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Understanding Fluid Complexity and Reservoir Connectivity Using

Downhole Fluid Analysis in Wilcox Formation Gulf of Mexico
Soraya.S. Betancourt and Vinay. K. Mishra, Schlumberger; Simon Clinch, Genliang Guo, and Mayank Malik,
Chevron USA Inc.; Jesus A. Caas, Li Chen, and Oliver C. Mullins, Schlumberger

Copyright 2016, Offshore Technology Conference

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, USA, 25 May 2016.
This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
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Abstract
The development of the Wilcox formation in the Gulf of Mexico is constantly pushing technical
boundaries in the oil industry. Here, ultra-deepwater wells are needed to target ultra-high pressure sub-salt
reservoirs that are up to 32,000 ft below sea level. Innovative evaluation techniques and processes that
could reduce reservoir uncertainties are key from prospect evaluation through field appraisal and
development. In particular, detailed description of reservoir properties, fluid characterization and connectivity assessment in this challenging environment are extremely valuable.
An operator is extensively utilizing wireline formation tester measurements and downhole fluid
analysis (DFA), and has implemented a workflow to assess reservoir connectivity using DFA data,
asphaltene nanoscience, and geochemistry in a multi-well context. The coupling of vertical and lateral
fluid gradient measurements from DFA and thermodynamic equilibrium analysis of the reservoir fluids
represents a powerful new method for connectivity assessment. This includes use of novel asphaltene
science and the Flory-Huggins-Zuo equation of state to model equilibrium asphaltene concentration
gradients in petroleum reservoirs.
The workflow has been successfully implemented in all the operators Wilcox fields to appraise both
vertical connectivity of reservoir sands within individual wells and lateral connectivity throughout the
field, and identify potential production challenges associated with non-equilibrated fluids. These workflows hinge on the application of the latest formation testing technology to help acquire the nearly pristine
formation fluid samples required for such DFA field studies and real-time decision-making in characterizing reservoirs.

Introduction
The Lower Tertiary Wilcox in the Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 1) is a world-class deepwater, sub-salt, turbidite
petroleum system with several inherent technical challenges concerning connectivity, reservoir and oil
quality and associated flow capability (Meyer, 2005). The massive sand-rich turbidite section of the
Lower Tertiary Wilcox formation covers over 34,000 square miles in the northwest Gulf of Mexico
(GOM) and holds recoverable reserves of 5-15 billion barrels of oil. Thick sand intervals of up to 2,000
ft have been found here with considerable net pay. Chevron is one of the most active operators in this area

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with two discoveries in 2014: Anchor and Guadalupe; one discovery in 2015: Sicily; and production from
the Jack and St. Malo fields.

Figure 1US Gulf of Mexico Lower Tertiary Trend (Wilcox formation). DFA reservoir fluid studies extract maximum value of in situ
pressure and fluid measurements to evaluate key reservoir features required for field development plans. Courtesy of Wood Mackenzie.

The oil industry recognizes that many unsuccessful deepwater projects are a consequence of poor
understanding of subsurface complexities (Elshahawi 2014; Mullins et al. 2014c). Often, an inverse
relation is observed between reservoir complexities and estimated ultimate recovery. Reservoir connectivity, a very important variable, used to be assessed from pressure data and well tests which, when
available, are limited to one well in this costly deepwater setting. Downhole Fluid Analysis (DFA)
reservoir studies provide useful and cost effective information on relevant reservoir features that are input
for field development plans.
Major operators in the GOM have shifted their appraisal workflows towards a more streamlined
process to account for and evaluate all foreseeable risks in their development plans. For this purpose, they
have in-house expertise with a team of geoscientists and engineers covering a wide range of disciplines
and gathering and analyzing data for many years. The inclusion of DFA reservoir connectivity studies
complements all these conventional reservoir evaluation approaches.
DFA Technology
Variations of fluid composition within otherwise continuous reservoirs have long been recognized in the
industry. Liquid oil columns are often compositionally graded; the most familiar instance is the variation
of gas-oil ratio (GOR) with depth observed in many fields (Whitson and Belery 1994; Hoier and Whitson
2000; Fujusawa et al. 2004). The primary mechanisms for variations in fluid composition are convective
and diffusive flows caused by gravity, thermal gradients, reservoir charges with fluids of different nature
(maturity), leaky seals, biodegradation and water washing (Mullins, 2008). DFA allows in situ measurement of CO2, C1, C2, C3-C5 and C6 content, GOR, density, viscosity, fluid optical density (OD), and

