Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
performing
arts
'"Asia
Preface
In October 1969, Unesco organized in Beirut a Round
Table which brought together artists and producers,
scholars, historians and critics to discuss the relationships
between, and the mutual impact of, traditional and contemporary live performing arts in Asia and the newer
media of mass communication. This Round-Table discussion was organized as part ofthe programme authorized
by the General Conference at its thirteenth session in 1964
aimed at examining the present situation and trends and
possibilities of artistic creation and of attempts at n e w
forms of expression linked with the n e w techniques for
the dissemination of culture. A number of studies were
accordingly undertaken and meetings were held to enable
specialists in the different arts to discuss n e w means of
expression and other factors which influence contemporary artistic creation, and the response of the artist to the
needs of an ever-growing public which is no longer bounded by national cultures or frontiers.
This publication is based on the papers presented at
the R o u n d Table and draws as well o n reports resulting
from other international meetings held b y Unesco and
the Lebanese Centre for Cinema and Television.
Professor James R. Brandon, professor at the University of Hawaii, w h o was closely associated with the
Beirut meeting, was invited by Unesco to edit the contributions to the present volume and to add his o w n
views. T h e views expressed are those of the editor and the
individual contributors and not necessarily those of
Unesco.
T h e designations employed and the presentation of
the material in this work do not imply the expression of
any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Unesco Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitations
of the frontiers of any country or territory.
List of contributors
Jean de Baroncelli, Film critic, Paris (France).
S o m Benegal, Theatre director, New Delhi (India).
James R. Brandon, Professor, Department of D r a m a and
Theatre,UniversityofHawaii,Honolulu (UnitedStates
of America).
Jacques Brunet, International Institute of Comparative
Music Studies,West Berlin.
B. D. Garga, Film critic, Bombay (India).
Alamgir Kabir, Film critic and director, Film School,
Dacca (Pakistan).
Mrs. Kashiko Kawakita, Film producer and critic, Tokyo
(Japan).
M. J. Perera, Professor, University of Ceylon, Colombo
(Ceylon).
B e n G. Pinga, President, Film Institute of the Philippines,
Manila (Philippines).
Leonard C. Pronko, Theatre historian (United States of
America).
Mrs. Milena Salvini, Historian and critic of Asian theatre,
Paris (France).
Tran V a n Khe, Matre de recherches, National Centre of
Scientijc Research, Paris (France).
Mrs. Kapila Malik Vatsyayan, Deputy Educational
Adviser, Ministry of Education, New Delhi (India).
Contents
General introduction
Part O n e Fundamental aesthetics
Aesthetic theories underlying Asian performing arts, by Kapila Malik Vatsyayan
Zeamis theory of noh
Part T w o The theatre
View from the West: a theatre of feast, by
Leonard C. Pronko
T h e Cambodian nang sbek and its audience,
by Jacques Brunet
Performing arts in Indonesia, by Milena
Salvini
Theatre in Thailand, by James R. Brandon
Traditional theatre in Viet-Nam,by Tran V a n
Khe
Popular theatre and dance in Ceylon, by
M. J. Perera
Western and Asian influences o n modern
Indian theatre, by S o m Benegal
Japan: theatres response to a changing
society, by James R. Brandon
Part Three Theatre, cinema and other mass media
Introduction to Part Three
Screen adaptations of Indian literature, by
B. D.Garga
T h e role of the cinema and radio in the preservation and development of Ceylonese
theatre, by Milena Salvini
T h e Japanese film industry, by Jean de
Baroncelli
Japanese film exhibits abroad, by Kashiko
Kawakita
T h e Chinese cinema, by Jean de Baroncelli
A study of the Pakistani cinema, by Alamgir
Kabir
Cinema in the Philippines, by B e n G. Pinga
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General introduction
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General introduction
General introduction
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Part One
Fundamental aesthetics
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Aesthetic theories
underlyingAsian performing
arts
Kapila MalikVatsyayan
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whole a spectacle which achieves a totality of participative experience from the audience, one can be convinced that some forms of the traditional theatre of Asia
meet this definition.
H o w reminiscent of this codifier sounds Jindrich
Honzl, the leading figure of Czech avant-garde theatre,
w h e n in 1940 he declared: It is the task of the dramatic
artist to regulate the effect of various theatrical means
into impressions of equal,accent.. .. There is no such
thing as theatre art but there are music, the spoken word,
the actor, dcor, props and lighting which jointly produce
theatrical art so that it appears to be the s u m of the other
arts. It is clear that the fresh ground which the West has
just broken was in some ways an accepted principle of an
age-old Asian theatrical tradition. T h e inadequacy of the
word, the dissatisfaction with the theoretical dependence
on Aristotles mimeses and the confrontation with Eastern
traditions helped to create the n e w form of theatre,which
broke a w a y from naturalism and realism.
In the East the situation m a y be looked at M e r ently. Here was a tradition which was built on the purposive negation of the principle of conflict, for that matter
on the assertion that death was not a finality, and which
sought to evoke a state of awareness, a state of being
through the theatrical spectacle. In the tradition there
was also an unchallenged recognition and acceptance of
the interdependence and interrelationship of the arts.
