Freezing time predictions for regular shaped foods: a simplified

graphical method
V. O. Salvadori, R. O. Reynoso, A. de Michelis and R. H. Mascheroni
Centro de Investigacidn y Dessarrollo en Criotecnologla de Alimentos (CIDCA), Facultad de
Ciencias Exactas 47 y 116 (1900), La Plata, Argentina
Received 21 November 1986: revised 6 March 1987

A graphical method is proposed for the estimation of freezing times of foods with a high water content. It has
been developed from the predictions of a numerical model which solves the heat balance for a food
undergoing freezing. The method is valid for foods with different shapes (fiat plate, cylinder and sphere) and
covers a wide range of working conditions for industrial freezers. It also enables the prediction to be made for
any given end temperature in the thermal centre of the food. Freezing times predicted by this method have
been compared with published experimental data, giving an average error in the predicted values of only 4 9/0.

(Keyworfls:freezing;freezingtimes; foodproducts)

Prbvisions du temps de congblation pour les aliments de forme

r guli re: mbthode graphique simplifire
On propose une mdthode graphique pour I'estimation des temps de conodlation des aliments d forte teneur en eau.
Cette mdthode est obtenue d partir d'un moddle num~rique donnant le bilan thermique du produit en coms de
congdlation. On peut appliquer cette mdthode d des aliments de diffdrentes formes (plaque plane, cylindre et
sphbre). Elle se rapporte ~ diverses conditions du fonctionnement des congblateurs du shiels et permet de prbvoir
une temperature finale donnde au centre thermique. En outre, on a compard les temps calculds avec les temps
exp~rimentaux publies, et on a trouv~ une difference moyenne de 4 % seulement.

(Mots clds: congdlation;temps de congdlation;aliments)

Nomenclature

h
ko

Biot number (= hL/ko)

Constant in the definition of X
Heat capacity of unfrozen food (J kg- ~ C- 1)
Percentage error of predicted tf (9/o)
Fourier number ( = tCtoL- 2)
Heat transfer coefficient (W m - 2 C- ~)
Thermal conductivity of unfrozen food

Food dimension (half thickness of slab,

Bi

C
Cpo
e
Fo

(Wm-1 of-1 )

During the last few years there has been a notable increase
in published literature referring to freezing time
predictions for foods. The following two different
approaches have been used:
1. numerical methods: these are based on the solution of
the differential thermal balance for the food to be frozen.
They also allow for variations in the thermophysical
properties of the food with temperature. In general they
require complex calculations and a powerful computer.
With these methods freezing time, tf, as well as
temperature profiles as functions of time can be predicted.
It is also possible to study the influence of each individual
process parameter on freezing timer-9; and
2. approximate methods: these are developed to

m, n
t
tf
T
Tc

Tcr
Ti
T~
X
~to
Po

radius of sphere or cylinder) (m)

Constants in the definition of X
Time (s)
Freezing time (s)
Temperature (C)
Temperature of the thermal centre (C)
Initial freezing temperature (C)
Initial food temperature (C)
Cooling medium temperature (C)
Characteristic variable (-)
Thermal diffusivity of unfrozen food (m2s- l)
Density of unfrozen food (kg m - 3)

calculate freezing times in a relatively simple way, whilst

accounting for the influence of working conditions (initial
and final food temperature, heat transfer coefficients,
refrigerant temperature, composition, size and shape of
the food). In general these methods are expressed as a
combination of graphs and mathematical formulae or as a
series of formulae required to achieve good precision 1-22.
It has been adequately proved and accepted 17 that,
even using the most precise and detailed modelling, the
accuracy of prediction is limited due to the lack of precise
experimental data or prediction equations for the
thermophysical properties over the required temperature
range. Thus, standard deviations from 2.6 to 5 . 6 ~
between calculated and experimental freezing times are

0140-7007/87/060357-05503.00

1987 Butterworth & Co (Publishers)Ltd and IIR

Rev. Int. Froid 1987 Vol 10 Novembre

357

Freezing time predictions. V. O. Salvadori et

al.

obtained, depending on the food shape and calculation

method used.
As will be shown in the present work, a good
approximate model can give results of similar accuracy

25t'~

with much less calculation. In this Paper, a method is

proposed to estimate freezing times for any practical
condition in industrial freezing. It is based on a
generalized graph which gives temperature variation in
the food as a function of only one dimensionless variable
X. The method also accounts for process conditions and
physical properties of the unfrozen product.

