SDH Technology

Digital Transmission System(DTS)
SDH Technology
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SDH Technology
Contents
Sl. No. Name of Topic
Page No.
INTRODUCTION
S.D.H. EVOLUTION
SDH RATES
THE STM-1 FRAME FORMAT
PATH OVERHEAD
11
NETWORK ELEMENTS OF SDH
11
SDH MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURE AND PRINCIPLE
14
WHY SYNCHRONIZING NETWORKS?
20
THE PRINCIPLE OF NETWORK SYNCHRONISATION
21
10
SYNCHRONIZATION HIERARCHY
22
11
12
SDH APPLICATION AREAS

SUMMARY
25
25

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SDH Technology
2 SDH TECHNOLOGY
STRUCTURE
2.1
INTRODUCTION
2.2
OBJECTIVE
2.3
S.D.H. EVOLUTION
2.4
SDH RATES
2.5
2.6
PATH OVERHEAD
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
THE PRINCIPLE OF NETWORK SYNCHRONISATION
2.11
2.12
SDH APPLICATION AREAS
2.13
SUMMARY
2.14
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
2.15
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is standardized protocols that transfer

multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light
from light-emitting diodes (LEDs). At low transmission rates data can also be
transferred via an electrical interface. The method was developed to replace the
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) system for transporting large amounts of
telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber without synchronization problems.
SDH, which is essentially the same, were originally designed to transport circuit mode
communications from a variety of different sources, but they were primarily designed
to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice encoded in PCM format.
The primary difficulty in doing this prior to SDH was that the synchronization sources
of these various circuits were different. This meant that each circuit was actually
operating at a slightly different rate and with different phase. SDH allowed for the
simultaneous transport of many different circuits of differing origin within a single

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SDH Technology
framing protocol. SDH is not itself a communications protocol, but a transport

protocol.
The SDH standard was originally defined by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), and is formalized as International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) standards G.707, G.783, G.784, and G.803.
2.2
OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit, you should be able to understand:

SDH Evolution
Advantages of SDH network
Different Network Elements of SDH
Synchronization
2.3
S.D.H. EVOLUTION
The hierarchy defined by the ITU was adopted and referred to as the
plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH). The PDH signals are the 2.048 Mbit/s signal
that carries 30 voice channels, the 8.488 Mbit/s signal that multiplexes four 2.048
Mbit/s signals, the 34.368 Mbit/s signal that multiplexes four 8.488 Mbit/s signals,
and the 139.264 Mbit/s signal that multiplexes four 34.368 Mbit/s signals.
Fig : 1 PDH Bit Rates

Around the time of the Bell System break-up, fiber optic cables were being
deployed in transport networks. Fiber offered huge improvements in capacity and
signal quality relative to copper cable systems, and it was often easier to find right-ofway for the cables due to the much smaller size of the optical cables. As the
technology improved, it became feasible to begin replacing the microwave radios in
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SDH Technology
the long distance network with optical fibers. Fiber brought some new challenges, but
it also offered some critical new opportunities. The early fiber optic systems were
built on the existing PDH multiplexing approach, with each vendor typically using its
own proprietary multiplexing frame format for the higher rate signals. Hence, there
were few economies of scale and almost no cases where different vendors equipment
could inter-work. This meant that at a carrier-to-carrier interface, both carriers would
have to agree to a common equipment vendor if they wanted an optical
interconnection.
The desire for a standard hierarchy for fiber optic signals was one of the
primary drivers for the development of the SONET (Synchronous Optical Network)
and SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) standards. Since this was a new standard,
one of the opportunities was to define a standard that was compatible between North
America and the PDH users. The other opportunity derived from the much higher
bandwidth capabilities of the optical fiber. With optical transmission, it was now
feasible to add a considerable amount of overhead bandwidth that could be used to
greatly reduce the cost and improved the capabilities of networks OAM&P
(operations, administration, maintenance, and provisioning). The combination of the
SONET/SDH OAM&P overhead capabilities and the growing availability of
computer resources has revolutionized network management and opened the
possibility of more automated control of the network. At this point in history,
SONET/SDH forms the backbone of most of the worlds transport networks with
computer-based network management systems being common. A number of potential
future directions are being explored for next generation telecommunications networks.
One future direction will be the deployment of an increasing amount of wavelengthdivision multiplexing (WDM). WDM is already seeing extensive deployment, and
interestingly, is essentially a return to an FDM technology (i.e., a wavelength can be
regarded as a carrier frequency). Another direction for transport networks is an
increasing capability for efficient, flexible data transport rather than transport that is
optimized only for voice traffic. At this time, the focus has been on adding transport
capabilities. Some carriers are promoting a migration to carrying and switching all
traffic as data traffic rather than using TDM. Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)
is expected to be the core technology in these packet based networks. Voice signals
can be packetized and carried as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). Another
important future direction is an increase in the ability for automated or near-real-time
control of the transport network through the introduction of a control plane on top of
the management. The control plane has the potential to allow much faster and more
flexible initiation of new services and modification of services as they are being used.
SDH differs from Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) in that the exact
rates that are used to transport the data on SDH are tightly synchronized across the
entire network, using atomic clocks. This synchronization system allows entire intercountry networks to operate synchronously, greatly reducing the amount of buffering
required between elements in the network.
SDH evolution is possible because of the following factors:
(i)
Fibre Optic Bandwidth: The bandwidth in Optical Fiber can be increased

