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DNV-RP-C201
BUCKLING STRENGTH OF
PLATED STRUCTURES
OCTOBER 2002
FOREWORD
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CONTENTS
6.8
Part 1.
1
1.1
1.2
2
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
5
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
Introduction ................................................................ 5
General ......................................................................... 5
Symbols........................................................................ 5
Safety format .............................................................. 6
General design considerations for flat plate
structures..................................................................... 7
Introduction .................................................................. 7
Definitions.................................................................... 7
Failure modes ............................................................... 7
Tolerance requirements ................................................ 7
Serviceability limit states ............................................. 7
Validity......................................................................... 7
Analysis Strategies.................................................... 10
General ....................................................................... 10
Plated structure assumed to resist shear only ............. 10
Consideration of shear lag effects .............................. 10
Determination of buckling resistance based upon linear
elastic buckling stress ................................................. 10
Lateral loaded plates ................................................ 10
Buckling of unstiffened plates ................................. 11
General ....................................................................... 11
Buckling of unstiffened plates under longitudinally
uniform compression.................................................. 11
Buckling of unstiffened plates with transverse
compression................................................................ 11
Buckling of unstiffened plate with shear .................... 12
Buckling of unstiffened biaxially loaded plates with
shear ........................................................................... 12
Buckling of unstiffened plates with varying
longitudinal stress. Internal compression elements .... 13
Buckling of outstand compression elements .............. 14
6.9
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
9
9.1
9.2
10
Part 2.
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Introduction...............................................................29
General........................................................................29
Purpose .......................................................................30
Theoretical background ..............................................30
Code principles ...........................................................30
Safety formats .............................................................30
PULS VB program features ........................................32
References...................................................................32
Introduction
This document describes two different, but equally acceptable methods, for buckling and ultimate strength assessment of
plated structures.
The first method, as given in Part 1, is a conventional buckling code for stiffened and unstiffened panels of steel. It is an