Indeed, no art asserted its autonomy and at no time was
it accepted that the artist in one m e d i u m could be effective
without a technical knowledge of other media.
T h e fundamental beliefs of the people gave rise to
a theory of aesthetics :a theory which could haveresulted
only if the aesthetician shared the visions of the seer and
beliefs of the philosophers. In India, at the highest level,
the traditional Indian artist considered artistic creation
as the supreme means of realizing the universal being. Art
was thus considered a unique discipline, a yoga and a
sacrificethrough which the artist was to seek salvation
here and n o w in this world. This discipline led him to a
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body of ideas, myths and legends which could be symbolically presented. All character in drama is a symbol, a
vehicle for suggesting something other than itself. This
quality can be seen in practically all forms and styles of
the performing arts in Asia. T h e technique of the arts
which emerged as a result of this particular attitude towards the objective of the artistic experience and the
content of art was a set of rules-formulas which would
enable the arts to create form which would, in turn, evoke
a particular state of being (a rasa) in the mind of the
spectator. These principles are evident in the rules of the
proportion of architecture, in the detailed formulation of
the principles of measurement (tala and mana) along several planes and the deflections of the h u m a n body (bhanga)
in Indian sculpture, in the relative disposition and proportion of colour and in the patterns of division and c o m bination of the movements of the major limbs (unga)and
the minor limbs (upanga)in dancing, and in the use of
intervals (sruti)and notes (swara)in a given m o d e (raga)
to create a particular m o o d in Indian music.
It is this aesthetic theory of rasa which provides an
underlying unity to the Indian arts. Deriving from this
fundamental belief about the nature of the aesthetic experience, they share with one another the principles of
technique while maintaining their autonomy. T h e m a n y
theoretical works o n dance seldom, if ever, discuss the
technique of this art form in isolation: both literature
(or at least an aspect of it) and music (sangita) are invariably discussed. Conversely, the treatises o n sculpture,
drama (natya),music and painting invariably either devote
a portion to dance itself or discuss certain elements
of the technique of these art forms in terms of the technique of dance (nrtya or nrtta). Thus, treatises on painting discuss the delineation of the eyes in terms of the
glances of Bharatas Natyasastra and treatiseso n sculpture
enumerate in great detail the nrttamurti (dancing aspects)
of the various gods and goddesses and discuss the symbolism of the hastamudra (hand gestures) in terms of the
hastabhinaya of the Natyasastra.
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Aesthetic theories underlying Asian performing arts
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Zeamistheory
of nohl
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m e a n quick wit or cleverness, but m u c h awareness developed by accumulated artistic experience in the actors
consciousness and spontaneously expressed. Zeami says :
Hana is mind, technique is the seed. If the conscious
mind is used in such a case, after severe training, it is only
that the seed, the accomplishment of technique, will
bloom as a flower on the stage. So although the seed is
exercise, the hana which results from it, and which has
accumulated in the actors mind, will from time to time
find expression. As Zeami said: Whatever is suitable to
the occasion is real hana. W e must not forget that this
hana which comes and goes is the result of a performance
from which showiness and dryness are excluded, but
which has freshness, freedom and fluidity. H a n a is the
very essence of variety.
T h e actor w h o establishes a company must have a
deep concern for its prosperity, must win the approval
of all classes of the public, and must himself be recognized
as a master. Zeami tells us that the performer must vary
his performance according to circumstances, gauging the
taste and psychology of the audience. At the s a m e time
he must preserve his integrity as an artist and never
pander to those in power. H
is aim must be to remain
faithful to his o w n artistic conscience as far as he possibly
can. Although he must perform differently before the
cultivated audience which appreciates yugen and the
c o m m o n audience which is less sensitive to it, he must
never abandon hana and yugen. Hard practice throughout
ones career, without ever losing the freshness and eagerness of the neophyte, is the basis of good noh. It is as a
result of this that hana and yugen will come to bloom on
the stage. H a n a is the essence of variety. At the same time
it is based on fixed and unalterable form. This seeming
contradiction is reconciled by the intensification and purification of ones centre. Monomane (imitation) is not a
synonym of realism, as it is understood in modern
Western art. Monomane means to imitate the essence, not
the particulars, and to represent the individual under his
general aspect. N o actor can go outside of the restrictions
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Part Two
The theatre
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C. Pronko
E.G.CRAIG
T h e traveller w h o has feasted on the theatre of Japan,
China, and Bali cannot repress the feeling, w h e n he returns to the West, that the actors are exceedingly loquacious and singularly incapable of doing anything other
than talking. Our hypertrophied rational faculties have
led us in the past three hundred years, and particularly
since the industrial revolution and the late nineteenthcentury age of science, to theatre that is most often as
small as life itself, a theatre that requires careful listening
and intelligent understanding. W e sit in plush seats,
fatigued after t w o or three hours of dialogue interspersed
with a bit of movement, then disperse to discuss the
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tiquity.
