictory

our

knowledge

of

nomena
phe-

For, according

truth.

thought

tion
assump-

"neither

Keinhold's

Briefen

itself

uber

to
nor

die

674

Qermany

Development of Idealism.

other

things,but solelyand

mind

is

hovers

between

problematicalXthe

it, and

of the

smoke, called
or

with

them.

nihilism
have

the

declare
In

the

claim

and

as

the

the

realism

but

the

not

will

strongest

of

If

we

least

to do

pure

ing,
noth-

about

busy

"

chanter's
en-

fall into

not

idealist must
'

idealism

he

must

object of knowledge is in
naive realism,
presuppositionthe same

the

great

service

determines
"the

to

opposes

actual

twofold

transcendental

being entirelydependent

the

has

reason

calls

was

same

behind

are.

Kant

inheres

Jacobi

without
of

what

of which

which

Faith,
not

that

destruction

analytic;

the

assert

"

tion
cogni-

equally

an

ghostly forms

the

If,therefore, criticism

only phenomena

nothing,"

"

is

of

knowledge

reason

the

nothing appears."

scepticism,the

to

courage

that

truth
the

absolute

or

that

itself.

i.e. only about

time,

which

in

teaches

critical

The

and

space

rise

what

nothing

"in

it;

VI.

faculty

subjectand

before

nothing

appearances

things, Kant

assume

The

has
sensibility

The

object.

understanding

phenomena

X of the
problematical

is neither

-which

things are."

other

what

itself,nor

that

alone

[Pakt

the

actual

of the

also the

transcendental

epistemology of

transcendental
it.

upon

uncertainty,"

All

truth

itself

asserts

in

is knowledge

human

sciousness
con-

through thought, but through feeling;just Kant's

in a circle out of which
experiment proves that thought alone moves
there
is no
to
tioned
access
actuality,in an endless series of the condinot

in which
law

of

is

nothing

be

can

it is the

and

who

is in

who

will

quenches

who

God

indeed, a

his

heart

bring
it.*

faith

objects,is

of

itself to

in

us

Allwill, XV.

"

W.,

his

knowing
has
a

no

be

fundamental

exactly this

nature,

of

science

known

would

must

intellect the

knowledge

is

be

there

be

in his head

only

is

mediate

says,

God,
Even

heathen
in

is

all that
no

God.*

lightwhich

is feeling
; in this

be

no

thought

Jacobi

as

necessityof
that

manner,

his

"

he
; he

heart

knowing

; the

truly one with the

it as we
in the certaintyof
ourselves
possess
proof.' This feeling,however, as regards its

twofold

kind:

perception,that

W.,

its very

mechanical

Christian

this

possess

that

into

But

true, immediate
and
object,"

could

in

the

interest

in

The

Knowledge, therefore,or

is

of

found.

formulated

unconditioned.

doctrine

"

is to be

be

demonstrated,

Spinozism,
finite

indeed

causalitymay

viz. there
that

unconditioned

no

I. 121.

the
of

we

reality of

are

the

the supersensuous

sensuous

in the

reveals

"reason."

W., III. Ill f.

W., III. 384.
s
To Hamann,
I. 367.
w.^ n. 175.
' Hume's
conception of belief and his distinction of impressions and ideas
(here called Vorstellungen) experience in this a noteworthy transformation.
'"

II. 310.

: Fries, Reinhold.
Thing-in-Itself

2, " 41.]

Chap.

suprcHfiaturalsensualism, therefore, "

I"or this

feeling of

immediate

morality,and

the

realityof

immortality.

in

practicalreason
Jacobi,'to be placed in

gance

of

feeling,which

and

stylewhich

with

appears

prioriforms

arise

than

results

be

must

he
critique,

cognitions of
through

the

only by

means

the

this reflection

are

appears
when
set

above

other

the limitation

of

that the
which

to

the

Being

the

latter

of
more

relation

the

the

proper
form

knowledge

ends, however,

of the

of

Eorms

phenomenal

moral

of

and

of

faith

had

to

things-

attachment

decided

head,

Forms

phenomenal

with

"

Kant-Jacobi

aesthetic

basis

Kant's

obscure

an

conceptional

of

significance

lies at the

that

immediate,

body

received

time

itself

must

[as experienced in feeling]

these

to

of the

knowledge

intellectual

and

to

nearer

"anthropological"

an

expression

an

body

immediate

which

the

the

into

original truth

knowledge

them

somewhat

Leibnizian

only

as

"

ascribed

the

character

therefore

that

perceptional

while
at the same
in-themselves,
to the Critiqueof Judgment

had

the

given originallyin

hand,

it the

against

over

the

that

right by

transformed

regarded

the

on

in

also

dualism

mystical extravar

philosophy aspired

set

reflection.This

the

of

experience,and

are

tail,since

of

primacy

dom,
free-

God,

Kant's

but rhapsodicaland
spirit,

conviction

the

feeling,^and

in which

itself
of

or

reason

of

the

demanding

inner

upon

the

of

service

critical

established

in the critical

mode

In

Fries.

rested

of

supersensuous,

conception,brought

which

to

signifiesthe

proof.

to

through
posteriori,

full

fundamental

same

Kant,

and

warm

assertion

given to
This

is

the

manifests

"

reason

this limitation

In

of theoretical and
return

the

575

religious feelings

presage
is

phenomena

{Ahndung)
just that to

relates.

practical

reason

conception of the thing-in-itself,

untenabilityof the Kantian
keenly recognised by Jacobi, became
palpable to a certain extent

2. The
so

when

Reinhold

present the
Kant

and

in

his

critical

Elementary Philosophy

doctrine

in

adopted entirelyhis

but missed

in him

the

the

systematic unity.

solutions

formulation

made

of

of

the

attempt
He

individual

simple,fundamental

to

admired

problems,
ple
princi-

Through
particularinsights might be deduced.
the fulfilment of this (Cartesian)demand,* opposing privateopinions
would
be at last replaced by the philosophy,
Philosophy without
this principle
found
himself
believed
that he had
He
any surname.
from

which

all

"

in the

principlewhich
"

that

in

he

supposed

consciousness

W., III. 351

Eeinhold, Beitrdge,

to

every

sitions,
quite free from presuppoidea is distinguishedby the

be

ff.
I. 91

ff.

Pries, Neue

Kritik, I. 206.

Crermany

676

VI.

[Pakt

Development of Idealism.

subjectand object,and is related to both {Principle

idea
in every
inheres
there
something
of Consciousness)} Hence
that
belongs to the
something
that
belongs to the subject and
of

consciousness

of the material, from

the manifold
the object comes
object. From
this it follows
From
the subject the syntheticunity of the Form.
is knowthe subject in itself,
nor
the objectin itself,
that neither

two

conformity to

the

the

"object
effort

hold's

the

"

had
find

to

the

the

wUl

autonomy

of

the

the

former
be

things may
directed

toward

propagated the doctrine of

profound meaning of the analytic
School

Kantian
and

lost,and

become
in

(sensuous)

in

upon
will

the

law.

fineness

; all the

master

of

form

this crude

In

of

dependence

the

of

impulse;

Form
(ethical)

the

latter

; in the

formal

the

the

of

heteronomy

recognised

of

and

between

hovers

opposition

the

further

results

impulse

material
the

this

from

which

of consciousness

world

the

only

able, but

the

only substitute was Eeinfaculty ( Vorstellungsver-

the

"

ideational

"

deeper unity of all the different

had
which
Kant
separated from each other as
cognitive powers
In so far the
Understanding, Judgment, and Keason.
Sensibility,
fundamental
philosophy opposed with a positivehypothesis the
mogen),

the

"consciousness,"

or

"

"

and
the sharp separation of the sensibility

objectionswhich

Kantian

in the

after-working

the

4),

still

and

the
of

Inaugural

became

the

the

at

Dissertation

spiritof
time

same

ries.
contempora-

many

expositiondetermined

itself in the

the

still

(cf.p. 538, note

Reason

Critique of

palpable by

more

the

ened
awakpracticalphilosophy. So the tendency was
again in its rights as against Kant,
replace the sensibility
doctrine
of the gradual transition
the functions
from
Leibnizian
of

to

the

strongly than

more

required,and
dualism

of

with

encountered

separationpresented

This

by

doctrine

the understanding

the

those

to

sense

of

against Kant's

counter-current

the

proved

reason

"dissection"

of

source

of

the

soul,

"

powerful
a

tion
dissec-

in his review, and in

Hamann
apparent than serious.
in his Metakritik,urged this against
conjunction with him, Herder
more

the

the

as

the
of

reason,

and

Pure

Both

lay chief emphasis

fundamental, unitary,sensuous-intellectual

Critique of

seek

Reason.

to

show

how

and
sensibility

of the

critical

Neue

Herder,

Theorie

all the

the

first

other

understanding
philosophy necessarilyfollowed.^

des

Vorst., pp.

Metakritik, 14, 111.

201

work

guage
lan-

of

"splitting apart"

chasms

and

dualisms

fl.

Works

presented
thought as Herder
for a long
was
personal irritation,
Cf. " 42.
development.
this

from

upon

in 40

333 ff. Moreover,

vols.,XXXVII.
Metakritik, a. silly compositionof
in the
positively impelling moment

it in

the

time

weak

3. The

They

of

solution

task, the

if the

Por

method

is

time

same

according

Oritique seeks

the

experience,these conditions
experience (a conception which

himself.
He

by settingfor
which

are

of

certainly corresponded

Kant's

with

than

meaning
the

did

Fries'

themselves

attempt

at

possible.
im-

lie at

basis of

not

itself

results

own

conditions

yet

the

escape

to Kant

its

to

not

^nesidemus.

itself

ensnares

which

could

Schufte's

effectivelyin

most

677

system

applied at the

critical

the

that

shows

Eeinhold's

attacks

united

were

in

points

their

but
sceptics,

Sehuhe.
:
Thinff-in-Itself

2, "41.]

Chap.

the

objects
better

psychological

demands, therefore,
priori): the critical method
that philosophicalknowledge, at all events
a
thinking in categories,
shall go beyond experience; and
just this the Analytic declares
discoveryof

and
each
of the knowing
impermissible. In fact, the "reason"
as
an
faculties,
understanding, etc., is a thing-in-itself,
sensibility,
imperceptibleground of the empirical activities of the kind of
cognitionin question; and of all these things-in-themselves and
their relations
the

"

of

body

as

very

slight;

unknown

conception
which

of

at

for

such

this

sure,

of

these

in

explained, provided

Enlightenment

in

rather

that
there
is
only descriptively
phenomena of the psychical life
to
a

connection

shows

under

is

with

the

we

content

problematical
against

turned

the

gists
empirical psycholo-

the

It

manner.

generic conception

but
is

this
hypostatisethis conception to a metaphysical power
this watch-word
of psychology. With
mythological treatment
"

Herbart'' extended

the

criticism

psychologicaltheory, and Beneke

prominence of this conception
natural
Tor

science of the

Schulze,this

critical
causal

is

only

as

one

the

of

saw

essential

the

aiming

the

whole

in

the

bringing

progress

elements

to

prove

against Hume,

uEnesid., p. 98.

Herbart, Lehrh., n. Psych., "

Beneke, Neue
Psych. , pp. 34

towards

proof

that

the

of

the

authority

the

W., "V. 8 and

into

psychology.'
in

professes to

3 ;
ff

earlier

to

associational

'

Schulze

also

soul ; i.e. the

philosophy,while

conception

of

is

like

comprehending

in

one

hold's
Eein-

that

again" the

thoughtless

sense

any

with

over

thus

Schulze

"faculty."
was
"facultytheory," which
employed by
of the

ultimately thought

faculty";^ he

postulate

or

is, if closely

workings.

criticism

we

very

is

"

phy
philoso-

circumstantial

empirical functions, and

its

"ideational

critical

information

faculty

"

ofEers

"

cause

all, when

is to be

"power"

be

the

experience, the

to

knowledge

To

only through
develops this

".^nesidemus"

explain nothing

and

common

to be characterised

mark

of

metaphysics

an

of that

other

information.

examined,
only

each

to

limit

elsewhere.

the

same

578

G-ermany : Development of Idealism.

experience, and

to

causal

relation

basis."

experience

between

of

Here,

too, belongs
by Jacobi, in the

exhibited
which

the

makes

yet everywhere

said

"sensibility"is

afEected.

be

to

its

at

thing-in-itself
by

the

of

conception

contradiction, already

the

course

"lies

which

that

and

of

assumption

the

VI.

[Part

Every

of

attempt

beyond the circuit of experience,

is judged in advance
by itself.^
even
merely problematically,
the conception of the thing-infirst attempt to transform
4. The
Salomon
in its Kantian
shape, proceeded from
itself,untenable
the
He
that
Maimon.
assumption of a reality to be placed
saw
is thought
What
involves
outside
of consciousness
a contradiction.
Critique of

the

is in consciousness
is

imaginary
V"
a
as

as

the

is to say, in

the

something

the

something

and
find

Forms

on

the

that

is

matter,

of

But
be

are

the

of consciousness

outside

mathematics

inducement

of

conscious

It

creating,

which

Form

and

lay in

us, that

It meets
the

between

ment
require-

impossible

an

it ?

form

to

consciousness.^

antithesis

the

regard

to

is
thing-in-itself

The

the

was

ideas

only

Of

what

our

which
it.

be

quantity.

real

create

by

it would

as

ourselves
we

of

go

explainingthe given in

of

need

to

think

; to

But

conception.

Reason

Pure

the

matenal

knowing how we
present in us, without
we
have, therefore, a complete consciousness

contrary, only an incomplete consciousness ;

in consciousness,without
being produced with

since

nothing

defined

outside
the

lowest

grade

of

is

come

; of

it is
sciousness.
con-

thinkable,

the

completeness
Consciousness
be thought as diminishing
of consciousness.
can
of intermediate
to nothing,
through an infinite number
stages down
and the idea of the limit of this infinite series (comparable to the
V2) is that of the merely-given,the thing-in-itself.Things-in-themgiven

the

selves
"

are,

can

therefore,as

peiitesperceptions;

only by

of consciousness

we

Maimon

says

cf. p. 424

"

with

of

this

reference

for
"

the
an

to

Leibniz

consciousness.^

differentials
of

is the limitingconception
thing-in-itself
series from
down
complete consciousness
The

direct

infinite
irrational

The

decreasing
quantity.

fundamental

is,
assumption with Maimon
that of the given there can
always be only an incomplete knowledge,
is only an
there
as
incomplete consciousness,* and that complete
consequence

of

the u^nesidemus
repeated the thoughts of his polemic in
in his Kritik
der theoretischen
PMlosocomprehensive manner
contains
which
not
only an analysis of
pMe (II.549 fi.), a work, moreover,
the
is one
of the best even
to the
(I. 172-582),which
Critique of Pure Reason
present day, but also a criticism of the same,
supported by deep historical
understanding (found II. 126-722). Cf. on the relation to Leibniz, II. 176 ff.
2
Transscendentalphilos.,pp. 419 f.
Maimon,
1

author

The

and

concise

most

"

lb. 27 ff.

"

Cf

the
.

Nature

with

contingency of the
Kant, pp. 398 i, 566.

world

with

Leibniz

and

the

specification of

580

of

Crermany
We

Knowledge.

with

the

only

are

toward

things

from

also

back

and

things

things

Fichte

regards

as

failure

from

scepticaldespair,he
choice,

consistent
is"^

one

interest

consciousness

causal

only

from

the

case

relations

sistently
; if con-

will

of

which

If

outset.

choose

will

one

the

constant

able
irreconcil-

so

"

its aid.

reciprocalrelation

of

the

victim

to

while
still

fact

of

and

"

equally

sort of

what

on

The

rience
expe-

upon

logicallyas

being "

"

fall

not

in

itself,are

two.

themselves

primarily depend

to

two

syncretism,to explain

between

present

comes

in
and

other

These

things-in-themselvesand

upon

both

of deed.

and

ist"y, but
{^'was fur ein Menscli man
thus already speaks for idealism, there is

consideration
the

the

each

to

attempt

the

must

since

systems,

the

both

by dependence

This

one

is consistent

of which

contradiction

thorough-going

reason,

the

of freedom

system

explanation, each

that

; it traces

necessityof

mechanical

there

than
cally
fatalistiotherwise
end
thought, therefore, it cannot
in
the
contrary, sees
materialistically.Idealism, on
product of consciousness, of a free function determined

of

such

of

solution

explanation
ness
Dogmatism regards consciousthe activities of intelligence

In

idealistic.

other

itself ; it is the

only by
modes

the

fore,
there-

derived

be

therefore

can

consciousness.

the

to

it

emerge

runs,

problem

"

product

which

ideas

necessityexperience; the

objects;

dogmatic, in
as

those

VI.

[Part

its
To
ground of experience?
paths. Experience is an activity of

directed

is

of

system

is the

two

or

the

call

feeling of

What

"

Development of Idealism.

the

man

ethical

theoretical

experience, in

being

conscious

"

{Sein and Bewusstseins), consists in this,that the "real series" of

ideal
series of mental
representations.^
objectsis perceived in the
This
doubleness
for
the causality of
cannot
dogmatism
explain ;
things is only a simple series (of "mere
being posited"). The
(or in the being conscious) is
repetitionof Being in consciousness
as
a ground of explanation
incomprehensible,if the being is to serve
"

"

"

"

being conscious.

for

"to
of intelligence
knows
the

real

also

On

that

it acts

series

of

and
its

own

what

it does

nature

very

it acts

or

tions,
func-

conjunction with
produces always at

; in

it

functions

the

(secondary) series of the knowledge of

these functions.
If, therefore,consciousness
yields the sole ground
of explanation for experience,it does this only in so far as it is the

the

same

Fichte's

If

of

the

ideal

W., I. 434.

and
idealism
points back to the Kantian
the system
Freedom, in which
connection, moreover,
the necessity of things already appears
with
a
strong Spinozistic character,
attributes
systematic influence of Spinoza's doctrine
concerning the two
the

antithesis

the

time

contrary, it belongs to
itself." Consciousness, in that

see

(primary)

the

asserts

antithesis

of

Nature

itself for the

of

dogmatism

and

first time

in this relation

of the

two

series.

:
Fichte, Kruff.
Thing-in-Itself

2, "41 .J

Chap.

perceives itself

activitywhich

self-consciousness.The

as

(of
a
Being, toward

toward

"

original relation

in the

principle of

The

is directed

as

accompanies

which

of

systematic aspect, in so far as

intelligenceare to be pointed out, by
life is called

common

and

thing

resolved

only

product

as

knowledge
itself thus
and

which

within

this

activities

the

the

and

perceives
the

this

without

supporters

hold ; but

it

method,

and

equallydependent
the intellect.
be

may

the

"

is

"

upon

ideal

are

to each

the

Cf.

other.''

also

I. 151

"

to

"We

be

An

of

the

which

dogmatic

comprehensible

of

the

thing-in-

between
an

Being

immanent

objectexists only

both

of German

is the

the

reason,

had

of

mentioned

been

upon

of

the

by

out

main
re-

from
Eein-

point
psychological
their

consciousness

individual

and

Real

the

not

thrust

took

with

followed

did

stamped

for all who

the

universal

of

essence

Krug taught,
For him,
view.

synthetism," which

example

the

metaphysics

Wissenschaftslehrehad

found

of

of this mode

self

by

of

means

consciousness."

But

the

reflection

in this the

of

tive
primi-

synthesis,that real and

equally originaland in relation

transcendental

consciousness
know

is

antithesis

reason.

at hand

they

an

facts

that

of

old

the

transcendental
as

functions

last

Being

consciousness

explanation

posited in
and

W.,

"

of

an

fact proves

close

the

upon

The

conceived

philosophy

the

whom

that

believed

tive,
objec-

conception,that
through contradictory,

syncretism above

the individual

from

departure

in

its action.^

likewise

was

and

in

reflection

"

which

conception

metaphysical type

Its

of

This

ground

the

tendency,

those

way

means

the

the

of

alone, with

deed,

own

development

Fichtean

the threshold.

reason

common

itself and
main

subjective,
knowledge aims to
a

secondary significanceof

to the

its root

subject-matterof philosophical
(cf " 42)

successors,

sank

of

; all

the

indifferent,and

became

While

6.

of

his

has

; in

object, and

remnant

and

reason,

and

subject;

last

system of the

consciousness

relation
for

of

4s the

Fichte

For

its

to

all

something

"

its

is produced.
philosophy thing-in-itself,
which
is through
of the thing-in-itself,
is thus

that

from
activities,

own

in

in

toward

intellectual perception
its

knows

consciousness

i.e.
itself,

show

to

things

science

the

into

to itself.

the

insights from

all of its

that

upon

knowledge

is self-consciousness

far

so

back
has

objects,toward

idealism

consciousness

which

of

of consciousness

aspect, in

methodical

develop

science

experience) which

consciousness
else

is reflected

and

581

as

Being only

consciousness

Schelllng'syouthful

only

in

in
so

opuscule, Vom

ff.

Krug, Fundamentalphilosophie,pp.

106

ff.

so

far

far

Ich

as

als

as

it appears

it refers

Princip

der

to

in

sciousness,
con-

Being

Philosophie,

582

G-ermany : Development of Idealism.

both

but

objects of
existingbetween
thoughts found
are

These

All

dialectic.
and

Being

would

its

for

its real

and

and

natural

all these
has

two

ideal

but

empirical

of ideas.

given

them

science,history of

the

is divided

with

ethics, with

the

other

of

toward

each

other

history

of morals.
the

In

factors

two

formally,although the oppoof knowledge

empirical branches

the

"

rational

the
articulation,
facts,physics towards

the

towards

theoretical

ing
understand-

an

genesis of the organism

of consciousness
of the corporeal world, ethics
out
towards
control
and inter-penetration
of the sensuous
by the will,which
according

to ends.

But

is nowhere

the

attained

the

complete adjustment

in

actual

cognition ;

absolute, unconditioned, infinitelyremoved

which

desires

knowledge

in

just

become

to

knowledge,
philosophy is the science

Hence

But

its

predominance,^materially or

sites strive toward

ideal

to

to

natural

science

and

reference

reference

disciplines
;

world,
or

conception,

complete adjustment
ence.
always in a state of differ-

remain

theoretical

and

and

their

Only

and

physics

identityof

consciousness

factors, perception

they

the

human

in

emerge

munity
com-

in Schleiermacher's

establish

to

this,science

of
into

world

its end

as

particular disciplines
one

the

of

our

functions.

consequence

into

has
the

intellectual

subject matter

methods

is the

knowledge just as

finer turn

knowledge

give knowledge,
In

in

them

thinking;

separate, as
organic and

immediate

an

VI.