10 '~

:l

Proposed method

In previous studies 4,8.~0 numerical models were

developed which allowed prediction of temperature
profiles at any time, in addition to predicting freezing
times for different geometries. To evaluate tr it is necessary
to know the variation with time of the temperature at the
thermal centre of the food, T~; this coincides with the
geometrical centre for regular shapes.
The basis of the proposed model is to find a new
independent variable which may adequately account for
the simultaneous influence of time, process parameters,
Tj, Tf, Bi, food properties, So, and dimensions, L, on the
variation in temperature of the thermal centre, T~. Thus,
all possible working conditions (any Ti, T~, Bi, ~o or L)
must lead to similar curves of T~ versus X . This variable is
defined as:

~.+~,~_.~_--:

:+7. ~ ',
-10
-15
-20

~
i

~
i

\
',

\\
\\\

,
I

/41

Fo

20
t15 ........ ~... "="'=''=,=
oS ~c
3

N\

"'::".-~
..........
" - ; . - . . . .......

' " , . . ",,=

Fo[(Tr- Tcr)/Tcr]"
X - (1/Bi + C)[(Tcr- Ti)/Tcr] n
~.

,....

(l)

,~

\ '~... ~,

where Tcr is the initial freezing temperature (which for

meat was estimated as T+r= - IC) and C, m and n are
empirical constants whose values are dependent on the
food and its geometry. This definition of X arises from the
existence of several regressions for the calculation of
freezing time of the following typel'22:

,+

--2C

ZIo

~0

I0

~0 - -

X (dimensionless)
1 Temperatures during freezing at the centre of a slab of meat
cooled with heat flow perpendicular to fibres. (a) Independent variable:
dimensionless time, Fo. (b) Independent variable: characteristic
parameter, X. Freezing conditions:- - -, Bi = 1, Ti = 7, Tf = - 25; . . . . . ,
Bi=2, T~=7, 7 ~ = - 4 5 ; . . . . .
, Bi=5, Ti=7, 7~=35; - - + - - +
,
Bi=13, 7]=25, T f = - 4 0 ;
, Bi=13, 7]=15, T f = - 4 0 ;
- - o - - o - - , Bi=13, Ti=2 , 7~= - 4 0 ; ..... , Bi=35, ~ = 7 , 7~= - 3 5
Figure 1 Evolution de la temp&ature au cours de la conqdlation d'une
Figure

plaque de viande refroidie avec flux thermique perpendiculaire aux fibres.

(a) Variable ind@endante: temps sans dimension, Fo. (b) Variable
indbpendante: param&re caracteristique, X. Conditions de congblation:
, B i = l , T+=7, T y - ~ - 2 5 ; . . . . . , Bi=2, T~=7, T f = - 4 5 ;
.....
, Bi=5, Ti=7, T f = - 3 5 ,
--+
+ , Bi=13, Ti=25,
Ty=-40; .......
, B i - 1 3 , T~=15, T y = - 4 0 ; - - o
T~=2, T f = - 4 0 ; ..... , Bi=35, T~=7, Ty= - 3 5

o--, Bi=13,

Fo=A(1/Bi+C)[(Tcr-

Ti)/Tcr]n[(Tf - Tcr)/Tcr] -m

(2)

which, when rearranged, lead to an equation similar to

Equation (1).
The three constants were adjusted to give the lower
spread in the numerical values of T~ versus X (see Figure
lb), in the final freezing zone. The ranges of process
parameters, Bi, T~ and Tr, covered in the optimization of
the method are shown in Table 1 for the geometries
studied. In all cases, thermal properties of beef were used
for the food.

