03 Systems Revision Feb 08

Aircraft General Knowledge
(Systems)
Revision Notes
February 2008
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS REVISION

Notes
PART ONE AIRFRAMES AND SYSTEMS
Section 1. HYDRAULICS
Hydrostatics - The pressure produced at the base of a column of fluid is
directly proportional to its height, irrespective of the shape of the container.
Hydraulic power transmission
Pascals Law - Pressure is transmitted in all directions, undiminished by
distance, acts at right angles to the container.
A mechanical advantage is gained by moving a small force over a large
distance, to enable a large load to be moved over a small distance
Fluids
Properties - Low viscosity, good lubrication, non-flammable, non toxic, low
freezing point, high boiling point, non foaming, coloured for identification,
Effectively incompressible, different types cannot be mixed
TypesMineral - DTD 585 - Red (flammable, narrow temp range)
Synthetic- Skydrol - purple (non flammable, wide temp range)
Basic System
Reservoir - Contains fluid
Power Pump - Provides normal pressure
Hand Pump - Provides emergency pressure
Filter - Cleans fluid
ACOV - Controls system pressure
Accumulator - Contains fluid under pressure
Pressure relief valve - Relieves excess pressure
Selector Valve - Directs pressure and return fluid
Actuator - Converts hyd press to mechanical movement
Components
1. Reservoir
Contains fluid, allows for thermal expansion, variations in fluid level due to
actuator position, allows for slight leakage. Vented to prevent partial vacuum,
pressurised to prevent cavitation of pump in high altitude aircraft. Contains
de-aerator and baffles. Stack pipe to feed power pump
2. Power Pump
a) Constant displacement - requires ACOV and accumulator to control
system pressure, off loads pump output back to return at low pressure to
maintain lubrication and cooling flow when ACOV has cut out.
b) Constant Pressure (Live Line) - variable angle swash plate, controls its
own pressure to system working value. Pump pistons set for maximum stroke
when pump stationary.
3. Hand Pump
Provides emergency source of pressure, takes its supply from the bottom of
the reservoir, double acting (delivers fluid on both strokes)
4. Filter
Pressure filter after pump, contains by pass valve and blockage indicator,
filter element may be changed if blocked.
5. Automatic Cut Out Valve
Controls system working pressure in a constant delivery system, off loads
Steve Chesher Feb 08

Notes
pump back to reservoir when cut out, requires an accumulator to operate
properly
6. Accumulator
Holds a quantity of fluid under pressure when charged, (does not store
pressure or fluid), absorbs pressure surges, maintains system pressure when
ACOV cut out, provides instant reaction to a selection, provides limited
emergency pressure, gas press too low hammering in system, gas press
too high - rapid cycling of ACOV
7. Pressure relief valve, (PRV) or full flow relief valve
Prevents damage to components from over pressurising of system by
relieving excess pressure back to return side of reservoir, set to open at a
value above normal system working pressure. Cracking pressure - the
pressure at which the valve first begins to pass fluid - somewhere between
full flow (fully open) and reseat (closing) pressure.
8. Thermal relief valve, (TRV)
Similar to PRV, relieves excess pressure from a line which has trapped fluid
in it, set to open a higher value than the PRV. Responds to increase in
pressure caused by an increase in temperature, does not relieve
temperature.
9. Selector valve (control valve)
Directs pressure fluid to the actuator and opens a path for the return fluid to
pass back to the reservoir.
10. Actuators
Converts hydraulic pressure into mechanical movement to operate the
required service
Single acting - sprung loaded one way, hydraulic the other
Double acting - hyd both ways
Balanced - equal areas
11. Shuttle valve
Allows an alternate hydraulic supply to power a component while shutting off
the first, sometimes for emergency use. Typically found in hydraulic brake
systems.
12. Pressure reducing valve
Reduces system pressure to that pressure required by a particular system
13. Hydraulic fuse
Prevents fluid loss by closing when leakage is sensed down stream, often
found in brake systems. Always found in large passenger airliner wheel brake
systems.
14. Pressure Maintaining Valve (Priority Valve)
Maintains falling system pressure for essential services by closing off supply
to non essentials
15. Restrictor valves (one way and two way)
Restricts flow of fluid to control rate of travel of an actuator, found in landing
gear up line to control rate of lowering and flap down line to control rate of
raising with added air loads
16. Sequence valve
Allows correct sequencing of different operations, e.g., landing gear door and
leg
17. Pressure relay valve
Allows transmission of pressure and not fluid, used in pressure gauge and
transmitter lines will prevent fluid loss in the event of gauge breakage

Notes
18. Hydraulic system indications
As well as system quantity, pressure and temperature indications most
systems will have the following warnings
a) Low pressure (pump output)
b) High temperature (measured in reservoir)
c) Low contents (measured in reservoir)
d) Pump failure (pump output)
Light Aircraft Systems
1. Open Centre System
Selector valves have open centres and are arranged in series to allow the
pump to be off loaded unless a service is being operated, only one service
can be operated at a time.
2. Power Pack
Most of the system components contained in one easily serviced unit
Alternate Forms of Pressure
In the event of a main pump failure there is usually an alternate means of
pressurising the system
Engine Driven Pump EDP (normal source of pressure)
Electrically Driven Pump - AC Pump
Power Transfer Unit PTU (Hyd motor driving a hyd. pump)
Air Turbine Driven Motor/Pump - ATM
Ram Air Turbine Driven Pump RAT or HYRAT.
High Pressure Pneumatic Systems
Older aircraft used pneumatic (high pressure air) systems rather than
hydraulics. The F27 is an example of this type of aircraft. The pneumatic
system uses air at high pressure to operate the actuators for landing gear
retraction etc. The system comprises engine driven compressors to raise the
pressure to 3,000 psi. approximately. The system includes accumulators
(storage bottles) to store the air under pressure ready for use, filters, relief
valves, control valves and actuators very similar to hydraulic systems. The
advantage being that there are no return lines back to the reservoir and there
is an inexhaustible supply of free air. Disadvantage being air is compressible
and is not as powerful as a hydraulic system.
Section 2.
LANDING GEAR
The Landing Gear absorbs the landing shock, supports the weight of the
aircraft when on the ground and enables the aircraft to be manoeuvred.
Contains shock absorbers, wheels, tyres, brakes and some means to steer
the aircraft.
The Main Gear supports the majority of the weight balanced by a Nose wheel
or Tail wheel
The most common layout for a passenger aircraft is two main landing gear
legs and a nose landing gear leg (tricycle undercarriage) because it is easier
to steer, less likely to nose over in a crosswind gives better forward vision
particularly during taxying
Some light aircraft have a fixed landing gear; larger aircraft have a retractable
gear to reduce drag in flight. The gear can be retracted by electrical,
pneumatic or, more normally, by a hydraulic actuators.
Retractable landing gear will be locked in the down and up positions by down
locks and uplocks, which are closed by spring action and opened by