[Part

perpetual

for

but

this

state

of

of the

it forms

goal

will

never

of

not

becoming,

it presupposes

real and

of

rather

and
the
acts
the
the

the

thinking
ceed.^
completely sucbut
of
knowledge,

dialectic.

"

the

realityof this goal

which
is never
to be attained
in human
knowledge ; the identityof
thought and Being. This Schleiermacher,with Spinoza (and SchellIt cannot
be an
ing), calls Ood.
object of the theoretical reason,
and just as little can
it be such
of the practical reason.
"We do not
know

God,
him.

to

the

and

community

"

therefore

of

the

identical.

in the

feeling,in
dependence upon

the

"

the

our

ethical life with

ence
refer-

than

more

life with

are

order

cannot

we

Eeligion is

consciousness

only

reason

knowing and right-doing; it is

highest reality,in which Being and
This
communion,
however, emerges

pious

"

infinite

(frommen) feeling of
world-ground

which

"

an

lute
absobe

cannot

exhausted

and
by thought (cf. " 42, 6). Spinoza's God
Kant's
in
coincide
the infinite,
thing-in-itself
raised
above
but thus
all
are
human
ing
knowledge and will,and made the objectsof a mystical feelwhose

This

relation
form

delicate

of

in

vibrations

Sclileiermacher's

harmonise

Dialectic

Sohelling'sSystem of Identity

Dialehtik, W., III.

4 h 68

f
.

in

Schleiermacher

copied after
appears
cf. S 42, 8.

(as
the

in

physical
meta-

"

different

somewhat

Schleiermacher.
:
Thing-in-Itself

2, " 41.]

Chap.

form

the religiouslife among

Tries, also) with

of

prominent after Spener

of
opposition of the Brothers

and

more

the

summits

of

Eckhart

and

the

idealistic

the

the

inwardness

of

Moravians.

Mysticism
tendency toward

orthodox

the

which

the

traditions

the

Thus

in

683

view

coarser

and

Franoke,

the

and

philosophy

Life
indeed

forth

the

the

to

up

"

in close

are

more

called

so

in

"

became

and

Common

development ;

transcendental

through Pietism

paas

doctrine
touch

of

in the

desires
to transpose all the outer into the inner
spiritwhich
; both
have
in the
a
genuinely Germanic
they seek the world
savour,
Gemuth"
[the mind as the seat of the feeling and sentiments].
the possibility
7. In putting aside
of a scientific knowledge of
"

the

Schleiermacher

remained

religiousfeeling which

he

world-ground

intuition

of

dependent
had

exercised

of

Knowledge.

" 42)
Kantian

the

upon
This

Herbart

of this

to the

of

paradox
hold

fast

This
has

is the

been

the

ascribed

idealistic

roots

"Understanding"
"

"

we

apperception."
consists

in

and,
and

dependent

also the
on

Season:

him,

the

regards

the

platform

of

he knows

no

the

and

oppose

thereby
yet
of

grotesquely magnified.
retrogressive tendency
in

doctrine,perhaps

the

Kant's

with

right

which

with

Forms

with

upon

in this

saw

which

contrast

in his attack

Herbart

the

of

world

the

inclination
denies

Form

and
which

Inaugural
of

"

earlier

content
had

from

into

time, products of

the

in

ness,
conscious-

it determined
He

opposes

itself from

Leibniz

without.

propagated

expressed

philosophy

spontaneityof

psychologists,finds

Dissertation

relation

the

toward

creative

the

associational

innateness

forms

like space

he

in both

the

forced

the

contradictions

"

Herbart's

the

virtual

through

here

"

this,that
like

to

of

objects,and in Fichte's
that which
in
in a completely developed form
transcendental
in general or
consciousness

in Kant's

was

germ

desired

The

teaches,indeed,

produces

have

only

It

latter

things-in-themselves,which

of

logic (cf." 38, 5).

of idealism.

more

the

re-shaping

himself

found

unknowableness.

Herbart's

to

different

innovations, developed itself

transcendental
the

conception,and

analyticappear
noteworthy as

more

which

thing-in-itself.He

the

their

to

influences

entirely

an

metaphysics

the transcendental

of

the dissolution

of

by

all the

was

the

metaphysics after Eichte's Science

the reason
(cf.the development in

idealistic

combated

the

upon

monism

conception

should

and

Spinoza

upon

substituted

but

Kant,

to

nearer

the
the

ideational

Critique of

categoriesare
mechanism.

Pure
for
As

psycho-geneticquestions,he stands entirelyupon the

For this reason
the philosophy of the Enlightenment.
the formal
other logic than
principleis the
logic whose

principleof contradiction, i.e. the

prohibitionto

commit

contra-

Qermany

584
The

diction.

truly real or actual.^

that the conceptions in which

attributes

of

to itself is
to

which

"self"

or

{sich selbst Vorstellende)involves

subject as well as in the object, we
"

to

and

the

continuous

which

real

(Beale), seeming
of

indication
; it is

given

and

logic,until
The

Being.

working

which

must

general

be
the

know

we

of

over

things
and

occurrence

discrete
be

this is the

have

must

change
task

of

just so
phy
philoso-

discover

the

conceptions of experiencewhich

end

is the

method

real

is

To

this

only

something

is,there

there

the

experience
the

at its basis

re-shapedaccording to the
realitythat has no internal

to

means

in

experience can

seeming

Whatever

series

of

attributes

have

must

is

equal
experience back

all outer

contradictions,seeming

change.

and

occurrence

phenomenon

from

is free

"Reals''

absolute

much

this

; but

phenomenon

variety

mentally represents

trace

This

variance.

at

are

ence
experi-

which

iniinite

an

the

of which

matter, in the idea

equal to

all inner

itself"

back

tradicts
con-

things,which

that

"which

that

as

made

in which

trace

we

think

we

assume

we

yet

alterations

successively different

"/"

an

of

speak

we

and

themselves

with

identical

be

to

are

contradictions;

internal

of

full

which

is,that

thought

VI.

[Part

be

it is evident
are

all

principleof

supreme

itself cannot
Now

Development of Idealism.

rules

are

formal

of

contradictions.

of

The

relation.

always is,that something simple

fold
is thought as
having differences
(the syntheticunity of the maniThis
in Kant)
only by assuming a
difficultycan be removed
pluralityof simple beings, through the relation of which to each
of the manifold
or
other the "illusion"
changeable is produced in
fundamental

of

form

contradiction

individual

any

maintained
states

itself,but

object.
if

only
which

only

we

Thus

suppose

substance
the

thp conception

relation

that

is said

various

the
to

in which

of

substance

qualitiesand

unite, concern
it

not

successivelystands

be

can

ing
chang-

substance
to other

be many
must
a single
things-in-themselves
; from
be
of qualities
the multiplicity
and states could never
thing-in-itself
But
each of these metaphysical things must
be thought
understood.
as
entirely simple and unchangeable ; they are called by Herbart,
"Reals"
(^Realen). All qualitieswhich form the characteristics of
these
characteristics
relative,and make
things in experience are
substances.

The

1 Cf.
The
historical stimulus to this
Einleitung in die Philos.,W., I. 72-82.
doubt
the depreciation
no
was
sharp presentation of the principle of contradiction
this principle found
which
in the dialectic method
(cf." 42, 1) ; logically,
I "
doctrine
of the
however, Herbart's
(with the exception of his treatment
Herbaris
in
the
of
it.
element
The
JEleatie
entirely
conception)
independent
dictions,
tian philosophy (cf I. 226) is given with
the postulate of Being void of contralittle
had
and
this circumstance
the
to
otherwise
philosopher, who
motive
his fineness
historical disposition,owed
of feeling for the metaphysical
"

in the

Platonic

doctrine

of Ideas.

Cf. I. 237

ft. and

XII.

61

ff.

Chap.

Herhart.
:
Thing-in-Itself

2, " 41.]
in relation

only

appear

Eeals

to other

the

things ;

585

absolute

qualitiesof

the

therefore, unknowable.

are,

be thought as the
determines
they must
grgjindwhich
that
likewise
must
the qualities
we
assume
as
ground
appear
; and
which
mutation
of
the
of the seeming changes
qualities exhibits in
of
the case
empiricalthings,an actual process or occurrence, a change
But

8.

between

of relations

them.

between
time

kind

of the

idea

an

the

series

and

hence

has

obliged

to

simple

and

has

and

make

not

said

the

of the Eeals

the

the real process

"takes
add

place

for

this,that

to

the
the

spectator"
"

Being

"

of

views

"

it is

has

only
either,

to

which

this

this

ics.^
metaphyseach

to

their

and

other,

relations

are

Ansichten)
(zufallige
is

passages
is the

consciousness
the

scarcely

intelligible
obtain, that

Eeals

itself only
thing which
"objective seeming.'" If we
Eeals
absolute
or
qualitiesis

also,is

occurrence,

in

sustain

between

relations

above

or

that

than

Eeal

essential

in several

meaning

otherwise

in which

space

things

in

going

Herbartian

quid,however,

Eeals

contingent

"

Herbart's

to be understood

the

the

can

relation,therefore,

discovered

be

of

the

the

almost

direction

negative

is not

tertium

to

not

appearance

called

; and

the

Every
:

Eeals

which

relations

which

concession.

two

in either.

postulate,is
the

in

determinations

between

its basis

follow, are

to

express.

and

of

in

and

coming

"

themselves

they are
Only,

questionable

arises

or

Hence
from

to

relation would

and

; what

unchangeable

exists

which

term

no

spatial;'space

ideas,products

by

be termed

obtain

to

phenomenal for Herbart

sense
Only in a transferred

of substances

waver.

to form

us

held

are

be

cannot

formed

for Kant.

intelligiblespace

doctrine

all,these

to

permits

which

relations"

of

"

in nowise

Eeals

of

changing relations
the

these

First

psychicalmechanism,
a higher degree than

artificial

beyond experience began

of "actual

products

are

this whole

Here, however,

lies

rigidityof

Eleatic

the

Keals.

which

of that

construction
For

the

as

the

some

the
from
Reals
distinguish themselves
only in this point do Herbart's
of a pluralistic
basis
Democritus, with which
they have the common
in
re-shaping of the Eleatic
conception of Being, but also by the difference
allows
atomism
only quantitive
(unknowable) quality, in the place of which
'

Not

of

atoms

differences. Just
with
of

which

being

unity

little

as

indeed

of the

are

the

Reals

to

share

their absence

manifold.

With

they

be

the

not

the

Ideas, they

have

windows,

Platonic

Leibniz's

with

confused
of

but

monads,
attribute
in

mon
com-

of class-concepts.
attributes of the Eleatic Being, but not the character
^ In
this gap of his metaphysics Herbart
inserted his philosophy of religion;
the
for since there is no knowledge of the real ground of the relations between
the

Reals,

from

which

posiveness which

the
the

world

latter

of

makes

theoretically
unassailable, upon

proceeds, the
phenomena
to
us
believe,in
permits
a supreme
intelligence as

impression
a

the

manner

ground

of

which
of

puris

these

relations, a very pale revival of the old physico-theological

proof.
"
Cf. W., IV. 93 fE.,127-132, 233, 240 f.,248 ff.: see
also E. Zeller, Gesch.
deutsch. Philos.,844.
"

d.

586

Germany

defined

Herbart

by

before

This

of Reals

aims

Reals."
to

the

we

Kant

by

the

For

consequence,

itself

against disturbance

gen). The
psychology

"

aid of which

the

by

soul
is

as

the

only

ideas, sustain
disturb

and

they
psychicallife is
By their tension
depends

the

upon

strength,which
is the

threshold

below

this

the

degree

the

ideas

have

and
If the
into

sought

must

be

in

psychicalstates which
the inhibitoryrelations

developed
do

to

as

here

"

and

statics

ideas

impulse.

the

iCf.

W.,
of

IV.

suum

Reals, by virtue
this

On

associational

ideational

ideas.^

of

ideas,"

since

and

differences

the form

of

of

matical
mathe-

lays particular

Herbart

and

esse

of which

they produce

metaphysical
psychology.

process,

'

is

fE.

7i

conservare," with Hohbes

with
Herbart
individuals, appears
as
"

The

the mechanism

will

relations

these

determining of
on

others

essential

feeling and
All

of

actual,

as

the

Hence

of

ideas.

degree

pressed by

of ideas.

take

of

the

consciousness

lowest

called

are

force,this metaphysical psychology must

theory of

the

are

mechanics

essentiallywith

of

regarded

still be

Reals

course

reciprocaltension

intensity; and
intensity. The

of

can

this

whole

in

threshold, they change

to be

have

lose

of consciousness.

of those

nature

from

explained

of

relations

the

other, and

each

ideas

the

more

ent
indiffer-

the

furnishes

simply

soul,which

inhibit
to be

maintains

soul

our

by other Reals ; they are ideas (Vorstellunr

is naturally unknowable;
simple substance
science of its self-preservations.
These, the

the

within

of

Real

unknown

the

stage for their co-existence,once

than

also,as

of

realm

those

iting
poshave

idealism.

"

contradiction.

consciousness

of the
co-existence
phenomena, of the
each other,
"disturb"
held
to reciprocally
The
Reals
are
ances,
reactions against these disturbcall forth in each other
as
the
which
have
inner
tions."^
states
significanceof self-preservato us
as
Such
are
immediately known
self-preservations
in

emerging

we

back,

taken

still less

absolute

to

deduce

to

an

Setzung,"^

absolute

"

Herbart

by

out

led

have

it would

here, too,

and

indeed, carried

was,

theory

into
perspective

the

us

"

is not

which

Being is at rest, and

in which

opening

position,"i.e. as

absolute

"

as

[Pakt VI.

Development of Idealism.

and

the

basis

the

Herbart

the

world

erected

The

assumption

view

that

the

of

stinct
inSpinoza the fundamental
metaphysical activity of the
of seeming, i.e. experience.

the
a

volitions

of

structure

follow

immanent

an

necessity

mechanical
from

this

as

of

the

likewise

relations, proved a fortunate basis for a scientific theory of pedagogics,

Herbart
made
also dependent
discipline which
ethics, since the
upon
latter teaches
the goal of education
of ethical
(the formation
character) while
teaches
the
mechanism
which
In a similar
realised.
is
this
psychology
through
Herwho
the
took
of
without
associational
Beneke,
standpoint
way
psychology
the path to a systematic pedagogics.
bart's metaphysics, found
* In
that
ideas in their reciprocal
carrying out this thought Herbart assumed
inhibitions lose in intensity as much
the weakest
of them
as
possesses, and that
necessary
"

this
their

inhibition-sum'

is divided

originalstrength, so

that

among
if in

the

the

individual

simplest

case,

ideas

in

"

6,

inverse
a

ratio

is reduced

to

by

Germany

688

furnishes

know

We

other

in that

things

would

leap he

knowledge

of

will

within

us

know

the

the

as

the

Forms

"

"

representation(as
said

often

with

connection
"

belongs

only

admit

can

to the

knowledge

thought only

be

the

causality,

to

unconditioned;
condition

to

raise

intuitive

other;
the

itself

true

idea

or

mental

time,

of

expression)
whose

manifold

has

principleof
hauer
Schopencategorieswhich
with

the

rank

same

to these

that

as

which

Forms, conceptional

conceptionalwork

off and
of

immediate
appears

world

of

of

ideas, a

our

ideas

as

the

be broken

therefore,in

phenomena

apprehension, can

in

can,

look

only an
of genius
;

penetrate

world

from

leads
not

must

science

this infinite series

whole

absolute, nothing

nothing

of causality, which

breaks

other, never

above

which

knows

thread

interpretationof the

essence,

and

the

Bound

science

guiding

the

experience,an

over

in man's

prevails
objectonly the necessitywhich
nomena
phenomena : for causalityis a relation of phe-

arbitrarily.'The

nowise

for its

have

each

to

of

brain," as Schopenhauer

Kantian

the

of
originality

an

individual

between

of

one

will.

likewise

"

in accordance

perceptions.

pure

can

in space

ordered

we

unitary explanar
be only phenomeidea
can
non
by
subject and determined

need

dangerously contradictory laxity

can

of the

phenomenon

manifold

as

appears

o"E

metaphysical

"

which

from

things must, therefore, be

"

the

to

recognisethe

We

resistance

the

bold

Virtualism

things.

as
experience. The world
object is possible only in the
the world
of the subject. Hence

an

all

reality,and

other

by

of

nature

merely

With

metaphysics.

hauer,
developed by Schopen-

was

position of

the

from

up

true

realityof

teacher

Fichte, to

form

willing to

own

our

for all

tion

one

of

essential

the

is demanded

This

the

himself

swings

The

resisting force.

subjectivismor solipsism,but this

mented
particularforces of the real is supple-

the

influence

the

realityof

the

pure

of
by the consciousness
empirical science.^
This thought of his Gottingen
under

will, and

we

in them

finds

will

of

the

Virtvr

absolute

called

have

that

realityin

refutes

knowledge

selves,
our-

"

our

feeling of resistance
relative

knowledge of the realityof

realityof other things, of the I and

own

our

thus

resistance

and

force

VI.

[Part

the

to

Bouterwek

doctrine

This

alism.

of the

to that

and

Not-I.i

basis

common

of

antithesis

The

to this will.

resistance

Development of Idealism.

to

determined

the
in

by causality. This intuition,however, is that

by which the knowing subjectis given immediately through itself as
This
word
will.
solves, therefore,the mystery of the outer world
space

1
*

p.

and

time

and

Apodiktik II. 62 ff.

In this
Schopenhauer

674).

is in

it. n.

complete agreement

67
with

f.

Jacobi

(cf. above,

:
Thing-in-Itself
Schopenhauer.

2, " 41.]

Chap.

For

also.

in space

immediately
the only thing

us

of

time

and

which

is

of
significance

the

apprehend

must

we

589

all that is

idea,^ according to

as

immediately giveji.

given

to

this

analogy
is
thing-in-itself

The

the Will.
"will"

word

The

In

sense.

the

is

organism
of

world

be

should

alone

different

it is

apart from
which

it was,

indeed,

is

will

will

hard

of

that

that

the

in human

form
the

particular

self-perception,
be kept quite
requirement

"

for

which

Accordingly

thing-in-itself,

enough

the

causality,

with

conceptions, must

as

life

of

rest

meaning

us.

point,

given

and

ideas
the

of

notion

the

expressly
the

to

tended
ex-

motivcu-

as

the

accordance

known

an

vegetative

kinds

external

or

will,in

as

immediately

through

our

and

The

processes.

in

taken

appears

instinctive

internal

potiori

philosopher emphasises
with which
peculiarities
i.e.its motivation

will

the

the

mechanical

as

designated

in which

be

to stimulation,in
susceptibility

as

these

to

indeed

must

animals

in

and

men

experience

common

used

through ideas, in

tion determined
of

here

as

himself

Schopenhauer

to

fulfil.
the

At
and

phenomenon

understanding,

body

given

and

feels

which

in

sufiicient

to be

representation
regarded

as

phenomenon
Further,

"

the

world-tvill."

in

and

space

Hence

things

phenomena

of

Nature

the

"

of

the

the

the

will

will

that
as

perceptional

subject

not

that

of

the

of

time

self
him-

different

are

in idea

Cf.

and

World

latter
and

be

the

way,

same

regarded

relation

only

the

principium

separate

cognition;

as

The

multiplicitybelong
are

Kant's

as

of

must

of

not

essence

effect.

thing-in-itselfcan

; these

be

man

conceptionalmode

and

latter.
and

cause

pluralityand

All

the

immediately real, and

the

or

product

is not

In

mediately
im-

is

this

"

paradox,

everywhere

must

is

something causally

as

have

we

cause

perception,

is
thing-in-itself

the

of

the

time

phenomena,

other

reason,

and

empirical character.

intelligibleand

of

objectification
; that is,as

to

is conceived

cause

reality,which

same

space

the

not

the

of

will

as

however, phenomenal

be

in

rule

immediately free, and yet in idea knows

So Schopenhauer adopts
necessarily determined.

himself

doctrine

cognition

the

to

is not

will

the

; but

ideas

dependent upon
given as will. Because

principleof

the

man

bodily activities

and

necessary

to the

of

our

thing-in-itself

is
thing-in-itself

The

case

mediately, through

us

body,

as

the

of

or

between

thought according

causally.
in the

Even

phenomena.
his

i.e.

be

not

must

relation

the

time, however,

same

in

from

their

each
true

Will, etc., 11. "" 18-23.

one, universal
to

perception

individuationis.
other
essence

only

they

as
are

Q-ermany

590
all the

will

is the

metaphysical

of

The

same.

the

in

opposition:

own

distinguish his
individuals, and brings the

other

in

"

deception of

is the

It

the

sympathy,

transcendental

the
weal

own

into

two

feels

feeling which

moral

hauer
Schopen-

lies for

Here

ttSv.

kcu

morals.

fundamental

the

one's

as

sorrows

iv

VI.

[Part

individual

the

of

that

from

woe

root

makes

that

phenomenal
and

Development of Idealism.

another's
of will

unity

to light.
realitycomes
Finally,the will can have for its objectno particularcontent that
such
be
can
; for
every
empirically presented in consciousness
has
content
belongs already to its "objectivity." The world-will
only itself for its object; it wills only to will. It wills only to be
actual; for all that actually is, is itself only a willing. In this
sense
Schopenhauer calls it the will to live. It is the thing-in-itsejf

of all

which

gives

ever

it is

such

birth

in the

represented

" 42.
direction

The

take

to

was

made

bold

The

relation

of

which

to

throw
of

action"

series

of

world
the

and

by

as

can

reason

thereby
objects and

system of

at

"looks

real

the

once

Fichte

thing-in-itself.
explained only out

consciousness

and

at

whole

of

its

own

action

and

rational
the

on

upon

is not

part

of the

which

the

ophising
philosis

prevails

causal, hut teleological.The

The

activities,and

that

necessity,therefore, which

its

ideal

the

the

proceed only by reflection

The

reason

which

the

be

can

that

fact

connected

upon

therefor.

of

development

knowledge of them.
Wissenschaftslehreis,therefore,to comprehend

necessary

solution

the

idealistic

conception

creates
"

the

the

as

phenomena.

principle from

consciousness

and

experience
of

problem

and

the

and

process,

Reason.

of

line of the

main

overboard

Being

consciousness,

own

System

prescribed by

was

of

mutation

restless

The

the

timeless, eternal

in

itself

to

site
requi-

in

this

dogmatic system

the

understands

intelligenceas a product of things, the idealistic

of acts,
an
as
develops intelligence
inherentlypurposeful connection
of which
to produce objects. The
of philoserve
some
sophical
progress
thought should not take the form, that because something
rather
is, therefore
something else is also, but Should
shape itself
after
the guiding principle that
in order
take
that something may
place, something
a

task;

the

perform

to

connected

taken

as

else must

"history of

this

take

place

it needs

also.

other

Every

acts

act
thus

and

series of all activities for the fulfilment

purposeful unity,
consciousness."

is the

The

system

ground

or

reason

of

the
of

of

has

reason

other
of

tasks;

all

reason,
all

tasks,
the

Being lies

System of Reason

2, " 42.]

