RASA EMIOTIEN, IVIL NEMICKIEN

ANGL KALBA TEISININKAMS

II DALIS
An Introduction to Law Matters
for Intermediate Level of English

KAUNO KOLEGIJA

Rasa emiotien, ivil Nemickien

ENGLISH TOPICS ON LAW

An Introduction to Law Matters
For Intermediate Level of English

ANGL KALBA TEISININKAMS

II DALIS

Kaunas
2006

U pagalb rengiant leidin nuoirdiai dkojame recenzentms

Humanitarini moksl daktarei docentei N.Katinienei ir
Kauno apygardos Prokuratros darbuotojai G.Jakutienei.

CONTENTS
Contents .....3
15. Family Law.....5
16. Marriage Law. Divorce Law.11
17. The Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania........ 15
18. The Human Rights21
19. The Freedom of Speech and Expression.......26
20. Constitutional Law31
21. International Law.....36
22. Intellectual Property. Patents and Copyright ..42
23. Keeping Pace with Technology. Copying..46
24. Requirements for Citizenship in the United State..50
25. The European Union...56
26. The United Nations Organization...63
27. Running a Business. Types of Organisation...70
28. My Job76
Bibliography.83

15. FAMILY LAW

Beyond the function of providing a new generation of children, the family is often
promoted for its moral contribution to society.
In some societies, the family is thought to be so important that there is very little legal
intervention in family life. In many Islamic countries, for example, fathers, brothers and
sons are allowed considerable authority over the females in their family. But in most
parts of the world, the law now promotes the rights of individuals within the family unit,
and regulates family relations through legislation.
Child Benefit is paid directly to the mother, and retirement pensions are paid to
grandparents, so that they are less dependent upon financial support from a family
member. In Sweden, parents can be prosecuted for physically punishing their children
and children have a limited capacity to divorce their parents. In Britain, as in many
countries, there are special family courts with very strong powers to control and transfer
private property in the interests of children. Much of the work done by the court is
related with the welfare of children. In economically developed countries, there are
limits on the type and amount of work a child is allowed to do.
Parents have a duty to make decisions, for example those concerning education, on
behalf of their children. When parents are dead or absent, a legal guardian is appointed
to make these decisions. Sometimes this is an adoptive parent - a person who legally
adopts the child as his or her own and has all the rights and duties of a natural parent.
Sometimes, it is a local authority, as in the case of children who have been taken into
care because their parents are ill, in prison or unable to take care of them.
VOCABULARY
to promote -

to help sth happen or develop

a contribution -

an action or a service that helps to cause or increase sth

Child Benefit -

money that the government regularly pays to parents of children

up to a particular age

to prosecute -

to officially charge sb with a crime in a court of law

capacity -

the ability to do sth

welfare -

the general health, happiness and safety of a person

on behalf of -

as the representative of sb or instead of them

to be absent -

to be not present in sth

a guardian -

a person who is legally responsible for the care of another person,

especially a child whose parents have died

to adopt -

to take sb elses child into your family and become its legal
parent(s)

a natural parent -

a father or mother related to a child by blood, not adopted

a local authority -

an institution or organization which has the power to make

decisions in a particular area or district.

QUESTIONS
1.

What legal consideration is the family given in different countries?

2.

Who can take care of children in the family?

3.

What do you think are parents' and children's duties in the family?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise 1. Choose one area that Family Law covers and write above each text:
Marriage
Childrens Rights

Divorce
Adoption

Estate Planning
Child Custody

Insurance
Estates and Trust

1. ______________
The process by which a legal parent-children relationship is created between individuals
not biologically parent and child.
2. ______________

The parents of child born within a marriage are joint guardian of that child and the rights
of both patents are equal.
3. ______________
Children are generally afforded the basic rights embodied by the constitution.
4. ______________
As a result of this both parties status becomes single again.
5. ______________
The process by which an individual or family arranges the transfer of assets in
anticipation of death.
6. ______________
Generally, a trust is a right in property (real or personal) which is held in a fiduciary
relationship by one party for the benefit of another. The trustee is the one who holds title
to the trust property, and the beneficiary is the person who receives the benefits of the
trust.
7. ______________
While types vary widely, their primary goal is to allocate the risks of a loss form the
individual to a great number of people.
8. ______________
A contract based upon a voluntary private agreement by a man and a woman to become
husband and wife.
Exercise 2. Choose the right definition (A, B, C, D) to the word in bold:

1. to promote
A contribute to the progress or growth of
B stop someone (from) doing something
C someone who writes a story or article that is published in a newspaper or
magazine
D according to schedule or without delay
2. a contribution
A installation
B communication
C duplication
D donation
3. Child Benefit
A performance to raise money for a charitable cause
B parenting
C is a social security payment
D day-care center
4. to prosecute
A government official who conducts criminal prosecutions on behalf of the state
B shield from danger, injury, destruction, or damage
C bring a criminal action against
D show to be right by providing justification or proof
5. capacity
A welfare
B the quality of being capable
C lack of intellectual power
D power
6. on behalf of
A on my behalf
B as the agent of
C on ones behind

D to fall behind
7. to be absent A period of time when someone is not where they should be or where they
usually are
B describes someone who tends to forget things
C to be late the field
D die out
8. a guardian
A guardrail
B not affording protection
C bailee
D a person who cares for persons or property
9. to adopt
A lodge
B grab
C steal
D take into one's family
10. a natural parent
A real parents
B the parent tree
C whose genes are transmitted to the child
D the parent who does not have physical custody of the child
Exercise 3. Fill in the gaps with the words form the box.

domestic
revoked
guardians

adoptive parents (2)

adopt

consent (3)

commitment
biological parents

repute

circumstances (2)
responsibilities
eligibility

Adoption is the process where the legal relationship between a child and his or her 1.

________ ________ is severed and the child legally becomes the child of the 2.
________ ________ .
Usually only children under 18 years of age can be adopted. Children who are 18 years
or older can be adopted in special 3. ________ . In order for a child to be available for
adoption, the parents or 4. ________of the child are required to give their 5. ________ .
In certain 6. ________ , for example, where the child has been abandoned, the court can
make an adoption order without the 7. ________of them.
Any 8. ________to adoption of a child may be 9. ________within 30 days. There are a
number of 10. ________ criteria that apply to prospective 11. ________. In order to 12.
________ a child a couple must be living together in a 13. ________relationship for a
period of at least three years, and in the opinion of the court, have demonstrated the
stability of, and a 14. ________ to, that relationship.
The court may make an adoption order if it is of the opinion that the applicants are
persons of good 15. ________ and are fit and proper persons to fulfill the 16. ________
of parents of a child.
Exercise 4. Translate into English using clue-words in the box:
in the place of a parent
to evade
Custody law
Divorce Act

custody ordersupport
spouses
ending a marriage

Globos statymas utiktina apribojim iveti vaik kit al, turint tiksl gauti
pageidaujam glob per kitos alies teism arba ivengti egzistuojanios globos. Jei js
neturite globos orderio ir norite j gauti, js turite tai padaryti alyje, kurioje vaikas
gyveno paskutinius eis mnesius.
Skyryb proceso metu i asmens, norinio nutraukti santuok, gali bti
pareikalauta mokti paalp santuokiniam vaikui (t.y. abiej sutuoktini vaikas, kuriam
abu sutuoktiniai yra tvai arba kuriam vienas i sutuoktini yra tvas/motina.)

16. MARRIAGE LAW. DIVORCE LAW

10

The law in most countries prefers legally registered marriages to social arrangements of
just living together. In Britain, children born outside legitimate marriages have fewer
rights to financial support from estranged fathers than legitimate children. Their fathers
have no automatic right to have contact with them. Some welfare payments differ
according to whether recipients are married or not. However, in most industrialized
countries, the legal differences between the married and the unmarried are decreasing.
In English law, some marriages may be readily dissolved, or nullified, if: the couple
never consummated the marriage, are blood relations, are under the legal age of sixteen,
are both women, or, despite a surgical sex change, are both men. In other cases, a couple
may seek a divorce. The procedure may be lengthy, especially if one spouse does not
want to get divorced, or if there are children. In no case will English law allow divorce
proceeding to start within a year of the marriage since it is thought this is too soon for
the marriage to have tested itself.
Once the process started, it is necessary for one of the parties to convince the court that
the marriage has broken down irretrievably. To do this the person seeking, or petitioning
for divorce, must prove one of five things: that the other party, or respondent, committed
adultery (had sex with someone else); that the respondent's behaviour has been
unreasonable; that the respondent deserted the petitioner at least two years previously;
that the couple has lived apart for two years and both agree to a divorce; or that they
have lived apart for five years. Even if the court is satisfied that there is enough
evidence, a divorce will not be issued until satisfactory arrangements have been made
for any children of the marriage, including determining who is to have custody of the
children, the rights of the children to maintain contact with the other parent, and
financial arrangement for the children's welfare.
The court has wide powers to order both an ex-husband and an ex-wife to make financial
provisions for the other and for their children. This may include periodic payments, a
lump sum of cash, transfer of property into the other spouse's name, or sale of property

11

so that the money can be divided. In general, these orders are supposed to support the
children and other spouse (usually the one taking care of the children; often the mother)
until they become financially independent.
VOCABULARY
estranged -

no longer living with the family; caused to be unloved, hostile or

indifferent

to dissolve -

to officially end a marriage, business agreement or parliament

to nullify -

to make sth - such as an agreement or order - lose its legal force

to consummate -

to make a marriage or a relationship complete by having sex

a spouse -

a husband or a wife

irretrievably -

never made right or got back

to petition for -

to formally ask for sth in a court of law

a respondent -

a person who is accused of sth

a petitioner -

a person who asks a court of law to take a particular course of

action

evidence -

the information that is used in a court of law to try to prove sth

to issue -

to start a legal process against sb, especially by means of an

official document

custody -

the legal right or duty to take care of or keep sb.

QUESTIONS
1.

What are the legal differences applied to children of married and unmarried
parents?

2.

When can a marriage be dissolved in England?

3.

What should the proofs for a divorce be?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE

12

Exercise 1. Give the word for each definition:

1. Describes a husband or wife who is not now living with the person they are married to
______________
2. In divorce cases it is the right to house and care for and discipline a child
______________
3. Bring the association of to an end or cause to break up
______________
4. Bring out an official document
______________
5. Someone who petitions a court for recovery of a right
______________
6. To make a legal agreement or decision have no legal force
______________
7. The codefendant, especially in a divorce proceeding
______________
8. The completion of marriage by sexual intercourse the completion of marriage by
sexual intercourse
______________
9. A person's husband or wife
______________
10. In the manner of the impossible correction or possibility return to a previously
existing situation or condition:
______________
Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with the active words:
1. They're ___________ for better facilities for disabled people on public transport.
2. It is the reflection of her ___________ lost beauty.
3. In 60% of the households surveyed both ___________ went out to work.
4. The decree officially ___________ the marriage.