Notes
hydraulic action (usually by a single acting actuator)
When down and locked the gear is braced by a system of side stays and
geometric locks to prevent collapse on landing. When on the ground the gear
is prevented from being retracted by a solenoid lock on the selector lever,
which is activated by the air/ground logic circuit. Ground locking devices can
also fitted by the ground crew when the aircraft is parked, which are removed
before flight.
To indicate the position of the gear there are red and green lamps on the
flight deck, which are activated by micro switches, or proximity sensors on
each leg.
Green light - down and locked
Red light - unlocked
No light - up and locked
Emergency extension of the landing gear provided by alternate hydraulic
system or pneumatic system via a shuttle valve, or by gravity (free fall)
Steering
The steering is either by differential braking (tail wheel), or by turning the
nose wheel (tricycle) The nose wheel may be connected mechanically to the
rudder pedals in a light aircraft but usually turned by hydraulic actuators in a
large aircraft operated by a steering tiller on the flight deck
Oleo pneumatic shock absorber
Telescopic tube filled with air and oil. The air acts like a spring to support the
weight of the aircraft and absorb the landing shock, the oil acts as a damper
to prevent recoil in the strut
Torque links connect the upper and lower parts of the strut to prevent the
lower part of the leg rotating around the upper but still allow telescoping
action.
The amount of shock absorber extension gives an indication of the gas
pressure in the strut
Gas pressure too high - too much extension hard ride
Gas pressure too low - too little extension soft ride and bottoming of the
strut
Shimmy
Nose wheels suffer from shimmy, which is rapid sinusoidal oscillation of the
nose wheel about the track causing unpleasant vibration
It can be caused by a broken or worn torque link or uneven tyre pressures on
a twin wheeled leg
A shimmy damper, two nosewheels or a twin contact tyre on a single wheel
can reduce shimmy
Turn Radius
The turn radius or the aircraft is determined by the steering angle of the nose
wheels, the distance between the nose and main gear and the main gear
track
During the push back the steering is deactivated by fitting a steering lock
out pin, which must be removed before flight
Section 3
WHEELS AND TYRES
Wheel
Strong and light usually made of magnesium alloy. Constructed in two parts
to allow tyre to be fitted - Split flange, loose flange or divided. Two halves
bolted together. Look out for corrosion and cracking
Wheel contains valves, anti skid speed sensor, wheel bearings and fusible
plugs.
Fusible plug releases tyre pressure to prevent explosion if the wheel and

Notes
tyre assembly reaches a critical temperature.
Tyres
Strong - to take landing shocks and flexing during taxying. Divided into four
zones: Crown, Shoulder, Sidewall, and Bead. Normally tubeless and cross
ply for large aircraft, (however some radial ply tyres are used)
Tyre markings include size, speed limitations, part number, balance markings
and awl vents
The correct tyre pressure is important to enable the tyre to wear evenly. Low
pressure wears on shoulder high pressure wears on crown.
Aquaplaning - a layer of water lifting the tyre from the runway reducing the
braking effect occurs at 9 times the square root of the tyre pressure (in psi.)
speed in knots. Occurs when tread depth is completely filled with water.
Section 4
BRAKES
Brake Units
Brakes convert Kinetic Energy into Heat energy by friction, clamping
stationary pads to the rotating disc, reducing the speed of the aircraft
Light aircraft - single disc, hydraulic - more pressure on brake pedals, more
braking effect
Heavy aircraft - multiple disc brakes to cope with the extra kinetic energy
Automatic brake adjusters compensate for brake wear by maintaining a
constant running clearance between disc and pads
Brake wear can be determined by brake wear indicators or by applying the
brakes and by measuring the gap between the disc and the piston housing.
Brake fade - loss of braking effect, as the brakes get hot
Dragging - failure of brakes to release properly - broken return springs, air in
hydraulic line, distorted disc - causes brake to overheat
Squealing - glazed or warped disc
Parking brake - applies all main wheel brakes equally as long as hydraulic
pressure is available. Indicator to show parking brake on
Anti - Skid
To maximise braking effect by preventing wheel skidding
A wheel speed sensor on each wheel sends signals to an electronic control
unit, which monitors the rate of deceleration of each wheel. A brake
modulator valve controls the hydraulic pressure to prevent skid
Armed during approach when gear is down does 3 things
1. Prevents landing with brakes applied
2. After landing the wheels spin up to activate the system, with the brakes
applied will sense an impending skid on any wheel and will reduce pressure
to that wheel
3. If a locked wheel is detected it will release the pressure to that wheel only
until it spins up again and then will re - apply brake pressure
Deactivated below 5 -10 knots to allow aircraft to be brought to a halt

Notes
Warning light on flight deck to indicate failure of system or component
Auto Brakes
Automatically applies brakes and controls to achieve a selected deceleration
rate, either on landing or on rejected take off (RTO). The anti skid must be
serviceable and switched on to allow auto-brake system to work.
Aircraft must be on the ground with throttles at idle to select RTO
For RTO system is armed before commencing take off run, brakes will be
applied if after an airspeed of 60 - 80kts is reached and all the throttles are
moved to idle, deactivated by applying manual braking.
Brake Indications
Hydraulic pressure available, brake accumulator pressure, parking brake on,
anti -skid and auto brake failure, brake temperatures, may have tyre
pressures on modern glass cockpit displays
Section 5
FUELS - REFUELLING
Piston engine - AVGAS or MOGAS

AVGAS 100LL - blue SG 0.72 (low lead)
AVGAS 100 - green SG 0.72
Turbine engine - AVTUR or AVTAG
AVTUR
JET A1 sg 0.8
JET A sg 0.8
AVTAG
JET B sg 0.77
Jet fuels colourless to straw yellow
When using Jet B adjustment of the fuel control unit may be required
Colour Coding of Pipelines
AVGAS - White lettering on RED background
AVTUR/AVTAG - White lettering on BLACK background
Sampling
Check for: -
Sediment
Bulk water
Cloudiness (suspended water)
Water content (water detector)
Refuelling/Defuelling
Check correct grade of fuel
Overwing refuelling - Open line
Underwing refuelling - Pressure refuelling - closed line
Fuel is pumped in by fuel truck or hydrant NOT sucked in using aircraft
pumps.
Ensure correct grounding, bonding or earthing to equalise electrical potential
before removing fuel caps. Do not bond refueller to hydrant pit
Establish refuelling Zone - 6m radially from filling and venting points and
ensure safety precautions are observed. Do not
i)
Transmit on radios
ii)
Switch on and off electrics
iii)
Replenish oxygen
iv)
Switch on weather radar
v)
Smoke within 50 ft of the aircraft
APU can be used for electrical power but must be started before refuelling
and not stopped until after refuelling finished
Refuelling with passengers on board is ok if: Aircraft has more than 20 seats

Notes
Refuelling with AVTUR only
2 exits are available, manned by cabin crew
Using loading bridge one exit may be automatic escape slide, manned by
cabin crew
NOT WHEN using AVGAS or JET B without anti - static additive
When defuelling same precautions must be observed, disposal of the
defuelled fuel remains the responsibility of the aircraft operator. It cannot be
put into another aircraft or mixed with fuel in a refueller until its quality has
been confirmed.
Defuelling can be achieved by pumping fuel out with aircraft pumps or by
sucking fuel out using fuel truck pumps.
Filling tanks full at night helps to reduce condensation in the tanks, but if the
temperature increases the fuel may expand and vent, or the aircraft may be
too heavy to take off the next morning
Fuel Systems
Storage
Tanks: - Rigid
Flexible
Integral
All tanks have:
Vent system - prevents vacuum forming when fuel is used
Feed system
Filler system
Booster pumps - prevent cavitation and vapour locking, 3 phase AC
induction motor driving centrifugal impeller (20 50psi)
Feeder box to mount pumps, prevents cavitation
Fuel drain
Gauging
Baffles - prevents surging or sloshing
Baffle check valves - prevent fuel moving outboard from root to tip
Multiple fuel tanks - allow even distribution between wings. Selective
switching allows fuel to be used evenly or transferred from tank to tank to
allow even usage or to cater for failure. It may not be possible to pump fuel
from tank to tank in a modern airliner so to keep the lateral balance correct it
may be necessary to selectively burn the fuel.
Dumping
Large a/c may have the ability to dump fuel in an emergency in order to
reduce the landing weight if MLM is significantly less then MTOM.
Must be carried out under the control of ATC and within the correct flight
envelope and configuration for the a/c
Safety switching prevents dumping all the fuel - JAA min requirement to
remain
Gauging
Can be resistive or capacitive
Resistive - for small aircraft, measures volume - subject to manoeuvre error,
variable resistance/DC powered
Capacitive - For larger a/c, measures weight (kgs or lbs) Accurate at all
attitudes, failure drives indicator to zero. Variable capacitance/AC powered.
Dipsticks, drip sticks or drop sticks allow for manually determining the level of
fuel in the tank to cross check gauge accuracy, or if the gauge has failed.
Section 6.
AIR DRIVEN SYSTEMS
Compressed air
Uses: - Air Conditioning
Pressurisation

