Central Dalmatia, Croatia.

Open squares are major Illyrian sites; red squares are Hellenistic Greek colonies; circles are shrines; dotted lines indicate sea-lanes.

Archaeological
Caving in
Croatia

rom the tip of the strategically important

Peljesac
peninsula on Croatias Dalmatian
coast Nakovana Cave overlooks the Adriatic
Sea and some of the most important sea-lanes
of antiquity. In July 1999 we began to re-exca-

vate this type-site for the East Adriatic Early Copper Age
the site where an assemblage of artifacts diagnostic of that
period was first recognized. Despite its importance to
Mediterranean prehistory, the site had never been adequately
dated. Digging a deep test trench at the mouth of the cave we
found cultural deposits more than 4.5 m thick covering the

T. K a i s e r

The Illyrian Rituals of

Nakovana Cave

whole local late prehistoric and early historic sequence.

Nakovanas occupation began with the Early Neolithic (ca.
6000 BC), continued through the Copper Age (35002300
BC), the Bronze Age (2300800 BC), and the Iron Age

by timothy kaiser
forenbaher
and staso

(8th4th centuries BC), and ended during the Hellenistic

period (4th1st centuries BC).

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Nakovana Cave, plan and section. 1, cave mouth; 2, test trench; 3, rubble; 4, ancient entrance; 5, Illyrian sanctuary.

We first took Nakovana to be just a relatively deep rock

shelter with interesting stratigraphy. But our experience with
caves made us suspect that it might continue beyond the point
where its rubble-strewn floor met its downward-curving ceiling. This would not be unusualstandard practice in exploring caves (spelunking) is to crawl into every crack and try digging at points that might conceal hidden spaces. What we
found first was the dream of any caver. What we found next
was the dream of any archaeologist.

around a single large stalagmite. The highly structured character of this evidence and the unusually high quality of the finds
strongly suggested a ritual purpose for this space. The discovery at Nakovana is a rare one in archaeology and unique in
southeast Europe. Archaeologists are almost never the first to
discover a sealed cave site. During the next four seasons
(20002003) we excavated the middle chambers Hellenistic
layer, removing more than 40 m2 of deposits.

RITUAL ACTIVITIES

Beyond the back of the cave, we discovered a spacious, 45 m

long cave channel comprising two additional chambers. The
entrance to these chambers had been sealed around 50 BC by
a natural accumulation of cave deposits and intentionally
piled limestone rocks.
In the middle chamber we found a very dense scatter of
Hellenistic period Illyrian and Greek potsherds concentrated

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vo lu m e 4 7, n u m b er 3 expe d i t i on

Ritual activities tend to be carried out at locations with

unusual natural characteristics, often in places that can contain the participants, focus their attention, and veil them in
mystery. Nakovanas middle chamber fits the bill perfectly. It is
the largest, most comfortable space in the cave, with enough
room for a small group. Access, however, is tightly controlledto gain entry one must crawl through a long narrow
tunnel. This tunnel also allows a faint ray of daylight to pene-

S. Fo r e n b a h e r

THE SANCTUARY

M. Darmanin

Nakovanas middle chamber seen through the ancient entrance tunnel.

trate the cave, illuminating only one thing in the middle chamberthe large stalagmite. Behind it, the cave becomes a high,
vaulted corridor descending into the mountain, thus setting
the stalagmite against a dark background. When light is
focused on it, a dramatic visual effect is created, enhancing its
apparent size and establishing it as the overriding visual focus.
The stalagmite bears no signs of having been carved.
Instead, nature has worked an uncanny piece of mimicry,
shaping it to resemble a phallus. There are no comparable stalagmites in this chamber and no corresponding stalactite
forming above it. Was it placed there intentionally? Excavating
beneath it, we found the stalagmite rests on a series of prehistoric layers, the most recent dating to the Copper Age (ca. 3500
BC). But a direct radiocarbon date on the stalagmites base
indicates that it only began to grow around 2000 BC.
Therefore, it remains an open question whether it grew on this
spot or was moved there.
What is not in question is that the stalagmite was the focus
of ritual activities in the cave for 300 years. The pottery found

Geology mimics biology: a phallic stalagmite was the focus of ritual attention.

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mostly in a tight cluster immediately in front of the stalagmite

helps us understand the kinds of activities that took place. Of
the 8,000 potsherds recovered
73 percent are from fine
Hellenistic ceramic vessels,
over a hundred of which have
been fully reconstructed.
They include imports from
mainland Greece, Gnathia
wares from Greek settlements
in southern Italy, and locally
produced copies from Greek
colonies within Dalmatia. We
also recovered several special
vessels fashioned expressly for
use in offerings. These are all
likely to have been valuable
possessions.
Most of the vessels (cups,
jugs, and plates) are related to
drinking and, to a lesser
extent, serving food. This
suggests feasting, a practice
used elsewhere by generous,
Nakovanas Illyrians acquired Hellenistic finewares, including a Corinthian kantharos (far right), from around the
gift-giving chiefs to secure a
Eastern Mediterranean.