Chap.

; that

ought

in the

toward

If the

schema

for

world

is to

carrying
be

developed

be

must

the

activityof

591

self-consciousness

directed

end.

an

The

is, in

Dialectic.

from

the

thought ^

comprehended

be

intelligence must

this

out

as

the

reason,

all

original task;

an

deduced

as

its

to

means

dialectical method.
of

system

particular

reason

of

acts

performance.

This

[lit."deed-act," Thathandlung] is self-consciousness.A beginning

without
assumptions, such as philosophy needs, is not to be

act

found

by

which

demand,
And

takes

lead

end,

which

itself

reason

momenta

designated

are

If Kant

for his

reason

the

means

and

the

declared

be

to

is necessary
of

nature

and
the

is thus
this

into

of

since

of

stronger

take

the

new

in

system

There

is in the

achieve, and

to

These

to

three

Synthesis.

insoluble

the

and

of

problems
the

actual

itself.
It

tic
idealis-

the

Thus

is

reason

the

Kant's

tion
contradicthe

to

tial
essen-

real,the

dialectical

tradiction
con-

method,

transcendental
formal

is

doing

This

belongs

opposition to

which
understanding',

that

positiveprinciple. By
infinityof self-production,

reason

real.

to be

transformation

stronger and

is

this

task

only

But

does

metaphysics,

abolished.

be

clear

shown

function.

of

an

the

it.

of which

one.

new

thought

the

; and

declared

becomes

cannot

reason

metaphysical

came

this

real nature

the

new

thyself!

which

method

necessity of

between

contradiction

that

it seeks

criticism

world

reason's

result

the

makes

now

and

a
"

making

it is

as

Thesis,Antithesis,and

as

explanation and

metaphysics
this

the

it unfolds

maintained

had

long

so

creates

to

in

of

means

Think

requisite for

dialectical

task

or

contradiction,out

by

"

consists

is

place

The

on.

resistance

this

overcome

so

resistance

what

take

is still

there

problem

every

act, and

fulfil

to

philosophy

should

results, and

task

able

be

farther, only

on

which

this

placeto

in this

place

that

of

proposition, but

or

must

one

business

principlecan
between

assertion

an

every

whole

the

what

of

means

logic,

logic.

The

general principle in
nary
the principleof contradiction,are
adequate, perhaps, for the ordielaboration
of perceptions into conceptions,judgments, and
conclusions
intellectual
perception of the philosophising
; for the
struction
reason
speculativeconthey do not suffice,before the problems of
rules

of

the

have

their

"

"

This
Eichte

they

doctrine
gave

to

sink

to

asserts

his

importance.
already in the first expositionwhich
then spoken out
Knowledge ; it was

relative

itself

Science

of

'

boldly by disciplesand
and, ultimately,the speculative reason
and

more

more

Qrundlage

der

ges.

W.-L., "

1 ;

W.,

I. 92

like Fr.

associates
affected

ff.

Schlegel,

superiorityto

[Kroeger's tr.,pp.

63

the

ff.].

Q-ermany

692
"reflective

dentia

the

in

sees

of

the

the

reason

hereditary

intuition, and

productive synthesis of
of mind

back

return

apart, to

"

is not

reason

for-itself

"

its

in

own

manifold

It

itself.

above

unity

is the
this

from

its

The

essential
of

state

the

nature

being

rent

originalunity.

of

only

keep

must

the

perception or

method.

dialectical

the

over

possible for

in intellectual

own

the

entirely upon
mind

the

"in-itself"

above

(Fiehtean)

that

which

simple

ideal

as

as

itself

to

it appears

its

and

Bruno,

philosophy.' Metar

it is not

that

coinci-

understanding"

all earlier

itself,and

its

characterisation
The

of

the

to

rests
triplicity

This

organ

disunite

spiritto

or

shown

the

to

Giordano

"narrow

of

error

it divides

which

into

the

has

of

form

of

triumph

and

within

in

Schelling^ appealed
Cusanus

VI.

[Part

hemmed

understanding"

Nicolaus

Kant
physics,of which
understanding,seeks an

antitheses

the

contradiction.

oppositorum

Hegel

of

philosophy

principle of

the

Development of Idealism.

itself.

but also
reality,
other, alien"; it

"something

as

beholds

mental
funda-

the
subject,and this
object different from
with
this
is the principleof negation. The
otherness
doing away
difference,the negation of the negation, is the synthesisof the two
sublated
named.
These
annulled
above
or
moments
are
\_"aufgeitself

for

becomes

which
Jioben,''
in

by"]

"put

threefold

relative
into

transmuted

sense

English equivalent; Bosanquet

exact

no

the

their

overcome,

the

has

an

that

aspect

their

one-sided

meaning is preserved, and

Following
higher truth.

"in-itself,""for-itself,"and

"

suggests

"

in-and-for-itself

force

their
this

is

original

scheme

of

{An-sich,Fur-

sich, An-und-fur-sich) Hegel developed his dialecticalmethod

with

each

great virtuosoship by making

and

the

from

contradiction

proceed,which
himself, in

Master
the

Phoenomenology

wealth
tional

of

of

the

turn

making

two

into
the

then

its opposite,"

ception
higher conof iinding

fortune
experienced the same
The
required a still higher synthesis,and so on.
his employment
in
of this method, particularly

antithesis which

an

conception

"

and

knowledge,

connections, and

in

the

Logic,

quite unique

worked

fineness

victorious

in

of
of

an

astonishing

feeling for

concep-

thought,
power
while
into obscurity and
occasionallyhis profundity passed over
schematic
a philosophical
word-building. In the case of his disciples,
pressed all thought into the triple
jargon grew out of this,which
scheme,

and

by

the

thoughtless externalitywith

Sixth

Glauben
Cf. esp. his article on
und
this point of view
that we
It is from

Vorl.

Uber

Meth.

d. ah.

St., W.,

Y.

267

combining

which

it

was

used,

"

ff.

Wisse7i, W., I. 21 ff.

best can
understand
Herbart's
polemic
idealism.
fundamental
in the
He, too, finds contradictions
against absolute
conceptions of experience, but just on this account
they ought to be worked
until the contradictionless
over
reality is recognised ; of. above, " 41, 7.

Chap.

used

and

System of Reason

2, " 42.]
for

adapted

in

discredit

to

The

2.

time

extended

philosophy

of

system

widely

as

accord
of

the

above

method.

which
self-consciousness,

in
FicJite,

the

is that

the

from

"

"/"

or

self

Not-I"

or

original

"

is determined

only

can

"not-self."

be

all too

was

well

bombast.^

empty

The

it

"

philosophicalactivity(about 1800), is, in* its

with

593

circles,

an

with

reason

Fiohte.

first period of

also,in

content

act

his
full

(Tliathandlung)

"

by nothing except itself,

"

"

posited by being distinguished

Since,however,

the not-self

is

posited
only iu the self, i.e. historically
expressed, the objectposited only
in consciousness, the self and the not-self {i.e.
subjectand object)
must
each other within
the
I
self.
From
reciprocallydetermine
or
a

"

"

"

"

this results

the

theoretical

according as
The

functions

Fichte
the

the

in the

of

itself

in

of

Not-I

time, the categories as

of the

In
these

place

of

which
activity,

the

of the

in the

lower

antitheses

which

Kant

of

the

stage.

the

in purer
is

Knowing

by

from

the

"

"

has

for

set

perceptions,space and
understanding, and the principles
forms

set

stages result

pure

several

apprehends

reason

which

the

as

particular strata, Fichte

stage the

The

developed

now

previously determined
is limited
by nothing

own

bound

of self-consciousness,

determining part.

are

particular
its

upon

own

rules

treated

are

reason,

is the

reason

The

beyond every
as
object.

presses

the

its

"

"

theoretical

consciousness

By virtue

external,it

the

practical series

the

or

following manner

reflection

action.

Not-I

of

the

or

of

this

had

set

principle,that
form

what
of

process

ing.
self-determinup

in

it has

between

each

higher

accomplished

self-knowledge

the

on

beginning with sense

perception and ascending
to complete knowledge.'' But
this whole
series of the theoretical
of the I.
If this
reason
an
original self-limitation
presupposes
is given,the entire series is comprehensible in accordance
with
the
principleof self-perception
activity has its object and
; for every
its reason
in the preceding. The
first self-limitation
has its ground
part

reason,

"

"

in

preceding act, and

no

It is
other

which

falls

is to be

Cf.

the

ground

ever.
what-

the

ground

of

but
groundless,free activity,

activities.
It

therefore, theoretically,no

This
into

taken

humorous

as

such,

free

groundless [undetermined]
consciousness, therefore,only

up

into

portrayal

perception;
in 6.

as

act it

Riimelin, JSeden

in

is,like

und

act

is

all
sation.
sen-

its content,
all that

has

Aufsatze, pp. 47-50,

Freihurg,1888.
2

Without

relation
the

of

Kantian

directlyvisible influence
any
the different
knowing faculties

of the

What

Leibniz, his

asserts

itself here

conception
in

of

contrast

the
with

opment
it is to be noted
that this "history of the develLeibniz, determined
causally,with Fichte teleologiHerder
as a requirement
(cf. above, p. 576) demanded

separation. Only

of reason"

cally.

from

Hamann

is,with
and

unity of intelligencein
meanwhile
performed in quite

the

Leibnizian

another

sense.

sense,

Fichte

and

Schelling

had

694

Crermany

no

ground, unconscious}

of

which

place

it appears

of

knowledge

end

to

investigateto

be

understood

if

in its nature

directed

with

empirical will,must,

set

objectsfor

no

ground,

limit

the

the

only

The

Being

only
which
The

is

of

the

system

I is the

it.

It

ought to

demand

be

is

and

case

action,

of

has

the

self

object for
things,and with

become

all its

for

therefore, is

only by itself,
"

of

consciousness,

will,and
It is

that

sake

is
of

explained from
(soil)
or

the

there, to

Being

the

its
the

culminates

reason

ethical

is not

forth

understood

ego,

form.

sensuous

brought

to be

it

into
in

active

The

but

sensation

impulse
to

to

develops,

is the

it, as

theoretical

the

it

impulse

in order

only

is

activityof the practicalreason.

the

essence

for

to

the

experience,with

itself,determined

imperative.
be

of

it has

for

reason.

of duty put

world

self passes

has

all action

which

sensation

place in
creatingfor

is

This

since

to remain

in order

of

end

only

resting Being,

as

For

impulse.

takes

the

which

material

toward

ethical

which

"

inmost

The

the

only

actual

The

Eeality

"

only

but

beyond

itself.

This

itself.

all

part

comprehended

itself.

with
object in connection
finds its object not
given

an

its

on

it

it;

Wissenschaftslehre,which
self,not

or

infiniteactivityor

toward

the

determines

be

can

self-

reason.

which

self limits

the

regard the

we

it

Hence

practical

end

what

self, which

the

the

in

"

unconscious

determines

and

In

productive imaginor

activity the
ground

no

regards content.

as

its

through

so

therefore, the

freedom,

absolute

with

there

is then

there

virtue

without."

"from

coming

calls this

Fichte

the I.

of

sensation

For

as

and

foreign

as

VI.

[Part

givenness,"by

"

It is the world-producing
activityof the

tion.

is

consists its

this

In

thing-in-itself
comes,

the

limitation

Development of Idealism.

the

the
the

action, directed

in
world
the

of

autonomy

end

cause

the

categorical

is the
that
of

the

material
we

doing,

may
but

doing. All that is,is

point of view of that

of

the

Wissenschaftslehre,so

ordinary consciousness,^
amounts,

paradoxical for

accordingly,to robbing

the

the category

1 The
lies in the
activities of consciousness"
paradox of the "unconscious
expression, not in the thing. German
philosophers have frequently been very
in their terminology, most
unfortunate
unfortunate
precisely where
they wished
words
consciousness
to give German
Fichte
a
new
not
meaning.
only uses
and
self-consciousness
promiscuously, but he understands
by consciousness,
the one
on
hand, the actual idea or mental
presentation of the individual or the
empirical ego (hence in this sense
unconscious,"
bewvsstlos), and on the
"
other hand, the functions
of the
consciousness
in general," of the transcendental
he speaks of
apperception or the "universal
ego or self"
(in this sense
"history of consciousness
"). In these verbal relations rests a good part of the
it has
of the
which
difficultyof Fichte's
exposition and
misunderstanding
"

called forth.
2 In
this spiritFr. H. Jacobi protested against this knitting,not indeed
of the
stocking, but of the knitting(W., III. 24 ff.). Cf., on the other hand, C. Fortlage,Beitrage zur Psychologie (Leips.1875),pp. 40 f.

596

Grermany : Development of Idealism.

of

the

performance of duty, of his

sphere of operation to this end, and
property as being the external
as
personality. But these primitive
finallyof his self-preservation
laws
efficient as compulsory rights or
only through
rights become
freedom

his

VI.

[Part

body

as

authorityof (positive)laws

the

which

is at

citizen,the property,
this

connection

basis

the

to

and

in the

defence

these

that the state has

principle,
be able to live by his work,

the

"

so-called right to work}

the

the

furnished

be
relations

of labour

and

demand

must

not

the
view

the

by

must

be left to the
law

of

into

the

in
interesting

in

his

politics

every one
after him, of

duty of the
physical; it

Hence

the

moral

ality,
persontionally
uncondi-

must

regulation

of

the

natural

working of supply
Smith), and the profitsof labour
of society'swar
of interests,
but

to Adam

state

pact
com-

provision that

left to the

mechanism

the

the

state.

be

not

(as according

rational

of

existence

of

condition

Work

is

doctrine, named

is the

the

analyses

culminate

make

to

idea of

It

contract.

thoughts

in the
may

The

state.

state, Mchte

the

of

the

how

see

for

organ

here.

enter

must

From

the

point of

of this

of the
conditions
thought, with a careful consideration
given by experience,^Fichte projectedhis ideal of the socialistic state
"the
as
complete industrial state"
{geschlossenenHandelsstaates)
all production and manufacturing, and all
which
itself takes in hand
trade
with
foreign countries,in order to assign to each citizen his
,

work

also the full

and

of the

philosopherdid not
could
hope to assure

if he
the

free fulfilment

3.

The

problem

was

solved

in the

of

deducing

in

the

the

of
main

that

this forth
he
a

reason,

he

the

of

Fichte's

lacked

it

was

as

as

in

later

possess

in contrast

with

system

the

to have

was

of his

human

life.

welcome

to

this

jective
as'" sub-

out
through-

posited as an
an
objective

of individuals

penetratingknowledge

in

general";

significanceof

the ideas

reason

method

by
product,appearing

in this,however,

full

of

characterised

his intention

the

the

compulsion,
thereby sphere for

"consciousness

meaning

of

Knowledge

senses

idealism

universe

possessed in the case of the relations of

supplementing of this work, that was

u.

of the

powerful

deep system

doctrine, like Kant's, was

organic whole,' should

product

every

world
of

The

individual

Science

Nature," which

of

to

from

in the

external

idealism."
"

shrink

work.

duty.
conceivingthe

empirical ego,
Fichte's

sense

of

for his

revenue

; to

set

subject which
Thus
Fichte

it

was

also.

mturrecht,
" 18 ; W., III. 210 ff.; G"-schl. Handelsst., I. 1 ; W., III. 400 fi.
G. Schmoller, Studie
Uber J. G. Fichte
in Hildebrand's
Jahrb.
f. Nat.

Cf.

Stat.,1865; also W. "Windelband, Fichte^s

1890)
8
Ficbte, W., IV. 115.
.

Idee

des

deutschen

Staates

burg,
(Frei-

System of Reason

Chap.

2, " 42.]

when

Schellingundertook,
in earnest

took up
as

the

thought

their

reason's

ultimate

of matter

existence

human

functions

and

rational

meaning

of becoming

process

seemed

the

at

had

which
craved

been

the

least;

passing through
which
now

it could

for which

at that

possible to
of

Spinoza

fitted into

point

of

had

made

just because

he

Nature's

of the

self,in

or

ego,

final

the

where

the

this

And

craving

of

progress

the mechanical

of

mechanical

electric

explanation

derivation

The

the

of

stated,problematical,to

organisms
medicine,

key

no

science,

detail-work

empirical
pitched
expectations
highly

of

theory

natural

scattered

whole.

Kant

as

of

had

this

basis

was

then

which

yet

as

on

found

been

by

conceptionof the world ;

and magnetic phenomena,
be

anticipatedthat it would
peculiar mysterious qualitiesunder

their

not

the

Galilean

his

powerful

thought

is the

century.

of

it could

time

subsume

view

to

the

discoveries

also,the

came,

point

be

of

the

"

lifein unity, whose

condition

the

great movement,

itself

philosophicalpremises,

Nature

for the

manifestation

in

seventeenth

question;

vexed

that

its basis

genetic development

and

Schelling's Philosophy

inorganic remained,

the

of attraction

organic growth

principleof

the

upon

the

after

organic from

set

the

of

the

reached

tion
construc-

theme

by

set

little satisfaction

gave
had

of Nature

was

had

as

tion
realisa-

derived

wealth

Nature

as
livingconception
itself the more
vigorously,as

asserted

which

out

this

evinces

whole

in the

the

of

science

again

once

the

spread

is

time

same

forces

whole

the

toward

given by

was

beginnings.

this

"

of the

two

sought

task, which

This

of Nature.

say

material

the

of

out

be

be

to

service

connected

as

practicalreason

the

must

was

goal

the

Between

organism.

forms

goal

alone

in which

of Nature

relation

its

and

possible only

was

for
starting-point
dynamic theory, which

and

repulsion(cf." 38, 7),

this

The

the

from

in

end

command.

problem

constructingor deducing Nature

According to the Science of

reason.

necessarily Kant's

was

of

597

of the

part

Philosophy of Nature
successfullycomprehended

be

forces,having
of the

of

other

the

Kant's

and
could

if Nature

solve

to

objectivesystem

Knowledge
of

the

Schelling.

all

be

mechanics.

'^In contrast

impression

upon

Nature,

not

man

the

with

excluded,

this,

of

minds
as

the

men

nected
con-

itself in all
divine
the
Being manifests
unity, in which
its fulness,and for the development of German
thought it became
of decisive importance that
this conception his own.
made
Goethe
The poet, indeed, as we
find it best expressed in his splendid aphorisms
Die
stead

of the
he

Natur, reinterpretedthis
"

set the

"

mathematical
concrete

Weltanschauung

of

the

view

consequence

idea

of

Eenaissance

in his
and

own

its mechanical

livingunity of Nature,
was

; in

way

sity
neces-

in which

revived,though

the

without

the
a

G-ermany

598

All

motives

these

1Nature

into

come

result its central

as

This

'attempt
to consider

Nature

Jand to

the

understand

from

[Part
'

poetic Spinozism

became

VI.

an

idealistic systems.

of the

development

in the

essential link

Development of Idealism.

thought.

in abstract

'formulation

play in Schelling's Philosophy of

the
conception is life,and it makes
of the organism,
the point of view

connection

of

the

from

its forces

ultimate

is not to be described
production of organic life. Nature
and measured, but the meaning and significancewhich
belong to its
to
are
particularphenomena in the purposeful system of the whole
of
the
forms
The
are
or
be understood.
shapes
categories Nature
itself
form
the reason
a
in which
sets itself as objective to
; they
of the

end

"

"

was

finds
particularphenomenon
development in which
every
this
idea Schelling
place. In carrying out
logicallydetermined
of course
dependent upon the condition of the natural science

of

his

of

system
its

into

time.

each

Of

other, which
ideas

purpose,

philosopher did

the

was

time

that

at

forces, of

their

principalpoint
still

were

hesitate

not

of

connection

the

fill out

to

transformation

of

interest

for

his

imperfect,-and the
of knowledge by
gaps

very

the

he took
of the
from
the
a
priori construction
hypotheses, which
these theories proved valuable
cases
teleological
system. In many
heuristic principles(cf.above, p. 566), in others
they proved false
paths by which investigationcould attain no useful results.
The

in

element

the

Philosophy of Nature,

is of

which

historical

is its opposition to the dominance

of the Democriticsignificance,
Galilean principleof the purely mechanical
explanation of Nature.
\
determination
is here again regarded as only external
Quantitatisieform
and appearance,
and the causal mechanical
connection
as
only
the

of

mode

The

representationwhich

meaning

they

have

of the

in the

Schellingturned
organic world, if

the

in which
the
animate

different
to

first

Oken,
reaches

It took

system

orders

this

significancewhich

of the

fore,
If,there-

whole.

relationshipof forms in
phology,
beginnings of comparative morimportant

so

Nature

connected

follows

system

was

role,in
in
not

order

to

the succession
for

him,

as

Nature

beings we
intends

completely

the

the

understanding.

the

toward

played

of animate

what

Herder

under

used

is the

the

or

OJcen,properly a causal genesis in time, but

In
gradually succeeding fulfilment of the end.

such
His~dlsciples
a

his look
he

Nature

to

development

tJieplan which

beings, yet

expression of

of the

Goethe

unity of

of

structures

system

conforms

in

prisoner also,
title Gott

as

(1787).

is

for
the
the

she
organism, and what
teleologicalinterpretation

the

This

man.

of

ing
in separate forms, accord-

see

with

hibit
ex-

proved by

his conversations

on

Spinoza's

Chap.