Notes
Emergency Flap/slat operation
Engine starting
Hot air anti-icing
Hyd reservoir pressurisation
Sources of compressed air
Engine driven compressor - for piston engine and small gas turbine /
turboprop a/c (cabin blower, cabin supercharger)
Engine bleed air - For larger gas turbine engine a/c that can afford to have
some air taken from the engine compressor without too much loss of thrust bleed air can also be supplied by the APU
Normally taken from two places on the compressor (a low and high pressure
stage of the compressor) low is sufficient for high power operation, low and
high for low power operation. Typical pressure requirement 30 - 40 psi
All of the bleed air can be closed off if required by a shut off valve, which
opens slowly and shuts quickly.
Stored compressed air
A limited emergency source of compressed air can be supplied by highpressure air from storage bottles. Recharged on the ground (these are
unusual in modern airliners)
Section 7
AIR CONDITIONING
Minimum requirements are laid down in BCAR and JAR

i)
Fresh air - 1 lb / seat / min
ii)
Temp - +180C to 240C
iii)
Humidity - approx 30%
iv)
Contamination - level of Co - 1 part in 20,000
v)
Ventilation - must be adequate when unpressurised
Duplication of components - so that no single failure causes less than 0.5lb /
seat / min
These requirements are met by:
1.
Adequate supply constant mass flow to achieve correct ventilation
and fresh air
Externally driven compressor. - The excess air is dumped overboard by a
spill valve, which is controlled by a mass flow controller, maintaining the
correct flow for minimum fresh air requirements i.e. Constant mass flow
irrespective of engine RPM.
Engine bleed air systems - Air bled from the engine compressor and
controlled by a bleed air shut off valve. Mass flow controlled by a variable
orifice Mass Flow Controller (no spill valve required in this type of system)
Both systems will have protection devices to prevent overpressure or
overtemp using sensors to automatically close the shut off valve.
2.
Mixing hot and cold air to achieve the temperature requirement
3.
Humidity - atomised water added or excess water removed
(humidifier and water extractor)
Light aircraft systems. - Unpressurised: Ram air heated by exhaust muff or combustion heater, used air exhausted
overboard. Combustion heater must have safeguards against high outlet
temp, including fire protection and auto fuel shut off in the event of an
overtemp
Ram air ventilation directly to cockpit
Pressurised aircraft
Piston engine and small gas turbine or turbo prop a/c may be supplied by an
engine driven compressor (cabin blower or cabin supercharger) Some turbo
charged engines use turbo compressor discharge air.
Temperature Control
Usually achieved by mixing of hot air with cooled air. Air from a cabin blower
may need heating or cooling. Bleed air will always need cooling at lower
altitudes. There are many ways to cool the air.
1.
Ram Air Bleed air or Blower air is passed through a heat exchanger

Notes
where some of the heat is removed by cold ram air
2.
Vapour Cycle Cooling System Works on the same principle as the
domestic fridge, using the Latent Heat of Vaporisation to remove heat from
the incoming cabin air supply.
The refrigerant used is FREON 12, chosen for its low boiling point (about 30C
at atmospheric pressure)
The refrigerant is circulated around a sealed system where it removes heat
from the cabin supply in a heat exchanger called the evaporator (where the
liquid refrigerant turns into a gas), it is then pressurised and cooled in the
condenser (turning back into a liquid) The greater the cooling required the
more refrigerant is allowed into the evaporator through an expansion valve.
The cooled air is then mixed with hot air to suit the cabin requirements.
3.
Air Cycle Machine The Air Cycle Machine (ACM) cools the air
supply by expansion through a turbine. The more work the turbine has to do
the more the air is cooled. (Adiabatic Cooling). Temperatures just above
freezing point are typically achievable.
There are two major configurations for ACMs
a)
Brake Turbine
b)
Bootstrap
a) Brake Turbine (old aircraft)
Is used where there is a fairly high pressure supply - the turbine is loaded by
a brake which may be a compressor, or a fan (turbo fan). This system can
be easily identified by having only one heat exchanger. The compressor or
fan provides work for the turbine to do. The jet pump induces airflow across
the heat exchanger to enable the system to cool when the a/c is on the
ground.
b) Bootstrap (Most Popular in modern aircraft)
Used in aircraft having lower pressure bleed air supply.
The lower pressure bleed air is boosted by passing it through a compressor
to raise its pressure sufficiently to achieve a good temperature drop across
the turbine.
Recognised by having two heat exchangers. A ground cooling fan induces a
cooling airflow across the heat exchanger when the a/c is on the ground.
These units are generally referred to as Air Conditioning Packs (ACS) or
Environmental Control System Packs (ECS Packs) and comprise heat
exchangers, cooling components, water extractors, humidifiers and
sometimes the mass flow controller. There is a shut off valve to allow air into
the packs called a pack valve, pack inlet valve or pack flow control valve.
Automatic temperature control is achieved by comparing a temperature
selection made by the pilot with the temperature of the mixed air inlet to the
cabin. The Hot Air Bypass Valve modulates to allow more or less air to pass
through the cooling components to obtain the correct temperature at the point
of mixing. A manual control is also provided which allows the hot air valve to
be moved open or closed directly.
Water Extractor
Removes excess moisture fitted at the turbine outlet - water is thrown
away, sometimes over the heat exchanger to increase cooling effect by
evaporation. It is not used for the humidifier
Humidifier
Adds water to cabin supply to increase humidity at high altitude - downstream
of water extractor - uses water from the domestic supply. Switched off at low
altitude.
ECS Packs are usually duplicated in twin engine a/c and triplicated in 3 & 4
engine a/c. Layout of pack valves and cross feed valves allow any pack to be
fed from any supply.
In the event of contamination entering the aircraft distribution system
selective operation of these valves can isolate the source of the