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The Cambodian
nang sbek and its audience
Jacques Brunet
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ofthe show. From the purely plastic point ofview the nang
sbek is extremely impressive owing to its dimensions, its
enormous brazier with its leaping flames, as well as the
percussion music of the orchestra and the long silhouettes
swaying to the rhythm of music. It is entirely different
from the cinema where the screen is beyond the reach of
the audience, where there is no idea of prayer and, on the
whole, all mystery has been supplanted by a much more
prosaic technique.
It is clear in fact that the Asians have not transposed
their traditional art of the shadow theatre into modern
cinema technique. The shadows retain their peculiar
characteristics, especially that of being the earthly representation of the gods (in Cambodia and Thailand) or
of the shades of ancestors (in Indonesia).
As regards the articulated shadow theatre the ayang,
the religious side leaves room for the comic side of the
repertoire. The dolls hidden behind the screen enjoy
themselves to the full: the characters play the part of
clowns and improvise on current topics. This is the only
kind of performance in which the artistes venture to make
fun of the Establishment, the great ones of the kingdom
and the priesthood. T o some extent they play the role of
our cabaret singers, helped by the degree of anonymity
which the use of leather dolls allows. The success of these
small theatres is enormous throughout the country, for
this is an amusement in which tradition does not go
beyond the intention. This theatre, moreover, has been
modernized and besides the traditional puppets we see
aeroplanes or bicycles on which the characters of the old
legends ride happily astride. The effect is continuously
and powerfully comic and goes down well both with the
country people and the dwellers in large towns. But this
is a special case of the shadow theatre which over the
centuries has lost its ritualistic meaning and has become
a modern performance which, as we said,has been given
the title of KhmerCharlie Chaplin.
I would like to conclude by stressing that in general
the shadow theatre, which has the advantage of a very
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Performing arts
in Indonesia
Milena Salvini
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Of all the puppets, the Panakawan, clown characters, close to the Vidusaka of Sanskrit theatre, are the
most popular ; there are three, four, or two of them, according to the region. They appear in the central comic
interlude and their entry is always hailed with laughter
and enthusiasm. The Panakawan are divine by nature;
they are half-way between gods and humans and their
simplicity of mind bestows a supernaturalpower on them.
The Panakawan are a specifically Javanese creation;
they personify the early men, the fathersof mankind.
Through them, the dalang speaks to the hearts of the
people. They are faithful allies of the Pandawa heroes of
wajang.
Their comic interlude signifies more than simple
relaxation; it occurs in fact after the crucial time of the
night: the gara-gara (or chaos) itself is preceded by the
dalangs sermon. This sermon is a synthesis of the philosophical content of the story performed,which the dalang
adapts to the social context of the moment. H e calls m e n
to wisdom by reminding them of the fundamental principles of all ethics. The message of the dalang, however,
is given between midnight and 1 oclock in the morning
(at the time when attention is most difficult to maintain)
and only the least sleepy are there to receive it. Then the
dalang re-creates the primordial chaos, the whirling silhouette of the kajon appearing on the screen, symbolizing
the great cosmic wind.
The musical accompaniment is provided by the
gamelan,the traditional Javanese and Balinese orchestra.
The word gamelan comes from gamel,meaning hammer;
the majority of the gamelans instruments are in fact
metalophones of bronze which are %truck.
Adaptations in K a w i (ancient Javanese) of the
Indian epics were made to serve the arts ofwajang shadow
theatre. It is difficult to decide whether Indias two great
epics were transcribed into K a w i and then, gradually,
adapted to Javanese traditions until they entered the
repertory of wajang purwa, or whether the latter was
designed especially for the representation of these epics.
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Dance
T h e Indonesian theatre clearly bears the stamp of Indian
traditions, though recast in another mould. T h e dance
also has borrowed from India, but indications of this are
m u c h more blurred. Stone retains the imprint, the body
assimilates it, and the seeds that India planted in Indonesian soil have given other flowers.
Indonesian dance (Javanese or Balinese) and Indian
dance are based o n different laws. T h e essential difference
lies in the play of balance and the combination of movements. T h e gestures of the Indian female dancer (of
southern India in particular) are m a d e within a geometric
universe resting on a central axis. T h e Javanese
female dancer, o n the other hand, goes to and fro from
one foot to the other in a subtle gliding m o v e m e n t which
seems in search of stability. T h e movements are rarely
in agreement; right and left are engaged in endless
dialogue.
T h e play of the hands and the fingers (mudra or
hasta) is of great importance in Indonesia as in India, but
it is interesting to observe the different usage m a d e of
this technique. In India, the mudras are codified in a
series of ideograms, and the words of a p o e m can be accurately expressed through them. In Indonesia they have
no precise meaning and seem entirely free to describe
curves or spirals in space, but the freedom is wholly relative because the forms spring from certain key-gestures
on which they are built up. T h e mudras are very eloquent,
nevertheless, and they speak to the imagination rather
than to the mind.
As far as the Balinese are concerned, all performing
arts spring from the dance, and the dance itself w a s
created by the gods. Each Balinese village has its o w n
modes of expression. S o m e are k n o w n for their masks,
others for their musical instruments, others again for
their sculpture or their painting. For the Balinese knows
no barriers in artistic creation and he will express himself
just as well in dance, music or w o o d carving. B u t above
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all, each village has its dances. The Balinese are never
tired of improvising or of inventing n e w styles.