Table 1 Extreme ranges of processing conditions used in the definition of the method and values of empirical constants used in the calculation of X
Tableau 1 Domaines extremes de conditions de traitement utilis~es dans la dbfinition de la re&bode et des valeurs des constantes empiriques utilisbes dans le

calcul de X
Value of
constants in X formula

Range of freezing parameters

Geometry and type of food

7] (C)

Tf (C)

Bi

Flat plate (lean beef, heat flow perpendicular to fibres)

2-25

- 25

- 45

1-50

1.04

0.09

0.18

Flat plate (lean beef, heat flow parallel to fibres)

2-20

- 25

- 45

1-60

1.03

0.10

0.16

Infinite cylinder (lean beef, heat flow perpendicular to fibres) 7 25

- 2(~-

40

1-30

1.00

0.09

0.17

Sphere (minced meat)

- 25- - 45

1-20

0.90

0.06

0.18

358

Int. J. Refrig. 1987 Vol 10 November

2-25

Freezing time predictions: V. O. Salvadori et al.

Results and discussion

T h e c u r v e s e l e c t e d f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s is s h o w n ; t h i s w a s
used to average the variation
range of X for each
temperature. It should be noted that this method allows
o n e t o e s t i m a t e tt f o r a n y f i n a l To, w h e n m o s t o f t h e
approximate
methods
are only valid for a set final
temperature, generally - 10 or - 18C.
I n Table 2 e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l ( n u m e r i c a l )
v a l u e s o f tr a r e c o m p a r e d t o t h e e v a l u a t i o n m a d e w i t h t h e
proposed
method
for different foods with flat plate
geometry.
The average percentage
error for all the
p u b l i s h e d T y l o s e 11 r e s u l t s is 6 . 9 ~ o , w h i l s t f o r t h o s e
p u b l i s h e d i n R e f e r e n c e 19 t h e e r r o r is 2 . 9 ~o. A s c a n b e
o b s e r v e d p r e d i c t i o n is v e r y g o o d , e v e n f o r n o n - b e e f
p r o d u c t s . T h e s a m e c u r v e is v a l i d f o r s u b s t a n c e s w i t h h i g h
water content and structures which are not very regular in
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f h e a t f l u x (for e x a m p l e , m i n c e d m e a t s ,

Figure l a s h o w s

predicted time-temperature
curves,
calculated with the numerical model, for the thermal
c e n t r e o f a f l a t p l a t e o f b e e f w h i c h is f r o z e n w i t h h e a t f l o w
in a direction perpendicular
to the fibres. Each curve
represents the output of one run of the computer program
of the model. These thermal histories correspond to very
different freezing conditions, calculated using the most
e x t r e m e v a l u e s o f Ti, Tf a n d Bi f o u n d i n i n d u s t r i a l f r e e z i n g
p r o c e s s e s . Figure l b s h o w s t h e s a m e c u r v e s p l o t t e d i n
terms of the new variable, X. In the temperature range in
which the product can be considered as partially or
wholly frozen, the maximum separation between curves
(in t e r m s o f X ) is o n l y 1 2 ~ .
I n Figure 2 t h e r e g i o n f r o m - 2 t o - 1 8 C is s h o w n f o r
t h e s a m ~ p r o d u c t a n d w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s a s i n Figure 1.