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fluorescence intensity. All of these measurements make possible an assessment of fluid compositional
variations soon after drilling the reservoir.
A particularly useful DFA measurement is the Optical Density (OD) which is linearly related to the
heavy end (asphaltene) content of the crude oil. OD provides a very robust measurement of relative
variations in asphaltene content along a well or throughout a field. Another DFA measurement, Fluorescence intensity, is linearly related to the perylene-like resin content and is also linear with asphaltene
content in the low-concentration limit. DFA makes it possible to investigate several hydrocarbon
components, some of which are more relevant for different types of reservoir fluids. For instance, while
fluids near critical conditions exhibit large compositional and GOR variations, petroleum liquids with low
GOR are rather incompressible; therefore, they have minor variations in density and composition.
However, it has been found that the concentration of heavy ends (asphaltenes) could vary substantially
even when the composition of lighter hydrocarbon components is relatively constant.
The essence of the application of DFA data to investigate reservoir compartments is to identify fluid
types from the acquisition of in situ measurements at selective locations throughout the reservoir, and to
estimate the expected variations on pertinent fluid properties with a thermodynamic model (Mullins et al.
2014). If discrepancies occur between the observed data and the expected composition gradients, the most
likely explanation is the existence of physical barriers that preclude fluid equilibration, and thus possible
reservoir compartments are detected.
The use of asphaltene gradients identified with DFA to investigate reservoir connectivity stems from
work in the Tahiti field (Betancourt et al. 2007). Similar to Wilcox, Tahiti fluids have low GOR and minor
compositional variations. Extensive laboratory work showed an excellent agreement between OD values
measured downhole with DFA versus live fluid samples reconditioned in the laboratory to downhole
pressure and temperature conditions. OD was also found to have a linear relationship with asphaltene
content from saturate, asphaltene, resin, and aromatics (SARA) analyses performed in the laboratory. The
more than three-fold variation in OD observed in Tahiti fluids was very informative in the investigation
of reservoir connectivity and the results were later corroborated by production data.
The DFA workflow is possible thanks to the recent understanding of the different molecular structures
of asphaltenes in crude oils provided by the Yen-Mullins model (Mullins et al. 2010; Sabbah et al. 2011).
The Yen-Mullins model establishes that at very low concentrations heavy ends should be molecularly
dispersed in crude oil; the size of the predominant structure under these conditions is 1.5 nm. At higher
asphaltene concentrations the asphaltene nanoaggregate of ~2nm size dominates. This is mostly the case
for black crude oils with relatively low GOR. As asphaltene concentration increases, clusters of
approximately 5nm may appear.
The asphaltene structures defined by Yen-Mullins have been tested with multiple analytical techniques
(e.g., Andrews, 2011; Groenzin, 1999), and most recently the first molecular images of asphaltenes have
been obtained in the IBM Zurich laboratory by imaging atoms and bonds with Atomic Force Micorscopy
(AFM) and molecular orbitals with Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM). These researchers found the
island structures proposed by the Yen-Mullins model around 85% of the time, and a similar structure for
the rest (Schuler et al., 2015). Resolution of the different asphaltene structures made possible the
development of a thermodynamic model, the Flory-Huggins-Zuo equation of state (FHZ EOS) (Freed et
al. 2010), which builds on previous work by De Boer et al. (1995) and Buckley et al. (1998).
Cubic equations of state have been used for a long time in modeling the gas-liquid equilibrium of
reservoir fluids; however, they fail to model the heavy fraction in crude oil. A key aspect for modeling
asphaltene gradients in a reservoir is the effect of gravity. The FHZ EOS extends the Flory-Huggins
model, which has been successfully used to describe the solubility of asphaltenes in the maltene (the crude
oil minus the asphaltene) and which incorporates a gravity term that accounts for the negative buoyancy
of the asphaltene particles (Mullins, 2010). The model also accounts for solubility variations of the
de-asphalted oil along the hydrocarbon column. Such variations are governed by composition (GOR)