Notes
contamination.
The ECS packs can be operated on the ground to condition the a/c when
parked by using APU bleed air.
Section 8
PRESSURISATION
As pressure and density decrease with altitude the effects of hypoxia

increase (lack of oxygen)
Below 10,000 ft there is sufficient oxygen content in the reduced density air
for efficient human performance
Above this altitude the body requires additional oxygen
Alternatively, by keeping a higher pressure in the cabin than outside the
aircraft an artificially lower altitude can be maintained in the cabin where the
oxygen content will now be sufficient. A typical normal maximum Cabin
Altitude would be 8,000 ft although anything below 10,000ft would be
acceptable.
The fuselage of the aircraft must be strengthened to withstand considerably
higher pressures inside than outside (Differential Pressure). The greater the
differential press the stronger the fuselage must be.
Every time the aircraft flies the diff press will rise from zero, when the a/c is
on the ground, to a maximum value at maximum cruise alt, and then reduce
to zero again when the a/c descends and lands.
This pressurisation Cycle causes repetitive stress on the structure of the a/c
as it is continually being blown up and let down.
This cyclic stress is called Hoop Stress which is cumulative and will
ultimately limit the structural life of the a/c. Keeping the maximum allowable
diff press to its lowest practical value reduces the hoop stress.(Some old
aircraft may have their max diff reduced to reduce the fatigue stress on the
hull. I would avoid going on holiday in such an aircraft!) Hence keeping the
cabin altitude at 8,000 ft instead of sea level reduces the fatigue on the
pressure hull. Typical Max Diff 8 - 9psi.To prevent structural damage
occurring if max diff is exceeded there is a Safety Valve, which will open to
relieve excess pressure if the pressure rises to Max Diff plus 0.25psi.If the
pressure outside the a/c exceeds the pressure inside structural damage
may also occur. To prevent this negative press an Inward Relief Valve is
fitted to open at a negative diff of 0.5psi.
Both of these valves are duplicated
Control
Pressurisation is achieved by having a constant mass flow of air into the
cabin (remember the mass flow controller from the aircon system) and
controlling the rate at which it allowed to escape to atmosphere
The components that accomplish this are Pressure controllers and Outflow
Valves (Discharge valves) these are also duplicated although the controller
may be one box but with duplicated circuits.
The pressure controller is the brains of the system and is set before flight by
the pilot for the required flight profile.
The outflow valves are biased fully open on the ground
At take off and climb the controller senses ambient pressure and cabin
pressure and positions the outflow valves to control the rate of change of
cabin altitude (within 300 - 500 ft/min) in proportion to the rate of climb of the
a/c to achieve the desired cabin altitude when the cruising alt has been
reached (Proportional control).
In cruise the controller maintains the desired cabin alt by maintaining a
constant diff press (Isobaric Control). If Max Diff has been reached then the
controller will not allow any further increase in Diff Press (Max Diff Control)
During descent the controller is once again in proportional control to control
the rate of descent of the cabin to ensure the diff press is reduced to zero by
the time the a/c has descended to its landing altitude (Proportional Control)
The controller has Automatic and Standby modes of operation.
In the event of a failure there must be a manual method of reducing the cabin
10

Notes
pressure to zero (dump valve)
NB.
Aircraft climbing - outflow valve closing - diff press increasing

Aircraft descending - outflow valve opening - diff press reducing
Minimum Indications Required

1.
Cabin Altimeter
2.
Cabin VSI
3.
Differential Pressure Gauge
4.
Cabin Altitude Warning when Cabin Alt exceeds 10,000ft
(aural and visual)
Section 9
OXYGEN SYSTEMS
The flight deck crew will require oxygen if cabin alt rises above 10,000ft.
Passengers are given oxygen automatically at 14,000ft cabin alt or when
selected manually by the pilot.
Types of system
Gaseous - Continuous flow (crew or passengers)
Diluter demand (crew only)
Portable sets (therapeutic or emergency use)
Chemical - Self contained units provides pax oxygen only for limited
period (15 mins)
1.
Continuous Flow
1800 psi storage cylinder - pressure reduced to useable level HP and LP
indications, plug in or drop out masks crew or passenger use. Passenger
masks activated by releasing the door for the drop down masks
pneumatically.
2.
Diluter Demand - Crew use only
1800 psi storage cylinder - regulator meters oxygen on demand, mixed with
cabin air in proportion to cabin alt when normal is selected, not mixed when
100% is selected.
4-position selector
Normal - diluted with cabin air up to 32,000ft cab alt
100% - neat oxy supplied on demand
Emergency - 100% oxy supplied at greater than cabin pressure
Test - Oxy provided at higher press than emergency to test the mask
3.
Portable Sets
Gaseous 1800 psi 120 litres - typical set has two settings
High 4 litres/min
Low 2 litres/min
To ensure correct volume, gaseous cylinders are charged to 1800 psi at
21oC - if the ambient temp is higher charge to a higher press and vice-versa
in accordance with a press/temp gradient
4.
Chemical Oxy Generators
Generates oxygen by controlled burning of Sodium Chlorate and Iron powder
Ignited by electrical firing mechanism. Masks are deployed manually or by
barometric switch at 14000ft. Drop down mask doors released electrically for
chemical systems..
Minimum duration 15 mins - Shelf life 10 years - heat sensitive paint or tape
to ascertain serviceability - oxy supplied at low press and temp - continuous
flow.
Section 10
ICE & RAIN PROTECTION
Ice accretion (build up) during flight or on the ground must be removed, adds
weight destroys lift characteristics of wing.
11

Notes
Anti Icing - Prevention of ice build up
De icing - Removal of ice which has formed
In flight warning ice warning detectors
Visual - hot rod
Pressure operated - Differential pressure
Mechanical - Rotating spline knife edge cutter
Electronic - Vibrating rod
The last three will show ice warning on the flight deck, switch on your
protection systems.
Aircraft ice protection systems
Airframe
1. Mechanical - De icing boots, inflatable to break the ice from wings, fin and
stabiliser. Needs a pressure and vacuum source, allow build up of ice before
activating, cycles between wings tail and fin, may have timer for automatic
operation. Typically on piston and turbo prop aircraft.
2. Thermal - Hot air, hot oil or electrically heated elements, prevents ice build
up or removes already formed ice - it is always better to prevent build up in
the first place. Electrical elements may use frequency wild supply. Hot air
typically on modern jet transports.
3. Fluid - Applied from storage tank under pressure to porous leading edge
panels to prevent or remove ice. Limited storage capacity.
Propeller
Anti icing - Fluid
De icing - Electrical - Frequency wild AC cycled to allow only one propeller to
be de iced at a time as vibration may occur when ice is shed from blades
Windscreens
Fluid
Electrical - Maintains screen at a constant temp to prevent ice build up and
increase impact resistance of forward facing screens
Rain repellent - Applied to screens to encourage rain to clear screen, do not
apply to a dry screen, as it will smear. Use on wet screen in conjunction with
wipers
Ground De icing (unlikely to be examined in the Systems paper)
Remove snow, ice with brush, hot air, scraper, fluid or put a/c into hanger
Prevent refreezing with fluid
Fluid can be used for de icing or anti icing
Three types of fluid
Type 1 not used much because it has a very short holdover time
Type 2 - thickened to remain on the a/c longer can be applied hot and diluted
for de icing, cold undiluted for anti icing
Type 4 can be applied hot and diluted for de icing, cold undiluted for anti icing
Type 4 when applied 100% cold has the longest holdover time
De icing with engines/APU running can be carried out but switch off air
bleeds to air conditioning system
Hot Water de icing can be carried out but not below -7o C and must be
followed within 3 mins by an application of de icing fluid to prevent refreezing.
Be aware of general information in the holdover chart i.e. holdover time is
dependent on Temp of fluid, strength of mixture, ambient temp and prevailing
weather conditions.
E.g. freezing rain - best holdover time with 100% cold - 20 mins.
Section 11
FIRE PROTECTION
12