Table 2 Comparison of published freezing times with those predicted by this work for a flat plate with heat flow perpendicular to the fibres
Tableau 2

Comparaison des temps de congblation publibs avec ceux prbvus d' aprbs cette &ude pour une plaque plane avec flux thermique perpendiculaire

aux fibres
tf,exp
(h)

tf, pred

-18
-18
-18
- 18
- 18

1.30
1.52
1.57
2.47
2.83

1.29
1.59
1.64
2.78
3.03

-0.86
4.50
4.22
12.63
6.97

- 37.0
-40.15
-33.15
- 39.9

- 18
-18
-18
- 18

1.90
1.47
1.92
1.65

1.92
1.56
1.77
1.54

1.28
6.13
-7.98
-6.43

3.0
28.0
3.0
30.0
28.6
16.5

-28.4
-25.0
- 23.9
- 25.4
- 25.7
- 28.8

-10
-10
- 10
- 10
- 10
- 10

3.30
2.32
3.84
1.68
1.54
2.34

3.42
2.38
3.69
1.73
1.58
2.31

3.80
2.65
- 3.94
3.05
2.31
- 1.42

4.12
0.99
4.4
2.99
6.11
3.53
0.72
0.32

18.3
15.0
16.8
4.0
28.0
11.8
28.4
4.7

-26.7
- 25.0
-25.5
- 30.6
-24.3
- 24.9
- 25.9
- 25.9

-10
- 10
-18
- 18
-10
- 10
- 10
- 10

1.58
4.48
1.47
1.50
3.12
3.72
1.76
3.02

1.57
4.67
1.44
1.46
3.22
3.93
1.66
3.01

-0.54
4.26
-1.73
- 2.57
3.27
5.64
- 5.85
- 0.28

51.9
410.0
51.9
21.6
410.0
30.6
30.6
430.0
51.9
21.6
16.7

3.06
24.20
3.06
1.27
16.30
1.22
1.22
8.81
1.06
0.44
0.34

10.0
3.0
30.0
10.0
11.0
20.0
20.0
3.0
30.0
30.0
28.7

- 40.0
-22.0
- 20.0
- 40.0
-21.0
- 30.0
- 30.0
- 19.0
-40.0
-40.0
-26.0

- 10
-10
- 10
- 10
-10
- 10
- 10
- 10
-10
-10
-10

2.22
1.92
4.80
4.02
1.00
2.74
2.66
0.34
0.64
1.42
2.68

2.25
1.70
5.20
4.28
0.98
2.90
2.90
0.32
0.66
1.44
2.89

1.49
-11.27
8.44
6.58
-2.10
5.76
9.02
- 5.96
2.89
1.24
7.99

0.024

68.5

3.43

3.9

-28.7

-18

1.65

1.68

2.18

Tylose 19 (selected values)

ko=0.55 W m -1 C -1
= 1.482 x 10-7 m 2 s - 1

0.0145
0.006
0.0055
0.0135

108.0
108.0
106.0
68.0

2.85
1.18
1.06
1.67

3.5
16.8
4.4
17.4

-29.3
-30.9
- 25.7
- 25.2

-18
-18
- 18
- 18

0.55
0.22
0.21
1.00

0.61
0.22
0.22
1.03

10.50
0.00
3.20
3.25

Numerical method
Extreme values of process conditions
ko=0.513 W i n - 1 C -1
= 1.268 x 10- 7 m 2 s - 1

0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036

14.25
14.25
185.96
185.96
490.91

1.0
1.0
13.05
13.05
34.45

7.0
7.0
2.0
25.0
7.0

-25.0
-45.0
-40.0
- 40.0
- 35.0

- 18
-18
-18
- 18
- 18

12.63
6.29
1.47
1.76
1.44

12.17
6.48
1.46
1.78
1.5

-3.66
2.99
-0.53
0.90
4.20

L
(m)

h
(W m - 2 C - ' )

Bi

~
(C)

7~
(C)

Tc
(C)

Lean beef 16
ko =0.48 W m -1 C-1
~o= 1.311 x 10-7m2 s - t

0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.047

168.5
146.9
88.1
72.2
120.5

10.53
9.18
5.51
4.51
11.80

18.3
18.0
17.8
22.0
8.0

-38.7
-33.3
-39.9
- 27.3
- 36.5

M u t t o n 1
ko = 0.495 W m -1 C -1
cto= 1.24 x 10-7 m2 s - I

0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03

79.5
99.58
120.53
102.89

4.82
6.04
7.30
6.24

10.6
9.6
10.3
9.4

Minced meat 11
ko=0.44 W m -1 C -1
~o = 1.302 x 10- ~ m z s - 1

0.02425
0.036"
0.036 a
0.02425"
0.0125"
0.0125 a

21.6
220.0
51.9
90.0
30.6
16.7

1.19
18.00
4.25
4.96
0.87
0.47

Mashed potato 11'1

ko = 0.53 W m - 1 oC - 1
~ = 1.448 x 1 0 - 7 m 2 s -1

0.02425
0.02425
0.022
0.023
0.036"
0.036 a
0.0125"
0.0125"