In Bali, a dance comes to life mainly through the
artist w h o invents it or performs it. H e seals it with his
o w n personality and that m a y influence the style of a
whole region.But it sometimes happens that a dance does
not survive its creator if some disciple is not there to carry
it on or if, quite simply, the interest of the public fades
away. This was the case of the kebyar. The kebyar was a
sittingdancefrom the south of Bali.Under the influence
of a remarkable dancer, Mario, this dance became very
popular about twenty years ago. Various kinds of kebyar
appeared in different regions in Bali and they are found
today adapted to other styles,but the original kebyar has
practically disappeared.
The Balinese associate dance with every circumstance, religious or secular: a wedding, a birth, a teethfiling ceremony, a cremation. Funeral rites, in particular,
are an occasion for great rejoicing. To say nothing of all
the religious ceremonies each of which is accompanied by
a particular performance, family festivities are also
excuses for the Balinese to enjoy themselves. The trancedances of the sanghyang dedari are associated with exorcism rites, and trance is always part of the barong dancedrama. In the dramatic ritual of the barong (a sort of
mythical animal of the same nature as the lion) magic and
religion are side by side. The barong resists the destructive
forces of rangda (witch-widow).For the Balinese,however,
Good never triumphs over Evil: they coexist in balance.
This performance usually takes its source from the Tjalonarang cycle, a legendary narrative ascribed to the
reign of King Airlangga.
The Balinese masked dances, topeng, are of very
ancient origin. They were probably partly imported from
Java. Both in their treatment and the masks themselves,
however,they show strictly Balinese characteristics. Here
also, the essential difference between Java and Bali is
visible. The aristocratic side of Javanese art is glimpsed in
the masks where h u m a n emotions are scarcely suggested,
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taking a more important place in modern dramatic expression and even in classical forms where it is sometimes
introduced. The evolution of the modern world has given
birth to n e w requirements within every class. If it proves
necessary to restore the classic forms in the present social
context, there is nevertheless a reasonable balance to be
observed in taking this step. Both the modernists and the
traditionalists are aware of the scope of this problem
which calls into question the original significance of artistic creation.
The television service in Djakarta sends out daily
programmes. These are composed of dramatic, musical
and educationaltransmissions,and European-stylevariety
shows. The experimental field there is still largely unexplored for financial reasons. Shadow theatre performances
are sometimes retransmitted; they are also programmed
weekly on the radio.
Contemporary choreographic research is attempting
n e w creations starting from classic and folklore styles,
integration of European classical and modern techniques
in experimental research,and training ofn e w artists starting from a syntheticknowledge ofthe dances of Indonesia.
Independence has awakened an international movement
which is by definition a unifying movement. The Bahasa
Indonesia has solved the problem of linguistic diversity.
O n e dance of national expression meets a similar political
need today. An attempt is being made to found a synthetic language of movement by blending together the
expression of each minority. That will be the danced
counterpart of the Bahasa Indonesia.
For the future, nevertheless, it seems necessary to
preserve a harmonious growth of all the performing arts
and if possible to maintain them in their great natural
variety, for they will have to meet the unpredictable
requirements of a society in formation.
Because of wajangs long tradition and well-known
structure, it is particularly suited to adaptation to contemporary requirements. The wajang Pantja Sila was
created in 1945 after the proclamation of Pantia Sila and
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The cinema
The first filmsin Indonesia were patronized by the Chinese
minority, and then by the Dutch. This period also marked
the introduction, from Malaya, of stambul, a kind of
musical comedy in Oriental and European style in which
fairyland and reality,fantasy and melodrama,were blended, the whole bearing the stamp of sentimentality and
facile romanticism. The early Javanese cinematographic
productions, directly inspired by stambul,were not appreciated by the highbrows. After that, the subjects adopted
were taken more from everyday life. They reflect mainly
the post-1910period in which new trends departing from
the traditional social customs were already appearing.
From 1952 onwards, a movement to promote modern
European theatre brought more literary themes to the
screen. The films produced in 1954 depict the revolution
and the subsequent period. In a satirical manner they
describe the life of the rural communities grappling with
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Conclusion
Until now, Indonesias closest spiritual affinity has been
chiefly with the Asian countries. N o w for the first time,
owing to the development of the modern world, it will
be possible to establish closer relationships with the West,
and on a level digerent from that of the past. T h e cultural
values of the West will contribute to the development of
Indonesian arts through the introduction of improved
techniques. Adapted to the art conceptions of the Indonesian people, these will help to renew their creative
thought by offering n e w opportunities for expression.
Similarly, the arts of the West, which are n o w tending
towards Asian traditions, will draw n e w enthusiasm from
these contacts. It seems essential, therefore, that this
exchange should take place on the same level of understanding.