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changes. The solubility parameter of the oil is obtained by thermodynamic enthalpy computations. It is
highly desirable to measure GOR accurately to exploit this equation in consideration of the sensitivity of
the oil solubility parameter on GOR. The FHZ EOS is written as:

where OD(hi) is the optical density at height hi, (hi) is the asphaltene concentration at hi, a is the
molar volume of the colloidal (or for condensate, molecular) particle of asphaltene, g is gravitation
acceleration, v is the oil molar volume, is the density contrast between the asphaltene and oil, R is the
ideal gas law constant, T is temperature, and and a are the solubility parameters of the oil and
asphaltene, respectively. The FHZ EOS can be used to predict asphaltene gradients and can be combined
with downhole fluid analysis (DFA) data to interpret asphaltene gradients.
The GOM Wilcox fluids (Paleocene-Eocene) are highly under-saturated oils (typical GOR between
200 and 800 scf/bbl) and therefore have low compressibility and minor gas-liquid composition variations.
Nevertheless, the fluids exhibit a significant range in asphaltene content, a dissolved solid petroleum
component, which is discernable with DFA. For a Wilcox-type fluid, a continuous hydrocarbon column
in equilibrium is expected to exhibit gradients in asphaltene (OD) with a predominance of the gravity term
in the FHZ EOS.
DFA data are interpreted independently of traditional petroleum geoscience workflows to provide an
independent reservoir evaluation. DFA uses a robust theoretical framework focusing on key findings
possible barriers, connectivity, offsets and oil trends honoring generic geology and geophysics. Once
other reservoir processes have been eliminated or accounted for (i.e. secondary reservoir charging,
paleo-biodegradation, water washing, etc), differences between the model OD and the measurements are
investigated as possible indicators of compartmentalization. Ultimately the asset or prospect geoscience
team integrates these DFA findings with their geological models.
DFA Connectivity Workflow
A DFA reservoir connectivity study starts with the collection of the most representative fluid and pressure
data. This effort starts in the job planning phase to ensure that the proper technology and formation tester
configuration is used in each well (Nagarajan et al. 2014; Mishra et al. 2014). In order to perform
extensive reservoir evaluation including compositional variation as well as connectivity analysis, several
DFA and sampling stations are performed in a typical well drilled through the Wilcox formations (Table
1).

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Table 1WFT test stations acquiring DFA data and collecting fluid samples in a typical well in Wilcox reservoir. Extensive DFA
data are acquired to allow detailed reservoir evaluation and reduce uncertainties related to vertical and lateral connectivity and reserve estimation. Fluid properties measured by advanced DFA sensors are presented here. Focused sampling allows acquiring
very clean fluid samples.

Time logs for each sampling station (Fig. 2) are analyzed to identify the most suitable data for single
well and multi-well interpretation of fluid property variations. Requisites for good quality data are a
hydrocarbon fraction close to 100%, high signal-to-noise ratio, and low values in sample contamination
estimates according to the contamination monitoring algorithm used during sampling. Focused sampling
technology (OKeefe et al. 2006; Tarvin et al. 2008; Malik et al. 2008), and the latest downhole
spectroscopy technology are key for acquiring the top quality information needed. Other DFA measurements, such as in situ density and viscosity, provide parameters needed for computation of the thermodynamic model (FHZ equation) and validation of the OD/asphaltene concentration variations.

Figure 2Wireline formation tester-DFA plot during focused pumping, a typical example from Wilcox formation. The traces show
downhole fluid properties such as GOR, DFA viscosity and DFA density, OD, composition and clean-up process. All of the fluid
properties confirm very clean fluid soon after split flow at about 45min when both pumps are turned on. Samples chambers filling are
indicated by green shading in the upper track. Laboratory analysis confirmed <1% contamination.

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Wilcox fluids are typically under-saturated with gas-oil ratio (GOR) between 200 and 800 scf/bbl and
relatively constant gas and liquid composition. However, the asphaltene exhibits significant concentration
variations and is used to investigate reservoir connectivity. Asphaltene and resins in the oil are the main
contributors to the color component of the OD measured while sampling with DFA in the visible/nearinfrared region of the absorption spectra. Fluid viscosity is also a strong function of the solids content in
the oil. In the Wilcox there is a very good correlation between optical density and viscosity measured with
DFA (Fig. 3); these two measurements are obtained with different sensors based on different physical
principles, which further supports the idea of using OD as a proxy for asphaltene content.