13

5. Your guests are now in my ___________ .

6. Her busy schedule ___________ her from her duties as a mother
7. The state death penalty law was ___________ in 1977.
8. The marriage was never ___________ .
Exercise 3. Translate the following into English:
1. statymas teikia pirmenyb legaliai registruotoms vedyboms, o ne iaip gyvenimui
kartu 2. teisintos vedybos 3. parama i negyvenani kartu tv 4. paalpos 5. panaikintos ar anuliuotos santuokos 6. vienas i sutuoktini nenori skirtis 7. santuoka suduo negrtamai 8. sutuoktinis buvo neitikimas 9. yra pakankamai rodym 10. skyrybos nebus paskelbtos, kol nebus pateikta tikinam argument 11. kas privalo prisiimti vaiko glob 12. vaiko paalpa
13. teismas turi plaias galimybes paskirti abiems tvams finansin rpyb vaikui 14. sumokti vis sum i karto 15. paremti vaik ir kit sutuoktin, kol jie taps finansikai nepriklausomi -

17. THE SEIMAS OF THE REPUBLIC OF LITHUANIA

14

Seimas is the legislative body of the Republic of Lithuania and the main institution of
representation of the People, with traditions dating back hundreds of years. The Statute
of Lithuania (a Code of Laws) promulgated in 1566 gave the Seimas the legislative
power. The council of Lithuania which on 16 February 1918 officially declared the
independence of the State of Lithuania, had also stated that the foundation of the
Lithuanian State and its relations with other states" shall be determined by Seimas to be
elected by the inhabitants of Lithuania on the basis of universal, equal and secret
suffrage.
On 24 February 1990, after fifty years of occupation, the first free elections to the
Supreme Council were held. Winners in the elections were the candidates backed by the
Sjdis. On 11 March 1990 the new Supreme Council promulgated a historic document,
the Act "On the Reestablishment of the Independent State of Lithuania.
Article 5 of the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania sets forth the principles of the
activities of the parliament, elections to the Seimas as well as the powers of this
institution.
The Seimas consists of 141 members who are elected for a four-year term on the basis of
universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot. Any citizen of the Republic of
Lithuania who is not bound by an oath or pledge to a foreign state and is at least 25 years
of age on the day of election and has been permanently residing in Lithuania may be
elected a Seimas member. He assumes all the rights of a representative of nation only
upon taking an oath in the Seimas to be loyal to the Republic of Lithuania.
The Seimas administers the following actions and proceedings:

considers and adopts amendments to the Constitution;

enacts and adopts resolutions to hold referendums;

approves or rejects the candidature of the Prime Minister proposed by the

15

President;

approves or not the programme of the Government;

appoints Judges of the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Court as well as the
Chairpersons of these Courts;

approves the State budget and supervises its implementation;

considers issues of foreign policy;

declares a state of emergency;

announces mobilisation and adopts decisions to use the armed forces, etc.

Laws of the Republic of Lithuania, resolutions of the Seimas and other decisions of the
Seimas are adopted at the sittings of the Seimas by simple majority vote (i.e. more than
half) of the Seimas members participating in the sitting.
VOCABULARY
to promulgate -

to announce a new law or system officially or publicly

suffrage -

the right to vote in political elections

to back -

to give help or support to sb

a ballot -

the system of voting in writing and usually in secret

a pledge -

a serious promise

an amendment -

a small change or improvement that is made to a law or a

document

implementation -

the carrying out of sth that has been officially decided

state of emergency - immediate action to deal with a sudden serious and dangerous
event or situation
a sitting -

a period of time during which a court of law or a parliament deals

with its business

majority -

the number of votes by which one side in a discussion, decision,

etc. wins.

16

QUESTIONS
1.

What is the Seimas of Lithuania?

2.

What requirements should be observed by a citizen who claims to be a Seimas

member?

3.

When was the independence of the State of Lithuania declared officially?

4.

What does Article 5 of the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania declare?

5.

What actions and proceedings does the Seimas administer?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise 1. Find at least one synonym given in the box below for the following
words in the table:
to set forth
to elect
ballot
to reside
to assume
to convene
amendment
draft
to monitor(Stebeti)
to implement

formulate, state, determine

voting,

live,

project,

instruct,

scheme,
admit,

accept,

call,
control,

perform,

summon,

correction,

execute,

polling,

state,

plan,

gather,
inhabit,

17

improvement,

choose,
formulate,
carry out.

realize,
dwell,
select,

Exercise 2. Complete the sentences. Use the words from the above Exercise 1:
1. _________ of the Republic of Lithuania ___realize______ the principles of the
activities and the powers of the Seimas.
2. To be elected a Seimas member a person has to _________ _________ in
Lithuania.
3. Members are elected on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by
_________ _________.
4. A future Seimas member has not be connected with a foreign state by
_________or _________.
5. Seimas _________ annually for two regular _________ one in spring and one
in fall.
6. One of the main powers of Seimas is to make _________ to the Constitution.
7. The Seimas appoints or _________ the State Controller and the _________ of
the Bank of Lithuania.
8. The _________ or one of the three Vice _________ presides over the _________
of the Seimas.
9. The _________ groups are headed by their spokespersons.
10. Parliamentary groups or coalitions which disagree with the ______goverment___
programme declare themselves the ____posision groups_____ _________.

Exercise 3. This activity is up for consolidation of the active vocabulary:

Choose ten words from either the text or any exercise above.

Cut out ten paper cards.

Write the chosen words on the cards.

Write your definition and the transcription on the other side of the card.

When the cards are prepared, work with your partner/s. Read your definition and let
them guess the word.

18

For example:
To send away

to dismiss

discharge from
the position
[dismis]

Exercise 4. Complete the sentences:

1. Sittings of the Board of the Seimas shall _________ and presided over by the
Chairman of the Seimas or by the Deputy Chairman of the Seimas.
2. The Board of the Seimas shall: by the advice of the _________ _________, consider
and _________ trips of Seimas members during a session, which are not financed from
the funds of the Seimas;
3. The Board of the Seimas shall approve a preliminary schedule of _________ of a
Seimas session.
4. Decisions of the Board of the Seimas shall be adopted by open _________.
5. Entities of municipal administration carry out the functions of administration and are
responsible for the _________ of such functions.
6. Community means people _________ in an appropriate territory, who are
connected with common public needs and interests.
7. The powers of Seimas Members shall begin on the day that the newly _________
Seimas _________ for the first time.
8. _________ may be taken omitting the last sentence. So help me God!

19

9. A Seimas Member has the right to submit a _________ on the _________ of the
Constitution.
10. An _________ _________ must be held provided that it is requested in writing by
the President of the Republic, one-third of Seimas members or the Board of the Seimas.
Exercise 5. Translate the sentences using the words in the box:
ballot,

candidates,

station,
sealed,

are set,
precinct,

disapprove,
the polls,

the regular pool hours,

to vote, polling-

referendum, proof, identity, ballot box,

stamped, recorded,

preferable candidate, to approve,

issues,

an election official, booth,

registered,

to vote,

time off

Rinkim diena. A uregistruota/s balsuoti. Atidiai isinagrinjau savo

biuletenio pavyzd ir visk suinojau k galjau apie kandidatus. Prie einant balsuoti a
pasiimu biuleten ir susirandu savo balsavimo punkto adres, kadangi a galiu balsuoti
tik mano rinkimins apygardos, kurioje a gyvenu, rinkiminiam punkte.
Mano biuletenyje nurodyta kiek laiko rinkim punktas veikia. Balsavimo
valandos yra taip nustatytos, kad mons galt ateiti prie ir po darbo. Taiau a dirbu
per toli nuo mano balsavimo vietos ir negaliu nuvykti ten per paskirtas balsavimui
valandas, taigi mano darbdavys privalo, pagal statym, suteikti man laisvo laiko
balsuoti (paprastai 2 valandas).
Kai a atvykstu balsavimo viet, a pasakau savo vard rinkim tarnautojui.
Turiu pasirayti sra ir taip parodyti, kad atvykau balsuoti, o tuo paiu patvirtinti
savo tapatyb. Tada man teikiamas balsavimo biuletenis ir a einu balsavimo kabin
balsuoti. A paymiu langel prie kandidato, kuriam a teikiu pirmenyb ir metu
biuleten balsavimo d. D yra uplombuota ir uantspauduota iki kol bus
nugabenta t viet, kur bus skaiiuojami ir registruojami balsai.
Biuletenis gali bti padalintas du skyrius: vienas yra kandidat saraas, kitas
pritarti ar nepritarti svarstomais klausimais. Tai vadinama referendumu.

20

18. THE HUMAN RIGHTS

We may agree that merely being born as a human being entitles us to certain freedoms
and treatment, however, there are different opinions as to what these rights are. We
should consider the nature of such rights. A constitutional right is one which a state
guarantees to its own citizens and, sometimes, to foreigners who are within its
jurisdiction. But a human right is one to which people all over the world are entitled,
whatever their nationality and wherever they live.
Most countries of the world have signed international agreements concerning the
treatment of individuals. Two examples of such agreements are the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948,
and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 1966. Article 1 of
the UDHR declares that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights,
and Article 2 states that entitlement to rights does not depend upon race, colour, sex,
language, religion, or any other difference among people.
Further articles refer to specific rights, such as freedom from slavery, torture and cruel
punishment, and arbitrary arrest and detention: the right to a fair, independent and public
hearing of a criminal charge; the right to own property and to choose employment; and
the right to express one's opinions and to take part peacefully in assemblies. The ICCPR
declares racial and sexual equality; torture and slavery provisions; states freedom of
movement and freedom of thought, conscience and religion. However, only half of the
members of the United Nations have so far signed the Convention. The European
Convention on Human Rights (1950) has now been signed by every country of Western
Europe. Individual citizens of these countries have the right to bring a complaint before
the European Commission if they think their government has broken the Convention.
When the laws of a country violate human rights, groups like Amnesty International
protest to the government on moral grounds. But despite the development of legally

21

binding national and international conventions, millions of people in the world still do
not enjoy human rights.
A very large area of human rights law is concerned with refugees. Over 15 million
people have fled from their own countries because of human rights abuses, political
pressures or economic hardship; they need international guarantees that they will be
treated fairly and humanely in foreign countries. A lot of them are seeking political
asylum - the right to live in a new country - because of fears of what will happen to them
if they returned.
VOCABULARY
jurisdiction - an area or a country in which a particular system of laws has authority
a covenant - a promise to sb or a legal agreement
torture -

the act of causing sb severe pain in order to punish them or make them
say or do sth

provisions -

conditions or arrangements in a legal document

arbitrary -

using power without restriction and without considering other people

detention -

the state of being kept in a place, especially a prison, and prevented from
leaving

to violate -

to go against or refuse to obey a law, an agreement, etc.

a refugee -

a person who has been forced to leave their country or home, because
there is a war or for political, religious or social reasons

an abuse -

unfair, cruel or violent treatment of sb

an asylum -

protection that a government gives to people who have left their own
country because they were in danger for political reasons.

QUESTIONS
1.

What is the difference between constitutional and human rights?

A constitutional right is one which a state guarantees to its own citizens and,

sometimes, to foreigners who are within its jurisdiction. But a human right is for all

22

people and its not important whatever their nationality and wherever they live.
2.

