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CHEMICAL
MONITORING & MANAGEMENT
What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. WHAT CHEMICAL SCIENTISTS DO
2. INDUSTRY CASE STUDY: AMMONIA PRODUCTION
3. TECHNIQUES IN CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
4. ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY & OZONE
5. MONITORING & MANAGING
WATER SUPPLIES
...all in the context of Chemistrys importance to our environment and society.
Ulrik
Industrial production of
important substances we need.
Ensuring that quality &
safety standards are met.
Protecting the environment from pollution.
Ensuring that the air we breathe, and
our water supplies are clean & healthy.
Production of
Ammonia,
NH3
You will
learn more
about some
of the
techniques of
Chemical
Analysis
However, when
something goes
wrong and a
chemical spill
poisons a river, or
industrial fumes
make people sick,
OZONE
in the air
and finally,
study aspects
of the
management
of your
communitys
Its Big
News
Photo:
Copyright 2006
A Specific Example
of a Chemical Job.
The Need to
Monitor a
Chemical Process
Features of the
Ammonia Reaction
History:
Discovery of the
Haber Process
Uses of Ammonia
What
Chemical
Scientists do
Production of
Ammonia
Qualitative Tests
for Ions
CHEMICAL
MONITORING &
MANAGEMENT
Techniques in
Chemical
Analysis
Flame Tests
Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry
Quantitative Laboratory
Analysis of an Ion
Monitoring
&
Managing
Water Supplies
Atmospheric
Chemistry
&
Ozone
Factors that
Affect
Concentration
of Ions
Structure
&
Composition
of the
Atmosphere
Air Pollutants
Purifying
&
Sanitizing
water
Supplies
Qualitative
&
Quantitative
Tests for
Water Quality
Haloalkanes.
Structure and Naming
Formation of
Ozone
Isomers
Measuring
Heavy Metals
&
Eutrophication
Coordinate
Covalent Bonding
Properties of
O2 & O3
Compared
CFCs
&
Ozone Depletion
Copyright 2006
Sample to be
analysed injected
Stream of inert
gas to carry
sample
Chromatography Column
is a long
tube,
coated
with
chemicals to which
specific
molecules
adsorb
Data sent to
computer
Electronic
Detector
Incomplete Combustion
CH4(g) + 3O2(g)
2
CH4(g)
C(s)
+ 2H2O(g)
+ 2H2O(g)
Complete Combustion
CH4(g) + 2O2(g)
+ O2(g)
CO(g)
+ 2H2O(g)
Copyright 2006
N2(g)+ 3H2(g)
+ heat
+
(NH4)2SO4
Speeding Up A Reaction
You learnt in an earlier topic that the rate of any reaction
depends on the reactant molecules colliding with enough
energy (activation energy) to start the process of
breaking old bonds and making new ones.
Ammonia
2NH3(g)
2NH3(g)
PUMP
Mixture of H2 & N2
(in ratio 3:1)
pumped in under
pressure of
300 atmospheres
N2(g)+ 3H2(g)
4 moles of gas
2NH3(g)
2 moles of gas
By Le Chateliers Principle,
increasing the pressure causes
the equilibrium to shift right, in an
attempt to create less gas
and a lower pressure.
High Pressure
causes the equilibrium to shift right
increasing the yield of ammonia
Coolant out
Condenser
Catalyst
granules in
reaction
chamber
Ammonia
liquifies
PUMP
Coolant in
Liquid
Ammonia
out
Heater
Unit
Temp
400oC
REACTION VESSEL
Unreacted H2 & N2
re-p
pressurized
and
returned to
reaction vessel
2NH3(g) + heat
BUT...
The higher the temperature, the
FASTER the RATE of reaction.
SO...
o
400 C is a COMPROMISE
by Le Chateliers Principle
lower temperatures would
drive the equilibrium right,
and increase the yield of ammonia
Copyright 2006
Worksheet 1
Worksheet 2
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................
........................................................................................................
3. Explain the basic scientific principle of chemical analysis
using the technique of Gas Chromatography.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
4. List 3 reasons why a Laboratory Toxicologist would need
to collaborate with his/her colleagues.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
b) Explain the need for monitoring the reaction, and list 2
factors which might be monitored.
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
HSC Chemistry topic 3
Chemical Analysis
Qualitative Analysis
identifies a chemical species, but does not measure quantity.