Figure 3A large number of formation tester stations with DFA are acquired and analyzed to investigate connectivity. In this example,
DFA data from 5 wells are analyzed. The well section on the left side shows gamma ray log, DFA optical Density and FHZ model, and
location and fluid type of the vaious downhole fluid sampling stations (green for oil and blue for water). OD is plotted against depth
(right side) with the OD gradient models from the FHZ EoS (solid curves) for the proper asphaltene structure defined by the Yen-Mullins
modell. These curves represent equilibrium asphaltene concentration gradients. Error bars in the OD measurements are also computed
and plotted in this graph. Equilibrated asphaltenes (curves in both panels) indicate connected sands across the field.

Wells targeting the Wilcox formation are drilled with oil-based mud (OBM) drilling fluids. The
fluid-base component of OBM is miscible with hydrocarbons in the reservoir and affects the composition,
optical density and phase behavior of formation fluids. The main effects of contamination on fluid analysis
are underestimation of saturation pressure and GOR, and reduction of the fluid color (OD), because OBM
filtrate is typically colorless and dilutes the asphaltene molecules in the crude oil. The last point is of major
concern for this study since contamination will interfere with the interpretation of OD gradients. An
important aspect of the DFA workflow is to identify the most representative estimates of contamination
to correct the measured value of optical density and approximate the actual value for the uncontaminated
reservoir fluid.
To date, there is no experimental way to measure the actual contamination by conventional OBM in
hydrocarbon samples. The two methods used in the fluids laboratory to estimate the contamination level
of a sample are the skimming and subtraction methods; however, both methods provide only estimates of
contamination. If the OBM has only few components the estimate will be closer to the real value. In
addition, any drilling fluid is also bound to have some level of formation hydrocarbon as it is used for
longer periods of time. The errors in contamination estimates are not uniform. At the extreme ends of the
range (0% and 100% contamination) the error bars will be higher. For instance, even a pure sample (from
a well producing for a long time) could show some level of contamination in the laboratory. On the other
hand, a sample that has 90%v contamination could be estimated in the laboratory as having 70%v
contamination. (Joseph Manakalathil, personal communication). The subtraction method is the preferred

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technique to estimate OBM contamination in the laboratory; however, when a sample of the OBM is not
available, it is necessary to resort to the skimming method. If the drilling fluid base has a large number
of components (e.g. diesel, with more than 200 components) the estimates can be misleading, and though
not accurate, the subtraction method gives better results in this case. Real-time estimates of contamination
while sampling are based on the premise that the mud filtrate is colorless and has no methane, conditions
which may not always hold.
The measurement of any physical property is subject to errors that originate from both instrumentation
and environmental conditions during the measurement. In the case of OD data, the total error for a
measurement, total, consists of measurement error in the tool itself, tool, depth error, depth, and fluid
contamination error, cont. In an ideal world, all the measurements for a field connectivity study should
be acquired with the same tool over a very short period of time, and under the same conditions of depth,
temperature, drilling fluid type; and with low of contamination. In reality, a field study may require
analyzing data acquired over several years in different wells with different tools and different types of
drilling fluids.
Wireline depth measurements are made at surface using an integrated dual wheel spooler, with
accuracy of 5 ft/10,000 ft and repeatability of 2 ft/10,000 ft. The measurement is made under tension
and therefore no stretch correction is needed for logging while the tool travels downwards in a
near-vertical well. Logs acquired when the tool travels upward are tied in to the downward log as per the
service companys wireline depth policy. In deviated wells the tension on the cable will decrease as it
passes the dogleg causing the cable to shrink, as a result wireline logs are always deeper than logginwhile-drilling (LWD) measurements and more accurate in low-deviation wells. In deviated wells the depth
from wireline logs may be biased towards higher values.
To estimate the error in the OD measurement caused by depth uncertainty, the FHZ equation is used
to estimate the variation in OD for a given fluid system. For the characteristics of a typical Wilcox fluid,
a 10 ft error in depth would result in approximately 1% error in OD (depth).
The latest generation downhole spectrometer has a one-sigma uncertainty of OD 0.01 () and absolute
wavelength accuracy of 1 nm. This specification is met for all tools working under the specified
temperature and pressure range and is substantially more rigorous than for older generation instruments.
In practice, a much better accuracy of OD 0.005 has been observed in the latest generation DFA from field
and laboratory studies.
Finally, the total error bar for fluid composition gradients from OD data is obtained by adding the
contribution of the three main sources of error in this procedure, depth, tool, and cont. This error bar will
increase for samples when the uncertainty in the contamination estimate is higher (discrepancy between
the laboratory and DFA estimate).