What are the main international agreements concerning treatment of

individuals all over the world?
Most countries of the world have signed international agreements concerning
the treatment of individuals that all human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and rights, and Article 2 states that entitlement to rights does not
depend upon race, colour, sex, language, religion, or any other difference
among people.

3.

Could you enumerate basic human rights those documents proclaim?

4.

Why do many people in the world still suffer from violation of human rights?

5.

How should refugees be treated in foreign countries which they fled to?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise 1. Below are some extracts from the first 10 articles (there are 30 in all).
Complete the text by choosing the correct word form the box:
Charge

detention

free

law

freedoms

remedy

discrimination
liberty

rights

exile

punishment
slavery

race
tribunal

Article 1. All human beings are born ___________ and equal in dignity and rights.
Article 2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and ___________ set forth in this
Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as ___________, colour, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or
status.
Article 3. Everyone has the right to life, ___________ and security of person.
Article 4. No one shall be held in ___________ or servitude; slavery and the slave trade
shall be prohibited in all their forms.

23

Article 5. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading

treatment or ___________ .
Article 6. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the
___________ .
Article 7. All are equal before the law and are entitled without any ___________ to
equal protection of the law.
Article 8. Everyone has the right to an effective ___________ by the competent national
tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by
law.
Article 9. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, ___________ or ___________ .
Article 10. Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an
independent and impartial ___________, in the determination of his ___________ and
obligations and of any criminal ___________ against him.
Exercise 2. Complete the table:

Verb
1
3
guarantee
8
9
dignify
15
deter
20
23
26
violate

Noun
(concept)
2
4
5
entitlement
10
12
equal, equality,
equalization
18
21
slavery
convention
27

Noun (person)

Adjective

Human-being
6
11
13

human
agreeable
7
declared
14

16

17

19
arbitrator
24
28

22
25
conventional
29

24

30
33

31
asylum

32
asylant

abusive
34

Exercise 3. Translate into English:

1. pasvarstykime mogaus teisi prigimt
2. daugelis ali pasira tarptautinius susitarimus dl individo traktavimo 3. Visuotin mogaus Teisi Deklaracija 4. Tarptautinis Civilini ir Politini Teisi Susitarimas (Konvencija)
5. visi mons yra gim laisvi ir lygs 6. laisv nuo vergovs, iauri bausmi, savavaliko areto, sulaikym ir pan. 7. konvencija skelbia lyi lygyb ir minties laisv
8. pilieiai turi teis pateikti skund Europos Komisijai 9. didel mogaus Teisi statym dalis yra susijusi su pabgliais 10. jie pabgo dl mogaus teisi nepaisymo
11. politin priespauda bei ekonominiai sunkumai 12. dabar jie siekia politinio prieglobsio

25

19. THE FREEDOM OF SPEECH AND EXPRESSION

The constitution of almost every country guarantees freedom of speech. In practice,
however, every government puts legal limits on what its citizens may say, as well as on
what they may write, the films they may make, and even on the pictures, they may paint.
In some countries, the law bans the expression of any ideas that are against the interests
of the State. This may mean any criticism of government policy or government officials.
This used to be typical of many of the socialist countries of Eastern Europe before 1989.
In Romania, for example, all public meetings had to be authorized in advance and
criticism of the government was punishable by imprisonment. All schools and colleges
were tightly controlled. Even now, it is a crime in North Korea to listen to a foreign
radio station, to write a satirical play or to play Western music.
Governments often restrict information in the interests of national security. Passing
military secrets to a foreign government may bring prosecution for treason - the crime of
trying to betray or overthrow a state. Many governments justify their actions as being in
the interest of the majority of the people.
Most societies prohibit speech and writing, which they think will directly provoke
physical violence or other illegal behaviour.
Another disputed area is censorship of views that discriminate against specific groups in

26

society concerning race or sex. In Britain, it is a crime to "incite racial hatred".

Advertisements for jobs cannot specify race. Racist views must be banned from
television and radio.
In addition to controlling political and religious ideas, almost every country attempts to
control art and culture. Visitors to Japan from Scandinavia, where sex scenes are
permissible in the media (but violence is controlled) are surprised to learn that very
violent films and comic books are widely available, yet nudity is very heavily censored.
People throughout the world have a variety of motives for seeking censorship - women's
groups in Britain and America have complained about pictures of nude women in daily
newspapers. This increases sexual assaults against women, they think; others believe
such pictures encourage the attitude that women are passive sex objects rather than
active and independent individuals.
In general, governments lay down certain guidelines and apply them according to their
own views or the opinion of the majority of public.
VOCABULARY
to ban -

to forbid sth officially

to restrict -

to limit the size, amount or range of sth

treason -

the crime of doing sth that could cause danger to your country, such as
helping its enemies during a war

to overthrow -to remove a leader or a government from a position of power by force

to prohibit - to stop sth from being done or used especially by law
censorship - the act or policy of censoring (i.e. examining and removing the parts of a
book, film, etc. that are considered offensive, immoral or politically
dangerous)
to incite -

to encourage sb to do sth violent, illegal or unpleasant, especially by

making them angry or excited

an assault -

the crime of attacking sb physically.

27

QUESTIONS
1.

Do you second the governmental policy when legal limits are applied on what
citizens may say, as well as on what they may write, etc.? Why?

2.

What is meant by interests of national security?

3.

What are the means to prohibit discrimination against race or sex?

4.

How does censorship on art and culture differ from country to country? Could
you give examples?

5.

How is nudity treated in Scandinavia, Japan and the USA?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE

Exercise 1. Write the word for the given definition:

1. prohibit especially by legal means or social pressure
____________
2. In law, it is the crime of disloyalty to one's nation
____________
3. to encourage someone to do or feel something unpleasant or violent:
____________
4. deleting parts of publications or correspondence or theatrical performances
____________
5. attack in speech or writing, physically or emotionally
____________
6. to remove someone from power, using force; to defeat:
____________
7. place limits on
____________

28

8. to make someone more likely to do something

____________
Exercise 2. fill in the gaps with the missing words; use in the correct form.
1. Having small children really ________ your social life.
2. ________ a riot.
3. Smoking is ________ in this building.
4. The book was heavily ________ when first published.
5. He said that Allende's government in Chile was ________ by the army and the CIA
in 1973.
6. The council ________

the development of the property for both employment and

recreation.
7. His financial success ________ him to look for a wife.
8. The government has ________ freedom of movement into and out of the country.
9. Guy Fawkes was executed for ________ after he took part in a plot to blow up the
British Parliament building.
10. She ________ racial hatred by distributing anti-Semitic leaflets.
11. The mugger ________ the woman.
12. She was unprepared for this sudden ________ of their normal way of living.
13. He was ________ to learn foreign languages at school.
Exercise 3. Insert the active words instead of the underlined ones:
1. In ancient Rome, deleting some parts __________ of publications was the office of a
censor.
2. Limit __________the time you can spend with your friends.
3. Marijuana is criminalized __________in the U.S.
4. Most states have replaced the common law definition of rape with statutes defining
sexual abuse __________ .
5. The other children instigated __________ the boy, but he did not want to throw the

29

stone through the window.

6. These paintings exalt __________ the imagination.
7. The Republicans were overruled __________when the House voted on the bill.
8. I limit __________ you to two visits to the pub a day.

Exercise 4. Translate the sentences using word in the box:

concerns and wants

Civil liberties

citizens
worship

freedom of expression

affect

conflict

express views

Civil rights
sets limits

amendments

gather peacefully

unlimited

JAV konstitucija ir pirmos 10 patais (Anglijoje vadinam Teisi Bilis) nurodo

du tipus teisi, kurias mons turt turti.
Civilins teiss saugo mones nuo diskriminacijos ar nuo valdios, kuri nesilaiko
statym. Civilins teiss yra laisvs daryti tam tikrus dalykus: balsuoti, kalbti, taikiai
burtis grupes, melstis, kai mogus nori.
Demokratinje visuomenje mons sprndia dalykus, kurie padeda gyventi.
Kad tai vykt, mons turi turti iraikos laisv. Jiems turi bti leidiama aptarti
problemas, ireikti poirius, bandyti argumentuoti ir informuoti vienas kit, rasti
geriausi atsakym problemos sprendime. Neturdami laisvs taikiai rinktis kartu,
protestuoti prie vyriausybs veiksmus ir kalbti laisvai, pilieiai negals ilaikyti savo
pai teisi.
Taiau, kai mons gyvena kartu, laisv nra neribota. mons turi skirtingus
interesus ir norus, todl vieno mogaus laisv gali kirstis su kito asmens laisve. Todl
valdia ir nustato asmens laisvs ribas, kurios yra vadinamos statymais. odio laisv
yra taip pat ribojama, nes, pavyzdiui, mes negalime aukti moni pilname teatre
Gaisras sukeldami monms pavoj.
Pirmoji Amerikos Konstitucijos pataisa skelbia, kad Kongresas negali ileisti

30

jokio statymo, kuris atimt spaudos laisv, taiau, i laisv yra taip pat ribota.

20. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

Laws, which enable citizens to take legal action against the state-against, for example, a
public authority or even against the government - are part of constitutional law.
A constitution is the political and ideological structure within which a system of laws
operates. Most countries have a formal written Constitution describing how laws are to
be made and enforced. The French Constitution sets a seven year term of office for the
president; the U.S. constitution sets a four year term. The UK or New Zealand do not
have a written constitution. In Switzerland, a referendum (national vote) must be held on
any issue for which a petition signed by 10,000 people has been gathered, etc. Many
countries put the constitution above other laws by making it difficult to change.
One of the reasons for having special constitutional laws is to prevent governments from
becoming too powerful and from interfering too much in the lives of individuals. In the
18th century, French political philosopher Montesquieu developed the principle of
separation of powers: the functions of the state could be divided into policy formulation
and direction (executive), lawmaking (legislative), and interpretation and application of
the law (judicial). These functions should be carried out by separate institutions. In the
United States, for example, the president (executive) is elected by the people and
attempts to carry out his policy promises through a presidential office of advisers. The
Constitution gives him many important powers, such as control of the armed forces and
appointment of Supreme Court justices, but many of his decisions must be approved by
a majority in Congress (legislature), which is also elected by the people. Many

31

presidents have had important policies blocked by Congress.

Most constitutions also describe the fundamental rights of citizens. These usually
include general declarations about freedom and equality. We can also consider the right
of citizens to say and write what they want and to take part in public meetings and
demonstrations.
It is difficult to compare the legal freedoms of countries with different cultures and
economic levels. However, some comparison is possible since many countries have
similar constitutional provisions and claim similar aims.
VOCABULARY
Constitution

a set of basic laws or principles for a country that describe the

rights and duties of its citizens and the way in which it is
governed

a public authority - an organization which is connected with the government and has
powers to make decisions
a term of office -

a period of time of taking an important position of authority,

especially in government

an adviser -

a person who gives advice, especially sb who knows a lot about a

particular subject

a justice -

a judge in a court of law

a provision -

a condition or an arrangement in a legal document

to claim -

to gain, win or achieve sth.

QUESTIONS
1.

What is a constitution?

2.

What are the reasons for having special constitutional laws?

3.

What was the impact of French political philosopher Montesquieu?

4.