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Theatre in Thailand
James
R. Brandon
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Theatre in Thailand
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Theatre in Thailand
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Theatre in Thailand
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Traditional theatre
in Viet-Nam
Tran V a n K h e
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- Traditional theatre in Viet-Nam
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Analogies
between hat tuong and
Chinese ching hsi
A
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boot with a riding whip, the crossing of weapons between t w o combatants. Others are specifically VietNamese or Chinese. In the Viet-Namese theatre, it is impossible to distinguish hundreds of sleeve movements,
hand play and steps, as in the Chinese theatre. But the
walk, the w a y of opening a fan, of stroking the beard
peculiar to a traitors part are very well exploited in the
Viet-Namese theatre. Also very characteristic is the
manner of moving sideways without lifting the feet, movements facilitated by the rounded shape of the soles of the
Viet-Namese buskins, to express suffering or deep emotion.
For themes of plays, the history of China, especially
the period of the Three Fighting Kingdoms (third century
A.D.), Chinese mythology, even the Chinese romance Tay
Du (Pilgrimage to the West) with the King of the M o n keys, have provided Chinese and Viet-Namese authors
with material for their works. T h e texts of Viet-Namese
plays contain m a n y Sino-Viet-Namese words understood
solely by scholars. T h e plays have approximately the
same ending: the good are rewarded, the wicked punished,
the kings restored to their thrones though they are for a
time threatened by traitors, w h o are often killed at the
end by the loyal subjects.
Ifthe t w o theatres are examined in detail, numerous
differences appear, more particularly in the inner meaning
and form of the plays, the songs and the music.
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Traditional theatre in Viet-Nam
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Popular theatre
and dance in Ceylon
M. J. Perera
Theatre
There is n o evidence that theatre was a popular art
form in ancient Ceylon. In a country which possesses an
unbroken tradition in literature, poetry, painting and
sculpture, the absence of a tradition in the field of the
performing arts has some special significance. T h e great
sub-continent of India provided inspiration in the field of
literature from the earliest times. Sanskrit poetics provided
Sinhalese poetic norms; even Sinhalese prose styles were
influenced by mediaeval Indian works. T h e classical Sanskrit dramatists-Kalidasa, Magha, Bhavabhuti, etc.and their works were not only known but were even used
as models. Kalidasas n a m e is associated in legend with
a poet-king of Ceylon n a m e d Humaradasa (seventh century) w h o is reputed to be the author of the famous Sanskrit p o e m Janaki Harana. In this legend, Kalidasa is said
to have been murdered by a courtesan in Ceylon and the
king in his inconsolable grief at the death of his friend
had immolated himself in the funeral pyre. This is m e n tioned here not because the legend itself is important but
to raise the question: why, if Kalidasa himself was so
well k n o w n in Ceylon, did not drama, at least as a literary
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dramatic interludes are found in m a n y of the more elaborate rituals like Kohomba Kankariya, G a m m a d u w a and
Rata Yakuma.
Connected rather obliquely with these performances,
were folk-plays of a very primitive type associated with
harvesting ceremonies, and propitiation of the good goddess Pattini. Regarding them, Sarathchandra in his book
Sinhalese Folk D r a m a says: The drama is only a byproduct of activities seriously directed towards the sustenance of the entire life of the community, namely, the
propitiation of gods and demons, and the performance of
magical rites which are calculated to prevent disease,
ward off evil, bring plentiful crops and confer general
prosperity on the village. In the rural villages of the
interior, mainly in the central zones, a popular performance was the enacting of the story of Sokari, a long rambling story of the adventures of an Indian emigrant, his
young wife and his servant.
Along with primitive, rustic Sokari,w e have to consider a more developed dramatic form known as kolam.
T h e word kolam,with a derogatory connotation, has been
prevalent at least since the sixteenth century, and referred
to any type of burlesque or a passing show. Bahuru kolam,
appearing in a poetic work for that period, refers to m a n y
forms and m a n y faces and will apply quite appropriately
to a masked dance where a single person portrays m a n y
roles wearing different masks. Kolum is the enactment by
masked performers of a story in the form of a play, through
the m e d i u m of song and spoken dialogue, the latter being,
for the most part, impromptu. T h e origin of kolam is
obscure but there are some similarities in the characters
and methods of representation prevalent in the masked
Dahu Ata Sanniya exorcistic ritual. A feature which adds
weight to this theory is that these t w o types of performances, the ritualistic and the entertainment, have been
developed in the same geographical areas of Ceylon.
F r o m a simple presentation of a series of characterdancers, kolam developed into the relation of a few simple
stories, t w o of which have been drawn from the Buddhist
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field.
Sarathchandra also wrote and produced two delightfuldramasusing conventions adapted fromkolam.Rattaram
(Gold) and Elova Gihin Melova Awa (I W e n t to the World
Beyond and Came Back). Both used Sinhalese folk tales
and some characters wore masks. Drums were used very
effectively in the production. H
is play VeZZuvahum, a
hilarious comedy in which he employed males to act even
the female parts, was based on Sokari traditions. Thus,
at least one dramatist has consciously gone back to traditional sources for inspiration in his efforts to find a satisfying style for Sinhalese drama and to develop it. Another
successful play was Sanda Kinduru. It was warmly appealing because it used traditional dances and folk poetry
and the story was from a well known folk play in the
kolam tradition. H e was thoroughly conversant with the
traditions and knew their strength as well as weakness.