update and development of the stiffened flat plate part of previous DNV Classification Note No. 30.1 Buckling Strength
Analysis. Recommendations are given for plates, stiffeners and girders.
The second method, as given in Part 2, is a computerised semi-analytical model called PULS (Panel Ultimate Limit State). It
is based on a recognized non-linear plate theory, Rayleigh-Ritz discretizations of deflections and a numerical procedure for
solving the equilibrium equations. The method is essentially geometrically non-linear with stress control in critical positions
along plate edges and plate stiffener junction lines for handling material plasticity. The procedure provides estimates of the
ultimate buckling capacity to be used in extreme load design (ULS philosophy). The buckling limit is also assessed as it may
be of interest in problems related to functional requirements, i.e. for load conditions and structural parts in which elastic
buckling and thereby large elastic displacements are not acceptable (SLS philosophy). The PULS code is supported by official
stand alone DNV Software programs. It is also implemented as a postprocessor in other DNV programs.
Part 1.
Buckling Strength of Plated Structures - Conventional Buckling Code
1
NE
Nks,Rd
Introduction
1.1
General
1.2
WeG
Symbols
A
Ae
Af
AG
As
Aw
C
Cx
Cxs
Cys
C0
E
G
I
Ip
Ipo
Is
Iz
L
LP
LG
LGk
LGT
LGT0
Mp,Rd
Mpl,Rd
MRd
MSd
Ms,Rd
Mst,Rd
Nkp,Rd
NSd
PSd
Q
VRd
VSd
W
Wep
Wes
b
be
c
ci
ef
fcr
fd
fE
fEpx
fEpy
fEp
fET
fETG
fEy, fEz
fk
fr
fT
fTG
fy
h
hw
hwG
i
ie
k, kg
kc
kp
k
l
le
C
ll
lt
lT
l1
pf
pSd
p0
qSd
r
s
se
t
tb
tf
tw
zp, zt
z*
f
M
e
G
p
T
TG
j,Sd
y1,Sd
y2,Sd
ceg, cel
crg, crl
Rd
Sd
, x, y
Safety format
3.3
3
3.1
3.2
3.4
Definitions
Failure modes
Tolerance requirements
3.5
3.6
Validity
Table 3-1
Description
Load
Unstiffened
plate
Longitudinal
compression
Sketch
x,Sd
Clause
reference
Limiting value
6.2
s<l
Buckling check not
necessary if
x,Sd
s
-t-
s
42
t
l
Unstiffened
plate
y,Sd
Transverse
compression
s<l
Buckling check not
necessary if
s
5.4
t
-t-
6.3
y,Sd
Unstiffened
plate
Sd
Shear stress
6.4
-t-
s<l
Buckling check not
necessary if
s
70
t
l
Linear varying
longitudinal
compression
6.6
x,Sd
x,Sd
-t-
x,Sd
Unstiffened
plate
x,Sd
6.8
Linear varying
transverse
compression
l1
-t-
y,Sd
l
= 235/f y
s<l
Buckling check not
necessary if
s
42
t
Unstiffened
plate
s<l
Buckling check not
necessary if
s
5.4
t
Load
Unstiffened
plate
Combined
longitudinal
and
transverse
compression
and shear
Sketch
Clause
reference
6.5
y,Sd
x,Sd
-t-
Description
Limiting value
s<l
Buckling check not
necessary if
s
5.4
t
Sd
Unstiffened
plate
Uniform
lateral load
and in-plane
normal and
shear
stresses
y,Sd
Sd
5 and
6.5
x,Sd
PSd
s
5.4
t
-t-
Longitudinal
stiffened plate
panel
Girder
supporting
stiffened
panel
Longitudinal
and
transverse
compression
combined
with shear
and lateral
load
Longitudinal
and
transverse
compression
combined
with shear
and lateral
load
y,Sd
x,Sd
PSd
-t-
y,Sd
Sd
x,Sd
LG
9.1
s
lt
Longitudinal
and
transverse
compression
combined
with shear
and lateral
load
PSd
-t-
Stiffeners to
girder webs
Sd
LG
ll
Brackets
= 235/fy
9.2
s<l
Buckling check not
necessary if
4
4.1
Analysis Strategies
General
p Sd 4.0
fy t 2
s
y + x
M s
l
(5.1)
where
pSd = design lateral pressure
4.2
4.3
4.4
y =
x =
j,Sd
1
f
y
3
1 x,Sd
4 f y
(5.2)
3 Sd
j,Sd
1
f
y
2
3 y, Sd
1
3 Sd
f
4 fy
y
(5.3)
2
2
j,Sd = 2x,Sd + 2y,Sd x,Sd y,Sd + 3 Sd
(5.4)
Material non-linearities
Imperfections
Residual stresses