What powers does the President of the United States have?

32

5.

What fundamental rights do most constitutions describe?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise 1. Complete the table:
Verb
reign
elect

Noun (thing or
concept)
1.a) ..
b) ..
3. a) ..
b) ..

Noun (person)

Adjective

2. ..

sovereign

elector

4. a) ..
b) election
c)elective
d) elected

registrar

registered

represent

6. a) ..
b) ..
7. ..

representative

reside

9. ..

resident

recommend
approve

11. ..
12. ..

appoint

13. ..

14. ..
16. ..
execute

Vote
preference
17. ..
18. a) ..
b) legislature

appointer
appointee
15. ..
executioner

8. ..
10 .a) ..
b) residence
recommended
approved

5. ..

legislate
judge

19. ..

appointed
Voting
Preferred
executive

legislator

legislative

20. a) judicial
b) ..

Exercise 2. Insert a suitable word from the box bellow:

inborn right
consumers

was amended
legal

authorities

inborn

33

to vote

private ownership
efforts

approved

1. Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania was ________ by the citizens of the

Republic of Lithuania in the Referendum on 25 October 1992 and ________ on 13 July
2004.
2. The Lithuanian nation established the State of Lithuania many centuries ago and built
its ________ foundation on the Lithuanian Statutes and the Constitutions of the
Republic of Lithuania.
3. The Lithuanians resolutely defended its freedom and independence for centuries,
preserved its spirit, native language, writing, and customs and embodied the ________
of each person and the Nation to live and create freely in the land of their fathers, in the
independent State of Lithuania.
4. The powers of government shall be limited by the Constitution and State ________
shall serve the people.
5. The second chapter of the Constitution THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE STATE
declares that Human rights and freedoms shall be________; everyones right to life shall
be protected by law and liberty of an individual shall be inviolable, etc.
6. The Constitution guarantees the right for citizens who, on the day of election, are 18
years of age or over, ________ in the election.
7.

Lithuania's economy shall be based on the right to ________, freedom of individual

economic activity, and initiative.

8. The State shall support economic ________ and initiative that are beneficial for the
community, regulate economic activity in such a way that it would serve the general
welfare of the people, prohibit monopolisation of production and the market, and shall
protect freedom of fair competition and protect the interests of the ________ .
Exercise 3. Fill each blank space with a suitable word from given in CAPITALS on
the right:
1. The president ________ ________by a large majority.

(ELECT)

2. Nearly all British citizens over the age of 18 are members of the ________. (ELECT)
3. The district ________ is the official who ________ births, marriages and deaths in a

34

certain area.

(REGISTER)

4. Members of the lower house of the American Congress are called ________ .
(REPRESENT)
5. Our Constitution declare that no one may limit or restrict the ________ of the People
or make claims to the ________ powers of the People.

(SOVEREIGN)

6. Many ________ are in favour of changing the ________ system. (VOTE) (ELECT)
7. Parliament ________the ________of the special Commission last week.
(APPROVE) (RECOMMEND)
8. The right of ________ initiative in the Parliament shall belong to the members of the
Parliament, the President of the Republic, and the Government.

(LEGISLATE)

9. Local government Councils form ________ bodies which are accountable to them for
the direct implementation of the laws of the Republic of Lithuania.

(EXECUTE)

10. In Lithuania, the powers of the State shall be exercised by the Parliament, the
President of the Republic and Government, and the ________.

(JUDICIARY)

Exercise 4. Chose the correct alternative:

1. The Road Traffic Act 1972 _________ that it is illegal to drive under the influence of
drugs.
(1). legislates

(2). amends

(3). requires

(4). provides

2. The exact effect of legislation is influenced by judicial _________.

(1). interpretation

(2). custom

(3). Sovereignty

(4). codification

3. Parliament is a _________ body.

(1). legislation

(2). legislature

(3). legislative

(4). legislate

4. The Government lost the confidence, Parliament was dissolved and a/an _________
was called.
(1). General Election (2). electoral roll (3). by-election (4). election campaign.
5. No one may limit or restrict the _________ of the People or make claims to the
sovereign powers of the People.
(1). sovereign

(2). sovereignty

(3). unsurpassed

(4). unsurpassable

6. The term during which some position is held is called _________ .

35

(1). Terms of the lease

(2). a term of office (3). speaking term (4). to come to terms.

7. This contract includes a _________ for salary increases over time

(1). provision

(2). provisions

(3). provide

(4). providence

21. INTERNATIONAL LAW

International law is not new. Nations have always made political and economic treaties
with each other. Nevertheless, most international law was created in the twentieth
century. The League of Nations was set up after World I to regulate disputes between
nations. However, it failed to stop the tension that led to World War II, partly because
some powerful countries did not join (U.S.) and others left when they disagreed with its
decisions (Germany, Japan). However, it led to important international legislation like
the Geneva Convention on the treatment of prisoners of war and the 1951 Convention on
the Status of Refugees.
There are some important differences between international laws and those created
inside individual states. Domestic laws are passed by legislative bodies, most of which
have some popular political support. International laws, on the other hand, are created by
agreements among governments.
International Law (or Public International Law) consists or rules and principles wich
govern the relations and dealings of nations with each other. It concerns itself only with
questions of rights between several nations or nations and the citizens or subjects of
other nations. In contrast, Private International Law deals with controversies between
private persons, natural or juridical, arising out of situations having significant
relationship to more than one nation. In recent years the line between public and private
international law has become increasingly uncertain, because issues of private
international law may also involve issues of public international law, and vice versa.
The European Community has provided many interesting cases in the development of

36

international law. Starting a series of economic agreements between six nations in the
1950s, Community Law now has direct authority in the social and economic affairs of
twenty five countries. In theory, each member state has agreed to be bound by EC
decisions.
With more international business and travel and a growing awareness that many socioeconomic and environment problems need global solutions, at the same time, civil wars,
refugee crises and protection of environment prove the need for more international law.
More and more people are affected by activities of international importance. Pilots and
air traffic controllers work within guidelines laid down by the 1944 Chicago
Convention. Homeowners can turn to the 1972 Convention on International Liability for
Damage Caused by Space Objects when space debris falls on their property (as
happened to Canadians in 1979). Even Antarctica and outer space are subject to several
pieces of legislation to prevent them becoming as dirty and dangerous as the rest of the
world. Conventions on Environmental Protection passed in Geneva (1979), Vienna
(1985) and Rio (1992) emphasized the seriousness of the problems. The 1982 Law of the
Sea covers such matters as rights of passage through straits, deep-sea mining, and the
rights of landlocked states, piracy and collisions.
But the number of disputes, hijackings and accidents gets more, not less. The future of
law, the "necessary evil", seems to be one of inevitable expansion.
VOCABULARY
a treaty -

a formal agreement between two or more countries

to be bound - to be forced to do sth by law, duty or a particular situation

a solution -

a way of solving a problem or dealing with a difficult situation

liability -

the state of being legally responsible for sth

debris -

pieces of wood, metal, brick, etc. that are left after sth has been destroyed

to be subject to be under the authority of sth

37

hijacking -

the use of violence or threats to take control of a vehicle, especially a

plane, in order to force it to travel to a different place or to demand sth
from a government

expansion -

an act of increasing or making sth increase in size, amount or importance.

QUESTIONS
1.

Why do nations need international law?

2.

What are the differences between international laws and domestic laws?

3.

What are international conventions concerning global problems?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise 1. Complete the text about arbitration with words form the box:
Arbitration is a procedure for the resolution of disputes on a private basis through the
appointment of an arbitrator, an independent, neutral third person who hears and
considers the merits of the dispute and renders a final and binding decision called an
award.

Adjudication
dispute
expert

forum

arbitration
documentation
hearing

litigation

arbitrator decision-maker
duration
needs

expensive

submissions

The process is similar to the 1.____________ process as it involves 2.____________ .

However, the parties choose their 3.____________ and the manner in which the
4.____________ will proceed. For example, if the 5.____________ is fairly
straightforward and does not involve any factual questions, the parties may agree to
waive a formal 6.____________ and provide the arbitrator with written 7.____________
and 8.____________ only, called the arbitration documents. However, in other cases the

38

parties may wish a full hearing. Therefore, the parties create their own adjudicatory
9.____________ which is tailor-made to the particular 10.____________ of the parties
and the nature of the dispute.
The advantages of arbitration over court adjudication can include the following:

Expertise of the 11.____________ : The parties can choose an arbitrator who has
12.____________ knowledge of the law, business or trade in which the dispute
has arisen.

Low cost: Arbitration is not 13.____________ if the process is kept simple.

Speed: Arbitration can be arranged within days, weeks or months.

14.____________ : Arbitration does not take as long a litigation.

Exercise 2. Classify the following legal areas into Public International Law or
Private International Law:

adoption
arms control
asylum
contractual relations
divorce
environmental issues
human rights
immigration
international crime
maritime law
piracy
war crimes

Public International Law

Private International Law

environmental issues

39

Exercise 3. Read the text and find the definitions of the key words:

Public International Law derives its authority form three main sources.
1. Treaties and international conventions are written agreements concluded by two or
more sovereign nations or by a nation and an international organization, such as the
European Union. The power to enter into treaty relations is an essential attribute of
sovereignty. There is a cardinal law of international law that treaties validly concluded
must not be broken by the signatories. This source is also known as conventional
international law.
2. International agreements or conventions create law for the parties of the agreement.
They may also lead to the creation of customary international law when they are
intended for adherence generally and are in fact widely accepted. Treaties and
conventions were, at first, restricted in their effects to those countries that ratified them.
They are particular, not general customary usage, that is, have come to be considered
binding even on those states that did not sign and ratify them. Some customs may
become part of international law because of general acceptance by most nations, even if
not embodied in a written treaty instrument.
3. General principles common to systems of national law fall into the same category and
are, in fact, often difficult to distinguish from customs
as a source of international law.

40

1. convention

the customary method of

performing or
carrying out an activity that is
followed by particular group of
people

2. sovereign

3. conclude

to give formal approval to

something in order that it can
become law
self-governing and not ruled by
another state

4. binding

rule

5. treaty

legally required

6. usage

the action of following a rule

or keeping to an agreement

7. custom

legally binding agreement between

states sponsored by an international
organization

8. regulation

9. adherence

legally binding agreement between

two or more states
a formal legal document

10. ratify

a long established tradition or usage

that becomes customary law if it is
(a) consistently and regularly
observed and (b) recognized by
those states observing it as a
practice that they must follow

11. instrument

to make a formal agreement

complete and fixed, especially after
long discussions or arrangements
.