System of Reason

2, " 42.]

does

exclude

not

Oken

least,it does

at

whether

relation

is the

one

time, but,

in

include

not

species has

ohe

that

show

causal

Schelling,Croethe.

it.

arisen

from

with

599

Schelling and

ft is not

their

another

they only

for

preliminary stage

that

point

which

ask

to

wish

the

to

other

accomplishes.^
this

From

we

Nature, which

understand

can

has

is wont

again

the

why

attained

the

mechanical

explanation of

in the

victory

nineteenth

in the

period of the Philosophy

iit of teleological
now
a
happily overcome,
excess,
the quiet work
of investigation. But
the chronicles
to

which

see

since

historyof the
to-day. The

mode

time

of

victoriouslyunder

reality of

of Nature
the

the

is

endeavoured

in it the

the

of Goethe's

the

manifestation, through
forces,up

The

sensation
devious

altered

in

the
way

details

termination

the
of

system
which

Nature

in the

various

fundamental

conception due

point
1

from

of view

The

the

schema
the

to

"interpretation"

of

it

This

is

thought

modes

tions
transforma-

and

to

comes

the

that

ness}
conscious-

life of

Nature

begins.

Knowledge

the

scientific point of view

phenomena
; it opened

of

which

other

his

in

and

of

sure,

the

Nature,"

and

"

from

magnetic phenomena
to he

was,
the

remained,

duality, of

of

construction

"

it

higher unity, that

Knowledge,

of

electric

outlines

conception

each

of

this

its main

in

Science

polarityin

thing
some-

goal is frequently
Schelling gave
remodellings which

Philosophy of Nature, but

the same.
In particular,it was
oppositionof forces which negate
the

reality
a

its material

of
to

pursues

to his

formed

reason

true

it.

the

by

of

Science

the

tent
con-

of Colours.''

forms

in which

organism

beings form

Sensitive
with

the

to

the

in

living

for this

toward

from

of

of atoms, but

is ruled

multitude

motions

of

as

Theory

struggles upward

filled the

mathematics, has
behind

drawn

"

of Nature

system

of

vibration

versy,
contro-

quantitative,whichi

demonstrate

not

the

yet closed, even

meet, and

to

checked

has

felt need

play
originallyqualitative,felt

objectivereason

of

aimed
to

of colours

Schelling

not

seeks

This

meaning.

philosophicalmeaning

With

are

flag

which

need

Schelling'stheory

charming
that

of

rational

great poet, who

in the

the

the

of

Plato

the

Nature, only

which

and

qualitativeto

of the

repeatedly encountered
space

of Democritus

conceiving Nature,

reduction

forward

presses

the

of

tury,
cen-

"

this
which

dangerous principle

gates of the Philosophy of Nature

in even
their
to poetic fancy and
brilliant
flashes.
These
guests forced
way
with Schelling,but
still more
with
his disciples,such
Novalis, Steffens,and
as
Schubert.
In the case
of Novalis
have
dreamy
we
a
magical,
bolism
symespecially
a

Nature

in

play

is admirable

in

poetry

but

questionable

in

philosophy.
^

The
form

poetry of this fundamental

by Schelling himself

Sch.'s Leben

in

Brief en,

I. 282

thought
in

ff.

the

was

beautiful

expressed
verses

in

which

most
are

istic
character-

printed

in

G-ermany

600

Development of Idealism.

Nature

the

under

he

which
this

to

now

gave

common

the

first

in

idealism

an

idealists,to

Jena

The

systematic expression.
the

from

It

which

the

Science

idealism

which

the

Philosophy

of

had

become

perfected

ethical
place
taught, and the physical
presented,appeared now
of

in

Knowledge

of

idealism

he

had

become

must

the

impetus

which

development

system of reason
aesthetic function, and

the

Knowledge,
important change

the

of

of

of

Critique of Judgment.

the

given to the thoughts of

plainerstep by step that
for

Idealism,"

was

Philosophy

his

Science

thought

the

Schiller,and

from

came

the

of

own

Transcendental

"

in

place

taken

had

of

name

his

of

elaboration

an

enigma

found

Schelling'scontemporariesas a newly
for Ifim.
significant
particularly
to place beside
4. When
Schelling wished

busied

VI.

[Pakt

Nature

the

cesthetic idealism.
rich

re-shaping,so

The

through Schiller,by
those
whole

the

his

things by
of

with

acquaintance

his

before

Die

poem.

Kant,

Kunstler,

significanceof

the

aesthetic

the

merely

tions
lay nearest the poet, but likewise the ethical quesand
with
therepertainingto the history of philosophy,
Schiller's thoughts, even
Por
system of reason.

questions which
and

concerned

means

no

thoughts experienced

Kant's

results,which

in

is

been

had

"

shown

among

turned

to

in the

beautiful

the

and

art

as

"

other

the

lem
prob-

whole

nected
con-

system of man's rational life and its historical development,

conceptions he gave to
by solving this problem with Kantian

and

of the

idealism

the

This

with

began

conception
practicalin

of

Science
the

Knowledge

Forms

new

The

beauty.
aesthetic

the

of

decisive turn.

synthesis of

could

the

and

theoretical

the

(cf." 40, 2)

reason

Kant's

for

found

Schiller

which

find

perhaps

no

expressionthan in Schiller's definition of beauty as

templation
phenomenal appearance.^ It asserts that aesthetic consubjectingit to the rules
apprehends its object without

fortunate

more

in

freedom
the

of

cognisingunderstanding
and

do

we

not

ask

for

the

under

subsumed

; it is not

other

in

it has

which

conditions

tions,
concep-

wards
It is perceived as if it were
free.
Schopenliauer afterphenomena.
expressed this in the form that the enjoyment of the beautiful
is the contemplation of the object in independence of the principle

sufiicient

of

point
reason

that

the

as

of the

agreeable and
"

"The
same

Cf.

chiefly
Beautiful

year,

"

Schiller

reason.

all

later

aesthetic process
theoretical.

the

the
in

good)
letters to

is

is

The
as

Korner

of the

still

beautiful

of
the

dialogue

February,
letter
Kallias

the

of

(indistinction

object of

the

1793,

of the
which

the

weight upon

more

independent

as

little an

Art," printed with

fragments

laid

was

of
not

the

the

from

sensuous

also

20th

practical

sketch

June

it

as

on

of that

completed.

System of Reason

2, " 42.]

Chap.

is of the

moral

belongs

to the

of

itself ;

the

of

this

have

In

the

effective

most

"

will he
and

offered

taste

for

cause

as

act

disinterested

task

with

the

the

state, destroys

the

he

aesthetic

frees

he

state

from

himself

we

he

the

for

of

the

Faith

yet ripe
feelings become

the

awakes

man

science

morality.

his

his

to

and

Artists

Letters
The

deeper.

go

it is the

completely
thus

makes

point

necessary

by needs,

into
of

power

it ; and

is not

; it is the

the

to

sal
rever-

" 39, 6)

will,also,and

sensuous

"

offered art.^

Race

will
of the moral
possibility
of transition
from
the physical state, ruled
endures
In the physical state man
state.
the

the

Human

for the

room

for

the

detfermination

beautiful

{Staat), because

state

pure,

wherever

(cf.above,

in

the

life offers

vanishes, and

of

that

in the

aesthetic

ethical

the

condition

designated

man

Schiller

of

Education
or

of

disinterested

nature,

had

fosteringsoil

is the

in

sensuous

legally,at least,when

rudeness

teaching

condition,

Kant

to

intercourse

Art

morally, the

play impulse

by Schopenhauer,

place

his

which
ness
earnest-

activityof

aid, religion; Schiller

to

natural

the

aesthetic

sensuous

man

the Esthetic

on

the

an

that

was

ethical

as

higher vocation.
Such

the

first

the

subject to

will

man,

In

morality.

refined,so

in

this end.

to

from

transition

the

shall

means

motives

of

concluded

the

the

the

of the aesthetic

live,in

to

educating man,
he

need

or

is silent

followed

was

happiness

unhappy will
knowledge.^

Schiller

where

condition

the

will

the

this,too, Schiller

found

with

do

to

stirring of

every

subject of

From

want

it lacks

latter

overcoming
willess

quality of

life of

contemplation.
when

that

601

empiricalimpulse, jtistas
In the sesthetjip
life
practicalreason.

the

unfolds

; it lacks

impulse

Schiller.

the

moral

Nature

in the

; in

moral

state

controls it.
But

already

second

higher

state

the

and

nature

are

the

not

sensuous

The

attempt

which

the

World

doubt
'

and

claims

Cf
.

Sitten.

the

The

doctrine.

two

impulse

is

of

obliged

physical and in the "moral"

always suppressed in favour of the

is

nature

Schiller

In

makes
for

this
time

moral

menting
supplesides

impulse.

(11 f.)to lay a basis

strongly of the Reinhold-Fichte

of Form

Kantian

from

over

passes

this

building

if the

Education
us

poet

in

and

reconciled

side of human

one

the

system

also

assigned

culmination

the

cultivation,and

intellectual

critical

been

had

beautiful

ultimately giving

of

task

the

Artists

transforming

to

overcome

the

moral

completion to
thought into
human

in

to

the

in
in

his

"Jena

when

^tkestic

concerning

Letters

transcendental

psychology

whirred

with

remind
the

buzz

Matter."
as

Will, etc., I. "" 36-38.

the

same

conclusion

value
of

the

for

scientific

essay,

In

this

connection

Schopenhauer

Cf. " 43, 4.

moralischen
Nutsen

no

knowledge.

JJeber den

dsthetischer

Grermany : Development of Idealism.

602
other.

have

We

the

impulses prevailsover
plays,where the war
is exalted

to

for him

needful

moral

it fulfils the

from

ennobling is gained by
Through it alone is the
abolished

nature

the

"

its

beautifulsoul

its nature

is

inclination.

own

complete, full

does

does

that

just this
education.

discord

sensuous-supersensuous

; in it alone

And

aesthetic

only through

man,

is the

ennobled

so

he

where-

which

"

two

longer

no

rigorism holds
against duty : but there

conflict because
law

it is

Kantian

over

"VI.

nature

sensuous

that
sensibility

"

Seele

his

silent,where
or

stands

schone

this internal

know

not

of the

ideal

higher

"

is

loftily. The

inclination

sensuous

ever

him

sentiment

will

to

Man

other.

within

noble

so

only where neither of the

is truly man,
only where

complete manhood

[Pakt

in

manhood

human
to

come

realisation.
6.

the

In

ideal

Shaftesbury
is the

man

within

him

the

to the

reconciliation

of

; culture

life of

what

characteristic

view
of

In

the

Humboldt}

from

this

harmony

which

laid

the

He

work

of
of

dwell

full

to

senses

of

accord

Schiller

gave

his time

in antithesis

of

besides

sion
expres-

which

he thus

wealth

his, a

of

Goethe

all,however,

presented

living

form

other

appeared
this

ideal

aesthetic

perfectionof his conduct of life,

of his poeticactivity.
liam
genius Schiller was first joined by Wil-

sought

point of

of the

the

in

which

individual

aesthetic Humanism

In them

great works
conception of the

this

poems

in the

virtuosoship
The
completion
natures

the

direction

found

thought

in the

as

von

the

and

personality,who

well

as

this

manifestations.

mighty
height of humanity

two

life characteristic

Kant,

abstract

the

as

In

of

the

given through

vocation.

ideal

from

is

the

"

"

dualism.

Kantian

is to make

rigorism

wrested

the

the

Seele"

"schone

aesthetic

ethical

to the

the

overcomes

art, by ennobling
with

of

view

; he

and

sensuous

foundations

found

the

the

ideal

nature
of

man's

of

great
life in

nature, and in his treatise

the moral

for

the

understand

to

science

of language

he

applied

stood
principleby teaching that the nature of language is to be underfrom
the organic interaction
of the two elements.
An
attitude
of sharper opposition to the Kantian
rigorism had
already been taken, in the Shaftesbury spirit,by Jacobi in his
romance
patterned after Goethe's personality, AllwilVs Briefsammlung." The moral genius also is exemplary ; he does not subject
this

"

"

"

himself

to

traditional

thereby gives
"

Nature

is the

himself

rules

and

the

laws

highest that

the

iBorn

1767, died 1835.

Works,
correspondence, especially that

the
schen
^

Versuche
Ueber

die

(Brunswick, 1799).
Kawi-Snrache

(Berlin,

maxims,
of

his

circuit

7
with
Also

of

he

lives

himself

out

and

morality. This "ethical

humanity affords.

from
(Berlin, 1841 ff.). Aside
the u^sthetiSchiller,cf. principally
W. v. H. (Berlin,1856).
Rud. Haym,

vols.

18361.

60-1

Grermany

Development of Idealism.

VI.

[Part

an
always refer to the relations in the existent: these have
The
in them.
application
originalpleasure or displeasureinherent
field
of
the
aesthetic
is onlyof these
the
to
narrower
principles
indicated
the contrary, is regarded by him
: ethics,on
by Herbart
the science
of the judgments of taste
tions
the relaas
pronounced upon
will.
It has not to explain anything
that is the
of human
of psychology ; it has
business
only to settle the norms
by which
the judgment mentioned
above
is passed. As
such
Herbart
norms,

and

"

finds the five ethical

Ideas,

and

according

Equity,
of the

the

the

and

mechanism

life of

Schiller's

history,which
in

made

aesthetic
the

the

by gaining

historical

the

As

the

"

with

because

his

two

his

it sets

forth

makes

the
then

also,in

or,

presents

is

has

given

into

that

social

the

"

Nature

vanished
in the

so

task

proper

of

of the

naively;
from

former,

man

as

who

realm

Freedom.

of

does

has

what

the

unfolded

yet

tion
consumma-

it has

the

history.

relations.

may

if,on

The

harmony

task

in the

not

in
of

latter

the

ideal
or

is himself

her

Idea

the contrary,

satirical

poet who

"

the

harmonious

two, if in any

either

possesses

is everywhere

If it makes

still in

realityand
be

again

lies the

two

it is to portray man,

the

is in

ment,
command-

full

Between

it is naive;

The

not

that

as

poetry

sustained

man

life of

of

relations

that

appear

then

idyl.

life.

bringing
general plan of

ennobled

between

he

the

have

callingback, as

set

Poetry,

different kinds

natures

actual

sentimental,and

form

appear

acteristic
entirely char-

an

without
instinctively,

inconsistencybetween
the

Sentimental

where

its will.

contradiction

it is

and

and

become

spiritualnature,

interest in her of
that

Nature

of his two

condition

the

Kant

in

different

by these fundamental

natural

appear,

the

this

the

the

order

has

whose

determined

and

Elysian goal, we

law

and

constructing a

have

natures,

Poetry, however,

with

of

moral

nature

moral

of the

sensuous,

realm

the

of Eousseau

Naive

view, by

state, we

as

the

up

unity

forth

set

aesthetic conceptions from

the- antithesis

in which

struggle

tems
sys-

resulted,also, a philosophy of

on

essays

his

the

in consciousness

taken

to

will,by which

poet unfolded

different ages

the

Arcadian

accordance

his

The

spirit to
"

the

view

antitheses, and

movement.

by

the

arrange

undertakes

state

morals

fundamental

characterised,in

are

the
of

points of
The

in

manner

their

of

movements

combination.

new

forward

to

is maintained.

man

From

6.

the

seeks

geneticinvestigationhe always
associational
psychology, and thus

the

mechanics

of

he

for his

principles of

statics

these

to

life,while

moral

the

employs
in

and

"

Freedom, Affection,Benevolence, Eight,

"

has

it

way
in

man

elegiac
Nature

the

mental
senti-

poetry,

the

Nature

Nature

and

Reason

there

as

reality,

Chap.

here

ideal.

as

This
to

is,according
the

System of Reason

2, " 42.]

ancient

man

the

is sensible

of

of

Nature

modern.
Nature

in

shaping

of

striving toward
naive

the

form

of his

of

this

the

literature.

art

the

the

as

for criticism

; here

ism
ideal-

in which
So

the

Schiller

Greek.
the

the
and

Romanticists.

Scltlegels,
rejoiced

characterisation,and
of the

treatment

Schlegel gave

vanishes

personality

union

by

were

mental
senti-

latter shows

material.

upon

comprehensive

former

own

modern

seized

art, such

and

; the

is

man

poet gives

modern

his

modern

sick

is dominant
be

feeling
between

naive

the

sentimental

eagerly

Frederick

the

of

power

great friend,the

their

this

In

the

the

as

his works

would

reviewer's

it into

behind

of

contrast

and

reflection

of

philosophicalschema

introduced

ancient

realism

forth

set

Paradise,

There

last summit

principleswere

Virtuosos
in

Creator

605

naturally,the

feelings;

own

material

for the

feels

the

own

his

to

poeticmodes

also

lost

his

ideal.

should

poet

These

his

the

the

sketched

as

is,without

behind

; and

the

Greek

Hence

only in relation
his object,as the

the

The

convalescence.
she

as

between

Schiller,characteristic

and

sensible

distinction

Schiller,Schlegel.

Schiller's

historyof
the

thoughts

romantic
how
Fichtean
to use
flavour,for which he knew
speciiically
motifs
with
he designated the antithesis
ready superflciality.While
classic and romantic,
names
propounded by Schiller with the new
he remodelled
it materially,also, by his doctrine
of irony.
The
himself

classic poet loses

as

sovereign personalityabove

In

with

going

he

unfolds,

which
has

he

irony

limits

in

taught,

the

Eomanticist

aesthetic

hear

teacher

these

the Present

the

Already
and

in

and

development
of

the

he

history.

artist

his

in

he
did
As

his

found

Erlangen

of

the

the

lectures

ethical

will,of

endless

play

he

philosophy
whom

they

allowed

the

Fichte,from

"

self
him-

this the

the

reconciled

lectures

in

poet

he

in

the

concern

the

genius,

again destroys.

become

which

posits,

his

just

influence

their

Jena

treatment

the

When

Age,"

in

he

complete

and

that

of

form.

the romantic

substitutes
purpose,

the

by

play

never

doing

doctrine

result

in

the

hovers

poet

which

Hence

Wissenschaftslehre to

m,otifs;

ruling theme.
universal

his

reason.

Scholar,
the

As

much.
of

full

material

objects,and

infinite

without

Schiller's

their

matter

the

his

the

historyfound

antitheses

of

For

in

annuls

it, merely

any

creates

romantic

the

toward
infinite,
than

; the

its creation.

itself.

elements

borrowed

with
of

the

fancy, which

The

it ; he

fancy beyond

none

tendency
always more
Fichte

of the

the

free

connection

in

evinces

which

of

his

to

is

of

in his' material

the

on

in

the

Nature

of

professionalduties
System of

they

proceeded to draw the

it in the pithy lines of
first ("Arcadian")
the

have

"

Ethics

"

become

we

the

Characteristics

of

construction

of

state

of

mankind

G-ermany : Development of Idealism.

606

this

loose
his

this

from

in

This

the

follow

begins

it

lectual
complete in the intelopinlife,in the anarchy of ions,

the

as

strokes

clear

With

practiceof

and

theory

this

The

limited, since

so

the

becomes

sinfulness

"

to be

ought

himself

has here sunk

community of mankind
is limited
needs"
based
{"Nothstaat"),which
upon
exist
to
together,
externally possible for men

"state

in

sity
neces-

to tear

ego

this, however,

With

is characterised

Enlightenment.

making

natural

tradition, and

crumbling of social
of private interests.
atomism

complete sinfulness

the

and

judgment.

"

the

custom

moral

and

"

and

sinfulness.

of

age

of

government

impulse

owij

individual

and

over

certainty of

free

of the

it is the vocation

; but

is dominant

immediate, uncontested

with

individuals

reason

normal

VI.

(" Vemunftirir
people is assumed.

instinctive

or

consciousness

universal

the

age

instinct

of which
representatives

the

as
stinct"),

In

of rational

that

appears

[Pakt

it has

nothing

do

to

with

of

any

to

to
and

man's

higher interests, morality, science,art, and religion, and must

for this
freedom.
But
leave them
to the sphere of the individual's
"

"

individual

the

reason

is the

his home
which

has

world,

rise the

the

of

it will

but

state," and

"true

is

again

is that

state

the

The

century
2

of

In

the

features

IV. 453

artistic
"

Seele

schone

this age, and

about

is the

reason,

beginning of

"

his

In

of

of

the

task

and

law
must

tion
self-legislawill

reason

of the
the

in

begin,

rationally

whole

in

the

ness
conscious-

common

This

resistance.
or

known

of individuals

rule

commandment

art

"

the

to

consciouslydominant

now

the

of

state

("Elysian")

final

(J'Vernunftkunst").

reason

carried

over

to

politicsand

in it to

lead

the

community,

of the

"

teacher," the scholar,

artist.^

the

where
just'

saw

the

of rational

"

The

is

state;
the

ever,
howcivilisation,

This

self-knowledge

the

age

fulfilled without

history. To bring
the
kingdom," by
and

this the

so

ideal of

is the

It

any

of individuals

reason,

"actual"

moment

complete until all the powers

are
placed at the service of

be

individual

matured

the

With

not

at

of civilisation.^

universallyvalid,which

individual.

the

of

autonomy

this

in

sinful,arbitrary free-will

of the

Out

reason.

also

perhaps

subordination

consists in the
of

and

summit

at the

stands

living interest

no

to

classical passage
the

rule

sinfulness

"Addresses

is found

the

In

and

the

for the

of

vigorous idealism
had
risen to the highestpoint.
he praised his people
Nation"

reason

need

German

"

Fichte's

cosmopolitanism of

Fichte, W., VII.

the culture

eighteenth

which
Fichte's thought takes
at the
close,this picture
theocratic
of the future
and
takes
civilised state
more
more
on
Cf. W.,
the scholar and artist have
become
the priestand seer.
now

religiousturn

ideal
:

of the

212.

ff.,and

Nachgel. Werke,

III. 147 fi.

"^".

Chap.

the

as

only
the

itself of

this

raise

in

its

point of

view

Fichtean

the

activityof
it is

of

the

the

the

the

the

the

his

to

fate

of

aesthetic

people

Europe

is

hanging,

education
the

the

to

world.

attained

reason

bethink

to

full

mastery

philosophy through Schelling.