and there is no limit for it. This gives a great advantage for using SDH.

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SDH Technology
(ii)
Technical Sophistication: Although, SDH circuitry is highly complicated, it

is possible to have such circuitry because of VLSI technique which is also
very cost effective.
(iii)
Intelligence: The availability of cheaper memory opens new possibilities.
(iv)
Customer Service Needs: The requirement of the customer with respect to

different bandwidth requirements could be easily met without much additional
equipment.
The different services it supports are:
2.3.1
1.
Low/High speed data.
2.
Voice
3.
Interconnection of LAN
4.
Computer links
5.
Broadband ISDN transport (ATM transport)

ADVANTAGES OF SDH
SDH brings the following advantages to network providers:

2.3.1.1 High transmission rates
Transmission rates of up to 40 Gbit/s can be achieved in modern SDH
systems. SDH is therefore the most suitable technology for backbones, which can be
considered as being the super highways in today's telecommunications networks.
2.3.1.2 Simplified add & drop function
Compared with the older PDH system, it is much easier to extract and insert
low-bit rate channels from or into the high-speed bit streams in SDH. It is no longer
necessary to demultiplex and then remultiplex the plesiochronous structure.
Fig : 2 Simplified add & drop function

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2.3.1.3 High availability and capacity matching

With SDH, network providers can react quickly and easily to the requirements
of their customers. For example, leased lines can be switched in a matter of minutes.
The network provider can use standardized network elements that can be controlled
and monitored from a central location by means of a telecommunications network
management (TMN) system.
2.3.1.4 Reliability
Modern SDH networks include various automatic back-up and repair
mechanisms to cope with system faults. Failure of a link or a network element does
not lead to failure of the entire network which could be a financial disaster for the
network provider. These back-up circuits are also monitored by a management
system.
2.3.1.5 Future-proof platform for new services
Right now, SDH is the ideal platform for services ranging from POTS, ISDN
and mobile radio through to data communications (LAN, WAN, etc.), and it is able to
handle the very latest services, such as video on demand and digital video
broadcasting via ATM that are gradually becoming established.
2.3.1.6 Interconnection
SDH makes it much easier to set up gateways between different network
providers and to SONET systems. The SDH interfaces are globally standardized,
making it possible to combine network elements from different manufacturers into a
network. The result is a reduction in equipment costs as compared with PDH.
SDH supports the transmission of existing PDH payloads, other than 8Mbit/s.
Most importantly, because each type of payload is transmitted in containers
synchronous with the STM-1 frame, selected payloads may be inserted or extracted
from the STM-1 or STM-N aggregate without the need to fully hierarchically demultiplex as with PDH systems.
2.4
SDH RATES
SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s. The basic

unit of SDH is STM-1. Different SDH rates are given below:
STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s
STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s
STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s
STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s
Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is synchronous.