41

1
g

10

11

22. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY. PATENTS AND COPYRIGHT

In general, it is not against the law to steal someone else's ideas. If a man I meet in a bar
tells me how people can become rich, and I publish a best-selling book based on his
ideas, I do not have to pay him any money or even mention his name in the book.
However, most countries do place legal limits on copying the exact words someone has
written, the art or music they have created, or the technology they have invented. Such
work is known as intellectual property. The main legal instruments for protecting it are
patents and copyrights.
In order to prevent a new discovery or scientific process from being copied, it is
necessary to apply for a patent. If granted, a patent makes it illegal for others to
manufacture or use the invention without permission. However, a patent will only be
granted if the invention has not yet been shown in public and if it has industrial
application. Ideas - mathematical and scientific theories, for example - cannot be
patented.
Literature, artistic works, computer programs, movies and radio and television
broadcasts cannot be patented, but they can be protected by copyright. In most countries,
such work is automatically protected when it is created; there is no need to apply for or
to register copyright. It is usual to record the date of creation and mark it with the
international copyright symbol .
Intellectual property can only be protected if ownership is clear. A copyright is usually
owned by the creator of the work - the writer, painter or musician - but like other
property, it might be passed to someone else. If a journalist is employed by a newspaper

42

then the articles he writes are usually the copyright of the newspaper owner. The
copyright in a movie is owned by the filmmaker, not by individual writers or performers.
The copyright of a book is held by the publishers who commissioned it.
VOCABULARY
a patent -

an official right to be the only person to make, use or sell a

product or an invention; a document that proves this

a copyright -

if a person or an organization holds the copyright on a piece of

writing, music, etc., they are the only people who have the legal
right to publish, broadcast, perform it etc., and other people must
ask their permission to use it or any part of it. Copyright expires
seventy years after the death of the author (in most countries).

to prevent -

to stop sb from doing sth; to stop sth from happening

to manufacture -

to make or produce goods in large quantities, using machinery

ownership -

the fact of owning sth

to commission -

to officially ask sb to write, make or create sth or to do a task for

you (e.g. to produce a report, work of art, etc.).

QUESTIONS
1.

What is intellectual property?

2.

What is a patent? Why do we need it?

3.

How does a copyright function?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise 1. Write the appropriate word for the given definition:
1. Document granting exclusive right to publish and sell literary or musical or artistic
work __________

43

2. Intangible property that is the result of creativity __________

3. An official document granting a right or privilege __________
4. To stop something from happening or someone from doing something __________
5. The act of making something from raw materials __________
6. The act of having and controlling property __________
7. formally choose someone to do a special piece of work, charge with a task
__________
8. the greatest amount, number or level of something that is either possible or allowed
__________
9. To design and/or create something which has never been made before __________
10. To give or allow someone something, usually in an official way __________
11. To send out a programme on television or radio __________
Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with the necessary words:
1. We watched a live __________ of the concert.
2. Oil is used in the __________ of synthetic fabrics.
3. Should I __________ this invention?
4. Label your suitcases __________ confusion.
5. His disability __________ him (from) driving.
6. In 1880 Alexander Graham Bell was granted a __________ on an apparatus for
signaling and communicating called a Photophone.
7. He works for a company that __________ toys.
8. His business interests include __________ of a county newspaper.
9. I'd like to play squash, but I'm sixty and I know my __________ .
Exercise 3. Complete the chart:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

verb
prevent
patent
copyright
manufacture
own
limit
invent
grant
broadcast

Noun (concept)

Noun (Agent)

44

Adjective

Exercise 4. Translate the following text using the clue-words in the box bellow:

intangible
broadcasting
trade secrets
trademarks

to gain
on-line
established
enables

efforts
moral rights
to be identified
issuing copies

encourage

Teisje intelektuali nuosavyb leidia jos turtojui kontroliuoti neapiuopiam

idj ir iraik naudojim. Daniausios intelektualios nuosavybs formos yra patentai,
autorysts teiss, prekinis enklas ir komercins paslaptys.
Intelektualios nuosavybs teiss gali egzistuoti neribot taiko tarp arba gali
trukti nustatyt met skaii. Kiekviena valstyb nustato savo intelektualios nuosavybs
teises.
Terminas intelektuali nuosavyb buvo naudojama JAV nuo 19 a. vidurio.
Autorysts teisi simbolis raomas prie vard ir dat, spdamas kitus tai nekopijuoti.
Autorysts teiss galina krjus kontroliuoti j mediagos naudojim daugeliu bd t.y.
kopijuojant, leidiant kopijas plaiajai visuomenei, skelbiant per iniasklaid ar
naudojant internetiniame tinkle. Autorysts teiss taip pat suteikia moralines teises bti
atpaintam kaip tam tikros mediagos krjui.
Autorysts teisi tikslas yra leisti krjams pasiekti ekonomin atlyg u j
pastangas ir taip paskatinti j krybikum ateityje.

45

23. KEEPING PACE WITH TECHNOLOGY, COPYING

In recent years, it has been difficult for intellectual property law to keep pace with
technological change. Video recording, satellite television, and the use of computers
have expanded so rapidly that it is becoming difficult to control copying. Recent laws
should ensure that people paid for copying.
In Britain, the 1988 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act covers a work of art, music,
drama or literature, computer software, for 50 years after the author's death; sound
recordings, films, and broadcasts for 50 years after they are made or broadcast; and other
writings for 25 years after publication. In theory, the law applies to copying done
anywhere in the world. To increase the likelihood of enforcing intellectual property law
internationally, there are several important international conventions such as the
Universal Copyright Convention, the Bern Convention, and the Patent Corporation
Treaty.
The laws of intellectual property usually require anyone wanting to copy something to
ask permission from the holder of the patent or copyright. In the case of small -scale use
of artistic work, permission is often granted free of charge. For industrial use of a
scientific invention, a great deal of money might need to be paid. But most legal systems
allow a certain amount of copying even without asking permission. For example, under
the 1988 Act, a play may be performed in private - e.g. at a school -as long as there is no
audience from outside and no one is asked for money to watch. However, it is illegal to
tape a record, even if this is for private listening. The concept of fair dealing allows
someone to make a photocopy of someone else's work as long as this is done for private

46

study and no more than a substantial part of the book or article is copied. But it is not
legal to make a large number of copies, for example, for a whole class of students.
In some case, infringing copyright can be a criminal offence. For example, filming or
recording a live performance without permission and for commercial purposes can result
under English law in imprisonment for two years and a 2000 fine. However, if the
filming or recording is made for private purposes, the performer will have to take out a
civil action in order to obtain an injunction or compensation.
VOCABULARY
to keep pace -

to move, increase, change, etc. at the same speed as sb/sth

likelihood -

the chance of sth happening; how likely sth is to happen

(small)-scale -

the size or extent of sth, especially when compared with sth else

free of charge -

without payment

fair dealing -

an honest way of doing business with sb

to infringe -

to break a law or rule

to take out a civil action to start a legal process to stop a person or company from
doing sth, or to make them pay for a mistake
an injunction -

an official order given by a court of law which demands that sth

must or must not be done.

QUESTIONS
1.

What documents aim at enforcing intellectual property law internationally?

2.

What are the cases when it is possible to do copying free of charge?

3.

What penalties are applied in case of infringement of intellectual property?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE

47

Exercise 1. Insert the appropriate words from the box:

Tangible Personal Property
Intangible Personal Property

Patent
Trademark

Copyright

1. _____________________
Property represented by a document or other written statement, such as checks, money,
orders, receipts, stocks, and bonds.
2. _____________________
A name or symbol, registered with Patent and Trademark Office (the US) that guarantees
the owner exclusive rights to its use for 20 years and can be renewed as many times as
the owner wishes.
3. _____________________
The exclusive right of an inventor to make, use, or sell the registered product. It can be
granted by Patent and Trademark Office (the US) and gives owners the exclusive rights
for 17 years. It cannot be renewed.
4. _____________________
Protection of an individuals exclusive right to publish and sell original written
materials.
5. _____________________
Physical items, such as goods and equipment, such as stores inventory of goods,
equipment, and automobiles.
Exercise 2. In pairs, replace the words in italics with the words used in the text:
1. He lived at a fast (speed) _______ .
2. They submitted their (payments)_______ at the end of each month.
3. It is used to prevent a future harmful action rather than to compensate for an injury
that has already occurred. A defendant who violates (a formal command) _______ is

48

subject to penalty for contempt.

4. This behavior (conflicts) _______ with our rules.
5. They entertained on a grand (dimension) _______.
6. Family (brought the suit) _______ against the landlord.
7. There's little (probability) _______ of a compromise.
8. He has always had (fairly business) _______ _______ with competitors.
Exercise 3. Translate into English:
1. intelektualin nuosavyb 2. statymai turi utikrinti, kad mons moks u kopijavim
3. kompiuteri programin ranga 4. padidinti tikimyb 5. svarbus tarptautinis susitarimas
6. Pasaulinis Autorini Teisi Susitarimas 7. paprayti leidimo i patento savininko 8. mao masto darbas
9. doro elgesio svoka 10. ymi knygos dalis nukopijuota 11. autorini teisi paeidimas 12. komerciniais tikslais 13. oficialus sakymas -

49

24. REQUIREMENTS FOR CITIZENSHIP IN THE UNITED

STATES
To exercise the right to vote, hold public office, or serve on juries, a person must be an
American citizen. Under the Constitution, all persons born in the United States and
subject to its jurisdiction are citizens of the US and of the district in which they reside.
A person born in a foreign country may become an American citizen through the process
of naturalization. To be eligible for naturalization, a person must be at least 18 years of
age. He or she must have entered the US legally and must have been a resident of the
country for at least five years.
A candidate for citizenship makes application to the Immigration and Naturalization
Service of the Department of Justice. The agency notifies the applicant where and when
to appear for examination. An officer of the agency aids the applicant in filing a petition
for naturalization with a court. It is required that two American citizens, known to be
truthful, must support the petition and swear that the applicant has fulfilled the residence
requirements, is of good moral character, and will support the principles of the
Constitution of the United States. Both the applicant and the witnesses are questioned by
an examiner of the Immigration and Naturalization Service to make sure the applicant is
qualified.
The final step is taking the oath of allegiance to the United States. At least 30 days must
pass between the filing of the petition and taking the oath. After the oath, a judge signs
an order granting naturalized citizenship. A certificate of naturalization is issued and the
new citizen is then eligible to vote and take an active part in the government.
VOCABULARY

50

to exercise -

to use your power, rights or personal qualities in order to achieve sth

a public office a job in the government

to be subject to to be under the authority of sth/sb
naturalization -

the procedure of making sb a citizen of a particular country in which

he/she was not born

eligible -

able to have or do sth because they have the right qualifications, are
the right age, etc.

to aid -

to help sb to do sth, especially by making it easier

to file -

to present sth so that it can be officially recorded and dealt

with
to swear -

to promise that you are telling the truth; to make a public or official
promise, especially in a court of law

allegiance -

a persons continued support for a political party , religion, ruler, etc.

citizenship -

the legal right to belong to a particular country; the state of being a

citizen and accepting the responsibilities of it.

QUESTIONS
1.

What are the main requirements to become an American citizen?

2.

What steps should be taken to receive a certificate of naturalization?

3.