90.0
21.6
106.0
69.0
90.0
51.9
30.6
13.6

Tylose tl (selected values)

ko=0.61 W m - I C -x
= 1.644 x 10- 7 m 2 s - ~

0.036
0.036"
0.036"
0.036"
0.02425 a
0.02425"
0.02425"
0.0125 a
0.0125 a
0.0125"
0.0125"

Carp 19
ko=0.48 W m - 1 oC-1
cto=1.341 x 10 - ~ m 2 s -1

Material

(h)

Error
(%)

Parameters outside the range given in Table 1

Rev. Int. Froid 1987 Vol 10 Novembre

359

Freezing time predictions." V. O. Salvadori et al.

--....

fibres transversal to heat flow, gels and mashed potatoes,

etc.).
In F i g u r e 3 similar graphs are presented for beef with
flat plate (heat flow parallel to the fibres, high k), infinite
cylinder and sphere geometries, showing both the selected
curve and the extreme ranges of variation. The variation
did not exceed 15 % in any of the cases studied.
In Table 3, published data are c o m p a r e d with tf values
predicted by this method for flat plates with heat flow
parallel to the fibres; the agreement obtained is similar to
that in Table 2. F o r both infinite cylinders and spheres, all
the published points for Tylose ~3 were calculated using
this method; the average errors of approximately 30
points were 5.4 and 3.3 %, respectively.
It should be noted that the errors revealed in the
comparisons with the numerical model correspond to
extreme values of the process parameters, that is, in
normal situations of industrial freezing the prediction
would be more precise. Also, all experimental data in the
bibliography were checked for any product, but only
those whose freezing conditions were within the validity
ranges of each curve were considered in the calculation of
the error limits in the predicted tr. This implies that data

,,~ , ,~,,7,
"-

(..

',

'2,

-;5

"',.X',',
i

-ZOo

50

70

80

9o

X (dimensionless)

Figure 2 Reduced curves for the temperature of a slab (same as for

,
Proposed method; other symbols represent same conditions as in

Fioure lb) in the zone of interest for freezing time predictions.

Figure 1

Figure 2 Courbes reduites pour la temperature d'une plaque (comme

Figure lb) dans la zone drint~r~t pour les prdvisions du temps de
cong~lation.
, M~thode proposde; les autres symbols reprdsentent les
mdmes conditions que pour le Figure 1

-2

-6

",,,

-1(

,,

U -lz

t_

-18
n

I
28

I
32

Xl \
36

x I
40

60

\l'~

70

80

90

b-

-2

I
t
l
l
l

-6

l
l

'\i
\
I

-10

I
I
I
I
I
!
I

",

\
'\

"

')

\~ X \\

-1L

-1

__1

14

1{3

18

20

60

70

80

90

X (dimensiontess)
Figure 3 Reducedcurves for the temperature of the centre of different shaped foods.
, Proposed criterion; - - -, extreme ranges of variation of the
numerical method. (a) Cylinder; (b) flat plate with heat flow parallel to fibres; (c) sphere; (d) flat plate with heat flow perpendicular to fibres
Figure 3 Courbes reduites pour la tempbrature centrale d'aliments de formes differentes.
, Critbre propose; - - -, domaines extrbnes de variation de la

mbthode numbrique. (a) Cylindre; (b) plaque plane avec flux thermique parallble aux fibres; (c) sphbre; (d) plaque plane avec flux thermique perpendiculaire
aux fibres

360

Int. J. Refrig. 1 9 8 7 Vol 10 N o v e m b e r

Freezing time predictions." V. O. Salvadori et al.