H e had full command over the language,music and even
the experimental characters. Others w h o did not have
these facilities and faculties failed.
Some techniques of these plays, the chorus, the
Presenter, the orchestra, and doing away with all stage
sets and props, have come to stay in m a n y present-day
productions.
The dance
Theatrical performances include ballet and opera. Ceylon
possesses two types of dances which, though not organized
for the stage, are theatrical. The more sophisticated and
better developed of these two is the Kandyan dance and
the other is the L o w Country dance. As can be understood
from the names given to the two dance forms,the former
was confined mainly to the Kandyan areas and the latter
to the L o w Country areas and here too, mainly to the
coastal belt of the south-west.Both have been preserved
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MATTHEWARNOLD
Any study of Western and Asian influences on the Indian
theatre movement will have meaning only if there is some
perspective of the social, political and cultural forces that
have shaped the Indian milieu. T o talk even of contemporary Indian reality one must of necessity go back into
s o m e time for a clear understanding.
T h e West wind, which blows in eastward with everincreasing cyclonic force, sweeps everything before it till
it is spent somewhere in the mid-Pacific. T h e East wind
has been too feeble to counter it, m u c h less to be able to
roll it back. This goes back to as early as the eighteenth
century w h e n the Western powers first m a d e their determined, conquering entry into Asia. Matthew Arnolds
optimistic view of a disdainful East unaffected by legions
m a y be true only of a certain enduring philosophical content which lies deeply buried in the Asian psyche and
which on occasion tries to assert itself. But on the whole,
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European ideas began to percolate into the Indian consciousness. The robust European theatre was a strong
attraction.The Shakespearian theatre had elements which
were familiar to the Indian. M a n y of its conventions like
the use of imagery, poetry, free flow of time and space,
narrative chorus, the grand gesture, soliloquy and aside
were concepts extolled and inculcated in the great classical treatises of Sanskrit drama. A t this point, at least,
there could be a concord. Not surprisingly, the hold of
Shakespeare has been firm and emphatic over the centuries. This is not to suggest,however, that Shakespeare
as such is widely popular. Indeed the impact of Shakespeare exemplifies the bizarre situation which results from
a fusion of irreconcilable cultures. The worst aspects of
the dominating culture tend to manifest themselves in the
hybrid. Shakespeare became the unabashed source for
m a n y plays which went through such sea changes that
the bard would have been horrified at the transmogrification of his work. This burlesque Shakespeare altered in
locale and nomenclature and injected with irrelevance was
performed with a gusto of melodrama, rhetoric, farce,
song and hyperbole. The style had a profound impress on
the Indian theatre and persists to this day with great
vigour. It has compounded itself into the Indian cinema
where it promises to endure for ages to come.
Not unnaturally such a powerful influence would
affect not merely the acting style but the writing also.
M a n y playwrights attempting original plays have, consciously or unconsciously, fallen into Shakespearian dramatic construction and characterization. It is curious,
however, that there has rarely been a true translation of
Shakespeare in an acceptable literary form. The only attempt on any serious scale seems to have been made as
late as 1956 and 1959 when Harivansh Rai Bachchan
translated Macbeth and Othello in Hindi verse. Nor in all
these years is there any evidence that a Shakespearian
play (other than by amateur companies in English) has
been produced in the serious manner in which it should.
The sole exception is a splendid interpretation in the
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beset by the same problems. To this day, these three playwrights are frequently performed either in the original or in
adaptations.
Molire has also been popular because his droll and
mordant satire on pretentious society eminently suited
similar action against the decadent Indian ruling class and
upper bourgeoisie. T h e great Marathi playwright Atre, w h o
died recently, for example, was not only an avowed
admirer of Molire but had completely mastered his art.
T h e reflection of Molibre is strong in his finest plays.
T h e Russian Revolution has had a greater impact
o n the Indian mind than is generally conceded and the
Moscow Art Theatre movement greatly stimulated Indian
theatre workers. Precisely h o w this manifested itself is
difficult to say unless it be that the styles of some of
Indias greatest actors and directors m a y have some identity with the work of this group. T h e Indian Peoples
Theatre movement which flourished during the war years
m a y have found inspiration from the progressive theatre
movements of the West. Along the same plane, the ideas
and work of Brecht have also profoundly interested the
more serious element of the Indian theatre movement.
S o m e significant experiments have been m a d e especially
by Habeeb Tanvir. S o m e of the work of the actor-producer-author, Utpal Dutt, shows strong affinities to the
general progressive leftist movement.
After the w a r and Indias independence, rising expectations have given a vigorous direction to the Indian
theatre movement. Though the Indian theatre struggles
most lamentably in the teeth of hostility, indifference and
lack of support, it has taken a remarkable world-view.
There is to be seen an inner conflict raging with the desire
on the one hand to revitalize a genuine Indian theatre
founded o n its o w n logical tradition, to find sustenance
in Indian heritage while tackling the contemporary reality,
and on the other hand, of trying to take in the bewildering
advance of the Western theatre m o v e m e n t without being
altogether overwhelmed. For a while, this ambivalence led
either to inaction or to grotesquerie. There were some w h o
.