Possible interaction between local and global buckling
modes
in which
6.1
General
= plate width
= plate thickness
For plates that are part of a stiffened panel, the plate are
checked as part of the buckling checks according to Chapter
7. Then additional check of the plate according to this section
is not required.
x,Sd x,Rd
(6.4)
x,Sd
x,Sd
-t-
6.3
y, Rd =
y, R
(6.5)
S
Se
S
1.3 t
1.3 t
E
E
+ 1
fy kp
l
l
fy
fy
y,R =
where:
6.2
= 1 .0
for c 0.2
1
1 + + c2
2 2c
(1 + + )
2
c2
(6.6)
(6.7)
4 c2
(6.1)
fy
M
1
2 2c
+ 0.07
forc 2.0
where
Cx = 1
Cx =
when p 0.673
0.22 )
(6.2)
p2
s
t
c = 1.1
fy
f cr
= 0.525
and c is:
s
t
fy
E
fy
(6.8)
and is:
(6.3)
= 0.21 (c 0.2 )
(6.9)
= plate thickness
= plate length
= plate width
(6.16)
fy
s
w = 0.795
t E kl
2
k p = 1.0
t
p Sd 2 f y
s
for
(6.10)
2
p
t
k p = 1.0 h Sd 2
fy
s
s
= 5.34 + 4, for l < s
l
6.5
otherwise
but k p 0
x,Sd
x, Rd
where
s
h = 0.05 0.75
t
but h 0
(6.11)
y,Sd y,Rd
(6.17)
s
k l = 5.34 + 4 , for l s
l
(6.12)
+ y,Sd
y, Rd
ci
x,Sd
x,Rd
y,Sd
y, Rd
Sd
+
Rd
1.0
(6.18)
y,Sd
-t-
y,Sd
C e f y
M
3
(6.19)
(6.20)
Rd =
l
Figure 6-3 Plate with transverse compression
6.4
Sd Rd
(6.13)
C e =
1.0
w 2
, for
w > 1.25
y,Sd
(6.14)
C f y
M 3
x,Sd
where
-t-
C = 1.0 for
w 0.8
Rd =
(6.15)
Sd
6.6
x,Rd = C x
8.2
1.05 +
when
0 1
= 7.81-6.29+9.782 when
1 < 0
= 5.98(1-)2
2 < 1
k =
(6.21)
fy
235
fy
when
where
The resistance of the plate is satisfactory when:
Cx =
when p 0.673
p 0.055 (3 + )
(6.22)
p2
x,Sd x,Rd
(6.23)
x,Sd
fy
f cr
x,Sd
(6.24)
s
1
=
t 28.4 k
-t-
x,Sd
in which
s
(6.25)
Cx = 1
x,Sd
= plate width
Figure 6-5 Plate with varying longitudinal stress
= plate thickness
Table 6-1
2
b e1
b eff = C x b
b e1 = 0.5 b eff
b e2 = 0.5 b eff
b e2
b
1> > 0
2
be1
b e2
b e2
<0
bt
2
b eff
5-
= b eff b e1
b e1 =
bc
b eff = C x b
b eff = C x b c =
b e1 = 0.4 b eff
be1
b e2
b e2 = 0.6 b eff
Cx b
1
6.7
fy
x,Rd = C x
6.8
where
Cx = 1
Cx =
when p 0.749
p 0.188
p2
(6.27)
(6.28)
fy
f cr
(6.29)
s
1
=
t 28.4 k
in which
s
= plate width
= plate thickness
l1
-t-
y,Sd
= 235
fy
when
3 1
0.578
0.34 +
when
6.9
0 1
1 < 0
Table 6-2
Effective width for outstand compression plate elements with largest stress at free edge
eff
b eff = C x c
2
c
bt
<0
bc
b eff = C x b c =
Cx c
1-
1
2
b eff
Table 6-3
Effective width for outstand compression plate elements with largest stress at supported edge
beff
1
b eff = C x c
2
c
<0
beff
b eff = C x b c =
1
2
bc
bt
Cx c
1-
7.1
General
crg = critical shear stress for the plate with the stiffeners
removed, according to eq. (7.4).
crl = critical shear stress for the plate panel between two
stiffeners, according to eq. (7.6).
t
crg = k g 0.904 E
l
where :
7.2
l
k g = 5.34 + 4
LG
l
= 5.34
LG
(7.1)
for l L G
+ 4,
for l > L G
t
crl = k l 0.904 E
s
(7.6)
where:
2
(7.7)
s
k l = 5.34 + 4 , for l s
l
2
s
= 5.34 + 4, for l < s
l
(7.8)
where
= plate thickness
p0 = 0
x,Sd
crl
tf = Sd crg for Sd >
M
and tension field action is allowed
tf = 0
otherwise
(7.5)
(7.4)
= stiffener spacing
> -1.5
if -1.5
(7.9)
(7.10)
where
(7.2)
C0 =
Wes f y m c
kc E t2 s
y2,Sd
y1,Sd
(7.3)
(7.11)
y1,Sd =
y2,Sd =
Wes
y,Sd
C ys = 1
y,R
+ ci x,Sd y,Sd
C xs f y y, R
(7.16)
where
ci = 1
s
120 t
ci = 0
s
for 120
t
s
for > 120
t
10.9 I
k c = 2 1 + 1 + 3 s
t s
(7.12)
N Sd = N ( x,Sd, Sd)
y2, Sd
Sd
q Sd =q (pSd, po )
y,Sd
1
4 3
f
2
y
+ y,Sd
fy
but C ys 1.0
(7.17)
x,Sd
N Sd
y1,Sd
pSd
STIFFENED PLATE
BEAM COLUMN
7.3
se
= C xs C ys
s
p 0.22
p2
7.4
= 1.0,
if p > 0.673
(7.14)
(7.18)
fy
3 M
y,Sd k sp y,Rd
if p 0.673
(7.19)
where:
where
s fy
p = 0.525
t E
(7.15)
k sp = 1.0 3 Sd
fy
(7.20)
b
.