Notes
Aircraft installation for engine, cargo bay, radio electrics bay, wheel well etc.
Detection and protection.
Portable extinguishers for cabin use.
Engine System
Detection and protection
1. Detection
Fire warning systems comprise a common aural warning and a steady red
light for each engine to indicate the location of the fire. The red light typically
illuminates the fire handle or fire switch. Operating the fire handle or switch
will isolate the affected engine from the aircraft systems (fuel, electrics, bleed
air, hydraulics)
Each engine has its own detection system, often duplicated (dual loop) and is
provided with an extinguishing system, which typically allows the pilot two
attempts (shots) to extinguish the fire
2. Protection
The fire extinguishers (bottles) are discharged from the flight deck by the
pilot. A typical system will have a fire handle, which as well as isolating the
systems as above will also arm the fire extinguisher firing circuits (squibs)
allowing the bottle to be fired by either turning the handle left or right or by
activating a firing switch to fire the first or second shot.
Pressure sensors on the bottle tell the pilot that the extinguishant has been
discharged by illuminating a warning light on the flight deck.
Similar systems can be installed in cargo compartments
Detection systems
Engine compartments are usually split into fire Zones. Detectors and
extinguishers protect those zones most at risk
Cargo compartments can be similarly equipped but are usually fitted with
smoke detectors rather than overheat detectors
Toilet and electric compartments are also fitted with smoke detectors
Overheat detectors are also fitted alongside hot air ducting for air
conditioning and anti icing.
Types of detector Overheat Detectors
Unit Type - detects in its immediate vicinity only, about the size of a pen,
may be bi-metallic switch or thermocouple. An increase in temp past its
threshold value will activate the system. May be many connected in parallel
to protect a large area. Has a time delay in the circuit to prevent vibration
from setting it off.
Continuous wire type - Narrow stainless steel wire (2mm dia) up to 15 ft
long can be connected in series to form a longer circuit.
Will detect anywhere along its length, is routed and supported around the
engine or along a hot air pipe. More commonly called firewire.
3 Types:
Resistive - Co-axial wire element having a central electrode insulated from
an outer sheath fed with a DC supply. An increase in temperature causes a
reduction in the resistance of the insulator until current flows between the
central electrode and outer sheath. This activates the fire warning system
(bell and light) on the flight deck. (Negative coefficient of resistance).
Disadvantage - short circuit causes a fire warning.
Capacitive - Same construction as the resistive but fed with AC supply. An
increase in temperature causes an increase in the value of the capacitance
until the fire warning activates (positive coefficient of capacitance). Does
not give a fire warning when short-circuited.
Pneumatic - The element is filled with a material, which expands when
heated activating the alarm
13

Notes
All of these detectors can be tested from the flight deck and are self resetting when the overheat condition has gone away
Smoke Detectors
Photo - electric cell, alpha particle ionisation detector, visual detector, carbon
monoxide detector. Fitted in toilets, equipment bays, and cargo bays.
Extinguishers
Aircraft installed - contains Freon, BCF, BTM, MB in a pressurised
container (fire bottle)
Discharged by pilot, discharge indicator on flight deck If pressure in bottle
increases to a dangerous level protection against fracture is provided by
allowing the contents to be discharged overboard. Indication that this has
happened is by an externally mounted mechanical indicator (Pressure Relief
Discharge Indicator) showing a red circle.
Fire bottle squibs are fired electrically taking their power from the vital bus
bar.
Portable Extinguishers
Aircraft use
Water/gas - red - domestic type fires
CO2 - black - electrical fires
BCF - green - all types
Toilet fire ext.
Self-contained unit activated by high temp in its vicinity, discharges into
waste bin and under sink. Nozzle changes colour from black to silver when
discharged
Ground use extinguishers
Water/gas - red - domestic fires
CO2 - black - electrical fires
BCF - green - all types
Foam - cream - liquid fires
Powder - blue Wheel brakes
Sand magnesium
Section 12
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
JAR subpart K (read very carefully) defines the scale and position of
emergency equipment eg. Life jackets for passengers and crew Smoke
hoods - for pax
Emergency lighting - inside and outside aircraft must be capable of remaining
illuminated for a minimum of 10 mins, powered from vital bus
Inflatable escape slides - can be used as a life raft in certain cases. Deployed
from inside the aircraft only. Inflated with CO2 .
Cut in Areas - marked on the outside of the fuselage, shows an area that can
be cut through without too much obstruction. It is NOT a weakened area of
the fuselage
Emergency torches - powered by battery, automatically switched on when
removed from their stowage. Small LED lamp shows serviceability of torch.
Not flashing - U/S. Flashing at frequency of 3 - 4 secs - battery and bulb ok.
APU
Can provide electrical power and air for air conditioning/engine starting, used
on the ground and in the air
Normally a self contained, constant speed gas turbine engine situated in an
unpressurised compartment in the tail of the a/c
It has its own oil system but it is fed with fuel from one of the main fuel tanks
Started by a DC starter motor powered by the aircraft battery enables the a/c
to be non reliant on major ground support equipment
The APU is generally a one button operated engine controlled by an
Electronic Control Unit (ECU) which controls the start and stop cycles and
monitors during running for High EGT, Over speed, Low oil pressure, High oil
14

Notes
temp and fire warning.
Any of these conditions will cause the ECU to automatically shut down the
APU.
15

Notes
PART 2 PROPULSION
GENERAL
1.
A thrust force has to be produced to push or pull the aircraft through the air fast enough to
enable the aircraft wing to generate sufficient lift force to initiate and maintain airborne
flight.
2.
The propulsion system must be such that the propulsive force can be varied to cater for all
flight conditions that the aircraft is designed for.
3.
An aircraft propulsion system may be one of three types, piston engine driving a propeller,
gas turbine engine driving a propeller or gas turbine engine directly producing jet thrust.
4.
In each type the engine is a heat engine, converting heat energy to mechanical energy
by burning liquid fuel internally and causing a rapid expansion of gas.
5.
The energy released is then converted into propulsion either by turning a propeller or
providing jet thrust.
6.
The propeller pushes a large mass of air backwards at a relatively low velocity. The jet
engine pushes a small mass of air backwards with a relatively high velocity.
In either case pushing air backwards causes forward thrust in accordance with Newtons third law of
motion. Force = Mass x Acceleration. The greater the mass or acceleration the greater the thrust.
PISTON ENGINES and PROPELLERS

GENERAL
1.
The engine most common in use in aircraft is the four-stroke engine
2.
The number of revolutions to complete a full cycle (four strokes) in a multi-cylinder engine
is TWO.
3.
The order in which the four strokes occur is:- induction, compression, power and exhaust.
4.
During the four stroke cycle, the spark is timed to occur before TDC towards the end of the
compression stroke.
5.
The inlet valve closes after BDC as the piston begins to rise on the compression stroke, to
allow the maximum amount of mixture to enter the cylinder. (Valve lag)
6.
The exhaust valve closes after TDC as the piston begins to descend on the induction
stroke, to assist with complete scavenging and to help draw in the fresh mixture. (Valve
lag)
7.
The inlet valve opens before TDC on the exhaust stroke, to ensure the valve is fully open
at TDC. (Valve lead)
8.
The exhaust valve opens before BDC on the power stroke, to make use of the residual
gas pressure to assist in scavenging. (Valve lead)
9.
VALVE OVERLAP is the period of time when both valves are open at the same time.
10.
Valve overlap increases volumetric efficiency.
16