Transcendental
he developed
Idealism
"

of

relation

self

cries

is destined

idealistic
"

antithesis

schaftslehreby

case

of

out

He

607

originalityand

by a completely new
to
give back freedom

to

of

system

working

In his

within

its

which

vocation, on

from

and

whole

the

still preserves

of reason,

The

Fichte, Sohelling.

civilised state.

true

itself

kingdpm
7.

that

one

to create

to

System of Reason

2, " 42.]

the

theoretical

between

(cf. above,

the

No.

and

practical

conscious
If

2).

and

the

Wissen-

unconscious

conscious

by the unconscious, the self is theoretical

practical. But the theoretical
self,which

; in

is

the

looks

termined
de-

reverse

the

at

on

manifested
in feeling,
productiveness of the unconscious
reason,
end
with
to an
comes
perceiving,and thinking,never
this,and the
the unconscious
practicalself,also,which
re-shapesand transforms
in
realityof the cosmos
politicalcommunity, and
activityin the infinite.
of

nature

the

reason

the

historical

In

neither

ever

genius, in

above

activities
the

the

in
of

of

aesthetic

declared

the

system.

The

work

purest

and

attains

It

philosophy.

of

art

fullest

is in art

be

to

reason

the

whole

Kant

This

In

is.

reason

had

After

he

delivered
carried

had

defined
had

capstone

of

genius

"

idealistic
the

reason

in
out

Jena

this

his

lectures

fundamental

Idealism

the

on

thought

has

to learn

an

never

only

Schelling

Philosophy of Art,

with

of

organon

and

Transcendental

as

Schelling

the

phenomenon in which
development ; art is the true
that the
spectator thought

the

all

characterised

is that

written

designed
un-

product

truly human;

"

Science

is

the

and
philosophy are one-sided
completed series of the development of the subjectivereason
art is complete in all its works
as
entirelyrealised reason.

what

its

essential

realisation.

Schiller

the

of

goal

highest synthesisof

the

as

the

activity, whose

the

Nature;

play

has

abolished.

creative

of

morality,

activityof the artistic

are

sought.

like

of

aesthetic

the

be

works

condition

does
full

its

appearance,

must

that
intelligence

series

antitheses

phenomenal

reason

individual

unconscious-conscious

appropriateness
is freedom

of

progress,

to

come

the

the

work

of

possible only through

which

free

"

which

tion
intelligent apprecia-

production, that showed

of
admirable
fineness
and
acuteness
especially in its treatment
the
lectures, not printed at that time, determined
poetry. These
whole subsequent development of aesthetics by their influence upon
for

the

Jena

artistic

character

circle.

As

Schelling gave

them

and

mode

published

later

some

years

of

they present that form which

in
after, when
delivering them

608

G-ermany

which

to

still

the

The

common

and

the
the

indentical
is

called

this, a
the

the

VI.

general point of view,

in

change

meanwhile

had

philosopher

aesthetic motif

advanced,

itself

asserts

common

principleis required
which
Schelling entitled

Philosophy,'' this

Reason"

or
"

nor

as

"

Absolute

"

as

in the

old

the

With

the

; for

subject
real

also, at least formally,in that

active

was

sought for the Philosophy of ^Nature

systematic basis was
Transcendental
Philosophy. The former treated the objective,
the
latter the subjective reason;
be
two, however, must
in their ultimate
-whence
this phase of idealism
essence;
the
System of Identity {IdentitdPsystem). According to

treatise

of

later form

[ Part

more.

8.
a

this

In

Wurzburg.

Development of Idealism.

of

in

is here

it all

Nature

be

negative^heology,"
or

of
the

In

System

my

"Absolute

determined
be

neither

obliterated.

content,' with

in

as

self.

Spirit,of object and

must

in its

the

called

and

antitheses

undeternimed

as

and

"Exposition

highest principle can

ideal;
"

Nature

principle is

common

"Indifference

the

for

Spinoza's

as

The

Schelling,
substance."

"

latter

the property, that its

conception iF has in common
phenomenal manifestation
diverges into two series,the real and the
and
This
ideal. Nature
Spirit or Mind.
kinship with Spinoza as
regards his thought, Schellingstrengthened by formal
relationship,
schematism
of
the
Ethics.
imitating in his
Exposition the

Nevertheless
the

the

this

originalin
eternal

idealistic

its

Spinozism is
conception of the world.

transmutation

of

in this

Spinoza regards

degree

in

the

the

different
Both

Absolute

desire

into

attributes

throughout
the

to

from

set forth

universe;

but

sciousness
materialityand conand
as
each
finite
completely separate,
phenomenon as
to
of
the
two
one
belonging solely
spheres. Schelling,however,
that
and
be contained
in every
requires
"Keality"
"Ideality" must
and
construes
phenomenon,
particularphenomena according to the

which

principleof
real and

factor

absolute

the ideal

complete

the

two

elements

two

is the

idealism

factors ; the

indifference.'

predominates

The

of Nature.

'

itself

(" iiberwiegt")
; it
chemism

predominates.

quantitativedifferencebetween

real series is that

spiritualmanifestation

In

it the

to

dialectical

The

combined.

are

Absolute

and
light,,electricity,

factor

of

leads

the
In

is

just for

in which
from

organism

the

ideal

the coll. works, V. 353

Schiller's disciple,Oken,

the

matter
"

series

development proceeds

In

this

the

the

reason

objective
through
relatively

the

subjective

from

morality

ff.,first printed 1859.

he
expressed this very
characteristicallywhen
placed the Absolute, already called God by him,
"0.
3
Schelling illustrates this schematicallyby the example of the magnet, in
the different parts of which
north
and
south
are
magnetism
present with varying
2

intensities.

C5AP.

science

and

in

and

the

of

this

ticists took

the

He

proved
reason

the

to

for

victory

the

which

of

of man,

feeling of

absolute

view

limited

individual

religion
of

this

back

"

inclination
all

of

spheres

the

exercised

of

problems
of

activity of

Ages.

As

Schiller

created

an

idealised

Schellingfollowed
the

feeling.Like
"Infinite,"and

and

"

into

eternal

For

line

Spinoza,he

now

and

Ideas

(in

his

this
Bruno

they

sense

in

and

the
had

W.,

I.

the
also

Method

4, 423.

the

reason

In

view

Schleier-

in

finite

the

solution

separated
union
rule

of

Middle

the

later Romanticists

Absolute

and

"

"

"substance

and

regarded

now

of

God,

copies

of

"

God

butes
attri-

the

inserted

"

were

his

same

great acuteness

modes"

are

of

intimate

the

so

empirical particular phenomena

in

in his

of all in that

obtained

Spinoza

as

the

put aside all

it the

inner

the

when

practical

or

this is due

to

in

named

then

which

bring

"

But

system

positive religion

Greece,

the

this,too, was

the

the

"infinite

of

the

its founder.

Ages.
.thoughtwith

of

likewise

of

welfare

idealised

an

Eoman-

permeation

influence

to

was

World-ground,

409 f.)between
(cf.p.
the
so
particularfinite realities,
potencies are
manifestation
eternal
forms
of the phenomenal

the

the

the

religionthe unitary

from

Middle

this

fineness of
or

to the

Romanticism

civilisation

created

In

matter, and

desire

to

the

name,

Schleiermacher.

universal,and

the

expect

seek

Absolute

Schleiermacher

complete

spheres cjf life, which

all

over

of

of

tions.
direc-

This

theoretical

the

to

upon

mankind,

to
again, and, finally,

religion

the

understand

latter to

the

not

religiousgenius

can

"

Reden

"

various

beginning

from

what

individual

an

issue

Therefore, religion,too, was

relation

be

the

we

the

practicalorganisation.

to
to

kinship

macher's

of

held

was

traced

was

and

the

ism
organ-

another

thinking

came

relation

sesthetic

inward

in

matter.

religion.

was

pious feeling,to

form

in

For

reason.

an

entire

Despisers of Religion," that

dependence.

this

by

theoretical

but

to

this

to

preached as religion (cf." 41, 6)

behaviour

the

the

last and

complete only

aesthetic

of

the

the

incitement

Cultured

"

become

can

close

The

present century.

perfect

introduced

soon

conception

turn
religioics

the

of

the self-differentiation of the

another

at about

most

previously diverged

stages of

time

with

connected

had

first, potencies," but

same

the

once

ance
appear-

manifestation

comprehend

"

at

at the

and

total

natural

of art.^

system Schellingwould
different

termed

the

And

perfect work

609

relativelymost

universe, is,therefore, at

most

The

of

Spirit.

Schelling.

of art, the

investigations which

the

he

work

realm

the

In

the

to

the

Absolute,
9.

System of Reason

2, " 42.]

as

while
these.

by

Schelling

of Academical

Study)

termed

Q-ermany

610

still

influence

another

the

Hegel,

since

Schelling

of

latter

pointed

both
^

time

still

the

but

Plato;

to

doctrine
of the

conceived

the

Ideas

as

God's

tacles
specvision

And

so
Gottes).
Schelliag's
of himself (Selbstanschauung
back
into
Neo-Platonic
turned
a
Idealism, according to

doctrine
which

the

formed

"Ideas"

Absolute

the

upon

philosophical

through

intuition

or

and

influence

personal

Plato's

saw

which

of Neo-Platonism,

exerted

had

VI.

[Part

Schleiermacher

this.

light in

to

comes

whom

1801,

of that

knowledge

Development of Idealism.

into

transformed

became

link

intermediate

the

which

through

world.

the

of Ideas
has
of Schelling'sdoctrine
a
religiousidealism
The
ing
interestmost
of paralleland succeeding phenomena.
number
which
he paid to
of these personallyis Fichte's later doctrine, in
of making the infinite impulse
the victoryof Spinozism the tribute
rected
absolute
of the I proceed forth from
an
(Sein) and be diBeing
This

"

toward

the

of them

products

as

finite

For

same.

"

consciousness

of

held

things,he

deduced

; but

from

fast to his deduction

end

of

note

of

the

activity

infinite

the

"imitating"
the vocation and destiny of
absolute
an
Being, the deity, and hence
man
appeared to him no longer the restless activityof categorical
of sinking into a contemplation
blessed
life
imperative,but the

of this consciousness

he

now

"

"

of

divine

the

original,
"

life, which

thinker's

in its full

appear

mystical dying
the
victory of

makes

the

the

mighty

aesthetic

reason

magnitude.

ciple
by Schelling'sdisHe wished
the pantheisticWeltanschauung
Krause.
to combine
of idealism, which
time
still defended
at that
Schelling even
(in
Spinozisticfashion),with the conception of divine personality.He,
essence,"
too, regards the world as the development of the divine
The

religiousmotif

followed

was

still farther

"

which
the

is

distinctlystamped
which

intuition

(TFesew)
"

son, but

this

the

carrying

the

the

for God

term

personal,living ground

out

of

the

system,

which

of
was

"

the

these

; but

ideas

Essence

of himself.

indifferent

is not
world.

In

characterised

his
as

are

Eeafarther

"Panen-

originalitythan the very

to the whole
objectionableone of presenting the thoughts common
he
idealistic
development in an unintelligible
terminology, which
Krause

theism,"

himself

has

Ideas

personality has

supreme

is Krause's

in

out

invented,

scarcely any

but

declared

of

only,

like

view

of

the

"

Gliedbau"

Schelling,regards

On

Herbart's

just in

antithesis

be

to

his conception of
out, especially,

point

other

the

the

entire

life of

(in German,
universe

as

independent position,the importance

to that

of

Schellingand Hegel, see

carries

He

German.

pure

reason

from

the

He

not

organism).
a

of

"Wesengliedbau"

which

clear

becomes

above, p. 684, note

1.

Germany

612

and

Negation,

mind

only

manifest

moment

been

has

or

put

and
is

'

of

nature

follow

from

passing

away,

similar

to that

"

of Position,

of trinities

"schema

Reconciliation, all conceptionswith

its

realityor

thought

ever

Each

particular
retains

with
that

the

the

introduced

and

rest

and

antitheses

into

the

contradictions

of

thus

itself,and

of mind

also to the

the

the

realitywhich unfolds from it,and that their

the catein which
the systematic connection
gories
"The
another.
phenomenon is the arising

one

which

nature

itself

does

the

constitutes

and
in-itself,

'

relation

to

to

just in

consists

truth

has

shown

conceptions belong
essential

in the
or

connection

in

It is to be

whole.

philosophy,but

German
a

VI.

[Part

its
together into a
is said
its relative justification,
its necessity,
which
each
treatment
to be
: but
by this same
proves
it
receives its true value
factor which
only when

assigned place,in
to become

the

unified system.

woven

are

to

movement,

Sublation

human

the

groups,

thought

to Greek

of Proclus

"which

only

not

earlier intellectual

whole

the

sustains

this,Hegel

In

Development of Idealism.

arise

not

realityand

and

but

away,

pass

of

movement

the

life

'

of truth."

a
historical,
systematic
Hegel's philosophy is,therefore, essentially

elaboration

of

the entire material

for

the

importance

for

feeling

individual

also

and

of

the

conceptions,which

thousand

two

the

possessed both

He

and
fineness
combining power
were
discovery of those logicalrelations which
him.
The
interest in his philosophy lies less in

erudition

necessary

of history.

years,

than

he took
in

the

the intellectual

from

systematic

of

the

labours

of

which

he

combination

how
he knew
just by this means
of individual
the meaning and significance
to portray in masterly manner
a
long-standing
details,and to throw
surprisinglight upon
with
of thought.
structures
He, indeed, displayed in connection
his data the arbitrariness
constructive
thought,
(WillkUr)of [a priori']
but
which
not as it offers itself empirically,
presents the actual reality,

brought

it

as

ought

actual
made
the

about

between

them

and

to be in the dialectical movement,

objectionablewhere the attempt was

into a philosophicalsystem, as in
to bring empirical material
philosophy of Nature, the history of philosophy,and history in
matter

general.
express

Cf.

This

All

of

the

fact

this violation of the

and

more

might

be

brilliant did

the

by the historical spiritprove in those

province of philosophical treatment,

above, " 20, 8.

inherent
which
Heracliteanism,
was
its most
action
(cf. above, p. 594 f.),found
Bleaticism
(of." 41, 7 f.). This old antithesis
in the

power

relation

of the

two

branches

of German

of

thinking

the

constitutes

the

reflect

to

already in Fiohte's
vigorous opponent
idealism

it is the

fields where

merely

on

of
doctrine
Herbart's

in

essential

(cf.above,

urated
sat-

p.

element

584, note).

Chap.

undoubted
So

System of Reason

2, " 42.]
but

data,

Hegel

gave

fundamental

systematic
of

divided

likewise

the

painting,music,
of

the

symbolic,

the

being

of the

up
and

ing
attach-

results,he displayed all

of

the

the

of

poetry.

religion as

built

structure

Schiller's

conceptions

system

and

empirical reality.

Following Schiller's method,

materiallyto

arranged series

613

of

account

any

historical

mankind.

of

also

himself

give

to

aesthetics

as

(esthetic ideals

not

Hegel.

this

science

and
classic,
into

arts

So, too,

from

relation

of

in

the

the

the

well-

romantic,

and

architecture,
sculpture,
the

the

fundamental
finite to

tion
concep-

the

absolute

Spiritin the form of imaginative representation {Vorstellung)his

philosophy of religiondevelops the stages of its positive realisation
religionof magic, fire worship, and animal symbolism,
in the religionof spiritual
individualityof the sublime, the beautiful,
in the absolute
and the intellectual,
and finally
religionwhich
sents
reprehe is,the triune
what
with
God
a
as
Spirit. Here,
deep-going

in the

natural

of

knowledge

material, Hegel

the

of these same
empirical treatment
the philosophicalcategories for

lines in which

moved,

and

set

up

facts

of historical
The

is

same

The

abstract

the

form
itself."

individual

his

is not

moral

common

consciousness

of

the

arise and

the

only

pass

sideration
con-

history.'

influential

and

living

rather

forms

in

away.
the

which

this

the
Its

of

the

"

Sittlich-

realisation

press

forward

of

the

the

human

Idea,

individual

only

from

structures

true

enter

formation,

Hence
Hegel treats the doctrine
of Might (^JRechtsphilosophie).

of

of the

livingactivity
highest ; beyond this are only
ethical

Absolute

the

to

; it is the

Idea

living work

the

comes

reason

the

which

and

of

the

in

successively,to
and

states

full realisation

then

retire

Objective Spiritunder

the

of
the

which

is universal

live
from

forth

system

politicallife derives, appears

peoples

of state

of

name

its Idea
; it is in

of

But

the

the immanent

realisation
visible

the

consciousness

common

In

is the

inwardness

functions

history,in which
spiritin the work

is the

people become

and

world

by

order] for

State.

state

science,

manifestation.

forms

actual

the

the

state

art, in which

into outer

or

in the

reason

art, religion, and

the

general

these, but

retains

he

[socialmorality

spiritof

active

the

of

commands

Tceit"

The

the

universal

of

treatment

created

whUe

Spirit.

subjects later

they proceed as regards their spirituallife.

of this body is called Eight ;^ it is the Objective
The
subjection of the subjectivedispositionof

the

to

human

main

whole.

philosophercalls "morality,"

of the

the

which

from

Spirit"in

drawn

everywhere

ObjectiveSpirit the

by
Hegel
of
body
individuals, which
source

as

true, also, of

understood

the

has

his

out

their

the stage.

title

phy
Philoso-

G-ermany

614

So

definite

all the

upon

whole

as

not

must

that

suppose

if it is the

And

it

and

construct

can

task

order, then

this connected

understand

to

"VI.

spiritualpredominance of a
sign of its peculiar character

of civilisation.

activities

[Part

the

epoch is characterised by
people, which imprints the

every

Idealism.

Development of

decree

of

tory
his-

politics,
too,
life
political

requirements; it must, rather, seek in the quiet

of its political
movement.
development of the national spiritthe motives
of
the
in Hegel, the
So
Eestoration," the
"Philosopher
abstract

from

historical
of the

ism

Enlightenment.

Hegel is
philosophy
is in

content, is the

the

Logic

or

Notion.

the

as

Spiritfor

self-estrangement

which

treated

are

realm

in

itself

his

of

of his
itself

the

of

of

doctrine

of

treatment

and

its absolute

and

in the

successful

less

psychology ; the energy

of history. The
external
scheme
large the following: the Spiritin

domain

by

doctrinairagainst the revolutionary

turns

Weltanschauung

system,

Essence,

(an

fUr sich),i.e.

und

in

its conscious

life

of

the

forms
The

and

returning

as

tion
Concep-

its otherness

Organics.

part treats, as Philosophy of Spirit,the Spiritin

main

whole,

this is treated

{Geistfur sich),i.e.in

Mechanics, Physics, and

sich),i.e. in

and

externalisation,is Nature,

or

as

{Qeistan

natural

lies in the

thought

categories;
of

Being,

questions of

of

third

for itself
to

itself;

distinguished,viz. the Subjective (individual)

Spirit; the Objective Spiritas Eight, Morality, State, and History ;
Spirit as pure perception (Anschauung) in
finally,the Absolute
Art, as imaginative representation ( Vbrstellung) in Religion, as
here

three

stages

are

conception {Begriff)in
He

the

of

dialectic

material

the

which
So

the

History

all these

repeats, in

formal

the

the

parts

Logic

of

in

the
its

Philosophy.
philosophy, not

his

construction

constitutes

of

his

contents

second

conceptions,but
of

the

third

and

the

here

embraces

content, and

variety of

the

"

aims
forms

categories of

only

successive

the
also
ceptions.
con-

parts develops

already
Philosophy of Nature
and of Spirit; so the development of the aesthetic ideals constantly
that of the religiousVorstellungen; and
the whole
so
points toward
of the Logic is parallelto his History of Philosophy. Just
course
this relation belongs to the essential
of the system of reason,
nature
which

fundamental

of

not
to

only, as
unfold

of the

with

before

actual

the

Kant,
its view

world

of

the

Forms,

this content

but
in

reality,"although

also
the

this

is

with
itself. The
course
ultimately everywhere the same
is
ferentiatin
development
always the same, viz. that the "Idea," by difwith
and becoming at variance
to itself."
itself, comes
the categoriesprogress
from
the Being which
Hence
has no
content
content

of

"

to the inner

Essence,

and

from

there

to

the Idea

which

understands

Chap.

itself ; hence
the

to

Metaphysicsof

2, " 43.]
the

forms

of

imponderables,

consciousness, reason,

the

then

the Irrational.

empirical world
the

to

615
ascend

from

matter

self-

organism, consciousness,

right,morality,

and

the

social

morality of the
to apprehend the Absolute
state, successively,
Spiritin art, religion,
and science; hence
the history of philosophy begins with
the categories
of

material
in

fortunes

the

finally,the
found

be

of this

is driven

the

the

it finds

to

forth

set

in

The

only

this

in its

such

as

system
being

is it real

obscure

connection
consists

then

of

For

subject.
what

is

is

of Reason

System

should

also

from

phenomena
other

pass

to

through
is
has

of

and

mysterious

many

as

its truth
of the

such

and

is it

it in

only according to

its truth

and

actual

without

reason.

in

which

accidental

and

limited

of

thinking

what

Only

comprehended

think

we

reality

whole.

then

it loses

its
the

that

reality
But

individual

the

the

principle holds,

that

is real

is reasonable.^

The

reality.

of the

not

which

barriers

Irrational.

arise

to

these

the

of
was

of

the

knowledge

zur

attempt
the

deduce

to

all

found

idealistic doctrines

of

many-sided agent
the

that
for

The

rational

W., VIII.

17.

main

the
in

new

this

consciousness

its content, which

BechtsphUos.,

first to

The

World-ground.

the

thereby

themselves

idealism, Schelling.

ultimately something

^Vorrede

beside

theories

unreason

Proteus
the

close

other

process

the

principle necessarily encounters,

fundamental

and

this

development, the
always

science

developments Hegel

abstractly,if

Metaphysics

the

one

maintain

movement

the

"

theories

already treated;
forced

and

in

understanding,

the

of

of
insurmountability

caused

mind

contradictions

the

sole

The

best

history willed it that the System of Eeason

change into its opposite,and that the insight into the

dialectic

"

only

it

real, and

is the

" 43.
The

of all these

philosophical knowledge,

reasonable

the

realiter,but

as

in

only

human

not

whole,

it appears

it exists

such,

as

the

the

by

development

take

it exists

with

how

Phenomenology.
particularhas
every

we

subjective apprehension

hence,

deeper apprehension of itself,

language

in the

if

which

isolation,in

and

concreto, and

in

self

Idea

its

his

reason

But

by philosophy.

one's

to

all

reason," also,will

philosophicalknowledge,

moment

of the

system

inter-relation

with

of

self-comprehending

higher

ever

after

complete

consciousness, and

thoughtful intimations,in
In

"

it clear

an

its rest

becomes

the

this

sensuous

conception.

has

of

into

by making

with

until

doctrine

entrance

begins

and

existence,

it

simply

Q-ermany : Development of Idealism.