Quantitative Analysis
measures the amount or concentration of a chemical.
The syllabus requires that you study techniques to detect
and/or measure 9 specific ions. There are many other ions
and compounds that need monitoring in industry or in the
environment.
Phosphate Ions
3-
Perhaps the main concerns about lead are fading now that
leaded-petrol is no longer pumping lead-laden fumes into
the air, but lead persists in the environment for centuries,
so monitoring of previously polluted areas is still needed.
It is also necessary to monitor for lead emissions from
industries which produce or use lead, such as lead smelters,
or car battery manufacturers.
The ions specified by the syllabus are
CATIONS (+)
ANIONS (-)
Barium
Calcium
Lead
Copper
Iron
Phosphate
Sulfate
Carbonate
Chloride
Dropper bottles of
soluble ionic
compounds
Precipitation Reactions
You were introduced to these in the Preliminary Topic,
Water.
Most ionic compounds are soluble in water, but some have
extremely low solubility. If certain combinations of cation
and anion are mixed together in a solution, they may form
an insoluble solid and precipitate from solution.
You previously studied these reactions to learn about the
Solubility Rules. A knowledge of these rules, and of
the common precipitate colours can now be used to test a
solution containing unknown ions.
Ba
Ca
2+
Pb
2+
Cu
2+
Fe
2+
Add Cl-(aq)
White Precipitate
Pb2+
or
or Fe
3+
or
PO43-
No Reaction
CO32-
No Reaction
Add Ba2+(aq)
No Reaction
Thick White
Precipitate
Add Ag+(aq)
SO42-
Add OH-(aq)
No Reaction
White Precipitate.
Darkens in sunlight
Cl-
Blue Precipitate
Cu2+
CO32-
(CO2 gas)
No Reaction
Ca2+
SO42-
Add SO42-(aq)
White Precipitate
Ba2+
Cl-
Add Acid
2+
Certain combinations
of ions will form
coloured precipitates
Add Fe2+(aq)
Green Precipitate
PO43-
Brown Precipitate
Fe3+
Green Precipitate,
turns brown
Fe2+
HSC Chemistry Topic 3
If No Reaction, target
anions not present
Copyright 2006
Flame Tests
electrons jump
to higher orbit
Sample vaporized
in gas flame.
Target atoms
absorb some light
frequencies
In the flowchart on
the previous page,
2+
the ions Ca and
2+
Ba both gave the
same results for
precipitation
reactions.
Burner
Sample
injected
Data to
computer
AAS
Ion
Barium
Calcium
Copper
Optical system
to select frequency
to measure
electronic
detector
10
Copyright 2006
white light is
a mixture of
frequencies
different
frequencies
spread out to
form a spectrum
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Element
B
Element
C
Once this was understood, the sheep were given a slowrelease cobalt pill, and a multi-million dollar industry was
rescued from trouble.
Absorption
40
0
Absorption of
soil sample
from rural
area
ra
lib
Ca
n
tio
ap
gr
30
Absorption Emission
20
Absorption Emission
10
Emission
Absorption of Light
(at the frequencies for Lead)
100
200
300
400
Concentration of Lead (ppm)
(in known standard solutions)
500
It was data like this, from AAS analysis, that was important in
the decision to stop using leaded petrol, since it revealed the
amount of lead pollution occurring in heavy-traffic areas.
AAS data is vital for monitoring pollutants like lead.
11
Copyright 2006
Accurately Weigh
a Sample of Ferilizer
(approx 2 grams is suitable)
Filter to remove
any insoluble material
Slowly add
an excess of Ba2+
and stir well
As covered earlier,
sulfate ions can be
identified (an in this
case collected
quantitatively) by
precipitation using
Ba2+ions.
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
BaSO4(s)
Common Difficulties
The major problem with this analysis is that the BaSO4
precipitate is notoriously difficult to collect by ordinary
filtration, because it is very fine-grained and a lot gets
through the filter paper.
moles of BaSO4:
n = m/MM
MM= 233.4g
= 2.67/233.4
= 0.01144 mol
moles of sulfate = 0.01144 mol (ratio 1:1)
Mixture
Sintered glass filter
(porous)
allows water through,
but traps fine solids
mass of sulfate:
Suction
m = n x MM
MM(SO4)= 96.1g
= 0.01144 x 96.1
= 1.10 g
Filtrate
HSC Chemistry Topic 3
12
Copyright 2006
Worksheet 3
AAS stands for af)........................................................................