Notes
11.
Valve overlap remains the same, whatever the engine RPM
12.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY is the ratio by weight of a cylinders total capacity with the
piston at BDC, to the actual weight of mixture drawn into the cylinder during the induction
stroke. It is usually expressed as a percentage.
13.
An increase in air temperature will reduce the weight of the mixture entering the cylinder.
14.
The COMPRESSION RATIO is the ratio of the total volume of the cylinder when the piston
is at BDC, to the volume of the cylinder with the piston at TDC.
15.
The STROKE is the distance the piston moves from TDC to BDC. This distance is equal to
twice the crank throw.
16.
The compression ratio = Total Volume/Clearance Volume
17.
The compression ratio for a particular engine remains constant at all engine rpm.
18.
The ratio of the power produced by an engine to the power available in the fuel is known
as THERMAL EFFICIENCY and is 28 30% at best.
19.
The thermal efficiency of an engine increases with an increase of compression ratio.
20.
The SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION (SFC) is the weight of fuel burnt per unit
horsepower per unit time.
21.
INDICATED HORSE POWER (IHP) is the theoretical power developed by the engine.
(PxLxAxNxE)
22.
BRAKE HORSE POWER (BHP) is the actual power measured at the propeller shaft and is
RPM x torque
23.
FRICTIONAL HORSEPOWER (FHP) is the amount of power lost in overcoming the

internal resistance of the engine
24.
INDICATED MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (IMEP) is the average pressure exerted on

the piston during the power stroke. (This value is used to calculate the IHP).
25.
The weight of charge remains the same during the compression stroke.
26.
The temperature of the charge during the compression stroke will increase.
27.
The volume of the charge will decrease during the compression stroke
28.
Engine power depends upon: rpm and pressure achieved during combustion.
29.
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY is the ratio between the power developed in the cylinders
and the power available at the propeller shaft it is usually expressed as a percentage.
30.
The firing order of a four-cylinder in-line engine is: 1.3.4.2.
31.
The camshaft of an engine a1ways rotates at half engine speed.
32.
As an aircraft climbs, volumetric efficiency will increase because exhaust back pressure
decreases.
33.
A normally aspirated engine is one that has no supercharger.
34.
When a spark plug ignites the correct air/fuel mixture, the mixture will burn and the
temperature and pressure will rapidly increase.
35.
Ignition is advanced as engine speed increases or as fuel/air mixture weakens, to ensure
17

Notes
that maximum pressure is developed in the cylinder 8 to 10 degrees after TDC on the
power stroke.
CONSTRUCTION
1.
The purpose of the crankcase breather is to prevent the build up of pressure inside the
crankcase.
2.
The reason for a tappet clearance is to allow for thermal expansion when the engine is
running. Hydraulic tappets save constant adjustment.
3.
Tappet clearance is measured between the tip of the valve stem and the rocker pad.
4.
If the valve has insufficient tappet clearance, the valve would open early and close late
and for an inlet valve may cause popping back in the induction manifold.
5.
If the valve has too much tappet clearance the valve would open late and close early
6.
The valves are closed by springs, opened by the camshaft-pushrod rocker arm.
7.
To improve safety and to reduce valve bounce, two or more springs are fitted to each
valve, coiled in opposite directions.
7.
Piston rings are made of cast iron, the oil control rings are positioned below the
compression rings.
8.
Excessive valve clearance can reduce Volumetric efficiency.
9.
A square engine is one in which the bore and stroke measurements are equal.
COOLING AND LUBRICATION

1.
The cylinder head temperature of an air cooled engine can be controlled by cowling flaps.
2.
Air cooled engines have fins on the cylinder head and barrel to increase the surface area
and thereby the cooling effect.
3.
Cylinder head temperature is measured by a therocouple attached to the hottest cylinder
4.
The scavenge pump in the dry sump oil system is of a greater capacity than the pressure
pump to keep the sump dry.
5.
A relief valve is fitted to the outlet side of the pressure pump, to prevent excessive
pressure being delivered to the engine.
6.
The most probable cause of small fluctuations, or low oil pressure, would be the relief
valve sticking open.
7.
The oil temperature gauge records the temperature of the oil being delivered to the
engine.
8.
The viscosity of a lubricating oil will increase with a drop in temperature and lower the flow
rate.
9.
A wet sump engine is one where the oil is collected in the engine sump.
10.
Engine oil contents should be checked a short time after the engine has stopped in a wet
sump engine and immediately after shut down in a dry sump system.
18

Notes
CARBURATION
1.
The chemically correct mixture strength is 15lbs of air to 1 lb of fuel by WEIGHT.

(ie: 15:1)
2.
The mixture strength varies in piston engines between 8:1 (rich) and 20:1. (weak), to suit
engine requirements.
3.
Lead is added to aviation fuel, to decrease the risk of detonation, and is essential to
engines with high compression ratios.
4.
The octane rating is the ability of a fuel to resist detonation, the higher the number the
greater the resistance.
5.
Pre-ignition is caused by the ignition of the fuel/air mixture due to hot spots in the cylinder,
and will occur before the spark.
6.
Detonation occurs after the spark has ignited the mixture and is caused by unstable
combustion.
7.
The purpose of the choke tube (throat of the venturi) in a carburettor is to create a
depression at the dishcharge tube to allow fuel to be metered in proportion to the airflow.
8.
The pressure in a carburettor choke tube will decrease with an increase in engine speed,
as the velocity of the airflow increases.
9.
The mixture control on a carburettor varies the fuel flow to the main jet to compensate for
a reduction in air density as the aircraft climbs
10.
The fuel flow to the engine will be affected by: the r.p.m., throttle position and mixture
setting,
11.
The slow running jet is located in the choke tube, where the throttle valve closes and the
depression is at its greatest across the throttle
12.
The purpose of a diffuser is to meter the fuel correctly for all engine speeds and to improve
the vaporisation.
13.
To compensate for poor scavenging at slow running, the mixture is enriched.
14.
At high power the mixture is enriched to ensure satisfactory cylinder head cooling, and so
prevent detonation.
15.
An accelerator pump is fitted to prevent a weak cut on rapid opening of the throttle.
Temporarily enriches the mixture during engine acceleration
16.
The fuel pump in the fuel system ensures a positive supply of fuel to the float chamber.
17.
When fuel priming is used to assist starting, a quantity of fuel is supplied directly to the
induction manifold.
18.
Should the manual priming pump not be locked in after start, a rich mixture will result.
19.
A booster pump prevents vapour locks which occur due to a decrease in pressure with
increasing altitude.
20.
In a normally aspirated engine the manifold pressure increases when the throttle is
opened.
FUEL INJECTION
1.
In a fuel injected engine, the fuel enters the inlet manifold continuously immediately
19

Notes
upstream of the inlet valves.
2.
The fuel pump pumps the fuel to the injector nozzles.
3.
Fuel is metered by the fuel control unit.
4.
A separate priming system is not required
5.
The fuel pressure gauge indicates the pressure being delivered to the nozzles and can be
used as an indication of fuel flow to enable accurate leaning during cruise.
6.
There will be a throttle valve but no venturi.
IGNITION SYSTEMS
1.
The magneto produces a spark by utilising a self contained generator and transformer. It is
rotated mechanically by the engine and requires no input from the aircraft electrical system
2.
The primary circuit of a magneto has a voltage induced into it by the rotation of a magnet
(generator theory).
3.
The primary circuit creates a magnetic field in proportion to the current flow
4.
The electrical current flowing in a magneto is transformed from low to high tension
(voltage) by the rapid collapse of the magnetic field across the secondary coil
(transformer).
5.
The rapid collapse of the magnetic field is caused by interrupting the primary current by a
contact breaker
6.
A capacitor fitted in parallel prevents arcing across the contact breaker points and assists
with the rapid collapse of the magnetic field.
7.
The spark occurs at the spark plug as the contact breaker points just begin to open.
8.
The distributor of a magneto distributes the secondary voltage and current to the correct
plug at the correct time.
9.
The engine speed falls when one magneto is switched off, due to an increase in the time
for complete combustion to occur.
10.
When the magneto switch is placed to off, the primary circuit is earthed or grounded.
11.
The ignition switch is in the primary circuit an is in parallel with the contact breaker and the
condenser
12.
If a magneto ignition switch becomes open circuited, the magneto will remain live when
switched OFF.
13.
An ignition switch which becomes shorted circuited on one magneto would cause a dead
cut when the other magneto was switched off.
14.
An impulse coupling in a magneto flicks over the magneto to give a large retarded spark
for starting.
15.
The impulse coupling is deactivated by centrifugal action after the engine has started and
thereafter acts as a normal magneto
16.
The spark occurs before TDC on the compression stroke during normal engine operation.
17.
The spark occurs after TDC for starting and then is advanced to before TDC after starting.
20