616

of it

such

free

act

resisted

which

ground,
comprehended

be

not

work,

also

now

was

be

to

Maimon

with

the

by

thought

thing-

as

The

Fichte.

account

any
X

consciousness,
in

rational

could
its

of

give

to

transcendental

the

differential

; as

without

which

this

that

Kant

able

being

limitingconceptions were

with
in-itself,
as

itself,without

present within

finds

VI.

[Part

new

was,
and

reason,
as

something

irrational.
1.

in

Schelling was forced

enough, by taking up

(" 42, 9). If "the

Spinozisticfashion,

bly
remarkapath of irrationalism,
ism
the religious
motif into his absolute idealAbsolute"
was
thought no longer merely

as

the

upon

universal, indifEerent

the

all

of

essence

phenomena, if the divine and the natural principle of things were

of the divine
distinguished,so that the eternal Ideas as the Forms
were
assigned a separate existence beside finite things,
self-perception
the

then

problem.

This

right when

he

task

aimed

which

God

the

into

world

must

again become

reallyHegel's problem also, and the latter was

taught later that, in his view, philosophy has the same
was

He

theology.

as

of

transmutation

to

show

aided

himself

in the

form

of

with
a

the

dialectical

higher logic,how

method

the

Idea

itself to "otherness"
releases
conceptional essence
agreeably to its own
(Anderssein) i.e. to Nature, to finite phenomenal appearance.
of
Schelling sought to solve the same
problem by the method
transposed
theosophy, i.e. by a mystico-speculativedoctrine, which
His happening
philosophicalconceptions into religiousintuitions.
in
due to the fact that the problem met
him
this method
was
upon
of an attempt to limit philosophy by religion. He obligated
the form
of philosohimself,in a vigorous reaction against this in the name
phy,
the religiousproblem also.
to solve
This, indeed, could only
,

be

if

philosophy passed over into theosophicalspeculations.

A discipleof the System of Identity,
that
Eschenmayer,^ showed
of
philosophicalknowledge can indeed point out the reasonableness
the
how

done

world,
this

world

its agreement
attains

deity,which it
religion begins.

to the

and

and

the

with

the

but

reason,

self-subsistent existence

has in finite
In

divine

order

to

things.
vindicate

Here

show

cannot

with

reference

philosophy

this

domain

ceases

also

for

ion,
philosophy, and restore the old unity between
philosophyand religclaim
to specifically
Schelling lays
sophical
religiousintuitions as philothis
with
and
so
conceptions,
re-shapesthem in accordance
claim that they appear
usable
for both
: in
doing which
disciplines
of Kant's
he makes
a copious use
philosophyof religion.

1
Eschenmayer
(1770-1802),Die
philosophie (1803).

Philosophie

in ihrem

Uebergange

zur

Nicht-

Chap.

In
the

Metaphysicsof the

2, " 43.]

fact,^there

is

continuous

no

reality; the originof

only by a leap (Sprung)

concrete

thinkable

Irrational
transition

from

the

of

of absoluteness.
be

is to

found
of

nature

Ideas

neither

the

the

as

antitype

itself,the

itself,

the

Absolute

self-subsistence
of that

freedom

least
of the

the

of

which

is

from

from

to

God

is

the

condition

teaches

here

Ideas

but

Absolute,

"

in the

Tor

given.

archetype

is in itself

617

Absolute

sense

in the

nor

counterpart

or

the

Schellingstill

"

at
possibility

"

beholds
"

in the

latter the

"

for this

ground

world

breaking of"

Schelling.

the

to

in which

it

communicates

{"In-sicJi-selbst-seins").

In this lies the

of the falling away

possibility
of the Ideas from God,
of their assuming metaphysical independence,by which
they become
actual and empirical,i.e. finite. But
this fallingaway
is not necessary
and

comprehensible : it is a fact
not, however, a singleevent, but as timeless
not

and

the

Ideas.
from

comes

We

that

see

Kant's

theory

intelligible
character, while
from

Fichte's

rationale.
Ideas

this

divine

actual,however,
Ideas
to the

God

external

Odyssey
their

and

Ideas

its selfness

the
infinite,

finite,and

the

principle of

his

fall,and
but

to

later

the

reconcile

under

them

the

Schelling,Beligion

In

the

Geschichte

und

Philosophische

likewise

later

in

(1828-1829).

the

the

the

rational

being
the

back

of things into
whose

God,

Iliad
whose

and

is the reconciliation

with

Absolute

return

theory,

actual

merely concealed, with

of its author

and

of

Ideas

of the

strives

God,

from

man

SchlegeV ma.Ae

Frederick

the

contradictions

of

of

no

reality of

essence

return

mind

have

God,

the

cessation

of

Individuality also experiences this change

mination
{Ichheit)is intelligiblefreedom, self-deter-

breaking loose from

submergence in the Absolute.
manner

this

and

in the

of the

"

similar

its divine

But

the

comes

it : their

This

Its final purpose

reuniting

in

trine
doc-

of

contrary,

realityis

actual

are

unreason.

departure
God.

to

self-subsistence.

In

that

archetype,

farther

is his return

of fortunes

of the actual

content

is Nature.

God

the apostasy, the

of

the

lute
Abso-

this

deed

actualisation

acts

apostasy, sin,and

and

as

the

the

free

history,the epic composed

farther

evil

apostasy, therefore,rests

original ground
is

is the

to

radical

ego, which

Hence

is

ground;
the

as

the

for it is God's

eternal

of

in the world.

and

rational

religiouscolouring of

the

of

and

on
philosophical,

of the

conception

On

the

the

without

as

of

the

its deliverance

the
finite

is

"triplicity"of
to the

infinite,

professed to maintain
from
fact, to explain them

which

the
the

through subjectionto divine revelation ;

impotence
great pains,the philosophical

exposition employed.

Philosophie, W., I. 6, pp. 38 ff.

Vorlesungen, edited by Windisohmann
and
the
Philosophie des Lebens

(1804-1806),
Philosophie

der

618

Germany

controlled
of

ground

thought,

the

falling away

transferred

was

of view

Boehme

of Jacob
his

with

intercourse

received

his stimulus

prophet

St.

fast

Martin,^ and, holding

that

originalidea

who

life of man,

only so much
development
its

is the

of

of

image

fantastic

God.

him,

and

beginning

redemption

French

faith, had
and

The
the

of himself

know

parallelto
goal, the

its

as

un-"

of

course

self-

the

life is determined

man's

Since, now,

the

can

be

must

by
had

thoughts.

that
who

and

him

himself

genius

Fichtean

was,

God,

of

knows

God

as

him

within

stirred

to

Catholic

the

to

point

mysticism

Boehme's

from

and

in the

the

near

latter

The

Boehme

from

both

brought

Baader.

von

the

irrational

friendlyto the

mysticism with obscure

and
appropriationof Kantian

methodical

as

Franz

if the

itself. From

the Absolute

his

elaborated

fall

of

essence

thought, Schellingbecame
(cf.p. 374 f.)- This was

this

of

the

to

always

found

be

to

only

affirmed

be

could

this

had

question, whether

ultimately

not

was

itself

free

not

which

monism,

,to the

him

forced

his

itself: and

Absolute

The

problem.

once-discovered

the

from

"VI.

[Part

contrary, could

the

subtletyof Schelling,on

The

2.

Development of Idealism.

the

by

eternal

self-

out of
consist in God's
unfolding himself
generation of Ood must
his dark, irrational,primitive essence,
through self-revelation and

self-knowledge, to

(1809)

freedom

dark

the

of

Out
ideal
to

us

tional

the

St. Mat-tin

of

the
the

conflict

and

his treatise

on

mordial
Ahgrund [pri-

or

nature, which

divine

the

in the

is

ever

the

dark

and

itself

blind
as

revealed

in

has

the

"

for

over

reason,

its

permits

Nature

its

reason.

and

urgency

irrar

and

formation

purposive
process

the

its self-revelation

world, which

between

will

as

This

will.

last instance

beholds

will

historical

as

universal

the

content
the

natural

of
philosophe inconnu," the stern opponent
and
seized
hy
through
through
Revolution, was
most
translated
his Aurora.
Of
his writings, the

(1743-1803),"Le
and

Enlightenment
teachings,
important are VHomme

Boehme's

which

in

recognise the
of

in

itself,creates

self-beholding proceeds

victory

the

abyss]

reality is

toward

interaction

impulse,

in

began

Urgrund, Ungrund,

an

or

all actual

image

the

.also

primordial accident (" Urzv^

Being, and absolute
scious
striving,an injSnite impulse. It is the uncon-

only

will, directed

of

unreason,

mere

will,and
Ideas,

Schelling

speak

to

ground,

depicted as
fall"),as a

reason.

influences

such

Under

absolute

of
and

the

de

Desir

V Esprit des Ghoses

(1801) ; the
du Men
Le Crocodile, ou guerre

(1790), Le

most
et du

Nouvel

Homme

interesting perhaps
mal

arrivee

sous

la

is the
regne

(1796),and
strange
de

Louis

Di

work,
XV.,

epicomagique (1799). Cf. A. Franck, La Philosophie Mystique en France

poeme
und
St. Martin
(Leips.I860).
(Paris,1866) ; also v. Osten-Sacken, Fr. Baader
2 This
of Schelling's is accordingly usually called the Doctrine
later doctrine
the earlier is called the System of Identity. Schelling, Unters.
of Freedom,
as
iiber die Freiheit, W., I. 7, 876.

G-ermany : Development of Idealism.

620

this,that

in

of which

midst

they

the

set forth

Irrationalism

directed
the

was

the

the

real

the

In

its

the

difference

Schlegel

absolute

of

only towards
doing,"just as

of ethical

of

fancy, with

is

nothing

self-determina^

Schopenhauer

objectlesswill. Since this will

the unhappy
the never
satisfied,

an,

perpetually,it
is

autonomy

only
will

self-knowledge(self-revelation
of misery and
be a world
must

the

but

of this will, it
objeci^ification)

"

of

name

thing-in-itself

"infinite

Tichte's

arbitraryplay

the

the world

since

and

the

Fichte

unreason

itself

creates

the

conception,this will, directed

to

or

the

under

things, as

by

instinct

Schlegel'sirony (cf." 42, 5) : but in both cases

is all the greater. The
activitydirected solely

with

case

tion, with

ment
'develop-

Schopenhauer

urgency

him

with
all

of

essence

resemblance

formal

itself is with

toward

the

as

in

dark

The

itself appears

live,as

(ef. " 41, 9).

development

religiouselement.

toward

only

will to

to its full

came

of the

itself,has

God

of

ideas

human

of

himself.

removal

the

the

of a history of
standing, the significance
Schelling
ruling in it,so now
divine powers

development

of God
4.

in
religions,

of

warfare

to the

gave

were

the

and

universe

the

Gnostics

the

as

VI.

[Part

suffering.
thus

Pessimism,

by Schopenhauer
All

will

But

to

pain

is the

of

pain.

pain

Hence

is

the

being

devoured

ethical

the

it ; it is moral

toward
to

it.

alleviate

alleviation

will,and

World,

of

with

perpetual
1

born

the

The

if it feels
the

the

noon."

as

Will

hurt

will
The

and

the

the

of

torture

able

be

one

with

estimate

to

at all.

only sympathy

another,

From

will

can

individual
or

be

another's

hurt

of

as

its

seeks

Schopenhauer
But

this

abolish

the

life.

ethical

"

and

own

only a palliative
; it does not
its unhappiness persists.
The
misery of life remains
always
46

indifferent

merely

is

Idea, I. "" 56 ff. ; II. ch.

if it

is immoral

sympathy

the

fundamental

the

will

if it is

also

standpoint
psychologicalexplanation of

his

gave

to be

of

you

with

proportion of pleasure and pain in the

man's
life always ends in the complaint,

never

hurt

willing and attaining.

Hence
not-yet-satisfied."

the

feeling(cf." 41, 9).

increases

the

devours

and

"

of

life itself.

of

estimate

hedonistic

"

strengthened

now

pleasure consists only in the removal

preponderate in the life of will under
life confirms
this conclusion.
Compare

that

suffering,then

life is

If

lot is

best

the

ache

must

beast

approximate correctness
world
in general. Hence
that

the

actual

and

the

continuallybetween

on

positivefeeling,and

pleasure of

that

of

means

pain, is

is

all circumstances,
the

by

life flows

human

metaphysically, is

grounded

Parerga,

sun

burns

the

same;

II. ch.

11 f.

Chap.

Metaphysicsof the

2, "43.]
the

only

form

in -which

shapes change,
be

can

of

nothing

in

History

shows

man.

with

which

the

mention

no

alters

but

an

it is

the

constitutes

the

endless
of

cast

ever-new

The

special
Hence
there
always the same.
in history; intellectual
perfecting

which

only

alters.

621

is

progress

will

Schopenhauer.

in idea

represented

content

Irrational

the

essential
of

sorrow

characters

the

of

nature

will

live,

to

the

constantly presents

tragi-comedy before itself.^ On this ground the philosophy of

vidual
Schopenhauer has no interest in history; history teaches only indi-

same

facts ; there

deliverance

itself ?

But

the

wishes.

his time.

will

the

the

of

the

milky
If

an

what

world

the

from

willess

he

states

world

that

while

the

mystical

an

absence

the

Indian

the

unreasonable

At

the

close

for

be

of his

of

of

all its

with

work
the

all those

consideration

the
will

annihilation

the

world

now

negation of

the

but

oldest

and

But

after

about

Europe

confirmation,
and

deny

life and

teaching with

Maia,

the

in

known

only

it

of

of

import

also, would

the

thought

of the

many-sided
the

in

sorrow

idealityof

of

in

who

the

life
and

suns

intellectual

those

The

thought.

in

success

two

his
of

mistaken

as

inductive

as

natural

the

and

it

hope

so
even
a thinker
impossibilities,
subtle
investigations as Edward
a

meteor

but

that

dazzles

Berlin, 1869) [Eng. tr.

phie des 'Unbewussten,
1884].
by E. C. Coupland, Lond.

for
The

be
a

in

no

tive
relawhich

disinterested
for

in the

both

of

eternal

Hegelian development

the

science.

in

object

particularphenomena,

after

yet

states

active,viz.

is

could

is

there

"

gi-aftingthe optimism of
of Schopenhauer's
was

of

there

time

will,

of the

will-irrationalism

this

combination

of the

affirmation

not

ling'sDoctrine
of Freedom
results
by the method

onlv

remain

disinterested

finds

have

his

Nirvana.

subject of knowing

these

and

be

philosopher go.

in view

deliverance

on

into

of

contempt
belongs to

is the

welcome

veil

the

shall
in the

present

that

to

; how

the

"

is

"

of the

Hence

soul

all

this

nothing to them, they have attained blessedness

In thy nothing I hope to find the all."
absolute
deliverance
is accordingly impossible, were

and

the

the

teaches,

contemplation

system

as

would

whatever

pure

of

will,certainlynothing ;

possible,then

ever

self,in

possible

is

ways
"

idea

that, of

saints

peace.

with

race

let the

that

still full of

are

of

peace

entrance

not

intimates

will,and

of

the

to live would

he

the

human

world

live

to

in

and

one

is

be

itself. But

will

the

"

deliverance

philosophy, which began

He
greeted this identityof

of

called

this

vav

This, Schopenhauer held,

religionand
wisdom

of

the

of

will would

self-affirmation

nature

mortification

and

goods,

koI

of it.

of the

denidl

or

will,the iv

Idea

the

science

wretchedness

in its very

asceticism,in
all its

the

the

is indeed

Kesl,

rational

no

negation

For

mystery.

of

from

the

only through

is

pattern of Schelreaching speculative

with
the
And
organic
intelligentand so deep
the

of

von

brief

Philosophy

Hartmann,

period {Die

could
Philoso-

of the Unconscious,

622

Crermany

of

Forms

the

Development

objectification

of

will

the

Idealism.

of

the

VI.

[Part

This

Ideas.

Platonic

"

Schellingian)

(and

of

assumption

but

it

of

principle

when

it

without

is

any
is

the

gives

theory
able

to

ulterior

mitigated

life.

morality

will

The
itself

to

represent

The

in'
;

only

in

contemplation

purpose.

by

as

misery
art

and

its

science

the

Schiller's

from

is

to
itseK

objectification

irrational
it

and

manner

free

thought

all

space

happiest

the

of

in

employ

becomes
in

which

to

idea

to

the

difficulty

extreme

an

opportunity

philosopher

of

with

with

also

case

according

system,

thought

is

disinterested

his

complete

will

the

the

fits

character),

metaphysical
of

particularising

will

intelligible

Schopenhauer's

into

time

the

is

(as

however

element,

overcome.

World-

PART
THE

J.

M.
A.

PHILOSOPHY

Monrad,

Franck,

Ph.

OF

THE

der

Denkrichtungen

Damiron,

CENTURY.

Zeit.

neueren

VHistoire

sur

NINETEENTH

Bonn,

1879.

et Franqais.
iStrangers

Philosophes Modernes,
Essai

VII.

la

de

Philosopliie

Paris,

France

en

1873.

Steele.

19"

au

Paris, 1834.
H.

Taine,

F.

Ravaisson,

L.

Perraz, Histoire

Les

Philosophes Classiques Franqais

La

Philosophie
de

France

en

au

Philosophie

la

au

France

en

Siecle.

19'

Siecle.

19'

Paris,

19'

au

Paris, 1857.
1868.

Siecle, 3 vols.

Paris,

1880-1889.
D.

Masson,

Har.

Becent

Hoffding, Einleitung

in

die

ed.

3d

English Philosophy,

Lond.

1877.

englische Philosophie

Qegenwart.

der

Leips.

1890.
L.

Ferri, Essai

VHistoire

sur

de

la

Philosophie

en

Italie

Siecle.

19'

au

Paris,

1869.
K.

Werner,

Die

des

Philosophie

italienische

[0. Pfleiderer, The

of

Development

19.

N.Y.

1891.]

The

historyof philosophical principlesis

of

the

Germaa
the

and

in

development

systems

of

than
literary-historical

nothing essentiallyand
nineteenth

century

speak

B.C.

in

Hegel's

Weltgeistof
toward
from

or

the

the

so

he

busy

outer, is kept from

the

'

in its

nineteenth

Hegel,

Berliner

own

with

and

be

the

turning

obliged

concrete
inward

The

VI., XXXV.

is,in

one

would
that

say

to

The

second

realityand
and

For

and

the

drawn

itself,and

philosophical

is, indeed, extensive

Antriltsrede, W.,
623

to

of

more

; it

If

a.d.

peculiar^home.^
century

third

the

fifteenth

would
with

far

philosophicalone

compared

language,

enjoying itself

literature of

be

has

ceding
pre-

succeeding

philosophical interest.
since
has
appeared.

new

being

fourteenth

time,

our

valuably

the

the

and

ment
develop-

between
of

survey

the

with

standing to-day

properly

is far from

this respect perhaps, to

centuries

still

are

we

closed

ff.

1884

Lond.

Kant.

since

boundary

centuries.

present
which

the

at

Vienna,

Jahrhunderts.

Theology

Rational

enough,

and
which
the

has

been

wafted

intellectual

life,has

combined

been

have

but

fineness

and

of

the

And
which

interest

their

the

the

lines

antitheses

of

have

decisive

factor

century

is

nineteenth

which

importance
claim

may

influence
the

for

at

intellectual

life

of

all the

and

therefore

in the

the

main

under
of

conception

all the

actual

occurrence

necessitywhich
value
the

of

the

formed

in

been

given

chang.
and

thought
typical
vigour.

problems

century,'

our

transmitted

to

form

in

new

nineteenth

checked

The

dominance

the

universal

of
of

cosmic

for

world

was

thought,
form

and

the

true

that

To

the

account

The

basis

by

met
that

spread
the

all that

vehicle

of

the

third
can

law

to

sketched.

the

at

afterwards

seventeenth,
science,

the

on

were

part of

and forms
simplest elements
the insight into the invariable
all change,
these
determined
"

thus
was

this

German
is known

also

the

measured

estimates
the

by

mechanical

with

in this way

is but

the

standard

of

regarding

of

way

Philosophy

of

the

tal
fundamen-

the

nal
phenome-

purposefully developinginner world,

comprehension of the particularhas to determine
a

its

the
multiplicity,

(supplementary) volume
be

and

natural

thinking of

in

this field,which

author

has

heen

is

carried

out

in

detail

of

and

his

Geschiohte

proved

what

hard

so

to

and
the

master

devoting
widely ramifying, and,

for

years

some

the nature
of the
labour, comprehensive, from
case
be easily understood, frequently checked
by external
may
to present
product of this he is now
permitted to hope soon
this

philosophy

the

as

of

The

again
of

of

phenomena

eighteenth century,

In

degree

repressed

grow

the

the

of

of

interest
literary-historical
of

the
the

processes,

investigationand
whose
worth
particulars,

of

to

and

conformity

search

of

whole.

as

over

metaphysics

Enlightenment
the

life

gained

century,

power.

the

and

had

was

of

conception

world

whole

lies at the

"natural."

the

by

philosophical movement
the
question as to the

theoretical

the

the

life and

new

been

natural-science

as

world,
and

the

special science

greater
the

in

view

our

this

with

the

of

energy

surveyed

have

that

of

like Eosmini

the

to

are

history

personally impressive

indicated

as

most

doubtless

the

which

beginning

on

thought,

of

science

of

wealth

Comte,

shaped them

Ideas,

flower

empirical expression.