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2.5
SDH Technology
The S.D.H. standards exploit one common characteristic of all PDH networks
namely 125 micro seconds duration, i.e. sampling rate of audio signals (time for 1
byte in 64 k bit per second). This is the time for one frame of SDH. The frame
structure of the SDH is represented using matrix of rows in byte units as shown. As
the speed increases, the number of bits increases and the single line is insufficient to
show the information on Frame structure. Therefore, this representation method is
adopted. How the bits are transmitted on the line is indicated on the top of the figure.
The Frame structure contains 9 rows and number of columns depending upon
synchronous transfer mode level (STM). In STM-1, there are 9 rows and 270
columns. The reason for 9 rows arranged in every 125 micro seconds is as follows:
For 1.544 Mbit PDH signal (North America and Japan Standard), there are 25
bytes in 125 micro second and for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, there are 32 bytes in
125 micro second. Taking some additional bytes for supervisory purposes, 27 bytes
can be allotted for holding 1.544 Mbit per second signal, i.e. 9 rows x 3 columns.
Similarly, for 2.048 Mbit per second signal, 36 bytes are allotted in 125 micro
seconds, i.e. 9 rows x 4 columns. Therefore, it could be said 9 rows are matched to
both hierarchies.
The standardized SDH transmission frames, called Synchronous Transport
Modules of Nth hierarchical level (STM-N). The STM-1 frame is the basic
transmission format for SDH. The frame lasts for 125 microseconds; therefore, there
are 8000 frames per second.
A frame with a bit rate of 155.52 Mbit/s is defined in ITU-T Recommendation
G.707. This frame is called the synchronous transport module (STM). Since the frame
is the first level of the synchronous digital hierarchy, it is known as STM-1. Figure
shows the format of this frame. It is made up from a byte matrix of 9 rows and 270
columns. Transmission is row by row, starting with the byte in the upper left corner
and ending with the byte in the lower right corner. The frame repetition rate is 125
ms., each byte in the payload represents a 64 kbit/s channel. The STM-1 frame is
capable of transporting any PDH tributary signal.

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SDH Technology
Fig : 3 Schematic diagram of STM-1 frame

The first 9 bytes in each of the 9 rows are called the overhead. G.707 makes a
distinction between the regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the multiplex
section overhead (MSOH). The reason for this is to be able to couple the functions of
certain overhead bytes to the network architecture. The table below describes the
individual functions of the bytes.
Calculation of Bit Rate of STM-1
NO OF ROWS IN FRAME:
NO OF COLUMNS:
270
NO OF BYTES IN FRAME:
270*9
NO OF BITS IN A FRAME:
270*9*8
FRAME DURATION:
125us
NO OF BITS TRANSMITTED IN ONE SECOND: 270*9*8*1/125 s

=155.520Mb/S
2.5.1
SECTION OVERHEAD (SOH) AREA
The first 9 bytes in each of the 9 rows are called the overhead. SOH means the
additional bytes in the STM-N frame structure needed for normal and flexible
transmission of information payload and these bytes are mainly used for the running,
management and maintenance of the network. In the 1~ 9 N columns of the SDH
frame, 1~3 rows and 5~9 rows are allocated to the SOH. SOH can be further
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SDH Technology
categorized as RSOH (Regenerator Section Overhead) and MSOH (Multiplex Section

Overhead). 1~3 rows are allocated to RSOH and 5~9 rows to MSOH. RSOH can be
accessed either at the regenerator to at the terminal equipment. However, MSOH
passes a regenerator transparently and is terminated at the terminal equipment. Fig. 4
shows distinction between the regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the
multiplex section overhead (MSOH).
Fig : 4 Section Overhead

The table below describes the individual functions of the bytes.
Table 1: Overhead bytes and their functions
2.5.2
PAYLOAD AREA
Information payload area is the place where information about various

services is stored in the SDH frame structure. Horizontal columns 10 N~270 N,
and vertical rows 1~9 belong to the information payload area. In it, there are still
some Path Overhead (POH) bytes transmitted as part of the payload in a network and
these bytes are mainly used for the monitor, management and control of the path
performance.

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2.5.3
SDH Technology
ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT POINTER (AU-PTR) AREA
AU PTR is a kind of indicator, mainly used to indicate the accurate position of

the first byte of information payload in the STM-N frame, so that the information can
be correctly decomposed at the receiving end. It is located at the fourth row of 1~9
N columns in the STM-N frame structure. The adoption of the pointer mode is an
innovation of SDH. It can perform multiplex synchronization and STM-N signal
frame locating in the quasi-synchronization environment.
2.6
PATH OVERHEAD
Path Overhead (POH) bytes are mainly used for the monitor, management and
control of the path performance. A distinction is made between two different POH
types:
2.6.1
VC-11/12 POH
The VC-11/12 POH is used for the low-order path. ATM signals and bit rates
of 1.544 Mbit/s and 2.048 Mbit/s are transported within this path.
2.6.2
VC-3/4 POH
The VC-3/4 POH is the high-order path overhead. This path is for transporting
140 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s and ATM signals.
2.7
Figure 5 is a schematic diagram of a SDH ring structure with various

tributaries. The mixture of different applications is typical of the data transported by
SDH. Synchronous networks must be able to transmit plesiochronous signals and at
the same time be capable of handling future services such as ATM.

