COST REDUCTION IN MELTING- A SQC and SIX SIGMA

APPROACH
Done at ARUNA ALLOY STEELS PVT.LTD
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

ARUN KUMAR.S

(105914144005)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

RAJA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, MADURAI

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2014

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report COST REDUCTION IN MELTINGA SQC and SIX SIGMA APPROACH is the bonafide work of
ARUN KUMAR.S (105914144005), who carried out the project work under
my supervision.

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE

Prof. S. Saravana Kumar, B.E., M.E.,

J.Vivek, B.E., M.E.,

MBA., (Ph.D),
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

SUPERVISOR
Assistant professor

Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Engineering

Raja College of Engg&Tech,

Raja College of Engg &Tech,

Madurai- 625020.

Madurai- 625020.

Submitted for the project vice-voce held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project has been successfully completed owing comprehensive

endurance of many distinguished persons.
First and foremost I would like to thank the almighty, my family members
and friends for encouraging me to do this project.
I extend my thanks to Chairman PDG.Lion. G. Nagarajan, M.A and
Principal Dr. S.M. Sekkilar, M.E., Ph.D., for their advice and ethics inculcated
during the entire period of my study.
I am extremely indebted to Prof. S. Saravana Kumar, B.E., M.E.,
MBA., (Ph.D)., The Head of Department of Mechanical Engineering for the
devoted attention, love and affection shown on me in making this project grand
success.
I also thank the HR Mr.M.J.Ramachandran, MSW for his assistance
and all those who have supported me to do the project in ARUNA ALLOY
STEELS PVT.LTD., Madurai.
I would like to thank my Company guide Mr.M.Raj Kumar, M.Tech
Metallurgy, Assistant Manager- Metallurgy for his devoted attention and
affection shown on me to do this project in a good manner.
I profusely thank my internal guide Mr.J.Vivek, M.E., Asst. professor,
Mechanical Engineering for his support throughout the project. His suggestions
and participative encouragement throughout the project will ever hold a
memorable place in my heart.
Finally, I thank one and all for their valuable support in this project work.

ABSTRACT

In ARUNA ALLOY STEELS PVT.LTD, CK3MCuN Castings are

rejected due the defects such as cracks, shrinkage, inclusions, weld repairs,
etc., So , the castings with raw materials as scraps and scraps + returns are
taken and tested. Defects are reduced by implementation of Statistical
Quality Control (SQC) technique and DMAIC Methodology of Six Sigma.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO

TITLE

PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT
iv
LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES
xi
1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General introduction

1.2 Industry profile

1.3 Company profile

11

1.3.1 Management team

1.4 products

16
16

1.4.1 Gate valve

16

1.4.2 Butterfly valve

17

1.4.3 Ball valve

18

1.4.4 Globe valve

19

1.4.5 Check valve

19

1.4.6 Plug valve

20

1.4.7 Double plug valve

21

1.4.8 Angle valve

22

1.5 Grades of Steel

23

1.6 Critical dimensions of castings

24

1.6.1Gate valve

24

1.6.2 Globe valve

26

1.6.3 Check valve

27

1.6.4 Plug valve

28

1.6.5 Butterfly valve

29

1.6.6 Ball valve

29

1.6.7 Angle valve

30

1.6.8 Lower body

31

1.6.9 Four way globe valve body

32

1.6.10 Iso pad

32

1.6.11 Trunion

33

1.6.12 Stem housing

33

1.6.13 Body tubing spool

33

1.6.14 Pump casting

33

1.6.15 Agitator (outer & central)

34

1.6.16 Gate casting

34

1.6.17 Y-Body (weld neck)

34

1.6.18 Lock ring

34
6

2
3
\

1.6.19 Bracket

35

1.6.20 Body casting heads

35

LITERATURE REVIEW
BASICS OF FOUNDRY

36
36

3.1 Foundry

38

3.2 Processes of a foundry

38

3.2.1 Pattern making

38

3.2.1.1 Pattern

39

3.2.2 Methoding

39

3.2.3 Moulding

41

3.2.3.1 Specimen Preparation

3.2.4 Melting

41
42

3.2.4.1 Melting Techniques

43

3.2.4.2 Induction Furnace

43

3.2.5 Pouring

44

3.2.6 Laboratory tests

45

3.2.7 Fettling

45

3.2.8 Heat treatment

46

3.2.9 Quality control

3.2.10 Despatch & packing
7

47
47

3.3 Terms used in melting area of foundry

47

3.4 Metals used in a foundry

61

CASE STUDY

68

4.1 Problem solving techniques

68

4.1.1 Statistical quality control

68

4.1.2 Six Sigma

69

4.1.2.1 DMAIC methodology

70

METHODS OF MEASURING THE DEFECTS

5.1 Inspection of casting

76
76

5.1.1 Process inspection

76

5.1.2 Visual inspection

76

5.1.3 Dimensional inspection

76

5.2 Testing methods

76

5.2.1 Pressure testing

76

5.2.2 Destructive testing

76

5.2.3 Non destructive testing [NDT]

77

5.2.3.1Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) 77

5.2.3.2 Radiographic Testing

78

5.2.3.3Ultrasonic Testing

82

5.2.3.4 Penetrant Testing

83

AVOIDING THE DEFECTS IN CASTING

84

ANNEXURE

87

REFERENCES

95

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.2.1

PAGE NO

Apparent Consumption of Finished Steel

(Carbon)(In million tonnes)

Table 1.2.2

Production of Finished Carbon Steel

(In Million Tonnes)

Table 2.1

2
7

Application of SIX SIGMA in Manufacturing

Sector

37

Table 4.1.2.1.1 CK3MCuN castings with Scraps

72

Table 4.1.2.1.2 CK3MCuN castings with Scraps + Returns

72

Table 4.1.2.1.3 WCB castings with Scraps

72

Table 4.1.2.1.4 WCB castings with Scraps + Returns

73

Table 4.1.2.1.5 Cost analysis of CK3MCuN Castings

With Scraps & Scraps + Returns
Table 4.1.2.1.6

75

Cost analysis of WCB Castings With

Scraps & Scraps + Returns

75

Table 5.2.3.2.1

Penetrating Power of Radiation

79

Table 5.2.3.2.2

Selection of Radiation Sources

79

10

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.2.1-

PAGE NO

Apparent consumption of finished carbon steel

(In Metric Tonnes)

Figure 1.2.2

Major consumer industries of steel in India

Figure 1.4.1.1

Gate valve

16

Figure 1.4.2.1

Butterfly valve

17

Figure 1.4.3.1

Ball valve

18

Figure 1.4.4.1

Globe valve

19

Figure 1.4.5.1

Check valve

20

Figure 1.4.6.1

Plug valve

21

Figure 1.4.7.1

Double plug valve

21

Figure 1.4.8.1

Angle valve

23

Figure 3.2.4.2.1 Induction furnace

44

Figure 4.1.2.1.1 Fishbone diagram for defects in casting

71

Figure 4.1.2.1.2 RT NSD% of WCB castings with Scraps &

Scraps + Returns

73

Figure 4.1.2.1.3 RT NSD% of WCB castings with Scraps &

Scraps + Returns

73

Figure 4.1.2.1.4 RT NSD% of CK3MCuN castings with Scraps&

11

Scraps + Returns

74

Figure 4.1.2.1.5 Weld% of CK3MCuN castings with Scraps&

Scraps + Returns

74

Figure 5.2.3.1.1 Magnetic particle inspection

77

Figure 5.2.3.2.1 Radiographic testing

79

Figure 5.2.3.2.2 Radiographic testing

79

Figure 5.2.3.2.3 Cobalt 60Radiographic testing

80

Figure 5.2.3.2.4 Iridium 192 Radiographic testing

80

Figure 5.2.3.2.5 Penetrating Power of Radiation

81

Figure 5.2.3.2.6 Radioactive Isotope Material

82

Figure 5.2.3.3.1 Ultrasonic Testing

83

Figure5.2.3.4.1 Dye Penetrant Testing

83

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
12

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

A Project on the Quality Management and Cost Benefit Analysis of
Steel Castings at ARUNA ALLOY STEELS Pvt. Ltd., Madurai, Tamil Nadu
State, has been conducted as a part of Bachelor of Engineering in
Mechanical Engineering of Anna University. The project is mainly
concentrated on the Melting and Quality Department, covering the foundry
functioning, the quality tools, defects in casting, causes, effects and methods to
reduce etc.
ARUNA ALLOY STEELS Pvt. Ltd., Melur road, Olaganeri, Madurai625107, is a leading steel manufacturing unit with foundries situated in
Olaganeri, Narasingampatti and Pudur of Madurai city, Tamil Nadu. The
company manufactures steel castings of carbon steel, stainless steel, alloy
steels of various compositions, nickel based alloy steel, and super duplex for
different types of steel castings in various sizes and weights up to Kg per
piece of oil and gas sector, locomotive, mining, power and other engineering
industries.
1.2 INDUSTRY PROFILE
THE GLOBAL STEEL INDUSTRY
The current global steel industry is in its best position compared to last
decade. The price has been rising continuously. The demand expectations for
steel products are rapidly growing for coming years. The shares of steel
industries are also in a high pace. There is many more merger and acquisitions
which overall buoyed the industry and showed some good results.
Though the subprime crisis has lead many economies to recessionary
trend, the negative effect has not touched the steel industry as a whole.
However steel production and consumption will be supported by continuous
economic growth.