tf
tf
hw
hw
tw
7.5
7.5.1
General
b
C
ef
when 0.2
fk
=1
fr
(7.21)
(1 + + )
2 2
fk 1+ + 2
=
fr
4 2
(7.22)
tw
zp
2 2
where
(7.23)
f
= r
fE
i
f E = 2 E e
lk
hw
e
tw
(7.24)
p
= 0.34 + 0.08 ( 0.2)
i
(7.25)
fT
= 1.0
fy
(1 + + )
2 2
T
2
f T 1 + + T
=
fy
4T2
(7.27)
(7.28)
2T2
(7.26)
where:
= 0.35 ( T 0.6 )
fr =
fy
fr =
fy
fr =
tf
zt
B
A
hw
fT
tw
T =
(7.29)
(7.30)
fy
f ET
(7.31)
GI t
Eh s2 I z
+ 2
I po
I po lT2
f ET
t
A W + f A f
t
tW
=
G W
A W + 3A f
hw
Ae effective area
zp, zt is defined in Figure 7-3
(7.32)
2
2 EI z
+
W + A f
3
2
l T
Iz =
1
A f b 2 + e f2
12
(7.33)
Af
A
1+ f
AW
t
G w
h w
(7.34)
j,Sd
(7.37)
1. 0
f ep
(7.38)
2
j,Sd = 2x,Sd + 2y,Sd x,Sd y,Sd + 3 Sd
h
f ET = + 2 w
lT
where
= 1.0,
or may for stocky plates alternatively be calculated as
per eq. (7.35) for s l
(7.39)
fy
f ep =
1+
4
e
f y x,Sd
=
j,Sd f Epx
2
e
y,Sd
+
f
Epy
Sd
+
Ep
(7.40)
where
(7.41)
s
l
G = shear modulus
t
f Epx = 3.62E
s
(7.42)
t
f Epy = 0.9E
s
(7.43)
t
f Ep = 5.0E
s
(7.44)
b = flange width
7.6
hw = web height
hs = distance from stiffener toe (connection between
stiffener and plate) to the shear centre of the stiffener
lT = distance between sideways supports of stiffener,
distance between tripping brackets (torsional buckling
length).
t
Rdy =
Rdl =
fy
(7.45)
3 M
cr l
(7.46)
= plate thickness
cr s
(7.47)
tf = thickness of flange
Rds =
tW = thickness of web
where
=
3C + 0.2
C + 0.2
(7.35)
crs =
36 E 4
I p I 3s
s t l2
(7.48)
with:
h t
C =
s tw
where:
(1 )
(7.36)
Ip =
t3 s
10.9
(7.49)
7.7
7.7.1
Continuous stiffeners
(7.50)
M1,Sd N Sd z *
N
N Sd
+u 1
2 Sd +
N kp, Rd
N Rd
N
M p,Rd 1 Sd
NE
N Sd
N
2 Sd +
N ks, Rd
N Rd
M 2,Sd + N Sd z *
N
M st,Rd 1 Sd
NE
+u 1
M 2,Sd + N Sd z
N Sd
+
+u 1
N kp,Rd
N
M p,Rd 1 Sd
NE
qsd
= span length
(7.51)
7.7.2
(7.52)
N Sd
N
2 Sd +
N ks, Rd
N Rd
N
M st, Rd 1 Sd
NE
M1,Sd + N Sd z*
N Sd
+u 1
+
N kp, Rd
N
M p, Rd 1 Sd
NE
M 2,Sd N Sd z *
N Sd
+u 1
+
N ks, Rd
N
M s2,Rd 1 Sd
NE
M 2,Sd N Sd z*
N Sd
N
+u 1
2 Sd +
N kp, Rd
N Rd
N
M p,Rd 1 Sd
NE
(7.54)
N Sd
+
N kp, Rd
(7.55)
if
N Sd
+
N ks, Rd
N
M p, Rd 1 Sd
NE
q Sd l
24
q Sd l 2
N Sd z *
8
N
M s2, Rd 1 Sd
NE
(7.58)
q Sd l 2
+ N Sd z *
8
+u 1
(7.60)
+u 1
q Sd l 2
N Sd z * then:
8
(7.57)
N
M st, Rd 1 Sd
NE
(7.59)
where
u = Sd
Rd
q Sd l 2
+ N Sd z *
8
(7.53)
N Sd
N
2 Sd +
N kp, Rd
N Rd
if
+u 1
q Sd l 2
N Sd z *
8
N
M p,Rd 1 Sd
NE
(7.62)
+u 1
q Sd l 2
N Sd z * then:
8
N Sd
N
2 Sd +
N ks, Rd
N Rd
N Sd
+
N kp, Rd
(7.61)
N Sd z *
N Sd z *
q Sd l 2
8
N
M st,Rd 1 Sd
NE
q Sd l 2
8
N
M p, Rd 1 Sd
NE
(7.63)
+u 1
(7.64)
+ u 1
fy
(7.65)
(7.66)
fk
M
(7.67)
fk
M
2 EA e
lk
i
e
(7.72)
where
ie =
(7.73)
Ie
Ae
p
l k = l 1 0.5 Sd
pf
(7.74)
NE =
pf =
12 W f y
l 2 s M
(7.75)
= span length
M s1,Rd
f
= Wes r
M
(7.68)
fr
M
Wep =
(7.70)
fy
M
M p,Rd = Wep
(7.69)
7.8
(7.76)
M 3
where:
VSd = design shear force
VRd = design shear resistance
(7.71)
fy
M
Ie ,
zp
fy
Ie ,
zt
Buckling of girders
8.1
General
(8.6)
0.6
= 2 f y , for > 1
8.2
with
Girder forces
fy
f EG
0.6f y
ce
(8.1)
(8.2)
ceg =