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SDH Technology
Fig : 5 Schematic diagram of hybrid communications networks

Current SDH networks are basically made up from four different types of network
element. The topology (i.e. ring or mesh structure) is governed by the requirements of
the network provider.
2.7.1
TERMINAL MULTIPLEXER ( TM)
Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous

input signals into higher bit rate STMN signals as shown in Fig. 6 below. On the
tributary side, all current plesiochronous bit rates can be accommodated. On the
aggregate, or line side we have higher bit rate STMN signals. Terminal multiplexers
are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous input signals into higher bit rate
STM-N signals.
Fig : 6 TM
2.7.2
ADD/DROP MULTIPLEXERS(ADM)
Add/drop multiplexers (ADM) permits add and drop of lower order signals.
Lower bit rate synchronous signals can be extracted from or inserted into high speed
SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This feature makes it possible to set up ring

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SDH Technology
structures, which have the advantage that automatic back-up path switching is
possible using elements in the ring in the event of a fault.
Fig : 7 ADM
2.7.3
REGENERATORS
Regenerators as the name implies, have the job of regenerating the clock and
amplitude relationships of the incoming data signals that have been attenuated and
distorted by dispersion. They derive their clock signals from the incoming data
stream. Messages are received by extracting various 64 kbit/s channels (e.g. service
channels E1, F1) in the RSOH (regenerator section overhead). Messages can also be
output using these channels.
Fig : 8 Regenerator
2.7.4
DIGITAL CROSS-CONNECT (DXC)
This network element has the widest range of functions. It allows mapping of
PDH tributary signals into virtual containers as well as switching of various
containers up to and including VC-4. It permits switching of Transmission lines with
different bit rates.
Fig : 9 DXC

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2.7.5
SDH Technology
NETWORK ELEMENT MANAGER
Telecommunications management network (TMN) is considered as a further

element in the synchronous network. All the SDH network elements mentioned so far
are software-controlled. This means that they can be monitored and remotely
controlled, one of the most important features of SDH.
Fig : 10
2.8
Network Element Manager

The multiplexing principles of SDH follow, using these terms and definitions:
Mapping A process used when tributaries are adapted into Virtual Containers
(VCs) by adding justification bits and Path Overhead (POH) information.
Aligning This process takes place when a pointer is included in a Tributary Unit
(TU) or an Administrative Unit (AU), to allow the first byte of the Virtual Container
to be located.
Multiplexing This process is used when multiple lower-order path layer signals are
adapted into a higher-order path signal, or when the higher-order path signals are
adapted into a Multiplex Section.
Stuffing As the tributary signals are multiplexed and aligned, some spare capacity
has been designed into the SDH frame to provide enough space for all the various
tributary rates. Therefore, at certain points in the multiplexing hierarchy, this space
capacity is filled with fixed stuffing bits that carry no information, but are required
to fill up the particular frame.
Figure 11 illustrates the ITU-T SDH multiplexing structure defined in Rec. G.707

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Fig : 11
SDH Technology
Generic multiplexing structure
At the lowest level, containers (C) are input to virtual containers (VC). The
purpose of this function is to create a uniform VC payload by using bit-stuffing to
bring all inputs to a common bit-rate ready for synchronous multiplexing. Various
containers (ranging from VC-12 to VC-4) are covered by the SDH hierarchy. Next,
VCs are aligned into tributary units (TUs), where pointer processing operations are
implemented. These initial functions allow the payload to be multiplexed into TU
groups (TUGs). As Figure illustrates, the xN label indicates the multiplexing integer
used to multiplex the TUs to the TUGs. The next step is the multiplexing of the TUGs
to higher level VCs, i.e. VC-4. These VCs are multiplexed with fixed byte-stuffing to
form administration units (AUs) which are finally multiplexed into the AU group
(AUG). This payload then is multiplexed into the Synchronous Transport Module
(STM).