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haps also the lack of an effective language of communication between the Asian countries is another inhibiting
factor.
Thinking Indians of course deplore this state of
affairs and, in truth, the expectation of the East-West
seminar was that at least a beginning could be m a d e to
reverse this unfortunate process. It was felt that an Asian
identity of emotional and philosophical outlook beyond
national boundaries and political systems existed which
could best manifest itself in cultural contact.
Thus while for years Asia has looked out Westward,
it has rarely looked at itself or within itself. T h e seeds of a
stirring are n o w there. There is need for theatre peoples at
all levels in Asian countries to establish contacts between
themselves to see, to study, to ponder, to understand
and in that process, to bring forth a n e w and enduring
synthesis. T h e need is limitless,the opportunity is limited.
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R. Brandon
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Japan: theatres response to a changing society
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warriors. The harmony of the spheres, the slow, symmetrical, non-theatrical dance movements of bugaku
bored these self-madem e n and they turned, for more lively
entertainment, to troupes of sarugaku players that had
grown, over the centuries, out of the stage antics of the
old sangaku performers. Sarugaku, literally monkey
music, probably refers to a grimacing performer, leaping
about to music, a good indication, in any case, of its
popular rather than aristocratic origin. Sarugaku troupes
sang and danced and did short sketches, and they probably kept some of the old acrobatics and juggling in their
variety shows as well. Troupes performed mostly for Buddhist or Shinto festivals; they provided the entertainment
to bring in crowds of people, w h o of course were expected
to give donations to the temple or shrine, and the religious
orders, in turn, paid the performers. T h e connexion of
sarugaku with religion was a kind of marriage of convenience, at least at first. In time, however, the profoundly pessimistic Buddhist philosophy that material things
are an illusion and life a thing of impermanence, impregnated to the very core the plays of sarugaku. This doctrine,
too, appealed to the samurai rulers of the fourteenth,
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and, especially since the
plays took as subject-matterlives of important rulers and
court ladies in Japanese history, sarugaku came to be
highly regarded by the warrior class. Buddhist philosophy
and glorification of temporal rulers were held in balance.
T h e plays incorporated such contemporary and lively
music as the kuse: compared to old-fashioned,slow-motion
bugaku, here was an exciting and up-to-date theatre a
warrior could appreciate.
This was the form of sarugaku, which by the fourteenth century came to be called sarugaku-noh,and later
simply noh. Sarugaku-noh was plebeian, still performed
outdoors at village fairs for crowds of farmers and travellers, w h e n the great performer Zeami Motokiyo (13631443)was invited to live with the shogun Yoshimitsu, the
warrior-ruler, at the court in Kyoto. N o w , under the influence of court tastes, noh became increasingly refined.
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Part Three
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Introduction to
Part Three
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Screen adaptations
of Indian literature
B.D.Garga
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II?
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Economic factors
That economic factors have contributed to the decline is
true enough, but it is open to question whether the big
companies have in every case taken proper action to cope
with the situation.
1. NHK (Nippon Hoso Kyokai, the Japanese Broadcasting Corporation) controls a television channel of so-called general
programmes and another of educationalprogrammes. NHK
is a public corporation, neither governmental nor commercial,
with statutes laid d o w n by law. T h e two NHK channels cover
h o s t 95 per cent of Japanese territory. T h e corporation is
financed b y means of a tax of 330 yen (U.S.$l = 360 yen)
paid b y viewers per month and per home, whatever the number of sets. T h e other five channels are privately owned. In
1965, the television advertising budget totalled approximately
100 million yen.
The point
thing.
There is no crisis of the Japanese film industry;
there is a crisis for the big companies, which is a very
different matter, I was told by Kirio Urayama, the director of Cupola,w h o is connected with Nikkatsu. The big
companies have been unable to adapt themselves to the
n e w situation,they are crushed under the weight of their
enormous administrative machinery, both financially and
in the choice of subjects. Their brains trusts are, in fact,
1. Roshomon, which was made, it is true, in 1950, before the
economic boom and devaluation, cost only 15 million yen,
that is, $42,000.
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Japanese film exhibits abroad
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The
Chinese cinema
Jean de Baroncelli
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Hong Kong
T h e condemnation of films produced in China before 1966
also applied to Communist films m a d e in H o n g Kong. In
the British colony there is not only a commercial circuit
which handles only red films, but also a studio where
about ten progressive films are m a d e every year. These
films,which a short time ago were shown o n the mainland,
n o w come u p against closed frontiers; a recent film, for
instance, though it seemed likely to please the Peking
government, was not admitted into China.
Apart from these Communist films, which m a y be
regarded as marginal, 300 Chinese films a year were being
m a d e in H o n g K o n g recently. Four-fifths of these are in
Cantonese and are produced in extremely precarious
material conditions (sometimes shooting lasts only three
days) by small firms with little capital, or run on a family
basis, whose activities remind one of the heroic age of the
film-makers.About sixty of the films are in Mandarin. At
least half of the latter are sword films, a type of film
which for the last t w o years has been very popular in the
Far East. T h e sword film is a kind of Chinese western.