13

STRUCTURE OF INDIAN STEEL INDUSTRY

Steel is one of the six core (power, petroleum crude, petroleum refining,
steel, coal and cement) industries of India. These six core industries that have
a combined weightage of 26.7% in the index of industrial production which
grew 7.2% in March compared to 3.3% in the same period 2009. Finished
(carbon) Steel production registered a robust growth of 9.2% in March 2010
compared to a negative growth of 1.8% in March 2009.
The steel industry in India has been moving from strength to strength
and according to the Annual Report 2009-10 by the Ministry of Steel. India
has emerged as the fifth largest producer of steel in the world and is likely to
become the second largest producer of crude steel by 2015-16.
CONSUMPTION OF STEEL IN INDIA
India's steel consumption rose 8 per cent in the year ended March 2010,
over the same period of 2009 on account of improved demand from sectors
like automobile, infrastructure and housing. The countrys steel consumption
increased to 56.3 MT in the 12 months to March 2010 from 52.3 MT in the
year 2009, as per the Ministry of Steel.
We expect strong demand growth in India over the next five years,
driven by a boom in construction (43% plus of steel demand in India). Soaring
demand by sectors like infrastructure, real estate and automobiles, at home and
abroad, has put India's steel industry on the world steel map.
Table 1.2.1 Apparent Consumption of
Finished Steel (Carbon)
(In million tonnes) (Government of India, Ministry of Steel, steel.nic.in)
YEAR

DEMAND( in m t)

GROWTH( in %)

1991-1992

14.84

1992-1993

15

1.07

1993-1994

15.32

2.13

14

1994-1995

18.66

21.80

1995-1996

21.43

14.84

1996-1997

22.12

3.21

1997-1998

22.63

2.30

1998-1999

23.15

2.29

1999-2000

25.01

8.03

2000-2001

26.87

7.43

2001-2002

27.35

1.78

2002-2003

28.897

5.65

2003-2004

31.169

7.86

2004-2005

34.389

10.33

2005-2006

38.151

10.93

2006-2007

49.777

30.47

2007-2008

55.174

10.84

2008-2009

54.833

-0.61

FIGURE 1.2.1- APPARENT CONSUMPTION OF FINISHED

CARBON STEEL
(IN METRIC TONNES)

15

MAJOR CONSUMERS OF INDIAN STEEL INDUSTRY:

Support from dynamic economy:
India is the economic region that has enjoyed the worlds most sustained
boom. International rating agency Fitch Ratings has forecast an 8% growth in
India's GDP in 2010-11 with the industries and services being the primary
drivers (DNA May 10, 2010) .The growth drivers are population growth,
human capital, opening of the economy and rising investment. Despite the
sharp increase in Indias population, per-capita GDP in purchasing power
parity terms should rise by nearly 4% per year until 2020. In fact, by the end
of the decade India could replace Japan as the worlds third biggest economy
after the US and China.
Positive stimuli from construction industry:
The steel companies are pinning their hopes largely on the expanding
construction industry. The industry is one of the key drivers of Indias
economic growth. Up to 10 million new homes need to be built each year
until 2030. Strong population growth, rising incomes and decreasing
household sizes are forcing comprehensive measures to be taken in the
housing sector. The pent-up demand for housing is estimated at around 20
million units by the Indian Construction Association; the Ministry for Urban
Development and Poverty Alleviation claims that no less than 31 million
dwellings are needed.
The hosting of the Commonwealth Games in New Delhi in 2010
generated additional stimulus for the construction industry and thus boost
demand for steel. In addition to the sports facilities, accommodation for
competitors and visitors was planned. The Indian office market is benefiting
from the ongoing off shoring activities of industrial nations. Indian insurers are
concentrated in the software development and software product segments.
Their second main business area is assuming the responsibility for entire
support processes, or business process outsourcing (BPO). These segments
16

still look set for growth. Furthermore, the construction sector is benefiting
from major infrastructure projects. Capital expenditure is to be focused on
road building and the rail network, as well as on the construction and
expansion of ports and airports.
Strong growth in mechanical engineering:
Mechanical engineering output has increased some 10% p.a. over the
past five years. Thanks to the march of technological progress the prospects
for domestic suppliers should improve going forward, while import growth is
slightly crimped. Demand is greatest for building machinery and plasticmoulding machines as well as machine tools and textile machinery. Since the
domestic textile and apparel industry, for example, is focusing further up the
value chain, firms have to make numerous investments in modernising and
expanding their machinery portfolios Makers of building machinery are
benefiting from the large-scale infrastructure projects planned by the Indian
government, while machine-tool makers are being buoyed by the upturn in the
automobile and auto parts industries for example. Exports by the Indian
mechanical engineering industry rose recently by nearly 30% to USD 10 bn.
By comparison, German mechanical engineering firms exported products
worth close to USD 117 bn, including machinery to the value of about USD 1
bn to India. Germany claims a particularly large share of Indian imports of
Woodworking machinery and machine tools as well as pumps and
compressors. The demand for foreign machinery comes from customers
requiring especially high standards of performance and precision.
Booming automobile industry:
The automotive industry may consume a relatively small proportion of
steel output, but its growth rate is the highest of the most important clients for
the steel industry. In India a small but flourishing automobile industry has now
developed that sees its future primarily in the budget price segment and views
the domestic market and other emerging nations as potential markets.
17

Vehicle ownership (cars and trucks) in India at 11 per 1,000 inhabitants

are even less widespread than in China with its very low figure of 21. The
growth of the Indian automobile industry is being driven by healthy domestic
demand.
The consumption minded, fast growing middle class is a major factor.
The continuing increase in incomes and low-cost financing facilities are
boosting sales. However, it is not uncommon for cars to be used for 20 years
(Western Europe: 12 years), with vehicles that have been taken off urban roads
often being driven for longer in rural areas. The populations steadily growing
demand for mobility and sharply rising traffic volumes will continue to
generate strong demand for cars in the future. At the same time Indias
automobile sector is establishing itself as an exporter to international markets.
Hyundai, for example, uses the country as an export base for small cars, and
Ford manufactures vehicles there for South Africa and other markets.
However, competition between automakers has intensified markedly. Whereas
in 1995 there were just five carmakers in India the figure has now reached 10.
The biggest are Hyundai Motor India and Tata Engineering (Telco). The Tata
group is even trying to gain a foothold in the European market with new
models. India currently produces a total of 711,000 cars each year (Germany:
5.4 million).
FIGURE 1.2.2 MAJOR CONSUMER INDUSTRIES OF STEEL IN
INDIA

18

SUPPLY OF STEEL IN THE INDIAN MARKET

Over the past ten years Indias crude steel output rose nearly 7%per year
to 55.3 million tons , while global crude steel output increased by 4%
(Germany managed an increase of just under 1%p.a.) Although India is the
worlds eighth largest steel producer, its3%-plus share of global steel output is
still very low; it is roughly the same as Ukraines share of world steel
production. China, the worlds biggest steelmaker, produces nearly ten times
as much as India. In 2005 Indias crude steel output of 46.5 million tons was
8%higher than in 2004; only in China was the growth rate considerably higher
at 15%. By contrast, production volumes fell in the US and the EU-25 by
nearly 5% and roughly 4% respectively.
The entire industrys contribution to gross domestic product should rise
in the coming years to more than 30% compared to just fewer than 27% at
present. The growth drivers are the expanding client industries, Automotive
engineering (production up 16% p.a. between 2000 and 2005), Mechanical
engineering (up 10% p.a.) and construction (up 6% p.a.).
Table 1.2.2 - Production of Finished Carbon Steel (In Million Tonnes)

19

YEAR

SUPPLY (in m t)

GROWTH (in %)

1991-1992

14.33

1992-1993

15.2

6.07

1993-1994

15.2

1994-1995

17.82

17.23

1995-1996

21.4

20.08

1996-1997

22.72

6.16

1997-1998

23.37

2.86

1998-1999

23.82

1.92

1999-2000

26.71

12.13

2000-2001

29.7

11.19

2001-2002

30.63

3.13

2002-2003

33.67

9.92

2003-2004

36.19

7.48

2004-2005

40.05

10.66

2005-2006

42.636

6.45

2006-2007

55.146

29.34

2007-2008

58.233

5.59

2008-2009

59.02

1.35

(Governmentof India, Ministry of Steel, steel.nic.in)

FACTORS HOLDING BACK THE INDIAN STEEL INDUSTRY
20

The growth of the Indian steel industry and its share of global crude
steel production could be even higher if they were not being held back by
major deficiencies in fundamental areas. Investment in infrastructure is rising
appreciably but remains well below the target levels set by the government due
to financing problems.

Energy supply:
Power shortages hamper production at many locations. Since 2001 the
Indian government has been endeavouring to ensure that power is available
Nationwide by 2012. The deficiencies have prompted many firms with
Heavier energy demands to opt for producing electricity with their own
Industrial generators. India will rely squarely on nuclear energy for its Future
power generation requirements. In September 2005 the 15th and largest
nuclear reactor to date went on-line. The nuclear share of the energy mix is
likely to rise to roughly 25% by 2050. Overall, India is likely to be the worlds
fourth largest energy consumer by 2010 after the US, China and Japan.
Problems procuring raw material inputs:
Since domestic raw material sources are insufficient to supply the
Indian steel industry, a considerable amount of raw materials has to be
imported. For example, iron ore deposits are finite and there are problems in
mining sufficient amounts of it. Indias hard coal deposits are of low quality.
For this reason hard coal imports have increased in the last five years by a total
of 40% to nearly 30 million tons. Almost half of this is coking coal (the
remainder is power station coal). India is the worlds sixth biggest coal
importer. The rising output of electric steel is also leading to a sharp increase
in demand for steel scrap. Some 3.5 million tons of scrap have already been
imported in 2006, compared with just 1 million tons in 2000. In the coming
years imports are likely to continue to increase thanks to capacity increases.
Inefficient transport system:
21

In India, insufficient freight capacity and a transport infrastructure that

has long been inadequate are becoming increasingly serious impediments to
economic development. Although the country has one of the worlds biggest
transport networks the rail network is twice as extensive as Chinas its
poor quality hinders the efficient supply of goods. The story is roughly the
same for port facilities and airports. In the coming years a total of USD 150 bn
is to be invested in transport infrastructure, which offers huge potential for the
steel industry. In the medium to long term this capital expenditure will lay the
foundations for seamless freight transport.
FOREWORD:
Steel is an alloy consisting mostly of iron, with a carbon content between
0.2% and 2.14% by weight (C:11010Fe), depending on grade. Carbon is the
most cost-effective alloying material for iron, but various other alloying
elements are used such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten.
Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in
the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount
of alloying elements and form of their presence in the steel (solute elements,
precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile
strength of the resulting steel. Steel with increased carbon content can be made
harder and stronger than iron, but is also more brittle. The maximum solubility
of carbon in iron (as austenite) is 2.14% by weight, occurring at 1149 C;
higher concentrations of carbon or lower temperatures will produce cementite.
Alloys with higher carbon content than this are known as cast iron because of
their lower melting point and cast-ability. Steel is also to be distinguished from
wrought iron containing only a very small amount of other elements, but
containing 13% by weight of slag in the form of particles elongated in one
direction, giving the iron a characteristic grain. It is more rust-resistant than
steel and welds more easily. It is common today to talk about 'the iron and steel
22

industry as if it were a single entity, but historically they were separate

products.