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Fig : 12
SDH Technology
Reduced SDH multiplexing structure
The KLM value represents the position of 63 VC12s into a VC4. K: is TUG-3 (1,2
or 3), L: is the TUG-2 (1,2,3,4,5,6,7) and M is the TU12 (1,2 or 3).
Table-1 Position of VC-12 in VC$
TUG-2
VC-12 (> E1)
Timeslot
TUG-3
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
10
1.4.1
11
1.4.2
12
1.4.3

KLM
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SDH Technology
13
1.5.1
14
1.5.2
15
1.5.3
16
1.6.1
17
1.6.2
18
1.6.3
19
1.7.1
20
1.7.2
21
1.7.3
22
2.1.1
23
2.1.2
24
2.1.3
25
2.2.1
26
2.2.2
27
2.2.3
28
2.3.1
29
2.3.2
30
2.3.3
31
2.4.1
32
2.4.2
33
2.4.3
34
2.5.1
35
2.5.2
36
2.5.3
37
2.6.1
38
2.6.2
39
2.6.3
40
2.7.1
41
2.7.2
42
2.7.3
43
3.1.1
44
3.1.2
45
3.1.3
46
3.2.1

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SDH Technology
47
3.2.2
48
3.2.3
49
3.3.1
50
3.3.2
51
3.3.3
52
3.4.1
53
3.4.2
54
3.4.3
55
3.5.1
56
3.5.2
57
3.5.3
58
3.6.1
59
3.6.2
60
3.6.3
61
3.7.1
62
3.7.2
63
Bit
Rate
(Mbps)
7
3
Table-2: SDH/SONET transmission rates
3.7.3
PDH
(USA)
PDH
(Europe)
SDH
SONET
Name
Name
Container Transport
Container
Transport
40000
STM-256
STS/OC-768
10000
STM-64
STS/OC-192
2500
STM-16
STS/OC-48
622
STM-4
STS/OC-12
155
STM-1
STS/OC-3
140
E4
VC4
51
45
STS/OC-1
DS3/T3
STS-1 SPE
34
E3
E2
VC3

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6
DS2/T2
VT6 (not
really used)
E1
VC12
1.5
DS1/T1
2.8.1
BASIC DEFINITIONS
(i)
SDH Technology
VT1.5
Synchronous Transport Module
This is the information structure used to support information pay load and over
head information field organized in a block frame structure which repeats every 125
micro seconds.
(ii)
Container
The first entry point of the PDH signal is the container in which the signal is
prepared so that it can enter into the next stage, i.e. virtual container. In container
(container-12) the signal speed is increased from 32 bytes to 34 bytes in the case of
2.048 Mbit/s signal. The additional bytes added are fixed stuff bytes (R), Justification
Control Bytes (CC and C), Justification Opportunity bytes (s).
In container-3, 34.368 Mbit/s signal (i.e., 534 bytes in 125 microseconds) is
increased to 756 bytes in 125 microseconds adding fixed stuff bits(R). Justification
control bits (C-1, C-2) and Justification opportunity bits (S-1, S-2).
In container-4, 139.264 Mbit/s signal (2176 bytes in 125 microseconds) is
increased to 9 x 260 bytes.
(iii)
Virtual Container
In Virtual container the path over head (POH) fields are organized in a block
frame structure either 125 microseconds or 500 microseconds. The POH information
consists of only 1 byte in VC-12 for 125 microseconds frame. In VC-3, POH is 1
column of 9 bytes. In VC-4 also POH 1 column of 9 bytes. The types of virtual
container identified are lower orders VCs i.e. VC-12 and VC-2 and higher order VC-3
and VC-4.
(iv)
Tributary Unit
A tributary unit is a information structure which provides adaptation, between

the lower order path layer and the higher order path layer. It consists of a information
pay load (lower order virtual container) and a tributary unit pointer which indicates
the offset of the pay load frame start relating to the higher order VC frame start.
Tributary unit-12 for VC-12 and Tributary Unit-2(TU-12) is for VC-2 and Tributary
unit-3(TU-3) is for VC-3, when it is mapped for VC-4 through tributary group-3.

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(v)
SDH Technology
Tributary Unit Group
One or more tributaries are contained in tributary unit group. A TUG-2

consists of homogenous assembly of identical TU-12s or TU-2. TUG-3 consists of a
homogenous assembly of TUG-2s or TU-3. TUG-2 consists of 3 TU-12s (For 2.048
Mbit/sec). TUG-3 consists of either 7 TUG-2 or one TU-3.
(vi)
Network Node Interface (NNI)
NNI is interface at a network node which is used to interconnect with another

network node.
(vii)
Pointer
An indicator whose value defines frame offset of a VC with respect to the

frame reference of transport entity, on which it is supported.
(viii)
Administrative Unit
It is the information structure which provides adaptation between the higher