It is a cloak-and-daggerstory enacted in a historical context, nearly always with a central theme of revenge. Such
productions are distinguished b y horror, cruelty, violent
action and sometimes also a touch of the miraculous.
Although w o m e n play an important part in them (the
chieftainess is an especially favourite character) these
bloodthirsty stories are absolutely chaste, love being
expressed only in furtive or poetic ways. Not even a kiss
is allowed.
Apart from the sword films, most of the films produced in H o n g K o n g are melodramas and comedies. In
other words, production is governed by purely commercial
considerations, and despite the reputation of some producers (such as D a o Ching and Lao Chen), even the idea
of cinma dauteur is unknown. This lack of concern for
art has not shielded H o n g K o n g from trouble. Since 1967,
box-office receipts have gone d o w n by 40 per cent. This
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Republic of China
T h e people of the Republic of China are still regular filmgoers. Television is not yet completely established, and its
impact on the public is still negligible. Cinema is like
cinema in H o n g Kong, the only differencesbeing that there
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East Pakistan
T h e traditional arts of East Pakistan, though influenced
since early times by the rituals of various religions that
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West Pakistan
A rugged, hostile terrain and repeated invasion by central
Asian conquerors throughout history deterred the growth
of arts and culture in the regions that n o w constitute West
Pakistan. Only in the plains of the river Indus-in Punjab
and Sind-could peaceful eras prevail from time to time
and various forms of art flourish. But as described earlier,
the advent of Islam in the eighth century brought about
fundamental changes and wiped out any art form directly
or indirectly related to idolatry. During the centuries that
followed, except music and some forms of community
dancing, no other form of performing arts could develop.
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Cinema
in the Philippines
Ben
G.Pinga
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Production costs
In the early sixties, Philippine movie-makers could turn
out a picture for 40,000-50,000 pesos1 and a quickie for
about half the sum. But not today. T h e prohibitive price
of celluloid and other production materials has jacked up
the cost of the black-and-white filmto 140,000 pesos. A
colour movie today requires something in the area of
500,000 pesos. There was a time w h e n most Philippine
films were produced with celluloid furnished b y K o d a k
on credit. But since m a n y companies have not been able
to pay the cost of the film to date and have run u p enorm o u s debts, Kodak n o w refuses to give film on credit.
T h e cheapest celluloid in the local market today is Fuji.
Eastman film prices have gone up. And for colour, the
producer has to pay almost 1,000 pesos per roll.
T h e only chance for a colour film costing half a
million pesos to earn back the expenses and profit a little
is for it to be shown in Philippine communities in Hawaii,
G u a m and the west coast of the United States of America,
and possibly in Asian movie houses in Hong Kong, Taipei,
Singapore, Bangkok and other film capitals. However,
Philippine films are directed only at the Philippine market
so the stories are confined to the Philippine audience and
m a y not be properly appreciated in foreign theatres. Only
1. U.S.$l
= 6.30 pesos.
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Small profits
The gamble starts when the film is released. With the
national and municipal taxes heaped upon local pictures,
the take-home pay of a producer out of the 1.35 peso
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Studios
T h e Philippine movie industry is set back also by lack of
equipment and studios. T h e only film-producingcompany
in the Philippines which owns its o w n studios is S a m p a guita Pictures. T h e rest-LVN, Premier and Lebranwhich with Sampaguita Pictures once formed the Big Four
studios, n o w lease out their equipment and studios to
other film-makers or are utilized as laboratories in the
processing of black-and-white and colour films. Nepomuceno Productions has its o w n studio and modern
equipment and has its films processed in colour in Holly-
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Part Four
Discussion extracts
Shadow theatre
Saleh Mahdi (Tunisia): Shadow theatre is of particular
interest because it is one form of theatre which is
c o m m o n to Asian and Arab countries. Although it
originated in Asia, the Arabs learned of it from
the Turks, through their karagoz shadow plays. In
Tunisia it is mainly an entertainment for children n o w
and is performed only for the R a m a d a n festival.
Cherif Khaznadar (Syria) :We do not k n o w why it c a m e
by w a y of Turkey, w h e n it could have c o m e just as
easily by w a y of the silk route from China to the
Middle East. It has been a political theatre from
the beginning, but it could be transformed into a
theatre of social views.
Enrico Fulchignoni (Unesco): In Cambodia the spirit of
the deceased is represented by a shadow figure,
which raises the question whether or not there is a
similar religious significance in Middle Eastern
shadow theatre.
Saleh Mahdi (Tunisia): It is popular entertainment and
has no religious significance in Tunisia.
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Discussion extracts
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Discussion extracts
165
R. P. Sobolov (U.S.S.R.):
A troupe has been
formed, in
Uzbekistan, of young actors w h o are devoted to
preserving local colour in their productions.
Jalal Khoury (Lebanon) : A folk-dance transferred to a
music hall is no longer folk-art. W e must consider
three possible conditions:folk-artwhich is consumed
by the one w h o produces it; folk-art which has bec o m e an ossified tradition; and folkloric vestiges
remaining in the collective m e m o r y of the people.
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Discussion extracts
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