Table 3 Comparison of published freezing times with those predicted by this work for a flat plate with heat flow parallel to the fibres
Tableau 3 Comparaison des temps de congklation publibs avec ceux prbvus d'aprbs cette btude pour une plaque plane avec flux thermique parallble aux
fibres

Material

L
(m)

h
(W m - 2 C- ~)

Lean beef19
ko=0.51Wm 1 oC-1

0.024
0.0235

106.0
69.0
15.56
777.78
535.89
535.89
77.78

~o = 1 . 3 9 7 x 1 0 - 7 m 2

Ti
(C)

Tff
(C)

Tc
(C)

tf,exp
(h)

4.99
3.18

17.4
4.3

- 25.2
-27.6

- 18
- 18

1.81
1.75

1.65
1.67

- 8.99
-4.84

1.00
50.00
34.45
34.45
5.00

7.0
7.0
7.0
2.0
20.0

-25
- 25
- 45
- 40
- 45

11.55
1.77
0.94
1.02
2.01

11.19
1.74
0.98
1.00
2.05

-3.12
- 1.91
3.89
- 1.72
1.90

Bi

c o r r e s p o n d i n g to p r o d u c t s w i t h differences in w a t e r
c o n t e n t , h o m o g e n e i t y , s t r u c t u r e , etc., w e r e used. T h e
m a x i m u m e r r o r in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f tf was 13 %, t h e
o v e r a l l m e a n e r r o r w a s 4 . 1 % , a n d 90 % o f t h e p o i n t s lay
w i t h i n an e r r o r o f - 8.0 to + 8.2 %. T h e s e results i n d i c a t e
t h a t this m e t h o d has a v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r y p r e c i s i o n .
T h e f o l l o w i n g is a p r a c t i c a l g u i d e to the steps r e q u i r e d
t o use this m e t h o d :

1. t h e p r o d u c t is d e f i n e d a n d its t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s in
t h e u n f r o z e n s t a t e a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e o r by
measurement;
2. o n c e the g e o m e t r y is given, t h e d e s i r e d final
t e m p e r a t u r e is selected for t h e t h e r m a l c e n t r e ;
3. w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e defined (T~, Tf a n d Bi);
4. t h e X v a l u e is o b t a i n e d f r o m the c o r r e s p o n d i n g
curve; and
5. tf is c a l c u l a t e d , r e a r r a n g i n g E q u a t i o n (1) t o o b t a i n :

5
6

8
9
10
11

X(1/Bi + C)[(Tcr- Ti)/Tcr]n[(Tf - Tcr)/Tcr] -m0~o 1L2

(3)

12
13

T h u s , it c a n be seen t h a t this m e t h o d c o m b i n e s
s i m p l i c i t y w i t h a d e g r e e o f p r e c i s i o n c o m p a r a b l e to t h a t of
much more involved approximate or even numerical
m e t h o d s . I n a d d i t i o n , o n l y o n e g r a p h is n e c e s s a r y for a
w i d e v a r i e t y o f f o o d s h a v i n g t h e s a m e g e o m e t r y o r for a n y
final t e m p e r a t u r e .
F i n a l l y , it s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h v a l u e s o f m, n
a n d C w e r e o b t a i n e d for t h e r a n g e s o f p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s
specified in Table 1, w o r k i n g o u t s i d e t h o s e limits will n o t
l e a d to h i g h e r e r r o r s in t h e e s t i m a t i o n of tf, as s h o w n by
s o m e of t h e d a t a ( m a r k e d a) in Table 2.

14
15
16
17
18
19

References
20
1
2
3

Error
(%)

s -1

Numerical method
0.036
Extreme values of process conditions 0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036

tf =

tf,pred
(h)

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21
22

18
18
18
18
18

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Rev. Int. Froid 1987 Vol 10 Novembre

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