This technique is able to quantitatively measure extremely
small concentrations of an element. Basically, it works by
measuring the amount of ag)................................ absorbed
by atoms in a vaporized sample. Each element has its own
unique absorption ah)................................ The AAS
equipment is able to select the ai)................................... of
light which correspond to the aj)..............................
spectrum of the element being analysed.
a)
Fertilizer A:
sample mass = 4.46g
mass of BaSO4 collected = 3.27g
Fertilizer B:
sample mass = 1.93g
mass of BaSO4 collected = 2.66g
13
0.001
Stratosphere
20
Altitude (km)
30
40
50
Pressure
(atmos)
10
All our
weather and
75% of the air
OZONE
NOx gases
NO & NO2
High-temp. combustions in
engines & power stations.
Particulates
dust, ash, smoke
Ozone, O3
Photochemical smog.
O2
Always good!
up high : good!
down low : bad!
(and rising!)
% of dry air
ppm
ppm
ppm
Hydrocarbons
CnHm
O3
Water vapour in the air varies from about 0.5 - 5%, but all
the other gases of the air are remarkably constant:
1.0
78.1%
20.9%
0.9%
99.9%
Sulfur dioxide
SO2
Troposphere
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
0.1
Mt Everest
Pollutant
Carbon monoxide
CO
14
Other Examples
of Coordinate Covalent Bonding
2 Oxygen atoms
O2 molecule
2 pairs of electrons
shared
Model
S
O
Structural formula
O=O
To form an ozone molecule, another oxygen atom must
bond to the O2, and the way this occurs is an example of a
Coordinate Covalent Bond...
This unbonded pair is about to
be donated to be shared with
another, single O atom
Coordinate
Covalent Bond
2 SO2 + O2
2SO3
S
O
2-
O2 molecule
electrons in a single O atom rearranged into 3 pairs
Model
The O3 molecule is
bent, due to the
electron pairs all
getting as far away
from each other as
possible
Structural formula
O=O-O
O
2 extra
electrons
ionic charge
2O
S
Property
boiling point (oC)
density of liquid (g/cm3)
smell
chemical reactivity
chemical stability
O2
-183
1.2
odourless
reactive
(e.g. combustion)
stable
molecule
O3
-111
1.6
strong
highly
reactive
highly
unstable
15
Copyright 2006
Oxygen free-radicals
For over 100 years, scientists have been sending highaltitude balloons up into the Stratosphere to collect
information and air samples, so the presence of ozone has
been known for many years, and its role as a U.V. shield has
been recognised since the 1920s.
U.V. Rays
2 separate
oxygen
atoms
oxygen
free
radicals
O3
+
This is how ozone is formed in the upper atmosphere.
Although it is unstable and highly reactive, there is virtually
nothing up there for it to react with, and the air of the
Stratosphere hardly mixes with the Troposphere, so it
builds up to a concentration of up to about 8 ppm.
So What?
The problem with ozone depletion is that (for example) a
30% decrease in ozone concentration would mean a 50%
increase in the level of dangerous U.V. radiation reaching
ground level.
Its interesting to note, that the U.V. rays which create the
oxygen free-radicals and thus create ozone, are strongly
absorbed by the ozone. Less than 10% of the dangerous,
incoming U.V. penetrates to the surface, thanks to ozone.
Oxygen O2
Chemically
Active
Ozone O3
VERY active
O free-radical
Extremely
Active
the
16
Haloalkanes.
Copyright 2006
Haloalkanes
Isomers
Cl atoms attached to
different carbon atoms.
1,1-dichloroethane
1,2-dichloroethane
CH3Cl
Chloromethane
CH2Cl2
Cl
Dichloromethane
Cl
Cl
ISOMERS
have the same molecular formula,
but different structures.
They are different compounds,
with different properties.
CHCl3
Cl
Trichloromethane
Cl
Cl
More Examples:
H F Cl Cl
CCl4
Cl
Tetrachloromethane
Cl
Prefixes to use for the number of halogen atoms:
1 = no prefix
4 = tetra
2 = di
5 = penta
3 = tri
6 = hexa
Cl H
C4H5Cl3F2
Best to number the carbons
from the right.
Br Br Br H
C F
C5H5Br3F4
Best to number from
the left.