1.3 COMPANY PROFILE:

23

24

25

26

27

1.3.1 MANAGEMENT TEAM

Sv.Arunachalam, BE(Mechanical Engineering), MBA
Arun Arunachalam, BE(SW Mechanical Engineering),
MS(Industrial Engineering), MBA(Finance)
Lakshmi Arun, BE(Mechanical Engineering),MS(Operations
Management)
1.4 PRODUCTS
1.4.1 GATE VALVE:
A Gate Valve, or Sluice Valve, as it is sometimes known, is a valve that
opens by lifting a round or rectangular gate/wedge out of the path of the fluid.
The distinct feature of a gate valve is the sealing surfaces between the gate and
seats are planar. The gate faces can form a wedge shape or they can be
parallel. Gate valves are sometimes used for regulating flow, but many are not
suited for that purpose, having been designed to be fully opened or closed.
When fully open, the typical gate valve has no obstruction in the flow path,
resulting in very low friction loss.
Gate valves are characterized as having either a rising or a non rising
stem. Rising stems provide a visual indication of valve position. Non-rising
stems are used where vertical space is limited or underground.

28

FIGURE 1.4.1.1 GATE VALVE

1.4.2 BUTTERFLY VALVE:

A butterfly valve is a type of flow control device, typically used to
regulate a fluid flowing through a section of pipe. The valve is similar in
operation to a ball valve. A flat circular plate is positioned in the centre of the
pipe. The plate has a rod through it connected to an actuator on the outside of
the valve. Rotating the actuator turns the plate either parallel or perpendicular
to the flow. Unlike a ball valve, the plate is always present within the flow;
therefore a pressure drop is always induced in the flow regardless of valve
position.
A butterfly valve is from a family of valves called quarter turn valves.
The "butterfly" is a metal disc mounted on a rod. When the valve is closed, the
disc is turned so that it completely blocks off the passageway. When the valve
is fully open, the disc is rotated a quarter turn so that it allows unrestricted
29

passage. The valve may also be opened incrementally to regulate flow.

FIGURE 1.4.2.1- BUTTERFLY VALVE

1.4.3 BALL VALVE:

A ball valve (like the butterfly valve, one of a family of valves called
quarter turn valves) is a valve that opens by turning a handle attached to a ball
inside the valve. The ball has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when
the port is in line with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve
is closed, the hole is perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is
blocked. The handle position lets you "see" the valve's position.
Ball valves are durable and usually work to achieve perfect shutoff even
after years of disuse. They are therefore an excellent choice for shutoff
applications (and are often preferred to globe valves and gate valves for this
purpose). They do not offer the fine control that may be necessary in throttling
applications but are sometimes used for this purpose.
30

The body of ball valves may be made of metal, ceramic, or plastic. The
ball may be chrome plated to make it more durable.
FIGURE 1.4.3.1- BALL VALVE

1.4.4 GLOBE VALVE:

A Globe valve is a device (specifically a type of valve) for regulating
flow in a pipeline, consisting of a movable disk-type element and a stationary
ring seat in a generally spherical body.
Globe Valves are named for their spherical body shape with the two
halves of the body being separated by an internal baffle. This has an opening
that forms a seat onto which a movable plug can be screwed in to close (or
shut) the valve. The plug is also called a disc or disk. In globe valves, the plug
is connected to a stem which is operated by screw action in manual valves.
Typically, automated valves use sliding stems. Automated globe valves have a
smooth stem rather than threaded and are opened and closed by an actuator
31

assembly. When a globe valve is manually operated, the stem is turned by a

hand wheel.
FIGURE 1.4.4.1 GLOBE VALVE

1.4.5 CHECK VALVE:

A check valve is a mechanical device, a valve that normally allows fluid
(liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one direction. Check valves are twoport valves, meaning they have two openings in the body, one for fluid to enter
and the other for fluid to leave. There are various types of check valves used in
a wide variety of applications. Check valves are often part of common
household items. Although they are available in a wide range of sizes and
costs, many check valves are very small, simple, and/or cheap. Check valves
work automatically and most are not controlled by a person or any external
control; accordingly, most do not have any valve handle or stem. The bodies
(external shells) of most check valves are made of plastic or metal.

32

FIGURE 1.4.5.1 CHECK VALVE

1.4.6 PLUG VALVE:

Plug valves are valves with cylindrical or conically-tapered "plugs"
which can be rotated inside the valve body to control flow through the valve.
The plugs in plug valves have one or more hollow passageways going
sideways through the plug, so that fluid can flow through the plug when the
valve is open. Plug valves are simple and often economical.
FIGURE 1.4.6.1 PLUG VALVE

33

1.4.7 DOUBLE PLUG VALVE:

These twin plug valves are ideal shut off valves for almost any medium
either under severe operation condition or in high explosive areas. Valves,
complies with the ASME codes .The design of the lubricated twin-plug valve
is very compact, space and weight is minimized and with face to face
dimensions identical to a single plug or ball valve. All twin plug valves have
the CCR System which avoids overpressure in the cavity between the two
plugs, if an emergency with extreme high overheat, should occur.
FIGURE 1.4.7.1 DOUBLE PLUG VALVE

34

1.4.8 ANGLE VALVE:

An angle valve is a fluid regulating device used in plumbing and
industry. It has inlet and outlet ports aligned at an angle with respect to each
other, the most common angle being 90 degrees. The inlet and outlet ports can
be threaded for connecting to galvanized steel and iron pipes, or they can have
compression fittings for connecting to copper pipes. When an angle valve is
used as a shut-off valve for residential plumbing fixtures, it is called an angle
stop valve, or simply an angle stop.
There are two different valve mechanisms commonly used in angle
valves. A compression mechanism has a threaded stem that tightens a washer
or ground joint against the valve seat to stop fluid or gas flow when the
handle is turned counter-clockwise. An angle ball valve, on the other hand, as
a tight-fitting ball made of metal or plastic with a hole through it. Fluid passes
through the hole when the valve is open, but when the handle is turned
through 90 degrees, the hole aligns perpendicularly to the flow and it stops.

35

FIGURE 1.4.8.1 ANGLE VALVE

1.5 Grades of Steel:

Steel grades to classify various steels by their composition and physical
properties have been developed by a number of standards organizations.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

SAE steel grades

British Standards
International Organization for Standardization ISO/TS 4949:2003
European standards - EN 10027
For alloys in general (including steel), unified numbering system
(UNS) of ASTM International and the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE).
6) Japanese steel grades : Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) standard
7) Germany steel grades : DIN standard
36

8) China steel grades : GB standard

STANDARD

GRADE

EN10213-2

: 1.0619, 1.0625, 1.7357

EN10213-4

: 1.4308, 1.4408, 1.4581

EN10213-3

: 1.6220

ASTM A 216

: WCB, WCC

ASTM A 217

: WC6, WC9, C5, C12, C12A, CA15

ASTM A 351 : CF3, CF3M, CF8, CF8M, CF8C, CD4MCu,

CK3MCuN
ASTM A 352

: LCB, LCC, CA6NM

1.6 CRITICAL DIMENSIONS OF CASTINGS:

1.6.1GATE VALVE:
BODY:
Overall length
Side Flange

- Back to Back
- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness

Bonnet End Flange - OD / Profile Length & Width

37

- ID / Core Profile Length & Width

- Thickness
Guide Rib Thickness
Guide Rib to Rib Distance
Wall Thickness

BONNET:
Overall Length
Body End Face to Stuff Box Face
Stuff Box - Dome Depth
- Bore Diameter
Body End Flange - OD / Profile Length & Width
- ID / Core Profile Length & Width
Eyebolt Lug Gap, Lug Thickness
Yoke Arm Width & Thickness (if applicable)
Yoke End Hub Dia., Thickness & Core Diameter/ Yoke End Flange profile
Length, Width & Thickness
Wall Thickness (if applicable).
DISC:
Thickness - Top & Bottom
Disc
- Outer Diameter
Guide Slot - Width & Face to Face
T-Slot

- Top Width, Bottom Width

YOKE:
Top Flange - Outer Diameter
38

- Inner Diameter
- Thickness
Yoke arm - Width
- Thickness
Bottom Leg
(Bonnet Seat) - Width
- Length
- Thickness
1.6.2 GLOBE VALVE:
BODY:
Overall Length
Side Flange - Back to Back
- Thickness
- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
Bonnet End Flange - Outer Diameter / Profile Square Width
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness
Diffuser ID
Seat Ring

- Bore Diameter

- Pad Thickness
Wall Thickness
BONNET:
Overall Length
Body End Face to Stuff Box Face
Stuff Box

- Bore Diameter
39

Body End Flange - Outer Diameter / Profile Square Width

- Inner Diameter
Eye Bolt Lug, Lug Gap & Lug Thickness
Yoke Arm Width & Thickness
Yoke End Hub/ Top flange Diameter, Thickness & Inner Diameter
DISC:
Disc

- Thickness
- Outer Diameter

Shank

- Outer Diameter
- Length

1.6.3 CHECK VALVE:

BODY:
Overall Length
Side Flange - Back to Back
- Thickness
- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
Cover Flange - Outer Diameter / Profile Square Width
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness
Hinge Boss inner Gap
Wall Thickness
DISC:
40

Disc

- Thickness
- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Inner Step Depth

Shank - Length
- Diameter
HINGE:
Hinge

- Boss Height
- Boss Diameter

COVER:
Cover

- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter

1.6.4 PLUG VALVE:

BODY:
Overall Length
Side flange

- Back to Back
-Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness

Cover flange

- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter

Top flange

- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter

Port width and length

41

Wall thickness
PLUG:
Port

- Width
- Height

Overall

- Height

Bottom

- Outer Diameter

Top

- Outer Diameter

COVER:
Cover

- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness

1.6.5 BUTTERFLY VALVE:

BODY:
Overall length
Trunion - Face to Face
- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
Wall thickness
DISC:
Disc

- Outer Diameter
- Thickness
- Hub Bore Diameter
- Hub Length

1.6.6 BALL VALVE:

BODY:
Overall length
Side flange

- Back to Back
42

- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness
Top flange

- Over Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness

Ball rotating
Seat

- Inner Diameter
- Inner Diameter

Wall thickness
CONNECTOR:
Overall Length
Side flange

- Back to Back
- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness

Ball rotating

- Inner Diameter

Wall thickness
BALL:
Ball

- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter

1.6.7 ANGLE VALVE:

BODY:
Overall length / height
Bottom flange - Outer Diameter

43

- Inner Diameter
- Thickness
Side flange

- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness

Top flange

- Inner Diameter

Yoke seat - Width

- Length
- Thickness
Stuff Box - Bore Diameter
Eye bolt leg - thickness / gap
Wall thickness
YOKE:
Top Flange - Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness
Yoke arm - Width
- Thickness
Bottom Leg
(Bonnet Seat) - Width
- Length
- Thickness
1.6.8 LOWER BODY:
Side flange - Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
44