For

the

and

conceptions that

the

history,and

through

us

of

course

and

along

moves

of

structures

history,and

general

the

thought-germs

ultimate

of

thought-forms

of

days
spheres of

immeasurable

Hamilton

like

seed
of

significance
only in
they have
feelingwith which

their

Lotze, have

art ; the

almost

many

men

even

from

us

of

and

an

into

ing combinations
detail

in

the

VIL

[Part

luxuriantlyin all

grown

public life,of poetry

and

to

over

Century.

colours ; the

all the

of

gives a variegated play

of

Nineteenth

Philosophy of the

624

difficulties.

der

neueren

here

can

The

special parts
Philosophie.
only be briefly

as

the Nineteenth

Philosophyof
significancethat
The

life.

historical

These
of

the

which

thought

belongs

And

century.
earlier

the

from

in the

main

two

are

the
the

in

the

of

clearness

Formulated

experience,this

arid all trouble

day

our

is the

rapid

which
the

he

sign of

If

irresistiblyto

the

bring

and

out

has

the

all

it is the

The

mighty
is

formation
trans-

taking place

intellect

forms

the

opinions,
efficient in

more

subjects the

of

this account

on

demonstrable
and

far

But

of

natural-science

doubt

life,which

control

operative

was

always

science.

eyes,

first is

The

centuries

of

and

of

of

the

thought

to

live under

we

f.).
philosophicalliterature

the

movements

found

its most

in which

the

of

this

teristic
charac-

above

important manifestation,

we

it is in

the psychical
primarily with the question,in what sense
of cognition ; for
mode
be subjected to the natural-science
first be
this point that the question mugt
with
connection

decided

of

have
life

in

to
can

do

the

right

point,too,

violent
of the

of

value, but
and
To

goes

with

been
about

in the

the

of

reaction

through

middle

indeed

than

Philosophy,

German

information,but
it has

In

collision.

the

minds

the

fiows
about

monarchy

the

to

question as

the

reason

absolute

to

thought-forms

these

of psychology has
systematicsignificance

the

vigorously contested

more

this

and

of
this

For

philosophy.

method,

'

p. 386

those

emphasise

antithesis

natural

from

sented
pre-

imagination {anschauliche

or

exclude

(cf above,

Baconianism

been

bringing any

that

same

previous

great things, and

such

are

we

century

our

to

of

relations

before

have

decades.

definiteness

utilityof

life

all arguments

without

our

is the

perception

external

the

owes

in

interpretativethought.

progress

man

average

life

to

of

intellectual

philosophy

mathematically

evident

in
with

of

this

to

promises

work

the

victoryseems
gradually
principlesof Democritus, there

nature, and

to

of

out.

them

but

-whole

if the

the

certainty and

in

of

intellectual

Einfachheit) the
knowledge.

And

the

between
of

of

to trace

other

combinations,

side

intellectual
essentially

each

history

field.

of

simplicity and

the

result

desired

warfare

favourable

motifs

times

the

manifold

most

toward

incline

to

in

periods of

principlesinto

new

with

the

was

625

connected,

purposeful

Weltanschauung
System of Eeason

forces contend

two

our

it in

to

Century.

the

century

against
broad

period,not

much
all the

more

more
more

have

century,
into

come

of

Stream

with

indeed

This

any

in

effective in the

garb

most

schauung
Weltan-

reasons

new

its claims

upon

the

spoke
Since

passionateemphasis.
modest

and

idealism

materialistic

century.

the

been

never

highly strained

the

nineteenth

the

all the

nineteenth

task,

out
or

then

to

scientific

of

sceptical

caution.
positivist
the

most

significant ramifications

of

this

line

of

thought

626

belongs without
of man,

the

doubt

historical

the

to

exercise

powerful

principlesof

the

the
world
a

new

seem

historical

have

drawn

philosophicalIdea

as

that

near

shall

which
science

together
grasp

them

of

mental

of

has

the
of

modes
as

is

life
and

On

view.
not

science, and

study

VII.

social

the

world

the

natural

upon

natural

and

points

of

view

also

[Part

relations

the

and

science

natural

influence

regard

to

evolutionary theories

historical
to

endeavour

development,

spiritualexistence, from
other side, however, the

Century.

Nineteenth

Philosophyof the

the

failed
in

history of

viewing

the
velopment
dethe

possible without

both.

century up to 1860-70 the

philosophical literature of the nineteenth
be emphasised :
points may
In France
logical
psychoIdeology divided into a more
physiological and a more
In the line of Cabanis
branch.
worked
principallythe Paris physicians,
such
Ph.
Pinel
as
(1745-1826 ; Nosographie Philosophique, 1798) P. J. V.
Brousaais
(1772-1838 ; Traite de Physiologie, 1822 f. ; Traite de V Irritation
ei de la Folie, 1828), and the founder
of Phrenology, Pr. Jos. Gall
(1758-1828 ;
Becherches
le Systems Nerveux
Cerveau
sur
celui du
en
en
partigeneral et sur
edited
The
in conjunction with
tithesis
anwas
Spurzheim)
culier, 1809, which
formed
of Montpellier
to this, physiologically, was
:
by the school
Siemens de la Science de V Homme,
2d ed.,
Barthez
(1734-1806; Nouveaux
Associated
with
this
school
M.
F.
Bichat
X.
were
1806).
(1771-1802;
Mecherches
Physiologiques sur la Vie et la Mart, 1800), Bertrand
(1795-1831;
Traite
du
Somnambulisms,
1823), and Buissou
(1766-1805; De la Division
des
la
Phenomenes
plus NatureMe
Physiologiques 1802). Corresponding to
this was
the development
of Ideology with
Daube
(Essai d^Ideologie,1803),
and
especially with Pierre Laromigui^re
(1756-1837 ; LeQons de Philosophie,
et de
1815-1818) and his disciples,Fr. Thurot
(1768-1832; De VEntendement
Etudes
JSlementaires
de
la Maison,
1830) and J. J. Cardaillac
(1766-1845 ;
Cf. Picavet, Les Ideologues (Paris, 1891).
Philosophie, 1830).
line of extensive
historical
A
study and of deeper psychology begins with
M. J. Deg^rando
des Connaissances
Humaines,
(1772-1842 ; De la Generation
Berlin, 1802 ; Histoire
Oomparee des Systemes de Philosophie, 1804) and has
its head
in Fr. P. Gonthier
Maine
de Biran
(1766-1824 ; De la Decomposition
de la Pensee, 1805 ; Les Bapports du Physique et du Moral
de V Homme,
printed
les Fondemens
de
CEuvres
Philosola Psychologie, 1812;
sur
1834; Essai
phiques, edited by V. Cousin, 1841 ; CEuvres
Inedites, edited by E. Naville,
ences
CEuvres
Inedites, edited
1859; Nouvelles
by A. Bertrand, 1887). The influof the Scottish
and
German
philosophy discharge into this line through
P. Provost
(1751-1839), Ancillon
(1763-1845),
(1766-1837),Royer-CoUard
Cousin
Jouffroy (1796-1842),and above all,Victor
(1792-1867 ; Introduction
Generate
V Histoire
de la Philosophie, 7th ed., 1872 ; Du
et du
a
Vrai, du Beau
V. C.'s,
Bien, 1845 ; complete works, Paris, 1846 ff. ; cf. E. Fuchs, Die Philos.
Berlin, 1847 ; J. Elaux, La
Cousin, Paris, 1864). The
Philosophie de M.
numerous
school, founded
by Cousin, which
through its
was
especially noted
historical
the
It was
School.
labours, is called the Spiritualisticor Eclectic
official philosophy after the July Eevolution.
Its principal opponents
the
were
philosophers of the Church
party, whose
Traditionalism.
as
theory is known
(ie G"nie
Together with Chateaubriand
du
Christianisme, 1802), Jos. de Maistre
(1753-1821 ; Essai sur le Principe
Generateur
des
Constitutions
Politiques, 1810; Soirees de St. Petersbourg,
J. Frayssinons
1821) and
1823),
Christianisme,
(1765-1841; Defense du
V. G. A. de
Bonald
(1753-1841 ; Theorie du Pouvoir
Politique et Beligieux,
1796 ; Essai
de V Ordre
Analytique sur les Lois Naturelles
Social, 1800 ; Du
18' siecle ; complete
Divorce, 1801 ; De la Philosophie Morale
et Politique du
ism
traditionalworks, 15 vols.,Paris, 1816 ff.)stands here in the foreground. The
of P. S. Ballanche
is presented in a strangely fantastic
fashion
(1776-1847 ;
les Institutions
Essai
sur
Sociales,1817; La Palinghiesie Sociale; complete
From

the

following

main

"

"

"

628

Philosophy of the

Nineteenth

Century.

[Pakt

VII.

View
and
Critical
of the
phy of the Infinite,1854), S. Morell
{An Historical
in the 19th
Century, 1846), also H. WedgSpeculative Philosophy of Europe
'wood
( On the Development 'ofthe Understanding, 1848)
widened
The
points of view of English thought were
by acquaintance with
the German
Sam. Tayl. Coleridge
literature,to which
(1772-1834), W. Wordsworth
and
Carlyle (1795-1881; Past
(1770-1850), and especially Thomas
.

Present, 1843

[the articles

various

on

German

thinkers

and

Sartor

the

Besartus

made
itself felt
belong
philosophy
J. Herschel
primarily through Kant, whose
theory of cognition influenced
( On
the Study of Natural
Whewell
Philosophy, 1831), and especially W.
losophy
(^PhiSciences, 1840).
of the Inductive
In intelligentreaction
against this influence, Scottish philosophy experienced
of Sir William
Hamilton
cussions
a valuable
re-shaping at the hands
(1788-1856 ; Distures
on
Philosophy and Literature, 1852 ; On Truth and Error, 1856 ; Lecon
Metaphysics and Logic, 1859 ; Editions
of Meid^s and Stewards
Works;
cf. M. Veitsch, 8. W. H., The
Man
and
his Philosophy, Edin.
and
1883
Lond.
{^Memoir in 2 vols., 1869, by same
author]). In his school Agnosticism proper,
osophy
supported principallyby M. L. Mansel
(1820-1871; Metaphysics or the Phila
tendency incliningtoward
of Consciousness, 1860), is separated from
eclectic
phy
metaphysics : M. Veitch, R. LovTudes
{Introduction to the Philosoand
others.
McCosh,
Beliefs,1865) Leecbman,
of Primary
influential factors of recent
[One of the most
English thought is the so-called
Neo-Kantian
whose
or
the
Neo-Hegelian movement,
leading representative was

also]) contributed.

here

this

In

influence

late

Hill

Thomas

Green

(1836-1882), Professor

at

Oxford.

His

Introd.

to

followed
Lewes
and
on
Suxne was
by criticisms
Spencer and
(posthumously)
to Ethics, 1883, and
by the Prolegomena
complete works
(except the Proleg.),
and
N.Y.
3 vols., Lond.
In sympathy
with
this idealistic and
1885, 1886, 1888.

Hegelian interpretation of Kantian

principles are F. H. Bradley
1883
Studies, 1876), B. Bosanquet
; Ethical
{Logic, 2 vols.,
1888, etc.), J. Caird
{Introduction to the Philosophy of Seligion, 1880), E.
Caird
{Critical Phil, of Kant, 2 vols., 1889 ; Essays, 2 vols., 1892, etc.),Seth
and
Haldane
phy,
{Essays in Phil. Criticism, 1883), J. Mackenzie
{SocialPhiloso1890), J. H. Stirling {The Secret of Hegel, 2 vols., 1865). Cf. A. Seth,
of this in Mind, by D. G.
Hegelianism and Personality, 1887, and the review
more

or

less

{Logic, Lond.

Ritchie.
lines of thought were
introduced
(in opposition to the
of Coleridge's inteipreta^
philosophy) through the medium
tion of Kant, by James
Marsh
tures
Lec(1829) and Henry's trans, of V. Cousin's
Locke
on
directlyfrom Germany by L. P. Hickok
(1834),more
{Bational
Psychology, 1848; Emp. Psych., 1854 (rev. ed. by J. H. Seelye, 1883) ; Moral
Science, 1853
T. Harris,
in the Jour.
(rev. ed. by J. H. Seelye), etc.). W.
done
elsewhere, has
work
in the
Spec. Philosophy, and
an
same
important
line.
Of more
recent
writers, J. Royce
( The Religious Aspect of Philosophy,
1886 ; Spirit of Modern
Philos.,1892), J. Dewey
{Psychology, 1886 ; Outlines
G. T. Ladd
of Ethics, 1891) are closer to the school of Green, while
{Phys.
to
B. T. Bowne
Phil, 1891) and
Psychology, 1887 ; Introd.
{Metaphysics,
The
Psychological Theory, Ethical
to Lotze.
Theory, etc.) stand
nearer
of H.
James
extremely suggestive work
{Psychology, 2 vols., 1890) should
also be mentioned, and
as
representations of the modem
of this
treatment
to the works
of Ladd
and
science, in addition
cited above, J. M.
win
BaldDewey
Jour.
{Psychology, 2 vols.,1890 f.) and G. S. Hall
(in Am.
Psychology)
American
be named
as
writers, and Jas. Ward
may
(art.Psychology in Enc.
Brit.), S. H. Hodgson
{Time and Space, 1865 ; The Philosophy of Beflection,
James
1878), and
Sully {The Human
Mind, 2 vols.,1892) as Englishmen.
and
have
Darwin,
treated
Romanes,
Lloyd Morgan
comparative
psychology.
Finally, as the most
prominent representative of intuitionist ethics, J. Martineau
{Types of Ethical
Theory, 1885 ; A Study of Beligion, 1888 ; Seat of
Authority in Bel., 1890).]
In

America

prevalent

The
more

idealistic

Scottish

Italian
than

the

philosophy of
French

thoughts that have

French,
partly upon

by

been

the

worked

partly

nineteenth

century

political motives,
upon

over

for

German,

these

and

has

been

in

the

ends, it has

philosophy.

At

determined
content

the

dependent
beginning the

been
the

still
of

Philosophy of
Encyclopsedists'

view

of

the Nineteenth

Century.

629

the

in its practical and

world, both
its theoretical
Gioja (1766-1829)or his friend,Romagnosi
(1761-1835),while as early as Pasquale Galuppi (1771-1846; Saggio Filosofico sulla Critica delle Conosoenze
1820 ff. f Filosofia della Volonta,
Umane,
1832 fl.)
Kantian
influences
assert
to be sure, under
themselves,
the psychovirtual innateness.
logisticform of the Leibnizian
later period philosophy, which
At
a
was
mainly developed by the clergy,
influenced
was
essentiallyby the politicalalliance of the Papacy with democratic

aspects,

dominant

was

in

like

men

"

Liberalism,
The

inasmuch

personally was

Eationalism

as

characteristic

most

Antonio

wished

to

unite

itself with

representative of this tendency and

the

revealed

faith.

attractive

most

Rosmini-Serbati

(1797-1855 ; Nuovo
Saggio sulV OriMorale, 1831 ; Posthum.
Teosofla,
1859 H. ; Saggio Storico-Critico
sulle Categorie e la Dialettica, 1884) [Eng. tr.
of the first,
1883 f. ; also li.^s Fhilos.
Origin of Ideas, 3 vols.,Lond.
System, by
with
T. Davidson,
int. bibliog.,
1882 ; Psychology, 3 vols.,Lond.
and
etc., Lond.
Cf. on
him
F. X. Kraus
Boston, 1884-89].
{Deutsche Bnndschau,
1890). The
combination
of Platonic, Cartesian, and
Schellingian ideas proceeds in still
more
i.e. an
of Beinig,
pronounced lines to an Ontologism,
a
priori science
in Vincenzo
Gioberti
(1801-1852 ; Degli Errori
Filosofico di Bosmini, 1842 ;
Intruduzione
alia Filosofia, 1840 ; Protolugia, 1857.
Cf. B. Spaventa, La
sofia
Filodi G., 1863).
Terenzo
Mamiani
passed through this entire development
(1800-1885 ; Confessioni di un Metafisico, 1865).
As
opponents this tendency found, on the one hand, the rigid orthodozism
of Ventura
Intel(1792-1861), Tapparelli and Liberatore
{Delia Conoscenza
letuale, 1865), and, on the other
hand, politicallyradical scepticism,
as
sented
repreby Guiseppe Ferrari
(1811-1866 ; La Filosofia delle Bevoluzioni, 1851)
and
Antonio
Francki
{La Beligione del 19. Secolo, 1853) [cf. for this Italian
thought the App. in Ueberweg's Hist. Phil, Eng. tr., Vol. II. 461 ff.].
gine delle Idee, 1830

In

"

331

third

(cf. J.

Germany

fE.)the

;. Principii della

first

Scienza

Erdmann,

E.

development

and

complete
Drobisch

that

History
of

of

Phil.

[Eng.

Vol.

tr.

III.]

in the
great philosophic schools
fourth
decades
of the century.
Herbart's
following proved the most
in itself and
firmest
in its adherence.
In it were
prominent : M.
moralische
{Beligionsphilosophie, 1840 ; Psychologic, 1842 ; Die
was

the

Statistik und

die menschliche
Willensfreiheit,1867),R. Zimmermann
{^sthe1840 ; Ein1865), L. Striimpell {Hauptpunkte der Metaphysik,
leitung in die Philosophic, 1886), T. Ziller
{Einleitung in die Allgemeine
school
A
of the
is formed
by the
special divarification
Pddagogik, 1856).
so-called
or
opened
by
as
[Comparative
Folk-Psychology],
Volkerpsychologie
M. Lazarus
{Abriss der Sprach{Leben der Seele, 1856 f.) and H. Steinthal
Sprachwissenschaft, 1871) ;
wissenschaft, I.; Einleitung in die Psychologie und
cf. their common
in Vol. I. of the Zeitschrift
fur Volkerpsychologie
programme
und
Sprachwissenschaft.
life of the blessing of
The
Hegelian School had rich experience in its own
The
dialectic ; it spliteven
in the Thirties
important
religiousantitheses.
upon
and
Kuno
historians
of philosophy, Zeller
and
Erdmann
Fischer,
Prantl,
erable
the two
went
their way,
not
confused
Between
parties,with a considby this.
Rosenkranz
K.
(1805-1879 ;
degree of independent thinking, stand
Theodor
Vischer
(1807Wissenschaft der logischen Idee, 1858 f.)and Friedrich
in 1879).
1887 ; jEsthetik, 1846-1858, also one
pretation
interresisted
The
a pantheistic
"right wing" of the Hegelian school, which
of perand
of the master,
sonality,
emphasised the metaphysical importance
relation
thinkers
who
stood
in a near
to Hegel, and
attracted
those
I. H. Fichte
motifs.
Such
maintained
Fichtean
and
Leibnizian
were
(son of
Characteristik
zur
the creator
of the
Wissenschaftslehre, 1797-1879
; Beitrage

tik, Vienna,

der

Philosophic,

neueren

Metaphysik,
losophie des
princip
Mensch,

der

1835

to

Das

1856), Christ.
Ethik, 1850 ff. ; Anthropologic,
der
1830
and
1871
Grundzuge
JEsthetik,
;

der

philosophische

Problem

1855
ff.), H.
Christenthums,
f. ; Gptt und
Philosophic, 1845

1866).
of

thereby

1829;

(1801-1866 ; System

"Weisse

"Motion"

combat

Related

to

them

was

A.

Ulrici

der

Oegenwart,

(1806-1884;

1842
Das

1861 ; Oott
die Natur,
who
set
Trendelenburg,

; PhiOrund-

und
the

der
ception
con-

in the place of Hegel's dialectical

principle,and thought
lies in the stimulus
His merit, however,
Hegel's philosophy.

which

he

[Part

VII.

JJntersuchungen,

(1802-1872 ; Logische

studies

Aristotelian

to

gave

1840; Naturrecht,

Century.

Nineteenth

Philosophy of the

630

1860).

Arnold
Ruge
(1802-1880 ; joint
1838-1840, and of the
Jahrbncher,
Echtermeyer
1846
Deutsche
ff.),
Jahrbiicher, 1841 f. ; coll. writings in 10 vols., Mannheim,
1830 ;
"Fod und
uher
UnsterUichknt,
(1804-1872 ; Qedanken
Ludwig Feuerbach
1841
des
1839 ; Wesen
Christenthums,
ChrUtenthum,
; Wesen
Philosophie und
10 vols., Leips. 1846
ff.). Cf. K.
der Meligion, 1845 ; Theogonie, 1857 ; Works,
To

the

editor

"Left"

Hegelians belong

the

among

with

of

Halle'sche

the

Friedrich
Strauss
Griin (i. F., Leips. 1874), David
(1808-1874 ; Das Leben
der neue
und
Qlanbe,
Jesu, 1835 ; Christliche Glaubenslehre, 1840 f. ; Der AUe
die
1872 ; Works, 12 vols., Berlin, 1876 ff.). Cf. A.
Hausrath, D. F. Str. und

Theologie

and

(Heidelberg,1876

Zeit.

seiner

1878.)

mentioned
Moleschott
to be
are
: K.
controversy
und
Glauben,
{Ueber Wissen
(Kreislauf des Lebens, 1852), Rudolph Wagner
Wissen1854 ; Der
die Seele, 1857), C. Vogt
um
{Kohlerglaube und
Kampf
Buchner
L.
und
1854
iiber
den
Menschen,
1863),
{Kraft
Vorlesungen
schaft,
;
Staff, 1855) \^Force and Matter, Lond.].
the
Philosophy
important among
epigones of the German
By far the most
Herm.
Iiotze
was
Rudolph
(1817-1881; Metaphysik, 1841 ; Logik, 1842 ; Medi1856 ff. ; System der Philosophie, I.
einische
Psychologie, 1842 ; Mikrokosmus,
and
Jones,
Logik, 1874 ; II. Metaphysik, 1879) [Microcosmus, tr. by Hamilton
N.Y.
1885 ; Logic
and
Edin. and
Metaphysics, 2 vols, each, tr. ed. by B. Bosanquet, Oxford, 1884, also 1888; Outlines, ed. by G. T. Ladd, Boston, 1885 ff.].
From

the

Materialism

deutschen
in seiner
Stellung zur
Philosophie (1883) ;
Philosophie (Berlin,1888).
T. Fechner
are
: G.
Interesting side phenomena
(1801-1887; Nanna, 1848 ;
1855 ; Elemente
der
Physical, und
philos. Atomenlehre,
Psychophysik, 1860 ;
1876 ; Die
Drei
des Q-laubens, 1863 ; Vorschule
der ^sthetik,
Motive
Tagesansicht gegeniiber der Nachtansichti, 1879) and
Eug. Dilhring (born 1833 ; Naturdes Lebens, 1865 ; Logik und
liche Dialektik, 1865 ; Werth
Wissenschaftstheorie,
side have
taken
The
following from the Catholic
ment
1878).
part in the developof philosophy : Er. Hermes
(1775-1881 ; Einleitung in die christkatholische
Bolzano
Theologie, 1819), Bernh.
(1781-1848; Wissenschafislehre,
Anton
Giinther
1837),
(1785-1863 ; Ges. Schriften, Vienna, 1881), and Wilhelm
Roaenkrantz
(1821-1874; Wissenschaft des Wissens, 1866).
Cf.