cel l 2
LP 2
cel = 18E tI s
tl 2 s
0.75
where
LP = length of panel
LG = girder span
(8.3)
LP
Stiffener
As
s ( + C )
x,Sd
Sd
l
where
(8.4)
for Sd crg
(8.5)
Girder
s
s Sd crg
C = Q 7 5
l crl
C=0
LG
t+
p0 =
( x,Sd + C Sd )
s E l
h wG 1
L
G
= stiffener spacing
Q = G 0.2 , but not less than 0 and not greater than 1.0
l
Figure 8-1 Panel geometry definitions
A
0.4 t + s
2
s f y LG
p0 =
C Sd
s E l
h wG 1
LG
(8.7)
M p, Rd = Wep
Wep
8.3
N Rd = (A G + le t )
fk
M
(8.9)
fk
M
2 EA Ge
NE =
L Gk
i
Ge
(8.11)
I Ge
A Ge
8.4
8.4.1
The effective width for the plate of the girder is taken equal
to:
le
= C xG C yG C G
l
fr
M
(8.18)
(8.12)
General
M s1,Rd = WeG
(8.17)
i Ge =
8.4.2
fTG
(8.16)
(8.10)
where:
f EG
WeG
where
where
fr
N ks, Rd = (A G + le t )
fk
(8.15)
fy
(8.8)
fy
(8.14)
fy
(8.13)
C xG
x,Sd
= 1
f kx
(8.19)
where:
f kx = C xs f y
(8.20)
C yG =
LG
L
l 4 G
l
(8.21)
CyG 1
(8.22)
f ETG =
Method 2
(8.29)
(8.30)
2 EI z
A
A f + w L2GT
3
LGT
Af, Aw =
(8.31)
EA f
A
f y Af + w
3
where
x,Sd
C xG = 1
f
y
(8.23)
b = flange width
C = 0.55 for symmetric flanges
where
x,Sd is based on total plate and stiffener area in x-direction.
C yG =
where
f ETG
= 0.35 ( T 0.6
(8.28)
fy
TG =
G 0.22
(8.24)
if G > 0.673
G2
= 1.0,
if G 0.673
where
y,Sd
l
G = 0.525
t
(8.32)
(8.25)
fy
Af
PSd
C G = 1 3 Sd
f
y
8.5
(8.26)
1/3 A w
Tripping bracket
if
2
1 + + TG
f TG = f y
if
TG 0.6
(1 + + )
2 2
TG
2
2 TG
4TG
(8.27)
TG > 0.6
9.1.3
9.1
9.1.1
General
I s > 0.25l l2 (A s + st W )
(9.4)
fy
E
c 15 tf
(9.1)
s
c 14 tf
(9.2)
Figure 9-2 Definitions for longitudinal web stiffeners
235
fy
9.2
E
fy
(9.5)
d 1 1.65t b
E
fy
(9.6)
d 2 1.35t b
E
fy
(9.7)
s fy
I s > 0.3l t s 2 t W 2.5 t 2
s
lt E
(9.3)
tb =
lt
Buckling of brackets
10 Commentary
Commentary to 3.4 Tolerance requirements
An important factor for the buckling strength is the
imperfections that are permitted. As a basis the formulas are
developed on the basis that the imperfections are similar to
what is allowed in the DNV-OS-C401 Fabrication and
Testing of Offshore Structures. There are differences in this
standard and what is allowed in DNV Classification Rules
for Ships and IACS Shipbuilding and Repair Quality
Standard-Part A. However, the formulas is seen as being
relevant for both typical ship with normal good practice and
offshore structures even if an nonlinear FEM analysis of the
panel including the worst combination of allowable
imperfections may yield less resistance than obtain from the
RP formulas. The reason why this is seen as acceptable is the
following:
p =
fy
1
f crcomb
1
f crglobal
1
f crlocal
f cr
2.0
Check point 1
Check point 2
Check point 3
Check point 4
Maximum capacity
Utilisation ratio
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
l/2
l/2
-80
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
80
z* (mm)
With the lateral load on the stiffener side, the stresses change
sign and the equations (7.54) to (7.57) shall be used. The
sections to be checked remain the same.