- Thickness
- Face to Face (Overall Length)
- Back to Back
Cover flange - Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness
Wall Thickness
1.6.9 FOUR WAY GLOBE VALVE BODY:
Side flange - Face to face
- Back to back
- Inner diameter
- Outer diameter
- Thickness
Bottom flange - Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness
Seat ring

- Bore Diameter
- Pad thickness

Wall thickness
Top flange face - Bottom flange face
Top flange - Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
45

- Thickness
1.6.10 ISO PAD:
- Outer Diameter
- Bore Diameter
- Step OD
- Thickness
1.6.11 TRUNION:
- Outer Diameter
- OAL Height
1.6.12 STEM HOUSING:
- Outer Diameter
- Bore Diameter
- OAL
1.6.13 BODY TUBING SPOOL:
Flange

- Outer Diameter
- Thickness
- Inner Diameter
- OAL

1.6.14 PUMP CASTING:

- OAL

46

- Bore Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Thickness
- Wall Thickness

1.6.15 AGITATOR (OUTER & CENTRAL):

Outer Diameter
- OAL
1.6.16 GATE CASTING:
- Outer Diameter
- OAL (guide rib face)
- Guide Thick
- Bottom Thick
- T slot Width
1.6.17 Y-BODY (WELD NECK):
Side end

- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter

Cover end

- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- Seat Diameter

47

- Side Face to face

- Wall Thickness
1.6.18 LOCK RING:
- Outer Diameter
- Inner Diameter
- OAL Height
- Arm width
1.6.19 BRACKET:
- Inner Length
- Outer Length
- Thickness
- Width
1.6.20 BODY CASTING HEADS:
Flange

- Outer Diameter
- Bore ID
- Thickness

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
In India, productivity levels of SMEs are alarmingly low due to host of
problems (Director of Industries, 2003). For higher productivity in SMEs,
48

Defects reduction will be one of the most promising and viable strategy and
it will also be capable to cope up the emerging future challenges (Antony et al.,
2005). Six Sigma concept has been widely used in manufacturing sector
from last 25 years as company like Motorola has been improving its
processes since 1986 by using its defect reduction approach (Eckes,2001).
Similarly manufacturing giants like General Electric and Honey Well have
been using it as cycle time reduction tool, since 1996 (Zu et al., 2011). Other
well-known companies like Ford, Caterpillar, Our lady of Lourdes medical
centre, LG and Samsung etc. are also practicing Six Sigma as a quality
improvement technique in their respective manufacturing processes from
1999. Table 1 cites major works of the researchers related to application of
Six Sigma in manufacturing sector during the past decade.
After analyzing significant contribution of Six Sigma approach among
SMEs, an effort has been made to implement DMAIC methodology in nonferrous (medium scale) foundry, without ignoring its existing Indian
constraints. It further demystifies various myths regarding Six Sigma and
SMEs, specifically for the foundry unit.

Table 2.1- Application of SIX SIGMA in Manufacturing Sector

49

S No

Author(s)

Henderson &
Evans (2000)

Company /
Unit
General Electric
Company

Ingle and Roe

(2001)

Medium sized
welding unit

Does et al.
(2002)

A bulb
manufacturing
SME

Anderson et al.
(2006)

A gravity die
casting unit

Lin et al. (2008)

Cranberry
Drinks Ltd.

Improvement in
packing
process.

Antony and
Desai (2009)

Wilson Tools

Shorten the
heat treatment
time

Singh and
Khanduja
(2010)

A copper wire
manufacturing
plant

Quality
improvement in
rolling
operation

Parameters

Achievements

Implementation
as a quality
tool. Reduced
the cycle time
at repair shops.
Optimization of
welding process
parameters

Annual saving
of $2 billion
Process
improvement
done
Joint strength is
increased by
26% and scrap
work is reduced
by 3%
Sigma level
increased from
3.1 to 4.5

Improve the
process and
reduced the
shell cracking
of bulbs
Casting scrap
reduced from
23% to 11%

CHAPTER-3
BASICS OF FOUNDRY
50

40% reduction
in
manufacturing
cost with
annual savings
of $72000 p.a.
DPMO level
improved from
3011 to 178
only. 17%
reduction in
packing time.
Roughly $10000
per year
savings. 2%
reduction in
overall Lead
time
Defect are
decreased by
19% within nine
months of
DMAIC project

3.1 FOUNDRY:
A Foundry is a factory that produces metal, castings. Metals are cast
into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mould, and
removing the mould material or casting after the metal has solidified as it
cools. The most common metals processed are aluminium and cast iron.
However, other metals, such as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc,
are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of
desired shapes and sizes can be formed.
3.2 PROCESSES OF A FOUNDRY:
PATTERN MAKING
METHODING
MOULDING
MELTING
LABORATORY TESTS
FETTLING
QUALITY CONTROL
DESPATCH
3.2.1 PATTERN MAKING:
The making of patterns, called pattern-making, is a skilled trade that
is related to the trades of tool and die making and mould making, but also
often incorporates elements of fine woodworking. Patternmakers learn their
51

skills through apprenticeships and trade schools over many years of

experience. Although an engineer may help to design the pattern, it is usually
a patternmaker who executes the design.
3.2.1.1 Pattern:
In casting, a pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare
the cavity into which molten material will be poured during the casting
process. Patterns used in sand casting may be made of wood, metal, plastics
or other materials. Patterns are made to exacting standards of construction, so
that they can last for a reasonable length of time, according to the quality
grade of the pattern being built, and so that they will repeatedly provide a
dimensionally acceptable casting.
Typically, materials used for pattern making are wood, metal or plastics.
Wax and Plaster of Paris are also used, but only for specialized applications.
Mahogany is the most commonly used material for patterns, primarily
because it is soft, light, and easy to work. The downside is that it wears out
fast, and is prone to moisture attack.
Single piece pattern, Multi-piece pattern, Gated pattern, Sweep pattern,
Skeleton pattern, Shell pattern and Loose-piece pattern are some of the types
of patterns. Metal patterns are more long lasting, and do not succumb to
moisture, but they are heavier and difficult to repair once damaged.
In ARUNA ALLOY STEELS PVT LTD, Wood patterns are mainly used.
Country wood, Teak wood, Plywood are being used.
3.2.2 METHODING:

52

The

patternmaker

or

Foundry

engineer

decides

where

the Sprues, gating systems, Cores and Risers are placed with respect to the
pattern. Where a hole is desired in a casting, a core may be used which defines
a volume or location in a casting where metal will not flow into.
Sometimes chills may be placed on a pattern surface prior to moulding,
which are then formed into the sand mould. Chills are heat sinks which enable
localized rapid cooling. The rapid cooling may be desired to refine the grain
structure or determine the freezing sequence of the molten metal which is
poured into the mould.
Because they are at a much cooler temperature, and often a different metal
than what is being poured, they do not attach to the casting when the casting
cools. The chills can then be reclaimed and reused. The design of the feeding
and gating system is usually referred to as METHODING, or methods design.
It can be carried out manually, or interactively using general-purpose CAD
software.FOOT UP, RISER, CHILL, KALPAD, BRACKET, VENT, METALPAD, etc., are some terms used in METHODING.
Foot Up is used to cover extra material and to avoid defects such as Cracks,
Pinholes, & Gas holes. Blind & Open are two types of Risers and open riser
will be at maximum point; it is part of the gating system that forms the
reservoir of molten metal necessary to compensate for losses due to shrinkage
as the metal solidifies. Normally, metal will be at room temperature; So, Chills
are used to increase the strength of metal.
Kalpad is used to maintain the heat of metal. Bracket is used to avoid
cracks. Vents are used to remove air from surface. Metal-pad is used for easy
flow of metal. Patterns are given 3% allowance. Core boxes are given 2 to
2.5% allowances.
53

3.2.3 MOULDING:
Moulding sand, also known as foundry sand, is sand that when moistened
or oiled tends to pack well and hold its shape. It is used in the process of sand
casting. Greensand is an aggregate of sand, bentonite clay, pulverized
coal and water. Its principle use is in making moulds for metal casting. The
largest

portion

of

the

aggregate

is

always

sand,

which

can

be

either silica or olivine.

There are many recipes for the proportion of clay, but them all strike
different balances between mould ability, surface finish, and ability of the hot
molten metal to degas. Green sand (like other casting sands) is usually housed
in what casters refer to as flasks, which are nothing other than boxes without a
bottom or lid. The box is split into two halves which are stacked together in
use. The halves are referred to as the top (cope) and bottom (drag) flask
respectively.
Green sand is not green in colour, but "green" in the sense that it is used in a
wet state (akin to green wood). This dry sand casting process results in a more
rigid mould better suited to heavier castings. A sand rammer is a piece of
equipment used in foundry sand testing to make test specimen of moulding
sand by compacting bulk material by free fixed height drop of fixed weight for
3 times. It is also used to determine compatibility of sands by using special
specimen tubes and a linear scale.
3.2.3.1 Specimen Preparation:
The cam is actuated by a user by rotating the handle, causing a cam to lift
the weight and let it fall freely on the frame attached to the ram head. This
54

produces a standard compacting action to a pre-measured amount of sand.

Variety of standard specimen for Green Sand and Silicate based (CO 2) sand are
prepared using a sand rammer along with accessories. The object for producing
the standard cylindrical specimen is to have the specimen become 2 inches
high (plus or minus 1/32 inch) with three rams of the machine. After the
specimen has been prepared inside the specimen tube, the specimen can be
used for various standard sand tests such as the permeability test, the green
sand compression test, the shear test, or other standard foundry tests.
Facing sand, Backing sand and Core sand must have Permeability of 250
to 500, and Compression strength of 3kg/cm^2 min.
Core sand [Chromite sand] must have Permeability of 150 to 500, and
Compression strength of 1kg/cm^2 min, and Moisture of 1.60% max.
Facing sand and Core sand must have Moisture of 1.60% max.
3.2.4 MELTING:
Melting is a physical process that results in the phase transition of a
substance from a solid to a liquid. The internal energy of a substance is
increased, typically by the application of heat or pressure, resulting in a rise of
its temperature to the melting point, at which the ordering of ionic or molecular
entities in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the solid liquefies.
An object that has melted completely is molten.
The melting point (or, rarely, liquefaction point) of a solid is the
temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric
pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exists in equilibrium.
The melting point of a substance depends (usually slightly) on pressure and is
usually specified at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of
55

the reverse change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as the freezing point or
crystallization point.