What measures should be taken to become a Lithuanian citizen?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise 1. Fill in the spaces using the words given in the box. Use some words for
several times:
non-citizen (3)
deported
passport

convinced of
hold public office

petition

alien (3)

protection

immigration laws (2)

immigrants (2)

Immigration and Naturalization Service

51

affect

All people in the US, both citizens and 1. ________, have a right to equal 2. ________
by the laws. A person in the United States who is not citizen is called an 3. ________.
All 4. ________ are subject to laws which control their entry into the U.S. These laws
are called 5. ________. 6. ________ allowed to stay are sometimes called 7. ________.
8. ________ may own land, work, and move about freely. However, they must obey
laws: must register, report address changes, and once a year must report to 9. ________,
INS . They may be sent back to their native country (10. ________), if they 11.
________ certain crimes, are unable to support themselves or brake12. ________ laws.
Citizens, however, may do things that 13. ________ may not. Citizens may vote and 14.
________, they can sign a 15. ________ and take service tests for government jobs.
These rights allow citizens to 16. ________ government in ways that 17. ________cant.
Citizens have the right to get 18. ________ and to be protected in other countries by the
U.S. government.
Exercise 2. Mach A with B

A
1. hold office

B
A

the rights duties and privileges of being a member

of society

2. citizenship

one who can do something, such as vote, all

requirements have been met

3. jurisdiction

to have a job after elections

4. resident

someone who officially lives in a particular place

5. notify

to inform someone officially about something

6. a petition

to give something formally or legally

7. allegiance

the right or power to make legal decisions

8. to grant

strong loyalty to a person, group, idea, or country

9. issue

a paper that asks for a special thing

10. application

a special paper given to someone

11. permanent

the papers that are needed to apply for something

12. legally

within the law

52

13. certificate

the act of officially giving something to someone,

for example, visitors permit

14. eligible

lasting a long time

Exercise 3. Translate the text using clue-words from the box:

the U.S. Consulate
commit

fingerprint

severe

Alien Registration Receipt Card

mental or physical problems

issue deport

prove

Alien

allow

to be able to

Kai mogus nori atvykti Amerik jis/ji pirmiausia vyksta JAV Konsulat savo
gimtojoje alyje gauti viz. Kad gaut viz, mogus privalo rodyti kad, jis/ji turi
pakankamai pinig nuvykti Amerik ir pragyvenimui kol ras darb.
Kai kuriems monms, t.y. turintiems sunki protini ar fizini problem, kurie
yra vyresni nei 16 met ir negali rayti bei skaityti, vykdiusiems rimt nusikaltim ir
t.t., neleidiama atvykti Amerik.
Jei mogus yra priimtas, jam/jai iduodama viza, pasirao INS, paiimami pirt
antspaudai, jei jis/ji turi 14 met. Kiekvienas svetimalis turi neiotis su savimi
Svetimalio Registracijos Kortel vis laik, praneti apie bet kokius adreso
pasikeitimus, ir t.t., prieingai - bus deportuotas.
Exercise 4. Find the second part of the sentence:
1.

To apply for citizenship,

A. he or she takes an oath of

allegiance to the U.S and is given a
certificate of naturalization.

2.

A person must have lived in

B. unless unable to do so for

the U.S for the five years

physical reasons.

53

3.

The INS decides

C. to

make sure that the person is in

the country legally.

4.

Having been found guilty of

a major crime or being a drug addict

D. may keep the person from being

granted citizenship.

5.

The person cannot , by law, be

denied the right to naturalization

E. textbook printed by the U.S.

government.

6.

The person must be able to read,

write, and speak simple English

F. people prepare for citizenship

exams.

7.

He/she must know basic factors

G. about the history and

government of the United States.

8.

Community groups have classes to help

H. the person signs the petition

form.

9.

Some citizenship classes are even

10.

You can call the INS and they will

I. because of race.

send you
11.

The Citizenship Exam is based on

J. a person must be at least eighteen

years old.

12.

13.

The person picks up citizenship forms

K. fills out the form

at the Country Clerks office or INS

called Application to File Petition

office and

of Naturalization.

INS checks during 2 or 4 months

L. a free list of courses that can

be taken by mail.

54

14.

15.

The person gets a notice to appear

M. who must be able to say that

at INS with two people who know

she/he has been in the states for

him/her well,

at least 6 months.

The Person and the witnesses go

N. offered by mail.

before the Clerk of the Naturalization

Court and

O. if that person is of good moral

character.

16.

1.
J

If the person passes the exam,

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

P. before the application is filled.

8.

9.

55

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

25. THE EUROPEAN UNION

Probably very few people in Europe know that on 9 May 1950 the first move was made
towards the creation of what is now known as the European Union.
In Paris that day, the French Foreign Minister, Robert Schuman, read the declaration
proposing to pass the first concrete steps towards the creation of a European Union
committed to peace. The Minister declared the creation of a supranational European
institution, charged with the management of the coal and steel industry, at that time, the
basis of all military power. The countries, which he called upon, had almost destroyed
each other in a dreadful conflict.
Every country, which democratically chooses to accede to the European Union, endorses
its fundamental values of peace and solidarity. Entering the EU means economic and
social development embracing environmental problems. The EU follows an important
task: to build a Europe, which respects freedom and the identity of all of the people,
which compose it. Only by uniting its peoples, can Europe control the mastery of its
destiny and develop a positive role in the world.
The EU flag, blue with twelve gold stars-symbolizing completeness. The number will
remain twelve no matter how many countries there are in the European Union.
The European Union is at the service of its citizens. While keeping their own specific
values, customs, and language, European citizens should feel at ease in the European
home". Europe Day - 9 May - represents the very best of what it means to be European.
VOCABULARY

56

committed -

willing to work hard and give your time and energy to sth;
believing strongly in sth

supranational -

involving more than one country

to accede -

to achieve a high position; to join

to endorse -

to say publicly that you support a person, statement or course of

action

identity -

the characteristics, feelings or beliefs that distinguish people from

others

at ease -

relaxed and confident and not nervous or embarrassed.

QUESTIONS
1.

Why do you think it became urgent to create the European Union?

2.

How many countries are there in the EU now?

3.

Why did our country seek to enter the EU?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise 1. Complete the table below:
European Union Member
States

Applicant countries

Other European countries

Austria

Belarus

Italy

Latvia

Austria San Marino

Belgium

Cyprus

Poland

Sweden

LiechtensteinUkraine

Finland

Romania

Czech Republic

57

Moldova

Portugal

The Netherlands

Bulgaria

Germany

Iceland

Denmark

Estonia

Ireland

Serbia and Montenegro Slovakia

Norway

Bosnia-Herzegovina

Luxembourg

Malta

Croatia

Monaco

Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia

Lithuania

Russia

France

Greece

Slovenia

Switzerland

Turkey

Albania

Hungary

Spain

United Kingdom

Andorra

Vatican City

Exercise 2. Insert the words:

1. The European Union was ___________ on November 1993 when the Treaty on
European Union was ratified by the 12 members of European Community.
A abolished

B established

C planted

2. Switzerland ___________ its membership application to avoid violation its history of

neutrality.
A withdrew

B moved back

C scrub

3. EFTA (European Free Trade Association) and EC (European Community), in 1991,

completed an ___________ to establish the European Economic Area, which would
provide a single market for goods, services, and capital.
A dissonance

B agreement

C concordat

4. The European Parliament is made up of 626 ___________ of the peoples of the

Member States of the Community; however, the number of seeds may not exceed 700.
A agents

B canvassers

C representatives

5. Before 1979 the representatives were selected from the membership of national
parliaments and ___________by them; however, are held every 5 years, which

58

corresponds to the legislative period, but there is still no uniform electoral procedure, as
required by the Treaties.
A send

B drained

C delegated

6. The European Parliament consists of the president 14 Vice-Presidents and 5 quaestors,

Parliamentary Committees for Internal ___________, External Policies, and Temporary
Committees
A Policies
B Polices
C Polities
7. The European Parliament has three main roles: it exercises democratic control over all
the Community institutions, in particular the Commission; it shares legislative power
with the Council; it plays a ___________ role in the adoption of the budget.
A indefinite

B deliberative

C decisive

8. Parliament has three essential functions: it shares with the Council the power to
legislate, i.e. to adopt European laws; it shares budgetary authority with the Council, and
can therefore influence EU spending; it exercises democratic ___________ over the
Commission.
A supervision

B monitoring

C supervention

9. The Council is made up of representatives of the governments of the members States

who are ___________ to act with binding effect on their governments.
A employ

B empowered

C empress

10. The Head of State or Premier of the member state currently holding the
___________ presides over the European Council, which provides the strategy of the
European Union.
A President
0
C

B Presidency
3

C Presidium
6

10

Exercise 3. Match the words to the definitions:

Combating

Policy

Xenophobia

59

Single market

Borders
Asylum
Trafficking
Provision
Disarmament
1. __________ is a customs union with common policies on product regulation, and
freedom of movement of all the factors of production (goods, services, capital and
labour).
2. __________ plan of action adopted by an individual or social group;
3. __________ a shelter from danger or hardship;
4. __________ a shelter from danger or hardship;
5. __________ - act of reducing of arms;
6. __________ - the act of fighting; any contest or struggle;
7. __________ - an irrational fear of foreigners or strangers;
8. __________ - buying and selling;
9. __________ a line that indicates a boundary.
Exercise 4. Complete the pillars of the EU house:

Structure of the European Union: the three pillars

The first pillar is made up of the three European Communities: E(E)C [the European
(Economic) Community], Euratom (the European Atomic Energy Community) and
ECSC (the European Coal and Steel Community). It embodies Community jurisdiction
in its most highly developed form.
The second pillar: The Heads of States have agreed to develop a common foreign and
security policy with the following declared aims:

safeguard the values, fundamental interests and independence of the EU;

strengthen the security of the EU and its Member States;

secure world peace and increase international security;

promote international cooperation;

promote democracy and the rule of the law, and safeguard human rights and
basic freedoms.

The third pillar: The aim underlying cooperation between

police and judicial authorities is to supply citizens with

60

freedom, security and justice.

Police cooperation
Agricultural policy
Disarmament
Structural policy
Trade policy
EU citizenship
Trance European network
Consumer protection
Health
Social policy
Asylum policy
External borders Criminal acts against children
Immigration policy
Cooperation
Common positions and measures
Peacekeeping
Human rights
Democracy
drawing on the WEU (Western European Union)
Research and Environment
questions concerning the security of the EU
Financial aspects of defense
Long-term: Europes security framework
Cooperation between judicial authorities in civil and criminal law
Combating racism and xenophobia
Aid to non-member countries
Fighting drugs and the arms trade
Education and culture
Fighting organized crime
Fighting terrorism
trafficking in human beings Customs union and single market

The European Union

First Pillar:
The European
Communities
EC
*
*
*
*

New or amended
provisions on:

Second pillar:
common foreign
and security policy
Foreign policy
*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*

Security policy

*
*
*

*
*

*
*

Third pillar:
cooperation in
justice & home affairs
*

* Long-term:
Europes security
framework

*
*
*
*

Euratom ,ECSC

61

Fighting drugs
and the arms
trade

Exercise 5. Translate into English using the clue-words in the box:

complement

depicted

euro area
a cash dispenser

features

fluctuation
currency

a common currency

spirit of openness
gave up

gateways

gave up adopted
the reverse

Galime ivardyti daugyb euro privalum. Keliaujant euro zonoje js turite

isikeisti pinigus tik vien kart. Viena valiuta - tai viskas ko jums reikia dabar.
Pavyzdiui, js galite nusipirkti maisto Pranczijoje u euro banknotus, kuriuos gavote
bankomate Ispanijoje. Apsipirkinjant euro zonoje kainos yra istatytos ta paia valiuta
eurais. Vystant versl su euro zona nebra valiut svyravymo rizikos. Vadovavimas
verslui yra lengvesnis ir ne toks brangus.
Nuo 2002 m. Sausio 1, 12 Europos ali viesiems laikams atsisak savo
nacionalins valiutos ir pasirinko viening valiut eur. Euro simbol sukurti kvp
graik raid epsilon yminti pirm odio raid Europa, o dvi paralelins linijos
simbolizuoja stabilum euro zonos viduje.
Langai ir vartai pavaizduoti vienoje banknot pusje simbolizuoja Europos
atvirumo dvasi ir bendradarbiavim. 12 Europos Sjungos vaigdui perteikia
harmonij tarp Europos taut.
Kaip dizaino papildymas, kiekvieno banknoto reverse pavaizduotas tiltas. Tiltas
simbolizuoja tampr bendradarbiavim ir bendravim tarp Europos ir viso pasaulio.