2,3,4-tribromo-1,1,1,5-tetrafluoropentane
Cl
C
1,2,2-trichloro-1,3-difluorobutane
C F
Br
F
HSC Chemistry Topic 3
bromochlorodifluoromethane
17
Copyright 2006
Cl
F
Cl
Cl
CCl2F2
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
trichlorofluoromethane
Cl
A likely product of this is a chlorine free-radical; a loose
atom of chlorine, which is even more reactive than an
oxygen free-radical.
We use the symbol Cl
Molecular fragments
are highly reactive
free-rradicals
dichlorodifluoromethane
Cl
Cl
Cl
trichlorofluoromethane
Cl
Cl
C2Cl3F3
Cl 1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoromethane
Reaction 1
chlorine + ozone
free-radical
Cl +
O3
oxygen + chlorine
free rad.
O2
+ Cl
Cl +
O3
ClO
+
O
O3 + O
Although the air of the Troposphere does not mix with the
Stratosphere much, the CFCs released have gradually
diffused into the upper atmosphere. This might take 20
years, but these chemicals are very stable and easily last that
long.
ClO
+ O2
O2
+ Cl
2 O2
Copyright 2006
Hydrocarbons,
for example,
as propellants in
aerosol cans.
Hydrocarbons
are inflammable,
so this is less safe
than using CFCs,
but saves ozone.
19
Copyright 2006
Worksheet 4
Haloalkanes are ac)................................. molecules in
which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by
atoms of ad)......................, ............................, ....................... or
............................... which collectively known as the
ae)........................................
2. Naming Haloalkanes
a)
b)
Br
Cl
C
H
Br
C
I
compounds.
c)
20
d)
Cl
Br
N a m e
each of
C Ht h e
H following
Cl Cl
Br H
Cl
Cl
Acidity
Pure water has a pH = 7, but normal good quality drinking
water is often slightly below that (e.g. pH = 6.5) due to the
natural dissolving of CO2. Polluted water can have values
more than 2 pH units either above or below neutrality.
Dissolved Oxygen
& Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
This measurement is the most important measurement for
assessing safety of the water for drinking. Low oxygen
levels mean the water is stagnant. This might be safe to
drink, but usually tastes unpleasant, so is not acceptable.
Turbidity
This is usually measured by the depth of
water required before a highly visible
mark becomes invisible. You may have
used a device similar to the diagram. As
you look down the tube at the cross
drawn on the bottom, water is slowly
poured in at the top.
21
AgCl(s)
Acidity
Use pH paper
(Universal indicator) and a
colour comparison chart,
or use a pH meter.
For example:
Goes cloudy Not cloudy
1 drop 0.01 molL-1
> 0.2
< 0.2
in 10 mL sample
(values are mg/L of Cl ion, approx.)
1 drop 0.0001 molL-1
in 100 mL sample
> 200
< 200
Data to
Computer
Data-llogger probe,
measures O2 concentration
by electronically measuring
a REDOX reaction between
its silver and platinum
electrodes
Water
Sample
Of all the possible ions that might end up in our water, the
heavy metals like lead and mercury are the most dangerous
to human health.
Photoelectric Cell
Light
beam
Beam of
light
Optical system
to select frequency
to measure
electronic
detector
3-
Burner
Sample
injected
Data to
computer
23
Copyright 2006
un
ca der
pil
lar pres
su
y
re
tub , on
ou
e
tsi
de
of
Filtration
Many water supplies are filtered through beds of sand and
carbon granules. This traps most of the flocculated solids,
and the carbon tends to adsorb any organic chemical which
can cause unpleasant odours and tastes.
Chlorination
After flocculation and filtration, the water is usually quite
clean and clear, but may still carry small numbers of
dangerous microbes.
D
me irty
mb wa
ran ter
e
Effectiveness of Treatments
Fine pores in
membrane material
Cut-a
away view of
one membrane
capillary tube
24
Copyright 2006
Worksheet 5
25
CHEMICAL
MONITORING &
MANAGEMENT
26
Copyright 2006
6.
The 4 most abundant gases in normal dry air are:
A. nitrogen, oxygen, argon & carbon dioxide.
B. oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen & ozone.
C. nitrogen, helium, oxygen & ozone.
D. carbon dioxide, oxygen, argon & sulfur dioxide.
Practice Questions
7.