Caspari,

O.

E,

V.

H.

L.

L.'.s

Hartmann,

"

" 44.
A

characteristic

the nineteenth
and

The

Controversy

change

in

the

century has been

general
the

the

over

Soul.

scientific

relations

constantlyprogressing loosening

separation of psychology from philosophy,^ which

regarded

as

in

principle complete.

decline of

metaphysical interest

appeared

in

and

during

This

followed

may
from

now

the

be

rapid

metaphysical production,which

Germany,

the
reaction
from
especially,as a natural
thus of a more
high tension of speculativethought. Robbed
general
base of support, in its effort to give itself a firm footing as
purely
of resistance
empirical science psychology had at first but little power
of natural
against the inroad of the method
science,according
to which

it should

be

treated

this
general biology. About
grouped themselves.

Cf. W.

Forschung

Windelband,

(Leips. 1876).

TJeber

specialprovince of physiology or
of vigorous movements
question a number
as

den

gegenwdrtigen

Stand

der

psychologischen

Controversyover

" 44.]
At

1.

the

obtained
of the

beginning

between

the

century

French

psychology
which

antithesis

had

beginning between
more
sharply. With
it
miguifere,

does

brisk

Ideology

of

nature

and

in

not

and
de

to

come

of

and

the

physical and
considering the various
the

the

by

of

Hence

phrenology,

places in

the

with

brain

all the

psychology

had

interesting

diversion

development

provided

of

thought

that

the

now

of

success

in the
first

up

in

Combe's

line

In

his

the

came

out

witljLaroother

of
the

hand,
as

age,

relations.

still

the strange

It

at

more

be

or

of

the

esis
hypothdefinite

empirical
merely

not

was

sharper

"

results

to localise

sex,

psychical

physical

the

upon

from

less

an

vigorous
in the

recognised

this,especiallyamong' physicians,

the

so-called

soul-life

ered,
discov-

was

is shown

especially,as

by

the

phrenological superstition called

promoted a purely physiologicalpsychology,
John
Stuart
It
Mill who
was
Hartley.

and

that

of

could

with

England
the

writings,

of

that

materialism

that

the

psychical (moral)

its

time.

public

materialityof

doubt.

brought

that

to

connected

was

the

influences

professed

change,
inter-

Here

particular "faculties," which

hear

to

great interest

very

Gall

special psychical powers

skull ; the

without

which

the

one

asso-

his investigation

and

eagerly seized

men

this

yet

as

result

body
"

in

On

line

physicians,such as Broussais, gave

expression; the intellectual activityis
functions.

even

decision.

to

splitinto

(cf. p. 458),

materialistic

determined

everywhere

had

sensualism

Bonnet

Tracy,

developments

leading part.

French

sharp

the
of

the

Other

out

later

doctrine

the

now

631

interchangeof thought
the

sense

climate, etc., comes

temperament,
life is

bore

Destutt

after

man,

common

Condillac

interconnection

the

the

existed

leader

is the

Cabanis

and

France

however,

brain

Ideology.

English Enlightenment philosophy wh^ch

ciational

to

of the

the Soul

of

back

countrymen

to

Hume's

conception

of

associa-

tional

and
mind
in
matter
are
asking what
psychology. Without
should
poreal
proceed from the fact that the corthemselves, the student
domains
of experience,completely
and mental
form
two
states

incapableof comparison,
of mental
may
2.

not

In

which,

study

lifemust
them

reduce

opposition

the

it seemed

because

"^Vitalforce," was

held

the

the

to
to

that

and

to

psychology

facts

laws

of

have

longer
outlived

the science

latter

of another

materialistic
no

the

as

in

sphere
abolition

necessary

of the laws

themselves,

and

of existence.
of

the

"soul,"

physiologicallyas

its usefulness

as

the

agent

side
supporter of consciousness, emphasis was
Following de Tracy's example
upon the activity of consciousness.
the " modifications,"
Laromigui"re'sIdeology distinguished carefullybetween
of bodily excitations,and
which
the mere
are
consequence
laid

or

the

"actions"

of

the

soul, in

which

this

proves

from

its

another

independent

632

Philosophy of

existence

already in perception.

still believed

thought

in the

but

element

Maine

de

of

suggestions
to the

who

Bouterwek,

is to
Biran

latter

was

emphasised.^

be

his

bases

of
of
all

the

of

mind

have

completely
"

animal

"

from

the

"reaction."

spontaneous

full

to

came

something

the

VII.

development

through
ceived,
philosopher rephilosophy ;

this

of

German
English and
his acquaintance with Kant's
and Fichte's
and
with
the virtualism
one
superficial
"

named

with

The

remarkable

fundamental

theory, later

"Non-Moi"

[Part

Montpellier they

of

from

immediately experience

we

soul, as

acute, subtle

The

though only

"

and

characteristic

psychology

Biran.

reference

doctrines

body

the

by
in

many
with

school

Bichat, too, distinguished

life

"organic"

from

the

In

Century.

force," vrhia'h.Bartliez,indeed, would

vital

"

separate

as

unknown

This

the Nineteenth

at

called
once

(primarily

frequency

fact

which

on

that

spiritualism,is
our

own

our

own

activityand
body). The

in

Paris,

Maine

de

in the

will

the

ance
resist-

reflection

of
personalityupon this its own
activityforms the starting-point
philosophy : inner experience furnishes the form, experience of

that

which

resists

furnishes

the

From

matter.

this

fundamental

fact the

conceptions force,substance, cause, unity,identity,freedom,

necessityare developed. Thus Maine de Biran builds upon psychology
of
reminds
cartes
Desa
metaphysical system, which
frequently

and

and

Malebranche,

but

replacesthe cogito ergo

by a volo
he exerts
himself
especiallyto fix
between
psychology and physiology,

just for this reason

securely the boundary lines
and particularly
the conception
to exhibit
sum;

ergo

intime)

as

the

clear

dissimilar

not

and

self-evident

Beneke

basis

of
of

inner

sum,

experience (sens

all mental

science.

In

inner

treated

experience,which for him,

too, supports all the philosophical disciplines,as the immediate
of
i.e. of the active elements
knowledge of the
primitivefaculties,"
and Fortlage gave
to this conception a still more
psychicalactivity,
a

way

"

Fichtean

form.

In

parallelfashion, the Scottish philosophy was

deepened through
in
of
the
influences
of German
Hamilton,
consequence
philosophy,
and

especiallyof

experience,

and

Kant.

regards it

disciplines:necessity and
in

the

and

facts

of

He, too, champions

as

authoritative

universal

consciousness

that

But
immediately intelligible.

the

standpoint of inner
for
all philosophical

validityare
are

these

common

facts

to

be

found

to

all,and

only
simply

(and

to these

belongs

The
lines of
communication
here
were
not
merely literary (Villers,
but in a strong degree pergonal.
Degfirando, etc.),
Of great importance among
the presence
of the
othei^ things was
Schlegelsin Paris, especially the lectures
of Frederick
Schlegel. In Paris itself the society of Auteuil, to which also the
Swiss
embassador
of influence, belonged, was
Stapfer, a prominent medium
of

iiliportance.

also

particularpereeptiou

every

include

the

only

cognition,and
of

in this

God,

has

relate to another
of
In

the soul is

to the

naturallyalways
in the

could

in these

this

contest

this

of

of the

and

tion
concepas

Absolute,
what

only

of

it

i.e.
can

tion
concep-

"

of

into

Germany

essentially

the soul.

the

motive

of his

the

of

the

view

"theistic"

for its centre

remain
be

other

fact,

prominent
tried

to

doubtful

interpretedas
in

side,that

dialectical

the

passing

personality could
substance
character,of a

over

scarcely
"

"

and

to

of the
the

world, which,

these

The
[prime-positions].
the

to

the

mental

most

of the

of Maine

like that

Leibnizian
or

de

with

realities Urpositionen
spiritual

important carrying-out of

the

deriving

all

Being

from-

freedom,

personality (Fichte). Carrying

Ulrici regarded the
psychologicalmanner,
of

for the

distinguishing

out

this

self

as

which

activity,with

thought

Weisse, in which

of Chr.

Being, to

of

to

The

Monadology.

philosophicalsystem
possibleis placed ontologicallyabove

end

Biran,*

regard

the conception of the

was

school

Hegelian

personality,and

of

conception

termed

Fichte

philosophersout

some

personalitiesinclined

production

In

belonged,
to

was

biguous
am-

formalism,

which

to

it

interest

teaching.

perhaps might
Idea

direct

no

Hinrichs

"

The

religion."
dialectical

school,

religioussense.

forced

the

Hegel-

immortality in

of this group

in the

finite

the

the

to

in

turned

had

in the

and

and

another,

one

with
who

clear,on

perpetual Becoming

stood

of

unless
state-philosophy,''

the

the

substance

led

immortality of

was

it

it became

God,

plausible claim

younger

of

while

but

which

the

England

of the

They

orthodoxy

"

coming-to-itselfof

"

of all forms
a

it

as

and

interest

same

master

Gabler, Goschel,

orthodoxy

personality

more

our

knowledge

Prance

philosophy

the

to

the

Prussian

"

as

right wing

like

far the

system

as

in

school.

the

and

expression

"

theologians

finite

to

(cf.Kant's

conception
:

Hegelian

"identity

of

so-called

had

another

thing)

and

Kantian

think

controversies

questions, enveloped

favoured

This

in the
factor

continue

the
mode

of the

not

maintained

raise

the

Infinite

can

questions

violent

very

dissolution

ianism

to

these

over

the personality of God

keep

it

distinguishfrom

theologicalinterest

foreground

how

and

debates

religiousor

the

of the

things

human

regards

finite

external

an

to other

633

synthesis).

the

about

Hamilton

idea, because

no

of

presence,

(thereforewithoui

sense

to experience of the
science

of the

Hegelians.

finite in finite relations

phenomenality)

limited
of

tfieSoul

Controversyover

" 44.]

he

that
the

as

view
the

of

selfin

position
presup-

identified

all

consciousness.
4.

The

growing

orthodoxy,
in power

and

which

at

the

pretension,was

of

the

attacked

by

time

Restoration
the

was

counter-party

with
as

Nineteenth

Philosophyof the

634

the

in this

Hegelianism, and

of

weapons

VII.

[Paut

Gentury.

served

Euge

contest

liberalism.

public support of both religiousand political

the idealistic system
pantheisticallyand Spinozistically

leader

How

in

apprehended by
Death

is best

wing

this

infinitude is

divine

the

Immortality, where

and

individual

the

realm

of

This
inability,thought Feuerbach,
conception pure.
of
to himself
makes
man
in the conception which
rather
the generalconceptionsin which
philosophy thinks are no

inheres
:

Feuerbach

Therefore

thing.

result

the

the

incapable of understanding

doubt

pantheism

radical

most

the

keeping
things

this ideal

From

same

changes of his
the panlogistic
felt that
system could not explain
things of Nature : though Hegel had called Nature
is incapable of
or
accidental
the
contingent, which

He

the

in the

on

the

praised as

disappearance

ground of man's life,and man's

the true immortality and blessedness.
as
to the
then rapidly advanced
Feuerbach
ultimate

doctrine.

TliougUs

Feuerbach's

from

seen

was

is

known

individual
mental

the

to

is
spiritual,

or

of

illusion

an

and

realityis

the

actual

everything universal, everything

senses;

but

Hegelian system,

The

materialism.

individual

of the

nature
the

inverts

now

nominalistic

real

Mind

individual.

the

or

Feuerbach
In this way
in its otherness."
gives
spiritis "Nature
Man
regards his
his purely anthropologicalexplanation of religion.
The
God.
he wishes
to be himself
what
as
own
generic nature
be only sensualism
can
philosophy of the future
epistemology of this
: the
impulse to happiness is
; its ethics only eudsemonism
the
principle of morals, and the sympathetic participationin the
"

"

"

"

had

materialism

After

employed

others

argument

which

had

trie, and

which

seemed

of

spread

condition

of the
the
the

science

natural
the

theme

which

mechanical

of

Carl
view

to

gain

without

interest

materialists.

to note
Of

the

Cabanis

world,
at the

rescued
extreme

fact
and

that

the

"needs

convention

bounds
the

absolute

Eudolph

while

of
soul

human

tliis motif

of Broussais

was
we

was

not
have

eignty
sover-

Wagner,
edge
knowl-

tality.
its immor-

and

unaptness

heart"

continued

was

the

of

between

the

of

which

Vbgt championed

for a faith that

possibility
with
This
effort,'which

French

the

controversy

of the

Lamet-

scientists,

natural

contradiction

The

and

since

of

ress
stronger through the progof thought began to
mode

physicians and
to light at
came

affairs

of

contrary, professed

It is not
the

materialistic

the

gree,
metaphysical pedi-

literature

French
still

anthropologicalmode

the

scientists at Gottingen in 1864.

{Gemiith) became
in writing also,in

from

in

become

to

also, among

Germany

so

use

in

inferences of

on

in

feeling.

illustrious

advantage

So

natural
the

for its

physiology.

this

and

shown

been

ethical

fundamental

is the

of another

happiness

termed

far removed

expressions,

Philosophy of the Nineteenth

636

Century.

[Part

VII.

plines Lotze was speciallyfitted to carry out fully this fundamental

metaphysical thought, and in this respect, also,his personality as
he taught,joinsworthily on
to the preceding epoch.
well as what
Another

of

way

psychicallife

the

of

treatment

body and soul as

completely separated and

look
"

with
and

follows

to

the

has

of

our

themselves

of the

and

investigatethe

is

psycho-physics.

principallythe
of

unit

It is the

the

mass

time
and

of the

between
has

methods,
science

new

we

been

shiftingshave
as

has

corresponds still more

to

of

development

natural

it

science

possible
of

this

find out

to

obtain

to

of

laws

forward

brings

defines

is still
this

assumes

and

and
so

; and

ours

have

historical

Nature

Nature

then

psychology, we

connection

science

order

atoms

perceptible
to be
equal

History.

Weltanschauung is reflected in the

century by the peculiartension in the relar

of

take,

the

Kantian

antithesis
in

The

that

line,

cases.

nineteenth

as

the

Fechner

difference

sensation,and

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ness
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" 45.

tion

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intensities

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methods

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would
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science, pressing

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forward

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The

vigorous

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Nature

" 45.]

from

annexation,

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social phenomena
it

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strugglebecame
taken

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century,

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the

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Traditionalism,

conception

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philosophical factor
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But

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product

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fruits of human

the

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vigorously opposed),

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fought out,

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Enlightenment,

life in

of

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unbelieving mankind,

upon

influential

weight

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was

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its

language.

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ism

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spirituallife

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reason

formation

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by

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de Maistre

God
the

to

earlier

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responsible for the horrors
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theory of the clerical-legitimist

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mistake

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etymology,

presentationand

and

the

psychological,

to that

the

struggle

Revolution

St. Martin

in abstract

for

the

the

oppose

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Terror,

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in

consideration,so

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field,similar

Weltanschauung

judgment

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Bonald

of

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as

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of

soul ; and

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in

opposing

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between

historical

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successful

upon
the

of

account

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this

637

easily found

case

previously found

levers

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and

science

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in that

The

it had

necessary

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culminated

of the

nature

as

set

History : Traditionalism.

and

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distracted

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philosophy

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humoron

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Philosophy of the

638

this
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side,to

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Eclecticism

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In

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to

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socialism

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by

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study

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fundamental

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carried
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religiouscolouring which

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chology
psy-

of these.

Steinthal,and

less fortunate
by the otherwise
Comparative Psychology].

to understand

French

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go

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public institutions.

character

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propounded

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[Folk
VblkerpsycJiologie
3.

Philosophy,

d'une

individual, numerous

character,and

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out

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fact that

general

historical

and

eminently

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overreaching life,into

of which

the

German

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psychical

virtue

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solelyupon

as

must

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in customs

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fore,
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mon
com-

metaphysical

Hegel.

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"

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apprehended purely psychologicallyand empirically.

was

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theory

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cream

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similar

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with

contrast

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theories
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last century.
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social-political
theory,
the pressure
of the religiouszeal
however, stands not only under
which
social and political
a new
but
was
growing to become
power,
to
also in lively relations
German
philosophy, and indeed to its
this passed over
All
dialectic.
his
to
disciple,Auguste Gomte,
whose
thought passed through an extremely peculiar course
of
development.
His
projected positive system of the sciences first of all pushes
and

Hume's

conception to the farthest point. Not only

knowledge assigned for its province to the reciprocalreW

is human
tions

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might

Condillac's

lie

absolute

ultimate

phenomena,
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principle is,that
ends

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rational

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To

sense.

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relativism

Nature

" 45.]
it has

(or,as
to the

later

been

universalistic
science

relations

the

from

of

laws

To

hierarchy,which

the

thinking

assigned
of view

this

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that

latter

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mathematical

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grounded

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these

in universal
in

arranged

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natural

explaining all

sciences

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step by step

progresses

mathematics

simple

the

to

by "sociology."

plex:
com-

istry,
by astronomy, then by physics,chempsychology is the highest branch, and finally

Thus

science

the

of

society is

in

no
principle,
doubt,

require the preceding disciplinesfor its rational basis:

these
not
are
carrying out his scheme
to
employed even

in

to

remotest

social

His

degree.

statics rather

emphasis to derive socialityfrom

the Enlightenment philosophy. The

in

the first social

fact,and

sets itself the

of

task

society necessarilypasses

in the

the

with

istic
character-

individual,as

social

is

nature

the

done

was

original

an

pendent
indefamily. Still more
without
psychologicalexplanation

discovering

finds this

Comte

declines

but

is the

phenomenon
dynamics, which

is his social

of society.

is followed

biology, of which
made

of

is

point

Nature.

639

termed, correlativism)is

claim

science,when

History : Comte.

and

the

natural

of the history

the three stages,which

principle of

through (an

law

which

apergu,

has

not

merely

prototypes). Intellectually,man
passes
into
of the theological phase, through the metaphysical,over
out
the positive. In the first he explains phenomena
by supernatural
and
beings thought in anthropomorphic guise,in the second
powers
and

Hegel

Cousin

for

its

by general concepts [e.g.force, etc.] which

behind

working

essence

the

comprehends

which

from

this

To
into

which

particularonly by

the

it follows
universal

of mental
likewise

divides,and

same

to

verifiable

life all
the

he

positive stage

law

the

as

actually demonstrable

the

according
law

the

in

phenomena;

constructs

he

ditions,
con-

mentally.
experi-

specialprocesses
of

movement

human

subject,and in this the intellectual process

in the
of development
is accompanied by a corresponding course
external
organisation of society,which
passes out of the priestly,
trial
"industo the
war-like
condition, through the rule of the jurists,
is the
The
victory of the positive Weltanschauung
stage.
goal of the historical development of the European peoples,which
history as

whole,

are

"

the

positive philosophy

according
But

period
mankind
as

the

if the

as

verified

the

to

in the

of

his
as

above
law
case

thinking

Grandr"tre

highly interesting fashion

in

scheme.

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constructed

circuit of the

three

its authpr, Comte

fell back
the

into

object of

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in the

last

to be

was

first

("subjective")

theologicalstage, making

religiousveneration

high priesthe imitated the whole

remodelling.
saints, with a positivist

whose

phases

apparatus

of

or

worship,

worship

of

640

Philosophy of the
This

4.

in this contradiction

light.

to

In

this

Buckle, who

would

the

set

task

of

laws

of national

of the

social

condition

study,

offer
of

narration

changes,

which

life.

find

usable

more

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on

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but

occurs

the

one

deeply grasped

England

in

one

side

the

the

old

meaning

proper

material

exact

abstract

styleof
of the

law,

and

is determinate

historical

and

view

in

impressively and

so

icling
chron-

antithesis

value

has

warmly

cept
con-

of the

itself.

of the world

than

generic

other, the living,independent

of the

essence

the

once

thought

English disciple,

his

and

which

to

Here
the

on

above

'

For

much

very

far

(1857)
science
in seeking out
merely the
this purpose
JOse
gradual changes
tical
expression in the figuresof statis-

historical

which

aspect
so

stands

of Comte's

real energy

History of Civilisation

limited.

disclosed

of
form

the

particularevents,

history is
becomes

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in his

natural

the

YU.

[Part

',

ral
history according to natuattempt to construct
carried
of
historical
the
shows, therefore, as
victory
out,

thinking, and
Thomas

Century

foremost

laws

comes

Nineteenth

In

been

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by

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forth

as

against

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set

by Carlyle.
5.

while

But

obliteration

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special domain

upon

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organic world,
has

of

the

of

of

Species by

of

which

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a
brought
treatment
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philosophical
indeed
as
suggestions are
yet far

together

Herbert
into

Spencer

the

schema

conformable

which

is

has

The

attainment

another,

times.

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in

of
remote

more

But

viz. to

connected
the

the

great work,

of

centre
On

the

had
tific
scien-

Origin of

(1869), and has in the last

and
deep-going suggestions

most

various

These

problems.

from

being ripe enough to

synthetic philosophy, such

be

"

of the
a

react
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as

method

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more

upon
seem

principleof development
limited

field of

historical
to

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to

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knowledge.
be

nearer,

to

meanwhile, however, the outgoing of the

everywhere involved in controversy between
:

us

historical

natural-science

still

upon

ideal

teleo-

that
precisely to this work
investigatethe conceptionajfoundar

positionto
this

single

it is

that form

century finds
and

"

as

versely
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of the

evolution

or

whole

attempted by translatingthe dialectical

differentiation
and
integration which

proved fruitful
be

of

system

summoned,

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science,would

the

the basis

on

has
of

to

philosophy
tions

into

the

made

of wide

for the

worked

theory

by the
conception,which

This

Selections

wealth

resulted

principle of development

Darwin's

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forth

decades

in its

beings is regarded
organic forms, determined

through Charles

Means

has

animate

interest

autonomy

science

development
logicalpoint of view of fitness for life.
been
prepared for along many
lines,was
process

its

science,it

of natural

historical

and

organic

of

defend

itself,according

assert

to

come

system

history has thus to

the boundary lines

culture.