3.2.4.1 Melting Techniques:

There are a variety of methods used in foundries for melting the metal for
casting. The selection of an appropriate technique is dependent on factors such
as the metal being melted, the amount of molten metal required for the
production run and the area available to house the melting equipment. The
range of melting equipment typically used can be categorised as follows:
Electric Arc Furnaces
Induction Furnaces
Vacuum Induction melting
Hearth Furnaces
Crucible Furnaces
Cupola Furnaces
Vacuum Arc Skull Melting and Casting
3.2.4.2 Induction Furnace:
A water cooled copper coil carrying alternating current produces a
magnetic field, which in turn induces eddy currents in the charge. These eddy
currents heat and eventually melt the metal. A second magnetic field is
generated by the induced current in the charge. The opposed magnetic fields
56

result in a mechanical force, which stirs the molten metal. The benefits of this
stirring include the production of a thermally and chemically homogeneous
melt and excellent alloy and charge absorption.

FIGURE 3.2.4.2.1- INDUCTION FURNACE

3.2.5 POURING:

57

In a foundry, molten metal is poured into moulds. Pouring can be

accomplished with gravity, or it may be assisted with a vacuum or pressurized
gas. Many modern foundries use robots or automatic pouring machines for
pouring molten metal. Traditionally, moulds were poured by hand using ladles.
3.2.6 LABORATORY TESTS:
The following are some of the tests being carried out in chemical lab:
Micro structure of Scraps;
Compression strength; Permeability and Moisture content of Mould
&Core Sand.
Chemical composition of Castings (Bath1&2 and final).
The following are some of the tests being carried out in mechanical lab:
Hardness;
Yield Strength;
Ultimate Tensile Strength;
Elongation%;
Reduction%.
A basic set of parameters to test are:
1. Fineness number (grain size/AFS Number) of the base sand
2. Moisture content in the mixture (ranges from 2-7% depending on
the casting method)
58

3. Permeability (ability of compacted mould to pass air through it)

4. Total clay content (dust content)
5. Active clay content (presence of active bentonite/clay which can
readily bond)
6. Compressive strength
For parameters 1, 2, 4 and 5 standard bulk material sampling methods can
be applicable or sampling can be done with help of sand Muller, sand sampler
and sand splitter to do it in a standardized manner.
3.2.7 FETTLING:
The foundry Cleaning Room is collection processes where castings are
finished to meet the customers specifications. Once poured, the moulds are
allowed to cool before next being sent to the shakeout. At the shakeout, the
castings are separated from the sand mould. The sand is sent to a reclamation
system so that it can be reused in the moulding process. As castings are
removed from the shakeout they are sent to the cleaning room where they are
'finished' to the customer's specifications.
Processing in the cleaning room includes shot blasting, cut-off, welding,
heat treating and inspection. De-gating is the removal of the heads, runners,
gates, and risers from the casting. Runners, gates, and risers may be removed
using cutting torches, band saws or ceramic cut-off blades. For some metal
types, and with some gating system designs, the sprue, runners and gates can
be removed by breaking them away from the casting with a sledge hammer or
specially designed knockout machinery. The gating system required to produce
castings in a mould yields leftover metal, including heads, risers and sprue,
sometimes collectively called sprue that can exceed 50% of the metal required
59

to pour a full mould. Since this metal must be re-melted as salvage, the yield of
a particular gating configuration becomes an important economic consideration
when designing various gating schemes, to minimize the cost of excess sprue,
and thus melting costs.
3.2.8 HEAT TREATMENT:
Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to
alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. Heat
treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme
temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a
material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing, case hardening,
precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching. After de-gating and heat
treating, sand or other moulding media may adhere to the casting. To remove
this, the surface is cleaned using a blasting process. This means a granular
media will be propelled against the surface of the casting to mechanically
knock away the adhering sand. The media may be blown with compressed air,
or may be hurled using a shot wheel. The media strikes the casting surface at
high velocity to dislodge the moulding media (for example, sand, slag) from
the casting surface. Numerous materials may be used as media, including steel,
iron, other metal alloys, aluminium oxides, glass beads, walnut shells, baking
powder among others. The blasting media is selected to develop the colour and
reflectance of the cast surface.
3.2.9 QUALITY CONTROL:
Quality control is the process of assuring the products with no defects and
good quality. Some of the methods used for Quality Control are:
Magnetic Particle Inspection;

60

 Radiographic testing;
Ultrasonic testing;
Penetrant testing;
Visual inspection;
Dimensional inspection.
3.2.10 DESPATCH & PACKING
Finished products are sorted, tagged, packed and loaded for transportation
in this area. For export customers, un-machined castings are packed into wooden
crates or boxes depending on the customers preference. For very large castings,
wooden pallets are used. Machined castings are given protection covering in
machining surface to avoid damages. Protective Anti-Rust coatings are given for
Carbon steel and Alloy steel.
3.3 TERMS USED IN MELTING AREA OF FOUNDRY:
Charge
A given weight of metal introduced into the furnace.

Charging Crane
System for charging the melting furnace with a crane.
Charging Door
Opening through which the furnace is charged.
Charging Floor
Floor from which the furnace is charged.
Charging Machine
Machine for charging the furnace, particularly the open hearth.
61

Constant Intensity Pyrometer

Use of a comparison lamp filament's glow to estimate metal temperature.
Combustibles
Materials capable of combustion; inflammable.
Combustion
Chemical change as a result of the combination of the combustible
constituents of the fuel with oxygen, producing heat.
Combustion Chamber
Space in furnace where combustion of gaseous products from fuel takes
place.
Combustion Efficiency
The amount of heat usefully available divided by the maximum amount
which can be liberated by combustion; usually expressed in percentage.
Corrective Effective Temperature Chart
A chart on which information can be plotted resulting in an adjustment
temperature reading more indicative of human comfort.

Critical Points (Temperatures)

Temperatures at which changes in the phase of a metal talk place, and
are determined by the liberation of heat when the metal is cooled and by the
absorption of heat when the metal is heated, resulting in halts or arrests on
cooling and heating curves.
Decant
Pour from one vessel to another. Pour off molten metal without
disturbing the sludge.
De-scale
Remove the fire scale from the surface of casting.

62

Designations
Type of metal named, as steel, malleable, nonferrous, etc.
Disappearing Filament Pyrometer (Optical Pyrometer)
A telescope in which a hot body is viewed through an eyepiece and
temperature is measured by the matching colour of a calibrated lamp filament
with colour of hot metal.
Electric Arc Furnace
A crucible furnace that uses an electric arc, similar to an electric arc
welding operation, to melt metal.
Electrical Precipitator
In air pollution control, the use of electrodes in stack emissions emitting
high voltage; particles 0.1 micron and smaller can be attached and collected at
discharge electrode.
Fabrication
The joining usually by welding, of two or more parts to produce a
finished assembly. The components of the assembly may be a combination of
cast and wrought materials.
Feed Material
The volume of molten metal from which a casting feeds as it shrinks
(contracts) during solidification.
Fettle
A British term meaning the process of removing all runners and risers
and cleaning off adhering sand from the casting. Also refers to the removal of
slag from the inside of the cupola and in Britain to repair the bed of an open
hearth.
Filter
The filtering out of unwanted gases in the casting at pouring off portion
of making the casting.
Firebrick
Brick made of refractory clay or other material which resists high
temperatures.
Foundry (Foundries, plural)
A process or art of casting metals. The buildings and works for casting
metals.
63

Foundry Ladle
A vessel for holding molten metal and conveying it from furnace to the
moulds.
Foundry Returns
Metal in the form of sprues, gates, runners, risers and scrapped castings,
with known chemical composition that are returned to the furnace for remelting.
Hand Ladle or Shank
A small ladle carried by one man.
Heat
A single furnace charge of metal to be used for pouring directly into
mould cavities; a heat may be all of part of a master heat.
Heel
Metal left in a ladle after pouring or in a furnace after or between
tapping.
Holding Furnace
Usually a small furnace for maintaining molten metal at the proper
pouring temperature, and which is supplied from a large melting unit.
Holding Ladle
Heavily lined and insulated ladle in which molten metal is placed until it
can be used.
Inclusion(s)
Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or de-oxidation products
trapped in the casting during solidification.
Induction Furnace
AC melting furnace, which utilizes the heat of electrical induction.
Induction Heating
Process of heating by electrical resistance and hysteresis losses induced
by subjecting a metal to the varying magnetic field surrounding a coil carrying
an alternating current.
Ingot
Casting to be later forged or hot worked. Also, a form used for
convenient handling of cast iron, aluminium, and other commercial metals.
64

Iron-Carbon (Graphite) Diagram

A diagram representing stable equilibrium conditions between iron and
graphite (pure carbon) phase over the entire range of iron and steel.
Kelvin Temperature Scale
One in which the unit of measurement equals that of the centigrade
degree and according to which absolute zero is 0 degrees, equivalent to
-273.16C.
Kilovolt (kV)
Unit of electrical potential equal to 1,000 volts.
Ladle
Metal receptacle frequently lined with refractory used for transporting
and pouring molten metal. Different types of ladles include hand bull, crane,
bottom-pour, holding, teapot, shank, and lip-pour.
Ladle, Bottom-Pour
Ladle from which metal flows through a nozzle in the bottom.
Ladle, Teapot
A ladle in which, by means of an external spout, metal is removed from
the bottom rather than the top of the ladle.
Lining
Inside refractory layer of firebrick, clay, sand, or other material in a
furnace or ladle.
Melting Pot
Vessel in which metal is melted.
Melting Range
Pure metals melt at one definite temperature, but constituents of alloys
melt at different temperatures, and the variation from the lowest to the highest
is called the melting range.
Melting Rate
Amount of metal melted in a given period of time, usually one hour.
Melting Zone
Portion of furnace in which the metal melts.

65

Metallurgy
Science dealing with the constitution, structure, and properties of metals
and alloys, and the processes by which they are obtained from ore and adapted
to the use of man.
Mica Schist
A type of refractory rock used for lining cupolas and other melting
furnaces.
Nozzle
Pouring spout of the bottom -pour ladle.
Nozzle Brick
A thick-walled tubular refractory shape set in bottom of a ladle through
which steel is teemed.
Open Flame Furnace
As opposed to the crucible furnace; in the open-flame furnace the metal
charge is confined in the refractory lining, with the flame and products of
combustion coming in direct contact with the metal.
Open Riser
Riser whose top is open to the atmosphere through the top of the mould.
Optical Pyrometer
A temperature measuring device through which the observer sights the
heated object and compares its incandescence with that of an electrically
heated filament whose brightness can be regulated; or the intensity of the light
admitted from the object may be varied through filters and compared with a
constant light source.
Orifice
An opening of controlled size used to measure or control the flow of
gases.
Oven, Drying
A furnace or oven for drying moulds or cores.
P1
In production, acceptable quality level.
P2
In production, lot tolerance.