Notes
HANDLING
1.
Before starting an engine, the propeller should be rotated by hand, with the ignition
switched off, through two complete revolutions in tits normal direction of rotation to check
for hydraulicing.
2.
Hydraulicing refers to an accumulation of liquid in a cylinder, which could cause damage

on start up.
3.
Black smoke from the exhaust would indicate too rich a mixture.
4.
Blue smoke from the exhaust would indicate oil burning, which could be caused by broken
or sticking piston rings.
5.
Magnetos should be checked at slow running (dead cut), to ensure that the ignition system
is serviceable before a high power check is carried out.
7.
The magneto drop check is carried out during the power check where a specific drop in
RPM is established.
7.
During take off with a fixed pitch propeller, the RPM will show an increase because of the
more efficient angle of attack of the propeller due to increased forward speed.
8.
On a normally aspirated engine fitted with a fixed pitch propeller, the manifold pressure will
decrease with an increase in altitude at fixed throttle setting.
9.
Excessive cylinder head temperatures could be caused by prolonged use of a weak

mixture, especially at high altitude.
10.
Carburettor hot air is used in flight to overcome carburettor icing.
11.
Carburettor heat should be off whilst on the ground, as the hot air is un-filtered and may
cause engine wear.
12.
On a normally aspirated engine with a fixed pitch propeller, carburettor icing may be
indicated by a drop in RPM for no apparent reason.
13.
An engine should be run at the specified run down RPM after flight, to allow engine
components to cool to a uniform temperature before shut down.
14.
After starting, if the STARTER ENGAGED warning light stays on, the starter is still
engaged and the engine must be shut down immediately.
15.
After starting if the oil pressure has not risen after the prescribed time the engine must be
shut down an the fault investigated
SUPERCHARGERS
1.
Boost pressure is the pressure in the induction manifold, measured in lb/sq.in above or
below ISA sea level standard pressure.
2.
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) is the absolute pressure in the induction manifold
measured in inches of mercury.
3.
Manifold pressure can be indicated as either of the above.
4.
Manifold or boost pressure is measured between the throttle valve and the engine inlet
valve.
5.
If the throttle is opened manifold pressure increases. More manifold pressure means more
power.
21

Notes
6.
A supercharger will always be used in conjunction with a variable pitch propeller
7.
Supercharging is the term given to increasing the manifold pressure above ambient
pressure to increase the power. (Improves Volumetric Efficiency)
8.
A supercharger is a compressor used to raise the pressure in the manifold
9.
The compressor used is a centrifugal compressor for its simplicity.
10.
The compressor can be driven by the engine crankshaft (internally driven) or by an

exhaust turbine (turbo-charger)
11.
The centrifugal compressor has two parts, the impeller, which rotates and the diffuser.
12.
Through the impeller the velocity pressure and the temperature all increase.
13.
In the diffuser the velocity decreases and the pressure and temperature increase
14.
The impeller and diffuser equally contribute to the pressure rise.
15.
The air enters the eye of the impeller axially, is radially accelerated and leaves the tip of
the impeller tangentially.
16.
The pressure ratio across the compressor depends on the diameter of the impeller, the
shape of the vanes and its speed of rotation.
17.
The impeller can rotate at speeds of 120,000 RPM and achieve a pressure ratio of about
3:1.
18.
Rated power is the maximum power at which the engine can be operated continuously
and is a specific RPM and Manifold pressure for any particular engine
19.
Rated boost is the maximum manifold pressure for continuous use
20.
Take off power for any engine may be higher than rated power, but only used for a limited
period of time after which the power setting must be reduced to at least rated power.
An engine can be Altitude Boosted where sea level power is maintained up to a specific
altitude, or Ground Boosted where the power at sea level is increased by allowing the
manifold pressure to be increased above sea level values.
21.
22.
Modern engines may allow a combination of the two, where modest increases of sea level
power are allowed and can be maintained up to a specified altitude.
INTERNAL SUPERCHARGER (Supercharger)

1.
An internally driven supercharger is driven by the engine crankshaft, and rotates at

a speed proportional to crankshaft speed. If the engine speed (crankshaft speed) is
increased there is a corresponding increase if impeller speed and therefore an increase in
the pressure ratio
2.
The normal positioning of a supercharger is between the carburettor and the inlet
manifold. (The throttle is upstream of the compressor).
3.
The supercharger compresses fuel/air mixture.
4.
At full power on the runway for take off the throttle is only partially open.
5.
As the aircraft climbs the throttle must be progressively opened to maintain rated power as
the ambient pressure falls.
22

Notes
6.
When the throttle is fully open the aircraft has reached full throttle height. Climb above
this height will cause the manifold pressure to reduce.
7.
Full throttle height at rated power is called rated altitude
8.
An Automatic Boost Control (ABC) is a device which maintains selected boost by

progressively opening the throttle butterfly as the aircraft climbs, and vice versa on the
descent.
9.
The automatic boost capsule is sensitive to manifold pressure.
10.
To reduce the risk of detonation, an inter-cooler may be fitted between the compressor
and the inlet valve.
11.
The inter-cooler is cooled by ram air.
12.
The compressor outlet pressure of a supercharger is the same as manifold pressure.
13.
To prevent over boosting when increasing the power setting, the RPM is increased first,
followed by the manifold pressure.
14.
When decreasing power the manifold pressure is reduced first followed by the RPM
15.
Static boost is the indication on the MAP or boost gauge with the aircraft on the ground
and the engine stopped. It will indicate the ambient pressure.
EXTERNALLY DRIVEN SUPERCHARGER (Turbo-Supercharger or Turbo-Charger)

1.
A turbocharger is a compressor driven by a turbine, mounted on the same shaft, and

lubricated by engine oil. The turbine is driven by exhaust gases, utilizing energy that would
otherwise have been directed overboard.
2.
The compressor is fitted upstream of the throttle and the compressor outlet pressure is
always greater than manifold pressure.
3.
The turbocharger compressor compresses air.
4.
The exhaust is diverted into the turbine by a Waste Gate.
5.
The waste gate is fitted in the exhaust manifold in parallel with the turbine, it regulates the
quantity of exhaust gases by-passing, the turbine.
6.
The waste gate is operated by a single acting actuator sprung loaded to the open
position.
7.
The turbine speed and therefore the compressor speed are determined by the amount of
exhaust gas passing through the turbine.
8.
The further closed the waste gate is the more exhaust passes through the turbine and the
faster it rotates, the further open the waste gate is the slower the turbine rotates as more
exhaust is allowed directly to atmosphere
9.
The waste gate position is determined by an automatic controller that is sensitive to

turbocharger discharge pressure.
10.
The Absolute Pressure Controller is designed to prevent turbocharger output pressure

exceeding the design maximum pressure under any condition. Therefore preventing
inadvertent over boosting.
11.
At idle or low manifold pressure conditions, the turbocharger waste gate is almost closed.
12.
At sea level with rated power set, the throttle is likely to be fully open with the waste gate
almost fully open.
23