At ground level, ozone is a pollutant gas associated with:
A. incomplete combustion of fuels.
B. smelting of metal ores.
C. photochemical smog.
D. emissions from chemical industries.
Multiple Choice
1.
The need to monitor a chemical process is because even
slight changes in conditions could alter:
A. the pathway and products of the reaction.
B. the rate of reaction and energy change.
C. the equilibrium position and yield.
D. all of the above.
8.
Oxygen and ozone are examples of:
A. isotopes.
B. different elements.
C. isomers
D. allotropes.
2.
The industrial production of ammonia involves the
reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
H = -92kJ/mol
9.
Which of the following chemical species is likely to form by
coordinate covalent bonding?
A. polyethylene
B. potassium sulfide
C. ammonium ion
D. carbon dioxide
10.
Which list places the 3 chemical species in increasing order
of chemical reactivity?
A. O2, O3, O
B. O, O2, O3
C. O3, O, O2
D. O3, O2, O
3.
Samples of a solution known to contain one ionic
compound were tested as follows:
Result
added
Clno reaction
2SO4
no reaction
OHblue precipitate
acid
no reaction
Ba2+
white precipitate
The solution contains the compound
A. barium hydroxide
B. iron(II) sulfate
C. copper(II) sulfate
D. lead(II) chloride
11.
The compound shown would be called:
A. 1,1-chloro-2-fluoroethane
H
B. 1-fluoro-2,2-chloroethane
C. 1,1-dichloro-2-fluoroethane
D. 1-fluoro-2,2-dichloroethane
4.
A flame test on a sample containing barium ions would be
expected to flare:
A. brick red
B. lime-green
C. yellow
D. blue
Cl
12.
CFCs are thought to cause ozone destruction in the
Stratosphere because, when struck by U.V. rays, the CFC
molecule:
A. absorbs the U.V. so it does not penetrate to the ground.
B. breaks apart, releasing a chlorine free-radical.
C. attaches to an ozone molecule and immobilizes it.
D. converts to different isomer.
5.
The analytical technique known as AAS would be suitable
for measuring:
A. trace amounts of arsenic in the hair of a murder victim.
B. drug residues in the saliva of a sports person.
C. the yield of ammonia in an industrial plant.
D. the mass of lead in a bullet from a crime scene.
HSC Chemistry topic 3
Cl
27
13.
Water that is suitable for human consumption should have:
A. very low BOD and turbidity.
B. high dissolved oxygen and high BOD.
C. low pH and high dissolved oxygen.
D. high turbidity and high pH.
19. (7 marks)
In a gravimetric analysis of the purity of an ammonium
sulfate fertilizer, a 4.73g sample was dissolved in dilute
hydrochloric acid and filtered to remove insoluble solids.
An excess of barium chloride solution was added, and the
precipitate collected by filtration. The dried residue had a
mass of 9.15g
14.
A simple test for water hardness is to:
A. taste it.
B. add silver ions, and look for a precipitate.
C. measure the pH.
D. see if soap will lather in it.
15.
The addition of chlorine to water supplies is to:
A. prevent tooth decay.
B. flocculate suspended particles.
C. test for the presence of silver ions.
D. sanitize the water.
20. (4 marks)
A Scientist was overheard to say:
Ozone... good up there, bad down here.
Explain in more detail what was meant by this comment.
21. (5 marks)
a) Give a definition for Coordinate Covalent Bond.
b) Using Lewis Formulas, explain the formation of an
ozone molecule.
c) Contrast the chemical reactivity and stability of the O2
and O3 molecules, and account for these differences.
22. ( marks)
a) Outline 2 different methods used to monitor ozone
concentrations in the upper atmosphere.
b) Give 2 significant findings that have come from ozone
measurements taken over the past 30 years.
c) Discuss briefly 2 potential consequences that could arise
from a continuation of the trends mentioned in part (b).
17. (7 marks)
In the Haber process for the industrial production of
ammonia:
a) explain why hydrogen and nitrogen gases are mixed in a
ratio of exactly 3:1. Include an equation in the explanation.
23. (8 marks)
Draw structural formulas for, and give systematic names of,
four different isomers of dichloropropane.
24. ( marks)
a) Write a series of equations (including a net equation) to
show how ozone is destroyed by a chlorine free-radical.
b) Explain how the Cl acts as a catalyst in this process.
o
d) explain why the reaction temperature (about 400 C) is
considered a compromise.