66

Patching
Repair of a furnace lining or repair of a mould core.
Peel
Free removal of burnt moulding sand from casting.
Pencil Core
A core projecting to the centre of a blind riser allowing atmospheric
pressure to force out feed metal.
Pour
Discharge of molten metal from the ladle into the mould.
Pouring
Filling the mould with molten metal. Transferring the molten metal from
the furnace to the ladle, ladle to ladle, or ladle into the moulds.
Pouring Basin
Reservoir on top of the mould to receive the molten metal.
Pouring Basin, Cup
Located on top of sprue or down gate.
Pouring Cup
The flared section of the top of the downsprue. It can be shaped by hand
in the cope, or be a shaped part of the pattern used to form the downsprue; or
may be baked core cup placed on the top of the cope over the downsprue.
Pouring Device
Mechanically operated device with a ladle set for controlling the pouring
operation.
Pouring Ladle
Ladle used to pour metal into the mould.
Pouring Off
The task of ladling, or mechanically pouring, of the molten metal into
the moulds, forming the casting.
Production Foundry
Highly mechanized foundry for manufacturing large quantities of
repetitive castings.
67

Production Welding
Any welding carried out during manufacturing before final delivery to
the purchaser. This includes joint welding of casting and finishing welding.
Purging
Elimination of air and other undesirable gases from furnaces or heating
boxes.
Pyrometallurgy
Chemical metallurgical process dependent upon heat.
Pyrometer
An instrument for determining elevated temperatures.
Pyrometric Cone
A slender trihedral pyramid made of a mixture of minerals similar in
composition to that of clay or other refractory being tested. Each cone is
assigned a number indicating its fusion temperature.
Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)
An index of refractoriness obtained by heating on a time-temperature
schedule a cone of the sample material and a series of standardized pyrometric
cones of increasing refractoriness.
Pyrometry
A method of measuring temperature with any type of temperature
indicating instruments.
Rare Earth (RE)
Any of a group of 15 similar metals with atomic numbers 57 to 71. Also
rare earth element, rare earth metal, lanthanide series, uncommon metals,
Misch metal.
Rare Gases
These include helium, argon, neon, krypton, xenon and radon.
Re-bonding
Term usually employed in reference to adding new bonding material to
used moulding sand so that it can be used again to produce moulds.
Receiving Ladle
A ladle placed in front of the cupola into which all metal is tapped. It
acts as a mixer and reservoir and to smooth out metal flow to the pouring area.
68

Refractory
Heat-resistant material, usually non-metallic, used for furnace linings
etc. The quality of resisting heat. Material usually made of ceramics, which is
resistant to high temperatures, molten metal, and slag attack.
Reject Rate
Ratio of the number of parts scrapped to the total number of parts
manufactured, expressed as a percentage.
Relief Sprue
The term usually refers to a second sprue at opposite end of the runner to
relieve pressure created during pouring operation.
Repair Welding
Any welding carried out after delivery to the end user, i.e., after the
casting has been in service.
Returns
Metal in the form of gates, sprues, risers or defective castings which are
put back into the melting cycle.
Reverberatory Furnace
Melting unit with a roof arranged to deflect the flame and heat toward
the hearth on which the metal to be melted rests.
Revert
Recycled sprues, gates, risers, defective castings and machine chips.
Reynolds Numbers
Used in hydraulics and in casting gating theory. A dimensionless value
(dynamic viscosity / density) describing the fairly sudden shift of flow from
laminar to turbulent. Re > 2000 represents turbulent flow. Laminar flow is
seldom experienced in runner and gating systems.
Riddle
Hand or power-operated device for removing large particles of sand or
foreign material from foundry sand.
Rigging
Gates, risers, loose pieces, etc., needed on the pattern to produce a sound
casting.

69

Riser
A reservoir of molten metal that the casting can draw from to offset the
shrinkage that is taking place as the metal solidifies.
Runner
Trapezoidal shaped piece that runs horizontally to the mould cavity and
connects the Sprue base to the gate(s).
Runner Box
System into which molten metal is introduced.
Sand Blast
Sand driven by a blast of compressed air (or steam). It is used to clean
castings, to cut, polish, or decorate glass or other hard substances, and also to
clean building fronts, etc.
Sand Casting
Metal castings produced in sand moulds.
Scarfing
Cutting off surface projections such as gates and risers from casting by
means of gas torch.
Scrap
Any scrap metal melted, usually with suitable additions, to produce
castings.
Scrap Metal
Metal to be re-melted; includes scrapped machinery fabricated items
such as rail or structural steel and rejected castings (metal to be re-melted,
castings that have to be re-melted).
Shank
The handle attached to a small ladle.
Silica Brick
Refractory material of ganister, bonded with hydrated lime, and fired at
high temperature.
Sodium Silicate (CO2 Process)
Moulding sand is mixed with sodium silicate and the mould is gassed
with carbon dioxide gas to produce a hard mould or core.

70

Solidification
Process of metal (or alloy) changing from the liquid to the solid state.
Spout
A trough through which the metal flows from the furnace to the ladle.
Sprue
A vertical passageway that takes the molten metal from the pouring
basin to the runner.
Spruing
Removing gates and risers from castings after the metal has solidified.
Tap
To withdraw a molten charge from the melting unit.
Tap Hole
Opening in a furnace through which molten metal is tapped into the
ladle.
Teapot Ladle
Ladle with external spout wherein the molten metal is poured from the
bottom rather than from the top.
Temperature
Degree of warmth or coldness in relation to an arbitrary zero measured
on one or more of accepted scales, as Centigrade, Fahrenheit, etc.
Temperature, Holding
Temperature above the critical phase transformation range at which
castings are held as a part of the heat treatment cycle. The temperature
maintained when metal is held in a furnace, usually prior to pouring.
Temperature, Pouring
The temperature of the metal as it is poured into the mould.
Tensile Strength (Ultimate Tensile Strength, UTS)
A measure of the amount of mechanical stress a material can withstand
before it fractures. Measured in Pounds per Square Inch (PSI) , or thousands of
pounds per square inch (KSI).
Test Bar
Standard specimen bar designed to permit determination of mechanical
properties of the metal from which it was poured.
71

Test Lug
A lug cast as a part of the casting and later removed for testing purposes.
Thermocouple
A device for measuring temperatures by the use of two dissimilar metals
in contact; the junction of these metals gives rise to a measurable electrical
potential which varies with the temperature of the junction. Thermocouples are
used to operate temperature indicators or heat controls.
Transfer Ladle
A ladle that may be supported on a monorail or carried in a shank and
used to transfer metal from the melting furnace to the holding furnace or from
furnace to pouring ladles.
Transformation (Temperature) Range
The critical temperature at which a change in phase occurs.
Vent
A pathway provided in the mould to allow gas to escape.
Cope
The top half of a horizontally parted mould.
Core
A separately made sand shape, usually baked or chemically bonded,
inserted in a mould to form the inside of a casting or parts which could not
otherwise be shaped by the pattern.
Drag
The bottom half of a horizontally parted mould
Gate
The connection to the casting cavity through which the molten metal
flows.
Parting Line
The line along which a pattern or core box is divided or the dividing line
72

between sections of a mould.

3.4 METALS USED IN A FOUNDRY:
Aluminium
Aluminium is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and
atomic number 13. It is a silvery white, soft, ductile metal. Aluminium is the
third most abundant element, and the most abundant metal, in the Earth's crust.
Melting point: 660.3 C
Carbon
Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a
member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is non-metallic and tetravalent
making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds.
Chromium
Chromium is a chemical element which has the symbol Cr and atomic
number 24. It is the first element in Group 6. It is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard
and brittle metal which takes a high polish, resists tarnishing, and has a high
melting point. Melting point: 1,907 c
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It
is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure
copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange
colour. Melting point: 1,085 C
Eutectic
The alloy which has the lowest melting point possible for a given composition
Ferroalloys
Alloys consisting of certain elements combined with iron, and used to
increase the amount of such elements in ferrous metals and alloys. In some
cases the ferroalloys may serve as deoxidizers.

73

High-Alloy Steel
Ferrous alloy with more than 12 weight percent of non-carbon
additions.
Inert Gas
A gas that will not support combustion or sustain any chemical reaction;
e.g., argon or helium.
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is
a metal in the first transition series. It is by mass the most common element on
Earth, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. Melting point: 1,538 C
Manganese Briquettes
Crushed ferromanganese bonded with a special refractory in briquette form, and
containing 2-lb metallic manganese and -lb metallic silicon.
Manganese
Manganese is a chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn. It has the
atomic number 25. It is found as a free element in nature, and in many
minerals. Melting point: 1,246 C
Mild Steel
Plain carbon steel of about 0.25% carbon or less.
Mineral
Natural inorganic substance which is either definite in chemical
composition or physical characteristics or any chemical element or compound
occurring naturally as a product of inorganic processes.
Misch-metal
Alloy of rare-earth metals containing about 50% cerium and 50% lanthanum,
neodymium, and similar elements.
74

Monel
A high nickel alloy, approximately 67% Ni, 28% Cu, the balance Fe, Mn,
Si and other elements. Monel metal is resistant to corrosion and is widely used
to resist the action of acids.
Molybdenum
A metal used widely in alloying of other metals. It is used as hardening
element for steel, and for die-casting dies. The melting point is 2,620C
(4,748F), and the atomic number is 42.
Mother Metal
The molten alloy just before final solidification and freezing out of the solid.
Nichrome
Oxidation-resistant alloy 65% Ni, 20% Fe, and 15% Cr.
Nickel
An element used for alloying iron and steel as well as nonferrous metals;
melting point 1455C (2651F). Nickel is also a base metal for many casting
alloys resistant to corrosion and high temperature oxidation. Nickels chemical
symbol is Ni. Its formula weight is 58.69 and the specific gravity is 8.90, and
nickels melting point 1,452C.
Niobium
Niobium, formerly columbium, is a chemical element with the symbol Nb
and atomic number 41. It is a soft, grey, ductile transition metal, which is often
found in the pyrochlore mineral, the main commercial source for niobium, and
columbite. Melting point: 2,469 C
Nitrogen
Nitrogen, symbol N, is the chemical element of atomic number seven. At
room temperature, it is a gas of diatomic molecules and is colourless and
75

odourless. Nitrogen is a common element in the universe, estimated at about

seventh in total abundance in our galaxy and the Solar System. On Earth, the
element is primarily found as the gas molecule; it forms about 80% of Earth's
atmosphere. The element nitrogen was discovered as a separable component of
air, by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford, in 1772.
Ore
A mineral from which a metallic element may be extracted profitably
Pearlite
A micro-constituent of iron and steel consisting of alternative layers of
ferrite and iron carbide or cementite
Plaster of Paris
A semi-hydrated form of calcium sulphate made by sintering gypsum to
120C-130C (248F-266F).
Phosphorus
One of the elements; its chemical symbol is P. Its formula weight is 123.92;
specific gravity 1.82, and melting point 44.1C.
Silicon
An abundant element, chemically classed as a non-metal, metallurgically a
metal, used extensively in ferrous and nonferrous alloys; melting point 1423C
(2593.4F).