62

26. THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION

The name United Nations was devised by the United States President
F.D. Roosevelt and was first used in the Declaration by United Nations of January
1, 1942.
The UN, an intergovernmental organization established as the successor to the League of
nations, is concerned with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its
headquarters are in New York City. On December 10, 1948, the Declaration of Human
Rights was issued, defining the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights of
human beings.
The United Nations (UN) Charter was drawn up by the representatives of 50
countries at the UN Conference on International Organization, which met at San
Francisco from April 25 to June 26, 1945. The UN officially came into existence on
October 24, 1945, when the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the former
Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States, and by a majority of other
signatories. United Nations Day is celebrated on October 24 each year.
The peoples of the United Nations determined:
1.

to save succeeding from the scourge of war, which twice in our life time has

brought untold sorrow to mankind, and

2.

to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the

human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and
3.

to establish condition under which justice and respect for the obligations arising

from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and
4.

to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom.

5.

to practise tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good

neighbours, and

63

6.

to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security

7.

to ensure, by the acceptance of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save

in the common interest, and to avoid any possible violence.

All peace-loving nations, which accept the obligations of the UN Charter and are
willing, to carry out these obligations can be members of the UN. The official languages
of the UN are Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish, and Arabic.
VOCABULARY
to devise -

to invent sth new or a new way of doing sth

to draw up - to make or write sth that needs careful thought or planning

to ratify -

to make an agreement officially valid by voting for or signing it

a signatory - a person, a country or an organization that has signed an official

agreement
scourge -

a person or thing that causes trouble or suffering

to reaffirm - to state sth again in order to emphasize that it is still true.

QUESTIONS
1. What are the main doctrines declared by the peoples of the United Nations?
2. What are the official languages of the UN?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise 1. Match the information about the court and its activities to the following
headings:
The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial body of the United Nations.
Its seats is in The Hague (Netherlands). It began work in 1946, when it replaced the
Permanent Court of International Justice which had functioned in The Hague since 1922.
Headings:

64

1. Functions of the court

2. Composition
3. The Parties in Cases between States
4. Jurisdiction in Cases between States
5. Procedure in Cases between States
6. Sources of Applicable Law
7. Advisory Opinions

No
1.

International Court of Justice

One of the roles of the Court is to settle in

Headings

accordance with international law the legal disputes

2.

submitted to it by States.
The Court decides in accordance with international
treaties and conventions in force, international
custom, the general principles of law and, and
subsidiary means, judicial decisions and the

3.

teachings of the most highly qualified publicists.

The advisory procedure of the Court is open solely

4.

to international organizations.
The court is competent to entertain a dispute only if

5.

the States concerned have accepted its jurisdiction.

Only States may apply to and appear before the

6.

Court.
If one of the States involved fails to comply with it,
the other party may have recourse to the Security

7.

Council of the United Nations.

The Court may not include more than one judge of
any nationality.

Exercise 2. Read the following objectives of the International Criminal Court and
then answer the question:

65

1.

To achieve justice for all

2.

To end impunity for abuse of human rights

3.

To help end conflicts

4.

To remedy the deficiencies of ad hoc tribunals

5.

To take over when national criminal justice institutions are unwilling or unable to
act

6.

To deter future war criminals

Which objective means/ suggests the following?

a

Those who commit murder are often not punished.

The international Criminal Court aims to discourage war criminals through the
possibility of trial.

Courts set up specifically to try war criminals do not delicer justice.

Not everyone receives a fair trial.

Local courts may not always be able to deliver justice.

The International Criminal Court will try to stop wars.

Exercise 3. Match a line in A with a line in B:

the United Nations, they agree to accept

A1. When States become Members of

66

the obligations of the UN Charter,

2. the seventh Secretary-General of
2. The United Nations is not a world

the United Nations.

government and it does not make laws;

3. for human rights within the UN

however,

system.
3. At the UN, all the Member States
4. it does provide the means to help

large and small, rich and poor, with

resolve international conflicts and

differing political views

formulate policies.
4. Kofi Annan of Ghana is
5. of human rights around the
5. One of the greatest achievements of

world.

the United Nations is the creation of a

6. have a voice and a vote.

6. Much of the work of the United

7. -----an international treaty that sets

Nations is built upon the basic principles

out basic principles of international

relations.

7. The Universal Declaration became.

8. human rights set forth in the
8. The United Nations strives to create a

Universal Declaration of Human

culture of 8.

Rights.

9. The UN established the Commission

9. the Universal Declaration of

on Human Rights which is the principal

Human

policy-making body
10. comprehensive body of human
10. In 1948 the General Assembly of the

rights legislation.

United Nations adopted and proclaimed

B 1. international law
Exercise 4. Translate the answers to the questions using the clue-words given in the
box:

67

1. Q: What is the term of the Secretary-General?

technically

so far

has held office

term

no limit

A: Generalinio sekretoriaus kadencija yra penki metai, taiau praktikai nra

joki apribojim it penki kadencij skaiiui. N vienas Generalinis sekretorius iki
iol neum io posto daugiau kaip dvi kadencijas. Kofi Annanas baigs savo antr
kadencija 2006 met gruod.
2. Q: How can I get information on the United Nations?
kits

pamphlets
sheets

The Public Inquiries Unit

publications

booklets

A: Vieosios Informacijos Skyrius platina informacijos komplektus, kuriuose yra

broiros ir fakt lentels vairiomis temomis, o taip pat bukletai studentams, kuriuose
yra JT leidini vairov.
3. Q: How many member countries are there in the UN?
A: Jungtins Tautos turi 191 al Nar.
4. Q: I am a high school graduate and I want to continue my studies at a university.
Does the UN offer scholarships?
handicapped traineeship

Scholarship exchange programme

university-level

facilities

A: Jungtins Tautos nesilo joki stipendij ar student main program. Taiau,

UNESCO Studijos Usienyje turi informacij apie studijavim, keliavim ir darb
alyse Narse. Ten yra informacija apie stipendij, universiteto lygio kursus,

68

trumpalaikius kursus, stauoi programas, student darbinimo galimybes ir

infrastruktr negaliesiems.
5. Q: I heard that the UN issues international passports, visas and driver's licenses.
How can I apply?
issues

driver's licenses

the public

exclusively

issuance

aforementioned

national authorities

A: Ne!! Nei JT nei kokios nors jos specializuotos agentros ar tarptautins

organizacijos neiduoda tarptautini vairuotojo paymjim, pas ar kelioni
dokument visuomenei. Toki oficiali dokument idavimas yra iskintinai
nacionalins valdios organ funkcija. JT nra kokia vyriausyb ir todl negali iduoti
joki auksiau ivardint dokument.
6. Q: I need/wish to donate/ financial assistance from/to the UN.
Contributions
accepts

approved
consistent with

assistance

money orders

sovereign

are allocated

A: JT priima savanorik finansin pagalb, kuri neprietarauja Organizacijos

tikslams ir veiklai. Tai gali bti ekiai ar pato perlaidos. Taiau JT negali suteikti
finansins

pagalbos

individualiems

asmenims

ar

organizacijoms.

Bdama

nepriklausom valstybi organizacija, ji skiria fondus tik toms programoms, kurios buvo
oficialiai jos nari patvirtintos.

27. RUNNING A BUSINESS. TYPES OF ORGANIZATION

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If you want to set up a business, you should choose between the following types of
business units: Sole trader; Partnership; Limited Company (or Corporation).
A sole trader is a person of at least 18 years of age who provides capital from his own
resources and he alone is fully responsible for the management of the enterprise and
must bear all risks.
A partnership is legally defined as the relationship, which exists between persons
carrying on business in common with a view to profit. In an ordinary partnership, the
capital is supplied by the partners and they are fully liable for the losses in the company.
Profits and losses are divided proportionally according to the partnership agreement. In a
limited partnership, there is at least one fully liable partner; the other partners bear
responsibility depending on the capital invested.
Speaking about companies, the most usual form is the Joint Stock Company in which the
capital is divided into shares, and shareholders' liability is limited to the nominal value
of the share. In return for buying shares, the shareholder has the right to receive a
proportion of the firm's profits in the form of dividend. Shares can only be transferred,
i.e., bought and sold, with the consent of the company. In a public limited company,
investment comes from the public, i.e. the company may appeal to the public to
subscribe to its shares. The company is run by a Board of Directors elected at an annual
General meeting of the shareholders. Both private and public limited companies are
corporations, "legal persons" created by law, i.e. legal entities.
Selling shares is one of the ways to raise capital. Companies also issue debentures, or
bonds, in return for loans. Debenture holders are entitled to an annual payment of
interest.

VOCABULARY
a limited company -

a company whose owners only have to pay a limited

70

amount of its debts

to bear risks -

to do sth even though you know that sth bad could happen
as a result

liability -

the state of being legally responsible for sth

a joint stock company -

a company that is owned by all the people who have

shares in it

a partnership -

a relationship between two people, organizations or

countries that work together

a nominal value -

(= par value) the stated value of a share or a bond, etc.

when it is issued (= sold for the first time)

consent -

permission to do sth, especially given by sb in authority;

agreement about sth

a legal person -

an organization considered as a person for legal purposes

an entity -

an organization considered as a separate, independent unit

for legal purposes

to raise capital -

to increase the amount of capital

a debenture -

an official document that is given by a company, showing

it has borrowed money from a person and stating the
interest payments that it will make to them

a bond -

an agreement by a government or a company to pay you

interest on the money you have lent; a document
containing this agreement.

QUESTIONS
1.

What is typical for each type of business unit?

2.

What are the ways of raising capital in a company?

3.

Which type of organization would you prefer if you started your business?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise 1. Match the following titles from the regulations for registration to the

71

extracts from the details:

Titles
1. What are the articles of association?

__________

2. Can anyone be a company director?

__________

3. What company types are there?

__________

4. What is the minimum number of officers a company requires?

__________

5. Who can form a company?

__________

6. Can I Chose any name I want for my company?

__________

7. How do I form a company?

__________

8. What is a registered office?

__________

9. What is a memorandum of association?

__________

Extracts form the details

a

One or more persons but a public company or an unlimited company must have
at least two subscribers.

it is the address of a company to which companies House letters and reminders

will be sent.