18. (5 marks)
In a qualitative analysis scheme for the
cations Ba2+ Ca2+ Pb2+ Cu2+ Fe2+ and Fe3+, and for the
223anions Cl- SO4
CO3 and PO4 ,
the following results were obtained for an ionic solution:
Added
Result
i) sulfate ion
no reaction
ii) hydroxide ion
green precipitate, turned brown
iii) barium ion
no reaction
iv) silver ion
white precipitate, darkened.
25. (8 marks)
a) Describe in outline, how a BOD water test is carried out.
b) State the expected results you might obtain on a
i) sample of pure, healthy drinking water.
ii) water from a lake suffering eutrophication.
c) Explain what is meant by eutrophication, including
mention of the usual chemical cause and its source(s).
26. (4 marks)
Our water supplies may have certain chemical substances
added to them. Explain the reason(s) for adding:
a) iron(III) chloride.
b) chlorine.
28
Answer Section
w) barium ion
x) thick, white precipitate
y) silver
z) chloride ions
aa) iron(II)
ab) phosphate
ac) lime-green
ad) brick-red
ae) blue
af) Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
ag) light
ah) frequencies/spectrum
ai) frequencies
aj) absorption
ak) trace
al) cobalt
am) lead
Worksheet 1
Part B
1. Identifying Ions
a) chloride
b) calcium
c) iron(II)
d) carbonate
e) phosphate
f) copper
2. Quantitative Analysis of Sulfate
Fertilizer A:
moles of BaSO4:
n = m/MM
MM= 233.4g
= 3.27/233.4
= 0.0140 mol
moles of sulfate = 0.0140 mol (ratio 1:1)
mass of sulfate: m = n x MM
MM(SO4)= 96.1g
= 0.0140 x 96.1
= 1.35 g
Worksheet 2
a) fertilizers
b) nitric
c) explosives, pigments, fibres/plastics
d) saltpetre (sodium nitrate)
e) Chile
f) Haber
g) hydrogen & nitrogen
h) explosives & fertilizers
i) slow
j) left
k) reactants
l) higher
m) left
n) exothermic
o) Haber
p) rate
q) equilibrium
r) hydrogen
s) nitrogen
t) 300
u) right
v) 400
w) reaction rate
x) equilibrium
y) iron
z) activation energy
aa) lower
ab) condenser
ac) liquified
ad) pumped back into the reaction chamber.
ae) temperature & pressure
af) carbon monoxide and sulfur compounds
ag) poison
Worksheet 4
Part A
a) Troposphere
b) Stratosphere
c) nitrogen, oxygen, argon d) 99.9%
e) carbon monoxide
f) fuel impurities/smelting
g) engines & power stations h) smog
i) lung damage & breathing difficulties
j) U.V. radiation
k) coordinate
l) come from same atom m) polyatomic
n) allotropes
o) chemical
p) chemically reactive
q) unstable
r) 100
s) oxygen
t) oxygen free-radicals
u) ozone
v) Dobson Spectrophotometer
w) U.V. radiation
x) 10%
y) hole in the ozone layer z) Antarctica
aa) sunburn, eye damage & increased skin cancers
ab) crop failure/food shortages
ac) alkane
ad) fluorine, chlorine,bromine, iodine
ae) halogens
af) chlorofluorocarbons
ag) refrigeration, aerosol propellant, foam plastics
ah) chlorine
ai) catalyst
aj) oxygen
ak) hydrofluorocarbons (HFC)
al) 50-100
Worksheet 3
Part A
a) detect/identify
b) measure quantity or concentration
c) eutrophication
d) excessive plant growth
e) removes the oxygen
f) sewerage & fertilizers
g) accumulate
h) permanent brain damage
i) leaded petrol
j) precipitation
k) flame
l) chloride
m) lead
n) sulfate
o) barium or calcium
p) flame test
q) hydroxide
r) copper
s) iron(III) ion
t) iron(II)
u) acid
v) bubbles of CO2
HSC Chemistry Topic 3
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Worksheet 4
Part B
1. Coordinate Covalent Bonding
2a) CO3
carbonate ion
2 extra
electrons
ionic charge
2-
b) NO3
nitrate ion
O
O
Practice Questions
c) H3O+
hydronium ion
Part A
1. D
2. B
3. C
4. B
2. Naming Haloalkanes
a) bromochloromethane
b) 3,4-dichloro-1,1,2-trifluorobutane
c) bromochlorofluoroiodomethane
d) 1,1-dibromo-3,3-dichloropropane
3. Isomers
a) Cl H
Cl
H
C
Cl H H
1,1,1-trichloropropane
Cl
H
b)
Br
Cl Cl
H
Cl
C H
H H H H
1-bromo-1-chlorobutane
Br
Cl H
C H
H H H H
1-bromo-3-chlorobutane
(lots more)
Cl
Cl
Cl
1,2,3-trichloropropane
(several others)
H Cl
C H
17.