76

Selenium
A metalloid melting 220C (428F) added to stainless steel
to improve machinability
Stainless Steel
A wide range of steels containing chromium or chromium and nickel,
exhibiting high resistance to corrosion
Steel
An alloy of iron and carbon, containing no more than 1.74% carbon. It
must be malleable at some temperature while in the as-cast state.
Sulphur
A non-metallic chemical element, with a melting point of
444C (831.2F) occurring as an undesirable tramp (trace)
element in most ferrous alloys.
Super alloy
An alloy developed for very high temperature use where relatively high
stresses are encountered and where oxidation resistance is needed.
Ternary Alloy
An alloy that contains three principal elements.
Tin
A chemical element having symbol sn, formula weight 118.70, specific
gravity 7.31, and melting point 231.85C.
Titanium
A white metallic element, melting point 1660C (3020F), having a high
strength-to-weight ratio; useful in aircraft parts.

77

Tungsten
Steel-gray, metallic element, mp 3380C (6116F) used for electric lamp
filament, x-ray tube target, and as alloy element in high-speed steels.
Vanadium
A white, hard, metallic element, mp 1800C (3272F), used as an alloy in
iron and steel; a powerful carbide stabilizer and deoxidizer.
Virgin Metal (Primary Metal)
Metal extracted directly from the ore; not previously used.
Zinc
A chemical element having symbol Zn, formula weigh 65.38, specific
gravity 7.140, and melting point 419.4C.
Zirconium
Silvery-white, metallic element, mp 1,860C (3,380F), a powerful
deoxidizer when added to molten steel.

CHAPTER 4
CASE STUDY
Product -Castings
Materials - ASTM A216 WCB
ASTM A351 CK3MCuN
78

Problem:
Crack in castings.
4.1 PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES:
Techniques used for solving this problem are Statistical Quality
Control (SQC) and Six Sigma.
4.1.1 STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL
Statistical Quality Control (SQC) is the term used to describe the set of
statistical tools used by quality professionals. SQC is used to analyze the
quality problems and solve them. Statistical quality control refers to the use of
statistical methods in the monitoring and maintaining of the quality of products
and services. All the tools of SQC are helpful in evaluating the quality of
services. SQC uses different tools to analyze quality problem.
Descriptive Statistics involves describing quality characteristics and
relationships. SPC involves inspect random sample of output from process for
characteristic. Acceptance Sampling involves batch sampling by inspection.
The Seven Basic Tools of Quality is a designation given to a fixed set of
graphical techniques identified as being most helpful in troubleshooting issues
related to quality. They are called basic because they are suitable for people
with little formal training in statistics and because they can be used to solve the
vast majority of quality-related issues. The seven tools are:
Cause-and-effect diagram (also known as the "fishbone" or Ishikawa
diagram)
Check sheet
Control chart
Histogram
Pareto chart
Scatter diagram
79

 Stratification (alternately, flow chart or run chart)

The designation arose in postwar Japan, inspired by the seven famous
weapons of Benkei. It was possibly introduced by Kaoru Ishikawa who in turn
was influenced by a series of lectures W. Edwards Deming had given to
Japanese engineers and scientists in 1950. At that time, companies that had set
about training their workforces in statistical quality control found that the
complexity of the subject intimidated the vast majority of their workers and
scaled back training to focus primarily on simpler methods which suffice for
most quality-related issues.
The Seven Basic Tools stand in contrast to more advanced statistical
methods such as survey sampling, acceptance sampling, statistical hypothesis
testing, design of experiments, multivariate analysis, and various methods
developed in the field of operations research.
The Project Management Institute references the Seven Basic Tools in A
Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge as an example of a set
of general tools useful for planning or controlling project quality.
4.1.2 SIX SIGMA
Six Sigma is a management philosophy developed by Motorola that
emphasizes setting extremely high objectives, collecting data, and analyzing
results to a fine degree as a way to reduce defects in products and services. The
Greek letter sigma is sometimes used to denote variation from a standard. The
philosophy behind Six Sigma is that if you measure how many defects are in a
process, you can figure out how to systematically eliminate them and get as
close to perfection as possible. In order for a company to achieve Six Sigma, it
cannot produce more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities, where an
opportunity is defined as a chance for non conformance.
There are two Six Sigma processes: Six Sigma DMAIC and Six Sigma
DMADV, each term derived from the major steps in the process. Six Sigma
DMAIC is a process that Defines, measures, analyzes, improves, and controls
existing processes that fall below the Six Sigma specification. Six Sigma
80

DMADV Defines, measures, analyzes, designs, and verifies new processes or

products that are trying to achieve Six Sigma quality. All Six Sigma processes
are executed by Six Sigma Green Belts or Six Sigma Black Belts, which are
then overseen by a Six Sigma Master Black Belts, terms created by Motorola.
Six Sigma proponents claim that its benefits include up to 50% process cost
reduction,cycle-time improvement, less waste of materials, a better
understanding of customer requirements, increased customer satisfaction, and
more reliable products and services. It is acknowledged that Six Sigma can be
costly to implement and can take several years before a company begins to see
bottom-line results. Texas Instruments, Scientific-Atlanta, General Electric, and
Allied Signal are a few of the companies that practice Six Sigma.
4.1.2.1 DMAIC methodology:
DMAIC methodology is used to root out and eliminate the causes of
defects.
Phase I: Define
The purpose of this phase is to clarify the goals and value of a project.
Phase II: Measure
The purpose of this phase is to gather data on the problem.
Phase III: Analyze
The purpose of this phase is to examine the data and process maps to
characterize the nature and extent of the defect.
Phase IV: Improve
The purpose of this phase is to eliminate defects in both quality and
process velocity.
Phase V: Control
The purpose of this phase is to lock in the benefits achieved by doing the
81

previous phases.
Phase I: Define
The problem can be defined as Cracks and other defects found in castings.
Phase II&III: Measure and Analyse
FIGURE 4.1.2.1.1 FISHBONE DIAGRAM FOR DEFECTS IN
CASTING

Table 4.1.2.1.1 CK3MCuN castings with Scraps

Heat No:

Status

RT NSD%

K7748
K7837
K7668
K7715

Rejection
Rejection
Rejection
OK

50%
50%
75%
100%

Weld%

1.87%
82

Chemical
Compositio
n
OK
OK
OK
OK

Mechanical
properties
OK
OK
OK
OK

K7502
K7378
K7432

OK
Rejection
OK

100%

0.82%

100%

0.89%

OK
OK
OK

OK
OK
OK

Table 4.1.2.1.2-CK3MCuN castings with Scraps + Returns

Heat No:

Status

RT NSD%

K7868
K7906
K7629
K7643
K7513
K7521

OK
OK
Rejection
Rejection
Rejection
R OK

100%
100%
50%
50%
50%
100%

Weld%

0.93%

Chemical
compositio
n
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK

Mechanical
properties
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK

Table 4.1.2.1.3 WCB castings with Scraps

Heat No:

Status

RT NSD%

Weld%

Mechanical
properties

3.22%

Chemical
compositio
n
OK

K 6739

OK

78.90%

K6740

OK

81.50%

1.78%

OK

OK

K6741

OK

82.90%

5.11%

OK

OK

Table 4.1.2.1.4 WCB castings with Scraps + Returns

83

OK

Figure
4.1.2.1.2 RT
% of WCB
castings with
Scraps &
Scraps +
Returns

Heat
No:

Statu
s

RT
NSD%

Weld
%

Chemical
compositi
on

K674
8
K675
1
K675
2
K675
6
K676
1
K676
2
K676
4
K676
5
K676
6

OK

63%

OK

OK

81.50
%
75.30
%
89.50
%
63.20
%
73.70
%
48.60
%
94.60
%
83.80
%

15.17
%
1.66%

Mechanic
al
Propertie
s
OK

OK

OK

9.66%

OK

OK

0.52%

OK

OK

3.67%

OK

OK

3.18%

OK

OK

3.54%

OK

OK

0.78%

OK

OK

1.81%

OK

OK

OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK
OK

NSD

Figure 4.1.2.1.3 Weld% of WCB castings with Scraps &Scraps +

Returns

84

Figure 4.1.2.1.4 RT NSD% of CK3MCuN castings with Scraps&

Scraps + Returns

Figure 4.1.2.1.5 Weld% of CK3MCuN castings with Scraps& Scraps +

Returns

85

Table 4.1.2.1.5 Cost analysis of CK3MCuN Castings with Scraps & Scraps
+ Returns
Scraps
Heat No
K7378
K7432
K7502
K7668
K7715
K7748
K7837

Rate
409.09
413.59
413.71
413.4
406.22
406.75
416.35

Metal cost / Kg
Scrap + Returns
Heat No
Rate
K7513
408.99
K7521
401.01
K7629
364.62
K7643
392.53
K7868
390.45
K7906
391.27

Table 4.1.2.1.6 Cost analysis of WCB Castings with Scraps & Scraps +
Returns
Scraps

Metal cost / Kg
Scraps + Returns
86

Heat. No
K6739
K6740
K6741

Rate
Heat .No
46.66 K6756
46 K6761
44.3 K6762
K6751
K6764
K6765
K6766
K6748
K6752

Rate
40.09
36.91
37.53
41.6
42.08
42.49
38.75
42.87
40.12

PHASE IV AND V: IMPROVE AND CONTROL

Scraps and Foundry returns are regularly made as Melting charges,
instead of using only scraps. Cost is being reduced and Quality gets improved.

CHAPTER 5
METHODS OF MEASURING THE DEFECTS
5.1 INSPECTION OF CASTING:
5.1.1 PROCESS INSPECTION
Inspection which is done while parts are being processed. This is helpful
to detect defects at the start and allow the corrections. This is a preventive act.
5.1.2 VISUAL INSPECTION
It is the simplest and fastest inspectional methods. Most commonly
employed. Usually good to check surface defects, but fails to identify internal
defects.
5.1.3 DIMENSIONAL INSPECTION
Before casting is to be machined dimensional inspection is done.
87

Castings are placed on surface plate or surface table with angle - measuring
instruments. Various measuring instruments are employed for a first set of
castings, so as to standardize subsequent castings.
5.2 TESTING METHODS
5.2.1 PRESSURE TESTING:
Casting that is used for containing or conveying liquids, gases, such
type are subjected to pressure testing. It is tested for any leaks through their
walls. Leaks may be detected by submerging the complete casting under water
for gas pressures or by visual inspection by liquid pressures.
5.2.2 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING:
This test is done causing harm to the casting i.e. by destroying it. Various
tests include fatigue tests, compression tests, creep tests etc.