This document sets out the rules for running the companys internal affairs.

By sending a memorandum of association, the articles of association, the details

of the directors and the company secretary, and a statement of legal compliance.

On condition that you are not:

An undischarged bankrupt or disqualified by a court from holding a

directorship;

Over 70 years of age.

72

This document sets out the companys name, the address of the companys
registered office and the object of the company.

Private companies limited by shares, private companies limited guarantee,

private unlimited companies, public limited companies.

You cannot:

Register the save name as another company;

Use certain words;

Use names likely to cause offence.

Every company must have formally appointed company office at all times.
A private company must have at least:

One director;

One secretary formal qualifications are not required. A companys sole

director cannot also be the company secretary.

A public company must have at least:

Two directors;

One secretary formally qualified.

Exercise 2. The Articles of Association govern the running of a company and set out
the rights and obligations of members and directors. Below are the main sections of
the Article of Association and terms and conditions. Match each section to its
description:
1. Share Capital

___________

2. Lien

___________

3. Calls

___________

4. Pre-emption

___________

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5. Transmission of Shares

___________

6. Notice of Meetings

___________

7. Proceedings at General Meetings

___________

8. Directors

___________

9. Notices

___________

10. Indemnity

___________

11. Winding up

___________

A This allows the directors of the company to sell a shareholders shares in the
company to repay any debt owed by the shareholder to the company.
B This provides that any shareholder who wishes to sell his shares has to first offer
them to the other shareholders at the save price as he wishes to sell to a third party.
C

This provides that the directors of the company shall not be personally liable in any
civil or criminal proceedings as long as they have carried out their dories lawfully.

D This deals with advance information that is to be given to each member about
meetings and provides that each member is allowed to appoint a proxy to attend in
his place at meetings.
E This requires all directors to be informed about meetings, whether they are in the
country or abroad.
F This allows the company to recover its costs of recovery from a late paying
shareholder.
G This sets out the share capital of the company.
H This allows the assets of the company to be distributed if the company goes into
liquidation.
I

This states the number of members who must be present.

74

This provides that when a shareholder dies he is deemed to give notice to sell his
shares (which allows the other shareholders to buy them for a fair price).

K This regulates the maximum number and their conduct.

Exercise 3. Complete the texts using the words in the box:

Binding

breach

efficient
provisions

conduct

consent

obligations

represents

default

perform

resources

undertake

devote
promote
validly

Each of the Shareholders 1.____________ to the other that it has taken all necessary
other actions to enable him 2.____________ to accept and 3.____________ the
4.____________ required under the terms of this Agreement and that performance of the
5.____________ of this Agreement will not result in a 6.____________ of or constitute
a 7.____________ under any agreement or other contractual restriction 8.____________
upon him.
The Shareholders 9.____________ with each other that they shall not without the prior
written 10.____________ of the other parties while a shareholder in the Company
become involved in any business other than that of the Company and that they shall
during such period use all reasonable endeavours to 11.____________ the interests of
the Company and 12.____________ to its business such of their respective time and
attention and 13.____________ as are reasonably required for the 14.____________ and
profitable 15.____________ of the business of the Company.

28. MY JOB

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Speaking on this topic one should keep to the following outline:

1.

Name of the company, institution;

2.

Your position there;

3.

Type of production or service, or merchandising;

4.

The turnover, sales output, profit or other statistical evidence;

5.

Number of employees;

6.

Foundation history;

7.

Recent developments and achievements;

8.

Your working experience - on the whole and in that particular company;

9.

Your partners or colleagues; relations with them;

10.

Premises and working conditions;

11.

Your intentions for the future;

12.

Your proposals or suggestions for any changes in the company.

VOCABULARY
( possible words to be used):
a lawyer -

a person who is trained and qualified to advise people

about the law and to represent them in a court of law, and
to write legal documents

a bailiff -

a law officer whose job is to take the possessions and

property of people who cannot pay their debts

an investigator -

a person who examines a situation such as an accident or a

crime to find out the truth

an interrogator -

a person whose job is to ask sb a lot of questions over a

long period of time, especially in an aggressive way when
investigating a case of offence, etc.

76

a traffic warden -

a person whose job is to check that people do not park

their cars in the wrong place or for longer than is allowed,
and to report on those who do or tell them that they have
to pay a fine

a clerk of a court -

an official in charge of the records of a court

full-time employment -

(= a full time job) an occupation for all the hours of a

week during which people normally work or study

hard-working -

putting a lot of effort into a job and doing it well

dependable -

that can be relied on to do what you want or need

painstaking -

showing a lot of care, effort and attention to detail

to cope with panicking -

to deal successfully with fear and to be able to control

your anxiety and keep clear thinking

to accomplish -

to succeed in doing or completing sth, to achieve sth

modern conveniences -

sth that is useful and can make things easier or quicker to

do, or more comfortable (= central heating, hot water, gas,
electricity, sanitation, etc.)

filing cabinets -

office furniture with deep drawers for storing files

headquarters -

a place from which an organization or a military operation

is controlled; the people who work there

renewal -

a situation in which sth is replaced, improved or made

more successful

modernization of equipment- making a system, methods, machinery, etc. more

modern and more suitable for use; updating of tools,
mechanisms, etc.
reduction of staff -

an act of making smaller number of employees

expansion -

an act of increasing or making sth increase in size, amount

or importance

to diversify -

to develop a wider range of products, interests, skills, etc.

in order to be more successful or reduce risk.

QUESTIONS

77

1.

Do you like your job? Why?

2.

Why is a job or occupation important to a person?

3.

How does any professional activity influence the countrys economy on the
whole?

APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
Exercise1. Complete the text.
property

authorized

right collect debts warrant

courtroom order
apply

peaceably

fines owe
on behalf of

force

judgment

peaceful

break

A bailiff is an officer who maintains 1. __________ and jury custody or sometimes also
known as a deputy.
A bailiff is someone 2. __________ to collect a debt on behalf of a creditor. A creditor is
someone you 3. __________ money to. There are different types of bailiffs - e.g. county
court bailiffs, certificated bailiffs and private bailiffs who can be used to collect different
types of 4. __________. These include county court judgments, unpaid council tax,
magistrates court 5. __________, etc.
Different bailiffs have differing powers to 6. __________ debts. However, there are
certain rules that 7. __________ to all bailiffs. A bailiff must be legally authorised to
collect the debt 8. __________ the creditor. The authority is normally known as a
'warrant', or 'warrant of execution' if the bailiff is recovering money owed under a
county court 9. __________.
Most bailiffs do not have the 10. __________ to force their way into your home to seize
your goods. The only exception is that bailiffs from the Collector of Taxes can get a 11.
__________ to force entry, but this is very rare.

78

All other bailiffs have a right of 12. __________entry only. This means that they cannot
use 13. __________ to enter your home, for example, by breaking a window or a door.
However, they can enter your 14. __________ through an open door or window (front
and back) and can climb over fences and gates, but cannot 15. __________ them down.
Bailiffs are well aware of their limited powers and may use a variety of different means
to gain entry 16. __________.
Exercise 2. Make a dialogue using the following phrases:
Parking violation
To be on the beat
A pedestrian crossing
Let smb. off with a warning
An insurance policy
A driving license
Do not mean any harm
To overtake the car
You are blocking the street
Suddenly to stop dead
An offence
Road regulations
To park a vehicle
You may be fined
A breakdown
No petrol in the tank
No spark
It changed from amber to red
Check the sparking plugs
No high tension current
Replace a fuse

79

Traffic check
A lay-by
Light reflecting coat
Registration book
Headlights
Put on main beam
Apply your breaks
Brakes
Lights are not coming on
Turn on
Ignition
Blow into this bag
The breathalyzer test
Tube
Your breath smells of alcohol
Your documents back
The result is negative
Are you going to fine me?
Put it into neutral gear
The handbrake off/on
Have your tyres blown up
Reverse out
Exercise 3. Match the titles with the job descriptions:
1. Policeperson -

1. My job is discovering information about people

2. a traffic warden/

2. Our job is to protect a person or place from

parking controller -

danger or attack, or to prevent a person such as a

criminal from escaping.

3. Lawyer -

3. My duties are to maintain security, tranquility, to

80

cause laws and regulations to be adhered to, to take

steps to prevent crimes, and also to investigate and
prosecute crimes.
4. Private detective/investigator - 4. I have to ask someone a lot of questions for a
long time in order to obtain information,
sometimes using threats or violence.
5. interrogator

5. My job is related to legal issues under the direct

supervision of an attorney: I draft contracts for
review by attorneys, provide initial review and
revision of contracts and process executed
contracts, etc.

6. Court clerk -

6. My job is to check that people do not park their

cars in the wrong place or for longer than is
allowed.

7. Prison guard -

7. My job involves preventing people going into

places without permission, delivering and
collecting large amounts of money, or protecting
goods from being stolen.

8. Legal Assistant

8. my job is to provide rapid response to law

enforcement agencies or any other emergency
needs and give directions, information i.e. to
maintain records of incoming calls, (police, fire,
ambulance), operate various computer terminals,
etc.

9. Security guard

9. I perform responsible and complex legal

81

research for the attorney's in legal office: maintain

and research confidential matters and materials,
perform legal research and analysis under the
direction of attorneys, etc.
10. Police Communications

10. We have to patrol buildings and grounds, direct

Operator

flows of traffic and issues citations on traffic and

parking violations, patrol assigned areas for safety,
examines doors, windows, and gates to determine
that they are secure, checks for fire, water leaks
and other safety hazards, etc.

11. Police guard

11. People of my profession conduct lawsuits or

gives legal advice.

12. Law clerk

12. I handle the filings for court procedures and

answer questions concerning them.

82

BIBLIOGRAPHY
(for topics)
European Commission. The European Union - What's in It for Me? ECSC-EC-BAEC,
Brussels, 1996.
Foreign & Commonwealth Office. Focus on Britain. Foreign and Commonwealth
Office, 1993.
Glick N. An Outline of American Government. United States Information Agency, 1989.
Hornby A.S. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English. 6th edition.
Oxford University Press, 2000.
Longman Business English Dictionary. Pearson Education Ltd., 2000.
Powell R. Law Today. Longman Ltd., 1996.
(for exercises)
Brieger N. Professional English Law. Penguin English Guides, 2002
Darginaviien I. English for Police Students. Lietuvos Teiss Akademija. Vilnius 1998.
De Souza D. Practice Book for the TOEFL Test. Penguin Books, 1996
Ivancevich S. Business for the 21st Century. Irwin, 1992
Liuolien A. Law Today Workbook. Lietuvos Teiss Akademija. Vilnius 2000
Luque-Mortimer L. First Certificate Gold Coursebook Tests. Longman, 2003
Reed O.L. The Legal Environment of Business. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1990
Riley A. English for Law. MacMillian Publishers. 1991
Mann R. Proficiency Gold Exam Maximiser. Longman, 2000
MacKenzie I. English for Business Students. CUP, 2000
www.hicom.net

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