a)
Br Cl H
C H
H H H H
2-bromo-3-chlorobutane
Worksheet 5
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH3(g)
The reactants are mixed 3:1 (by volume) because this is the
mole ratio in which they react, so this is the most efficient
mixture.
b) High pressure shifts the equilibrium to the right,
increasing the yield of ammonia.
c) Catalyst is iron. (usually iron ore, with the surface
reduced to elemental iron)
Catalyst speeds up the rate of reaction by lowering the
activation energy.
d) Higher temperatures speed up reaction rate, but reduces
the yield of ammonia, because the reaction is exothermic
(equilibrium shifts left at higher temps). 400oC is a
compromise giving reasonable rate and reasonable yield.
H H H H
1-bromo-2-chlorobutane
H
Multiple Choice
5. A
9. C
13. A
6. A
10. A
14. D
7. C
11. C
15. D
8. D
12. B
1,1,3-trichloropropane
Br
18.
a) A qualitative test can detect and identify a chemical
species, but does not measure the amount or concentration.
b)
i) no barium or calcium ions present.
ii) iron(II) ions present.
iii) no sulfate ions present.
iv) chloride ion is present.
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19.
a) (NH4)2SO4(aq)+ BaCl2(aq)
BaSO4(s)+ 2NH4Cl(aq)
b) moles of BaSO4:
n = m/MM
MM= 233.4g
= 9.15/233.4
= 0.03920 mol
moles of (NH4)2SO4 = 0.03920 mol (ratio 1:1)
mass of (NH4)2SO4: m = n x MM
MM = 114.1g
= 0.03920 x 114.1
= 4.47 g
% sulfate in sample = 4.47 x 100 = 94.6%
4.73
c) The precipitate of barium sulfate is very fine-grained and
often passes through a normal filter paper. It is better to
use a sintered glass crucible filter, and use vacuum
filtration.
23.
Cl
Cl
O2 molecule
Oxygen free-radical
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl H
1,2-dichloropropane
H
Cl H
H Cl H
2,2-dichloropropane
O3
ClO
+ O2
ClO
+
O
O2
+ Cl
net equation: shows ozone is converted to oxygen.
O3 + O
2 O2
The 2nd equation shows that the chlorine free-radical is
regenerated, so it can begin the process again. Since it is
involved in the reactions, but not being used up by them, it
is acting as a catalyst.
25.
a) BOD involves taking 2 water samples and testing one
immediately for dissolved oxygen levels. The other sample
is kept for 5 days (in dark, no contact with air) then its
dissolved oxygen is measured.
b) i) There should be virtually no change in dissolved O2.
ii) The dissolved O2 reading will drop significantly
between the first measurement, and the 5-days-later sample.
c) Eutrophication is caused by extra phosphate and nitrate
ions getting into a stream. This fertilizes the water plants
and algae, leading to over-growth and algal blooms.
When the algae dies, the rotting vegetation takes all the
oxygen from the water, so aquatic animal life suffocates.
The sources of the phosphate and nitrate is usually from
farm fertilizers or discharge of treated sewerage.
O3 molecule
24.
21.
a) This is when the 2 electrons being shared both come
from the same atom.
Coordinate
b)
Covalent Bond
+
H H H
1,3-dichloropropane
1,1-dichloropropane
20.
Ozone at ground level is a serious pollutant, created in
photochemical smog. It can cause lung damage and
breathing difficulties at concentrations as low as 2 ppm.
Cl
26.
a) The iron(III) ions react with water forming highly
insoluble iron(III) hydroxide. This precipitate causes other
suspended solids to flocculate or clump together in larger
particles. These are more efficiently removed by
sedimentation or filtration.
b) Chlorine is added to sanitize the water by killing any
germs.
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