5.2.3 NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING [NDT]:

Here parts to be tested are inspected for internal defects and surface
defects without destroying the component.
Various methods available are:
5.2.3.1Magnetic Particle Inspection MPI:
Most satisfactory method Used to find surface and sub surface defects.
It is quick, cheap and very sensitive. Can only be applied to ferrous metals like
steel, cast iron etc
Principle:
When a metal placed in magnetic field, magnetic flux is intersected by
the defect
Magnetic poles are induced on either side of discontinuity. This can
detected when magnetic particles are attracted towards defective region.
88

Magnetic particles piles up in defective region.

Inspection of defect:
Generally,carried out in good light. If no defects then regular pattern, if
presence of defects then flux lines distorted. Magnetic particles spread out at
the point of defects indicating presence of defect.
Figure 5.2.3.1.1- Magnetic particle inspection

5.2.3.2 Radiographic Testing:

X-Ray, and Gamma Ray are the two type of sources used for
Radiographic testing.
Gamma rays are similar to X- Rays except that they have much shorter
wavelength and differ in their origin. Gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus
itself during the process of radioactivity. Gamma rays are produced by a
radioisotope. A radioisotope has unstable nuclei that do not have enough
binding energy to hold the nucleus together. The spontaneous breakdown of an
atomic nucleus resulting in the release of energy and matter is known as
radioactive decay. Most of the radioactive material used in industrial
radiography is artificially produced. This is done by subjecting stable material
to a source of neutrons in a special nuclear reactor. This process is called
activation. Two most commonly used gamma ray sources in industrial
radiography are iridium 192 and cobalt 60.
A radiographic film is placed next to the part to be tested and gamma
rays are directed against the part. The gamma rays will pass through the part to
be tested proportional to the density and thickness of the part.
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The absorption of gamma rays is directly proportional to the density of

and thickness of the part. If the part has no defects, the gamma rays will pass
uniformly through the part. However if there are any defects such as porosity
which leads to higher density, the penetration of gamma rays will move
through them which shows as darker areas on the film.
Gamma rays technique is effective in locating cracks; slag inclusions;
shrinkage; piping; porosity; blow holes; pin holes etc. Gamma rays can be
used for inspection of casting in all type of metals, like steel, aluminium,
magnesium etc.

Figure 5.2.3.2.1 Radiographic testing

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Figure 5.2.3.2.2 Radiographic testing

Cobalt-60 Radiography Testing:

Figure 5.2.3.2.3 Cobalt 60Radiographic testing

Cobalt-60 is a preferred source for the radiography of steel thickness of

about 75mm to 200 mm. We have world's latest and sophisticated gamma ray
projectors and proud to say that we are the only private agency in India
having a maximum number of Cobalt -60 (TECH OPS) exposure devices.
Iridium-192 Radiography Testing:

91

Figure 5.2.3.2.4 Iridium 192 Radiographic testing

Iridium 192 Radiography: Iridium -192 is used for radiography of steel

thickness of about 6mm to 75 mm. We have Exposure devices (SPEC2T &
TECH OPS) that are all imported and the latest.
Half-life of two widely used industrial isotopes are; 74 days for Iridium-192,
and 5.3 years for Cobalt-60.
Figure 5.2.3.2.5 Penetrating Power of Radiation

Table 5.2.3.2.1 Penetrating Power of Radiation

Source

Concrete

Steel

Lead

Tungsten

Uranium

Iridium192 44.5

12.7

4.8

3.3

2.8

Cobalt-60

21.6

12.5

7.9

6.9

60.5

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Figure 5.2.3.2.6 Radioactive Isotope Material

Physical size of isotope materials varies between manufacturers, but

generally an isotope material is a pellet that measures 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm.

Table 5.2.3.2.2- Selection of Radiation Sources

Radiation source
Iridium -192
Cobalt 60
Linear Accelerators 7.5Mev (X

Part Wall Thickness

18 to 60 mm
40 to 200 mm
Above 70 mm

5.2.3.3Ultrasonic Testing:
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct
examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic testing is based on
piezoelectric effect which converts electrical energy to mechanical energy thus
generating ultrasonic waves .Ultrasonic waves are generated when a high
frequency alternating current of about a million times per second is impressed
across the forces of piezoelectric materials like quartz crystal. The crystal
expands in full half of the cycle and contracts when the electric field is
increased, thus producing mechanical vibrations.
When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of
the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface .The reflected wave
signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is
93

displayed on a screen .In the applet below, the reflected signal strength is
displayed versus the time from signal generation to when an echo was
received. Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the
signal travelled .From the signal, information about the reflector location, size,
orientation and other features can be found.

FIGURE 5.2.3.3.1 -ULTRASONIC TESTING

5.2.3.4 PENETRANT TESTING

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Penetrant testing is 100% performed on Stainless Steel, Duplex, Super

Duplex and Nickel Alloy castings. As these materials are non-magnetic, it is
done to identify Cracks and surface defects. Water washable and solvent
removable methods are being practiced in ARUNA ALLOY STEELS
PVT.LTD. Mostly, Solvent removable is done on Customers inspection
requirements.

FIGURE 5.2.3.4.1- DYE PENETRANT TESTING

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96

CHAPTER 6
AVOIDING THE DEFECTS IN CASTING
Metallic Projections
Care in pattern making, moulding and core making;
Control of their dimensions;
Care in core setting and mould assembly.
Cavities
Make adequate provision for evacuation of air from the mould cavity.
Increase permeability of mould and cores;
Avoid improper gating systems;
Assure adequate baking of dry sand moulds;
Control moisture levels in green sand moulding;
Increase static pressure by enlarging runner height.
Discontinuities
Care in shakeout and in handling the casting while it is still hot;
Sufficient cooling of the casting in the mould;
For metallic moulds; delay knockout, assure mould alignment, use
ejector pins.
Defective Surface
Flow marks: On the surfaces of otherwise sound castings, the
defect appears as lines which trace the flow of the streams of
liquid metal.
Possible Causes Oxide films which lodge at the surface, partially
marking the paths of metal flow through the mould.
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Remedies:
Increase mould temperature;
Lower the pouring temperature;
Modify gate size and location (for permanent moulding by gravity or
low pressure);
Tilt the mould during pouring;
In die casting: vapour blast or sand blast mould surfaces which are
perpendicular, or nearly perpendicular, to the mould parting line.
Incomplete Casting
Have sufficient metal in the ladle to fill the mould;
Check the gating system;
Instruct pouring crew and supervise pouring practice.
Incorrect Dimensions or Shape
Assure adequate rigidity of patterns and pattern plates, especially when
squeeze pressures are being increased.
Inclusions or Structural Anomalies
Assure that charge materials are clean; eliminate foreign metals;
Use small pieces of alloying material and master alloys in making up the
charge;
Be sure that the bath is hot enough when making the additions;
Do not make addition to near to the time of pouring;
98

 For nonferrous alloys, protect cast iron crucibles with a suitable wash
coating.

99

ANNEXURE
VISION
Safe, Environmentally friendly and dependable World Class Steel
Foundry manufacturing machined valve castings for severe and critical
application in complex materials.
MISSION
Continually delight the customer with quality and on-time delivery for
forging long term sustainable win-win partnerships.
Continually improvise effectiveness of management to strengthen the
system and focus people on data driven decision analysis and problem
solving.
Continuously invest and develop people with core skills to improve
competency and organizational involvement.
Enhance capabilities and invest in new technology to improve
productivity and supply finished products for severe and critical
applications.
2011

201
0

Largest C12A Casting 24 1500 GTV weighing 5,500 Kg

manufactured successfully

36 Strainer bodies with short delivery supplied for

ARAMCO Karan Gas Project

Steel Valve machining facility with Hydro Test upto 24

2500 & 36 300 started

100 Curie Radiography Co 60 Bunker constructed

Customized ORACLE ERP System developed in-house and

installed
100

ASTM Standard
Category

CARBON STEEL

Standard

Grade

ASTM A216

WCB, WCC

ASTM A352

LCB, LCC

DIN 10213-2

1.0619, 1.0625

DIN 10213-3

1.1131, 1.6220

ASTM A352

LC2, LC3, LC9

C5, C12, C12A

CA15

ASTM A743
ASTM A487

CA6NM, 4C, 4D, 4Q

ASTM A148

90-60, 120-95

DIN 10213-2

1.5419, 1.7357, 1.7379, 1.7365

DIN 10213-3

1.6982

CF10

STAINLESS STEEL

CK3MCuN
1.4308, 1.4309
DIN 10213-4

ASTM A890

ASTM A995 / A890

101

GA

1.4552

GL

1A (CD4MCu)

CH

1B

PLU

4A (CD3MN)

CO

5A (CE5MN)

BU

1.4470
Inconel CW6MC, Cu5MCuC

ASTM A494

Val

1.4408, 1.4409

6A (CD3MWCuN)

NICKEL ALLOY

200
6

CF8, CF8M, CF8C, CG8M

ASTM A351

DIN 10213-4

200
7

CA40

CF3, CF3M, CG3M

DUPLEX

200
8

WC1, WC6, WC9

ASTM A217

ALLOY STEEL

200
9

Monel M35-1

ANGLE

Body

BALL

Body, Adaptor, Connector, Ball, Trunion

Y-GLOBE

Body

PROCESS FLOWCHART

102

103

104

Packing and
Despatch

105

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

MD
JMD
AMD
Purchase &
Admin

Pattern
shop incharge

HR (ADMININISTRATION)

Moulding
& Process
control in
-charges

Melting &
Fettling Incharges

HR (MATERIALS)

Quality
Control In
charge

Packing &
Despatch
Incharge

Stores
Maintenance

Mechanic
al

Supervisors & Workers of

all departments in a

Electrical

Producti
on
Incharge
Melting
Incharge

106

Fettling
Incharge

REFERENCES:
www.arunasteel.com, Official website of Aruna alloy steels private limited,
Madurai.
www.steel.nic.in, Ministry of Steel, Government of India.
Casting Technology and Cast Alloys, A.K.Chakrabarti, 2005 PHI Learning
Private limited.
26th Annual SEEANZ Conference Proceedings Paper.
Richard B.Chase, Operations Management for Competitive Advantage
Ninth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
NareshK.Malhotra, Marketing Research Fifth Edition, Pearson Education

107