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vo lu m e 4 7, n u m b er 3 expe d i t i on

T. K a i s e r ( t o p ) , B. Boy l e ( b o tt o m )

One of the groups of cups and bowls left as offerings before the stalagmite.

grateful following. So do the

animal remains which show
a preference for lamb and
kid, both traditional feast
menu items. Overall, though,
not much meat was consumedonly 14 sheep or
goats over 300 years according to faunal analysts Preston
Miracle and Jo Wilsonand
the offerings were not
deposited continuously over
the caves 300 years of use.
Instead, the several discrete
episodes suggest that special
times called for special events,
perhaps once a generation.
This does not indicate frequent, large feasts. However,
the presence of miniature vessels might mean the feasts
were more symbolic than
actual, only using token
amounts of food for offerings. Indeed, a small number of vessels bear short votive graffiti, scratched in either Greek or Latin.

M. Darmanin

RITUAL AT NAKOVANA
It is highly tempting, given all the Hellenistic pottery, to draw
on classical Greek sources to understand cult behavior at
Nakovana Cave. Among the most important offerings was
drink, presumably wine. The association of heavy drinking
with a phallic monument suggests Dionysian rites, with all the
orgiastic excesses thereby implied. Less luridly, ancient Greek
custom was quite elaborate with respect to drinking rituals,
prescribing the use of certain kinds of vessels when making
particular offerings or dedications. A Corinthian kantharos
from Nakovana Cave provides a good example of a vessel type
that the Greeks would have used in a very particular fashion.
But the celebrants at Nakovana were not Greek. Did the local
Illyrians adopt Greek customs as well as Greek goods, or did
they merely embellish their local traditions by adding novel
cultural items?
Ritual activities began here soon after the founding of
Greek colonies on the neighboring Dalmatian islands during
the 4th century BC. These rituals intensified during the 3rd
century BC and were only discontinued in the late 1st century
BC when Roman authority in the area was established after an
exceptionally grim series of campaigns. Our surveys have
shown that up to that point, the peninsula was controlled by
the local Illyrians from their massive hillfort at Grad, only 1
km southwest of the cave. A subsidiary hillfort, a line of watchtowers, and numerous burial cairns surrounding Grad indicate a strong Illyrian presence. Hellenistic sherds closely
resembling those from the cave have been collected at Grad
and from some of the burial mounds. The Illyrian elites clearly
had access to imported ceramics either through trade or
piracy. This is not surprising given the convergence of the eastern Adriatics primary sea-lanes directly below Grad, just off
the tip of the peninsula. Whether piracy or just good business,
it all came to the same thing, a constant flow of wealth. Trading
and raiding were certainly important to the coastal Illyrian
economy.
In the eastern Adriatic, the last centuries BC were troubled
times punctuated by wars. Masculine power and warrior skills
would have been held in high esteem. Indeed, Illyrian iconography of this period often features images of male combatants
in a state of sexual excitement. Therefore the rituals centered
on the stalagmite in Nakovana Cave may have symbolized a
particular divine association, or a more general evocation of
masculine powermasculine fertility, potency, and traditional warrior qualities such as strength and prowess.
Maybe the benevolence of supernatural forces had to be
secured by a feast and offerings by the Illyrian leaders of Grad

Forenbaher (left).
Timothy Kaiser (right) and Staso

to secure their followers support before they departed on a

risky escapade at sea or on land. Or maybe the offerings were
expressions of gratitude after their successful return. In any
event, part of the acquired wealth was left behind in the dark
recesses of the cave, marking their ancient celebrations. Since
the Illyrians did not write about themselves, Nakovana offers a
unique insiders view of their spiritual world during the
dynamic final centuries of their incorporation into the
Mediterranean world-system.
forenbaher are co-directimothy kaiser and staso
tors of the Nakovana Cave Project. Kaiser is a Research Associate
of the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Canada, and has
conducted archaeological research in Croatia, Serbia, and
Romania. Forenbaher is a Research Associate of the Institute
for Anthropological Research and a Lecturer at the University
of Zagreb, Croatia. He has carried out research at a wide variety
of sites throughout Croatia, as well as in the U.S., Portugal,
and Ukraine.

For Further Reading

na
Forenbaher, S., and T. Kaiser. Spila Nakovana: Ilirsko svestiste

/ Nakovana Cave: An Illyrian Sanctuary on the Peljesac

Peljescu
Peninsula. Zagreb: V.B.Z., 2003.
zbornik 1

Petric,
Peljeski
N. Prethistorijske kulture Peljesca.
(1976):295-313.

Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.

Acknowledgment
Funding for the Nakovana Cave Project, 20002003, was generously
provided by David & Audrey Mirvish through the Royal Ontario
Museum Foundation.

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