order path layer and the multiplex section layer. It consists of information pay load
and a A.U. pointer which indicates the offset of the pay load frame start relating to the
multiplex section frame start. Two AUs are defined (i) AU-4 consisting VC-4 plus an
A.U. pointer indicating phase alignment of VC-4 with respect to STM-N frame, (ii)
AU-3 consisting of VC-3 plus AU pointer indicating phase alignment of VC-3 with
respect to STM-N frame. A.U. location is fixed with respect to STM-N frame.
(ix)
Administrative Group
AUG consists of a homogenous assembly of AU-3s or an AU-4.
(x)
Concatenation
The procedure with which the multiple virtual container are associated with one
another, with the result their combined capacity could be used as a single container
across which bit sequence integrity is maintained.
2.9
New digital technologies and value-added time sensitive services like real-time
Video on Demand, high speed Internet access, Videoconferencing, Bank to Bank
encrypted data exchange, multimedia applications, are based on reliable network
architectures (Internet, GSM, ATM, SDH, xDSL and many other network
technologies).
All those architectures and services underlie one basic principle: networks
must be synchronized.
Moreover, dramatic subscriber growth and consumer demand are driving
Telecommunication operators to place emphasis on quality, reliability and breadth of
services. Therefore, it is imperative that they address the serious timing and solve
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SDH Technology
synchronization problems that may degrade service quality. When timing

synchronization is off, quality issues range from distorted, unreadable faxes and
corrupted or lost data to frozen images on videoconferencing systems, requiring
retransmission as shown in Table-1.
Table-1: Loss of synchronization consequences on services
Service
Consequences
Voice Traffic (PSTN)
Clicks can be heard during conversation
Fax Transmission
Loss of part or all of transmitted lines
Data Transfer on PSTN
Data corruption
Video Conferencing
Loss of image(s). Image at receiver frozen
Coded Data
Loss of message (if coding key is lost)
SDH
Pointer movements and faults at SDH/ PDH junction
This table clearly shows that the more services have a high value added, the
more they require to be supported by a very reliable synchronization function.
2.10 THE PRINCIPLE OF NETWORK SYNCHRONISATION

Synchronization is the means used in digital transmissions in order to ensure
that all network elements (NE) operate at the same frequency.
When a message has to be transmitted between two points (i.e. two cities), the
internal clock in the sender will control the frequency of information sent from this
node (f1). A second clock located on the receiver node will control the frequency at
which received data is read (f2). The basic principle of synchronization is that the two
frequencies must be exactly the same in order to allow the receiver to interpret the
digital signal properly.
Fig : 13
Information Sending/Receiving: Place of Synchronization Problem

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SDH Technology
Should f1>f2, the sender will transmit information faster than the receiver can
understand it, this will "miss" information ("slips of deletion").
Should f2>f1, the sender is slower than the receiver; this will duplicate a part of
received information ("slips of repetition).
2.11
Digital switches and digital cross-connect systems are commonly employed in

the digital network synchronization hierarchy. The network is organized with a master
slave relationship with clocks of the higher-level nodes feeding timing signals to clocks
of the lower-level nodes. All nodes can be traced up to a Primary Reference Clock
(PRC).
2.11.1
SYNCHRONIZING SDH
The internal clock of an SDH terminal may derive its timing signal from a
Synchronization Supply Unit (SSU) used by switching systems and other equipment.
Thus, this terminal can serve as a master for other SDH nodes, providing timing on its
outgoing STM-N signal. Other SDH nodes will operate in a slave mode with their
internal clocks timed by the incoming STM-N signal. Present standards specify that an
SDH network must ultimately be able to derive its timing from a PRC.
2.11.2
PLANNING OF SYNCHRONIZATION NETWORKS
The planning of synchronization in the networks of the operators is fully