The eccentricity z* is introduced in the equations to find the
maximum resistance of the stiffened panel. In the ultimate
limit state a continuos stiffened panel will carry the load in
the axis giving the maximum load. For calculation of the
forces and moments in the total structure, of which the
stiffened panel is a part, the working point for the stiffened
panel should correspond to the assumed value of z*. In most
cases the influence of variations in z* on global forces and
moments will be negligible. See also Figure 10-2.
Part 2.
Buckling Strength of Plated Structures - PULS Buckling Code
1
1.1
Introduction
General
1.1.1 This part describes an accepted computerised semianalytical model for ultimate and buckling strength
assessment of thin-walled unstiffened or stiffened flat plates.
The code has the name PULS as a shortcut for Panel
Ultimate Limit State.
1.1.2 The PULS code assess the buckling strength of
different types of elements classified according to their
structural action and position in large plated constructions,
e.g. in ship hulls, offshore platforms etc., Figure 1.
1.1.3 The code can be used for both steel and aluminium
material. Special criteria are introduced for aluminium alloys
with respect to Heat affected zone effects (HAZ).
Stiffened panels
1.4
1.2
Purpose
1.3
Theoretical background
1.3.1 The PULS models are based on a recognized nonlinear thin-walled plate theory according to Marguerre and
von Karman see e.g. Ref. [1], [2]. A harmonic Rayleigh-Ritz
discretization of deflections is used together with energy
principles for establishing the non-linear elastic equilibrium
equations. The equilibrium equations are solved using
incremental numerical procedures.
1.3.2 For stiffened panels the models are based on an
orthotropic version of Marguerres plate theory in which the
stiffeners are smeared out over the plate surface. The elastic
local buckling, postbuckling and imperfection effects of each
component plate in the cross-section are lumped into a set of
reduced orthotropic stiffness coefficients. These reduced
orthotropic coefficients are used for assessing the upper
bound global elastic buckling limit.
1.3.3 In non-linear elastic buckling theory the internal stress
distribution is split in two categories i.e. the direct external
applied stresses and a second order stress field due to the
combined effect of buckling and geometrical imperfections.
The latter stress field is due to the non-linear geometrical
effect. These stress categories add together forming a
redistributed stress field across the panel.
1.3.4 In the Puls code the redistributed stress field is used
for identifying the critical positions (hard corners) where
material yielding starts. The values of the external loads, at
which the redistributed membrane stresses reaches the yield
condition, are used as indicators for the ULS strength (limit
state formulations). For stiffened panels the largest
redistributed stresses will typically be along supported edges
or along plate-stiffener junction lines.
Code principles
1.5
Safety formats
= L0 / L u
< allow
L 0 = (10 + 20 + L + i 0 + L + K 0 )
2
= i 0 / iu
L u = (1u + 2 u + L + iu + L + Ku )
2
3D - view
2D - view
Figure 2 Definition of safety margin/usage factor; example for bi-axial loading on a plate
Sd < R d
Sd is the load effect including relevant problem dependent
load factors. Rd is the design resistance, which is related to
the characteristic resistance as
Rd = Rk / m
The factor m is the material parameter given in the
respective offshore standards.
1.5.6 The LRFD offshore strength format in the PULS
terminology is
Sd
and
Rk
allow =
1
m
Characteristic resistance
exclusive safety factors)
R k Lu
(ultimate strength
1.6
1.7
allow
References
/1/
/2/
/3/
<1