Equation of State Model

Data from each well are analyzed independently to gain a first understanding of vertical connectivity
within the Wilcox sands following the DFA connectivity workflow (Mishra et al. 2014a). A combined
interpretation of OD, GOR (gas-liquid composition), fluorescence, density, viscosity and excess pressure
variations is used to assess connectivity.
Nonequilibrium Situations
Most Wilcox reservoirs studied so far have equilibrated asphaltene distributions with nanoaggregates as
the predominant asphaltene structure. In cases where non-equilibrium situations have been observed (i.e.
disagreement between the measurements and the equilibrium asphaltene gradient), active reservoir
processes such as current or recent charge have been identified.
Of particular interest are instances of large asphaltene concentration and viscosity gradients that have
been identified through DFA (Mishra et al, 2012a, 2012b). If the gradient is modeled using an acceptable

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asphaltene structure, it is possible to make inferences on spatial asphaltene and viscosity variations within
the reservoir and assess the possibility of tar mats that might interfere with pressure communication with
the aquifer (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5) (Mishra et al. 2014b). Assessing the production impact of such large
property variations is a current area of research (Mullins et al. 2012, 2014; Zuo et al. 2013).

Figure 4 Correlation between DFA Optical Density and viscosity (in this case measured with a different DFA sensor) for the example
shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 5Viscosity-asphaltene content maps derived from DFA workflows are used to quantify reserves. Different reservoir than Figs.
3 and 4. Color legend represents OD, a proxy for asphaltene content and viscosity.

Integration of DFA and Production Data

In one Wilcox field already under production, the DFA analysis has been integrated with pressure data
acquired in new development wells. Deviations from the static pressure data measured during the
appraisal stage in this region of the field are used to identify drainage patterns, evaluate the effectiveness
of the completion strategy, and make some inference on vertical connectivity to complement the
field-wide DFA models. In this particular field, Wilcox 1 and 2 exhibit different levels of depletion, and
differences are observed within subzones. The results appear consistent with the different fluid regions
identified by the DFA analysis.

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Conclusions
DFA reservoir studies rely primarily on data obtained with formation testers and the application of generic
models founded in DFA and its unique thermodynamics treatment. It also makes use of knowledge of
reservoir fluid processes that has been established by DFA case studies worldwide. Data from other
sources such as pressure/volume/temperature measurements (PVT), seismic acquisition, and well testing,
are honored as they become accessible.
The GOM Wilcox fluids (Paleocene-Eocene) are highly undersaturated oils (typically with a low GOR)
and therefore have low compressibility and minor composition variations of the gas and liquid phases.
Nevertheless, the solid fraction content (i.e., the asphaltenes) varies significantly because of gravity. The
innovative method of DFA technology with asphaltene modeling has allowed better understanding of
Wilcox reservoir fluid complexity and connectivity. Reservoir fluid studies based on DFA are playing an
important role in the operators workflows to evaluate key subsurface uncertainties and their impact in
order to streamline the appraisal/development analysis and field development plans.
In the Wilcox sands, DFA-based reservoir studies have identified patterns of reservoir charging with
more mature hydrocarbons toward the base of the structure. Overall, better connectivity is observed in the
upper sands and higher compartmentalization in the lower sands which is consistent with the structural
delineation by the substrata of this turbidite system. Viscosity-asphaltene content maps derived from DFA
workflows are used to estimate reserves and identify potential production concerns, such as tar mats, that
could have a significant impact on productivity and water injection plans.
DFA reservoir studies have been conducted on all the operators Wilcox fields covering 25 wells and
over 200 DFA sampling stations, and results demonstrate that DFA acquired from multiple wells is a
reliable reservoir characterization technology. Wilcox intervals are relatively thick, but baffles and
lamination may interfere with asphaltene-petroleum equilibration and connectivity. These reservoirs are
complex and fluid compositional variations are recognized within the operating company exploration and
production groups. This has increased the need to utilize the newest modular dynamics formation tester
technology for characterizing the fluids, and increasing the number of fluid sampling stations per well.

Acknowledgments
We thank Chevron and Schlumberger management for permission to present this paper. We also
acknowledge support from Bo Cribbs, Alexandra Arce Gomez and Chevron Deepwater Exploration and
Project asset teams in performing the DFA work and integration.

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