independent to each other with the exception of one operator providing another operator
with synchronization Signals. The architecture of the synchronization network of an
operator shall be in accordance with the ETSI standard. The clock reference signals are
distributed between levels of the hierarchy via distribution trails offered by normal SDH
or PDH transmission systems. No special transport network for the distribution of
synchronizing signals is used. It shall be noted that a 2.048 Mbit/s signal crossing SDH
network shall not be used for timing distribution in the synchronization network.
To avoid this worst case scenario, all network elements are synchronized to a
central clock. This central clock is generated by a high-precision primary reference
clock (PRC) unit conforming to ITU-T Recommendation G.811. This specifies an
accuracy of 1X10-11. This clock signal must be distributed throughout the entire
network. A hierarchical structure is used for this; the signal is passed on by the
subordinate synchronization supply units (SSU) and synchronous equipment clocks
(SEC). The synchronization signal paths can be the same as those used for SDH
communications.
The clock signal is regenerated in the SSUs and SECs with the aid of phaselocked loops. If the clock supply fails, the affected network element switches over to a
clock source with the same or lower quality, or if this is not possible, it switches to
hold-over mode. In this situation, the clock signal is kept relatively accurate by
controlling the oscillator by applying the stored frequency correction values for the
previous hours and taking the temperature of the oscillator into account. Clock islands
must be avoided at all costs, as these would drift out of synchronization with the
Page 22 of 26
SDH Technology
passage of time and the total failure disaster would be the result. Such islands are
prevented by signaling the network elements with the aid of synchronization status
messages (SSM, part of the S1 byte). The SSM informs the neighboring network
element about the status of the clock supply and is part of the overhead. Special
problems arise at gateways between networks with independent clock supplies. SDH
network elements can compensate for clock offsets within certain limits by means of
pointer operations. Pointer activity is thus a reliable indicator of problems with the
clock supply.
Fig : 14
Clock supply hierarchy structure
The topology of the hierarchical synchronization network is tree-like as shown

in figure 14. The synchronization architecture requires that the timing of all network
element clocks are traceable to a PRC and hence the principal structure is the
synchronization network reference chain as shown in figure 15. Timing is distributed
via master-slave synchronization from the PRC to all clocks in the chain. To ensure the
correct operation of the synchronization network it is important that clocks of lower
hierarchical level only accept timing from clocks of the same or higher hierarchical
level and that timing loops are avoided. The distribution network shall be designed so
that the requirements for the hierarchical network reference chain (described below)
will be met even under fault conditions.
In general, the quality of timing will deteriorate as the number of synchronized
clocks in tandem increases and hence for practical synchronization network design, the
number of network elements in tandem should be minimized. Based on theoretical
calculations it is recommended that the longest chain should not exceed 10 SSUs and 20
SECs interconnecting any SSUs with restriction that the total number of SECs is limited
to 60 (refer to figure 15). It is preferable that all SSUs and SECs are able to recover
timing from at least two synchronization trails. The slave clock shall reconfigure to
recover timing from an alternative trail if the original trail fails. Where possible
synchronization trails should be provided over diversely routed paths. In the event of a
failure of synchronization distribution, all network elements will seek to recover timing
from the highest hierarchical level clock source available. To effect this, both SSUs and
SECs may have to reconfigure and recover timing from one of their alternate
synchronization trails.

Page 23 of 26
Fig : 15
SDH Technology
Synchronization network reference chain
SSM and squelching may be used on SDH trails for correct reference transfer
between the SSUs. The use of SSM also makes it possible to recover timing for the
SEC clocks in the chain from the opposite direction if the signal in the original direction
fails.
A general procedure in planning the synchronization network may be as follows.
If the synchronous method is used:
Find out the connections to the national PRC-system

Plan the locations for SSUs
Plan the synchronization trails
If the pseudo-synchronous method is used:
Plan the PRC system

Plan the locations for SSUs
Plan the synchronization trails
When planning the placing for SSUs the importance of the node locations for the
traffic networks to be synchronized and the synchronization network itself is
considered. The maximum number of SEC clocks between two SSUs has also to be
taken into account. When planning the synchronization trails first the transmission
Page 24 of 26
SDH Technology
systems for the transfer of synchronization are selected. Secondly the timing
configuration of the selected systems is planned in detail.
2.12 SDH APPLICATION AREAS

SDH systems are used in almost all areas of telecommunication network.
Some of the applications areas are given below.
Access Network
Aggregation Network
Metro Network
Long distance National as well as International
Wireless Backhauling
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)
Fig : 16
A Typical application of SDH
2.13 SUMMARY
SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is an international standard for high
speed telecommunication over optical/electrical networks which can transport digital
signals in variable capacities. It is a synchronous system which intends to provide a
more flexible, yet simple network infrastructure. SDH (and its American variantSONET) emerged from standard bodies somewhere around 1990. These two
standards create a revolution in the communication networks based on optical fibers,
in their cost and performance.
Traditionally, transmission systems have been asynchronous, with each
terminal in the network running on its own recovered clock timing. In digital
transmission, timing is one of the most fundamental operations. Since these clocks
are not synchronized, large variations can occur in the clock rate and thus the signal
bit rate. For example, an E3 signal specified at 34 Mbit/s 20 ppm (parts per million)

Page 25 of 26
SDH Technology
can produce a timing difference of up to 1789 bit/s between one incoming E3 signal
and another.
In a synchronous system, such as SDH, the average frequency of all clocks in
the system is the same. Every slave clock can be traced back to a highly stable
reference clock. Thus, the STM-1 rate remains at a nominal 155.52 Mbit/s, allowing
many synchronous STM-1 signals to be multiplexed without any bit-stuffing. Thus,
the STM-1s are easily accessed at a higher STM-N rate.
2.14 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. can be defined as the transfer of information from one point to another
point
2. The . techniques are the process of translating individual speech circuits
(300-3400 Hz) into pre-assigned frequency slots
3. Before SDH transmission networks were based on the ..
4. Filters are used to limit the speech signal to the frequency band .. Hz
5. SDH has provided transmission networks with a vendor-.
6. SDH supports the transmission of existing PDH payloads, other than ... Mbit/s
7. The VC-3/4 POH is the .. path overhead
8. SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of . Mbit/s.
9. .is an important task to get excellent performance and and quality of
service for the subscribers.
10. .. is the means used in digital transmissions in order to ensure that all
network elements (NE) operate at the same frequency.
11. The internal clock of an SDH terminal may derive its timing signal from a
12. Primary reference clock (PRC) specifies an accuracy of.
13. Based on theoretical calculations it is recommended that the longest chain
should not exceed . SSUs and 20 SECs interconnecting any SSUs with
restriction that the total number of SECs is limited to 60.
14. . is transferred by the 5th~8th bits of S1 byte in an SDH multiplex section
overhead.
Answer: Communication, FDM, PDH hierarchy, 300-3400, independent, 8, highorder, 155.52, Network synchronization, Synchronization, Synchronization Supply
Unit (SSU), 1X10-11, 10, SSM
2.15 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS
www.calyptech.com/
www.tek.com/Measurement/App_Notes/sdhprimer/intro.pdf
www.exfo.com/en/Applications/SONET-Overview.aspx
www.telecombasics.net/
www.cisco.com
www.telecom-sync.com/pdf/2005/jl_ferrant_sync_sdh_networks.pdf
www.home.agilent.com/agilent/redirector.jspx?ckey
home.dei.polimi.it/bregni/papers/SDH_course.pdf
www.tektronix.com/optical

Page 26 of 26

SDH Technology

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Digital Transmission System(DTS)

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

THE STM-1 FRAME FORMAT

NETWORK ELEMENTS OF SDH

SDH MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURE AND PRINCIPLE

WHY SYNCHRONIZING NETWORKS?

THE PRINCIPLE OF NETWORK SYNCHRONISATION

SDH APPLICATION AREAS

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

THE STM-1 FRAME FORMAT

NETWORK ELEMENTS OF SDH

SDH MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURE AND PRINCIPLE

WHY SYNCHRONIZING NETWORKS?

THE PRINCIPLE OF NETWORK SYNCHRONISATION

SDH APPLICATION AREAS

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is standardized protocols that transfer

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

framing protocol. SDH is not itself a communications protocol, but a transport

After reading this unit, you should be able to understand:

Fig : 1 PDH Bit Rates

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Fibre Optic Bandwidth: The bandwidth in Optical Fiber can be increased

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Technical Sophistication: Although, SDH circuitry is highly complicated, it

Intelligence: The availability of cheaper memory opens new possibilities.

Customer Service Needs: The requirement of the customer with respect to

Low/High speed data.

Broadband ISDN transport (ATM transport)

SDH brings the following advantages to network providers:

Fig : 2 Simplified add & drop function

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

2.3.1.3 High availability and capacity matching

SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s. The basic

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

THE STM-1 FRAME FORMAT

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Fig : 3 Schematic diagram of STM-1 frame

NO OF BITS TRANSMITTED IN ONE SECOND: 270*9*8*1/125 s

SECTION OVERHEAD (SOH) AREA

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

categorized as RSOH (Regenerator Section Overhead) and MSOH (Multiplex Section

Fig : 4 Section Overhead

Information payload area is the place where information about various

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT POINTER (AU-PTR) AREA

AU PTR is a kind of indicator, mainly used to indicate the accurate position of

NETWORK ELEMENTS OF SDH

Figure 5 is a schematic diagram of a SDH ring structure with various

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

Digital Transmission System(DTS)

Fig : 5 Schematic diagram of hybrid communications networks

TERMINAL MULTIPLEXER ( TM)

Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous

EETP/BSNL Silver Certification Course

NO OF BITS TRANSMITTED IN ONE SECOND: 27098*1/125 s