Notes
13.
As the aircraft climbs and the ambient pressure decreases the waste gate progressively
closes to speed up the turbocharger and maintain the rated MAP.
14.
When the waste gate is fully closed the aircraft has reached critical altitude and climbing
higher will cause the manifold pressure to reduce.
15.
If the waste gate seizes in the climb critical altitude will be lower.
16.
If the waste gate seizes in the cruise, the engine could over boost on the descent.
17.
As a turbocharged engine climbs, the cylinder head temperature will increase, due to the
increased compression of the air.
18.
To reduce the likelihood of detonation an intercooler may be fitted at the outlet of the
compressor.
19.
In place of the APC there may be a pair of controllers to give better turbo charger control.
These are called the Density Controller (DC) and the Differential Pressure Controller
(DPC).
20.
The waste gate is controlled by the density controller at full throttle and the diff pressure
controller at less than full throttle.
21.
The DC and DPC help to reduce bootstrapping, a condition where the manifold pressure
oscillates around the selected value.
22.
Turbo lag is a condition where there is a lag between the selection of a higher manifold
pressure and its value being achieved because of the time taken for the turbine and
compressor to increase their speed. Does not occur in a supercharger.
PROPELLERS
1.
Blade twist is the reducing blade angle from root to tip.
2.
The angle of attack of the blade remains constant, because of blade twist.
3.
The region of greatest stress occurs at the blade root.
4.
Plane of Rotation is the plane at right angles to the propeller axis.
5.
Blade angle is measured between the Plane of Rotation and Chord Line.
6.
Pitch is a linear measurement, it is the distance the blade moves forward in one
revolution.
7.
Geometric Pitch is the theoretical distance a blade moves forward in one revolution.
8.
Effective Pitch is the actual distance a blade moves forward in flight in one revolution.
9.
The difference between Geometric Pitch and Effective Pitch is Slip.
10.
Propeller Efficiency =
11.
Centrifugal Twisting Moment is a force tending to turn the blades to fine pitch.
12.
Aerodynamic Twisting Moment is a force tending to turn the blades to coarse pitch with the
propeller producing thrust and to fine pitch with the propeller windmilling.
13.
A Constant Speed Propeller is fitted with a constant speed unit, which maintains the RPM
selected by the pilot, within the constraints of power applied and forward speed.
14.
Fine pitch is selected for take-off, to enable maximum RPM to be attained.
Thrust Horse Power x 100

Brake Horse Power
24

Notes
15.
During cruising flight conditions the blades will be in a coarse pitch setting.
16.
Feathering is when the blade leading edge is in-line with the direction of flight.
17.
Feathering is necessary to reduce drag and engine damage on a failed engine.
18.
Constant Speed Double acting propeller means oil is fed to both sides of the piston.
19.
Single acting propeller means, oil only to one side of the piston.
20.
The maximum CSU oil pressure is controlled by a pressure relief valve.
21.
The CSU control valve directs oil to or from the propeller.
22.
The speeder spring always attempts to force the control valve down.
23.
The centrifugal force acting on the flyweight attempts to raise the control valve.
24.
Maximum RPM adjustments is carried out on the CSU.
25.
The Centrifugal latches (feathering stops) is a device which prevents the blades turning to
the feathered position when the engine is stopped (on the ground), or at low RPM in flight.
26.
When adjusting engine power, adjust manifold pressure first, then RPM when reducing
power.
27.
When increasing power, adjust RPM first then manifold pressure.
28.
"ON-SPEED" condition means spring pressure and flyweight centrifugal force balanced.
Hyd lock achieved by control valve in neutral position.
29.
"OVERSPEED" condition means flyweight force greater than speeder spring pressure, oil
draining from the propeller, (single acting) the blades will be coarsening.
30.
"UNDERSPEED" condition means, speeder spring pressure greater than flyweight

centrifugal force, oil being passed to the propeller, blades are going to fine pitch.
31.
"BETA" control is used for ground operations only.
32.
"SYNCHRONISATION" means the RPM of the propeller are being automatically

maintained to that of the master engine.
33.
"SYNCHROPHASING" means the blades of the propellers are adjusted relative to one
another to provide the lowest possible noise level.
34.
The unfeathering accumulator is for unfeathering a single acting propeller.
35.
Double acting propellers use an electrically driven pump for feathering and unfeathering
generally called a feathering pump.
36.
AUTO-FEATHER is a system which senses engine torque, if below a certain value will
automatically feather the propeller. It is normally armed for take-off and landing only.
37.
When unfeathering coarse pitch is selected to prevent engine overspeed.
38.
Electrical power for propeller de-icing is transferred from the engine to the blades
by slip rings and brushes.
39.
With a fixed pitch propeller increasing the propeller RPM will increase the blade angle of
attack.
40.
With a fixed pitch propeller increasing the aircraft speed will decrease the blade angle of
25

Notes
attack.
41.
The CSU senses engine RPM and RPM lever position.
42.
Oil used for feathering in a double-acting propeller is taken from the engine oil tank.
43.
Blade stations are measured from the centre of the hub.
44.
Propeller torque is the resistance offered by the propeller to being rotated.
45.
The thrust face or pressure face is the flat surface (back) in forward thrust.
46.
The thrust face or pressure face is the curved surface (front) when the propeller is in the
reverse thrust mode of operation.
47.
Beta range operation is for ground use only, and includes: reverse - dwell - ground fine or
super fine.
48.
Alpha range operation is for both in flight and ground use.
49.
Engine shut down due to fire, the fire extinguisher is not operated until feathering is
completed.
50.
Ground fine or super fine are blade angles in the beta range, which allows a gas turbine
engine to achieve any given RPM for a lower fuel flow and hence a lower turbine
temperature. Reduces starting torque.
GAS TURBINE ENGINES
1.
A modular construction of the engine allows major sections to be replaced individually ie.
LP compressor, gearbox, turbine, exhaust.
2.
The thrust developed by an engine is limited by the temperature that the turbine can
withstand.
3.
The working cycle of the engine is:- induction, compression, expansion and exhaust.
4.
The combustion process is continuous and therefore continuous thrust is supplied.
5.
The compressor may be Centrifugal or Axial and is responsible for inducing air into the
engine and increasing the mass flow by raising the pressure.
6.
Centrifugal compressors are more robust but cannot cope with large mass flows of air and
so are used on smaller jet or turboprop engines. Centrifugal compressors are less liable to
rupture.
7.
Axial compressors can process large mass flows of air and so are used on larger turbojet
and turbofan engines.
8.
Axial compressors may be split into two or three separate compressors, designated Low
Pressure (LP) and High Pressure (HP) or LP, Intermediate Pressure (IP) and HP
respectively.
9.
The LP compressor is mechanically connected to and driven by the LP turbine, they rotate
26

Notes
at the same speed, but at a lower speed than the HP compressor/turbine.
10.
The HP compressor is mechanically connected to and driven by the HP turbine, they

rotate at the same speed, but at a higher speed than the LP compressor/turbine
11.
A compressor/turbine assembly is referred to as a spool i.e. LP spool, HP spool.
12.
The highest pressure in the engine occurs at the outlet of the high-pressure compressor
before the air enters the combustion chamber.
13.
Through the compressor the pressure and temperature of the air increase, the axial
velocity remains essentially the same.
14.
A centrifugal compressor is made up of a rotating impeller and a stationary diffuser. In the

impeller the velocity, pressure and temperature of the air increase, in the diffuser the
velocity reduces and the pressure and temperature increase.
15.
An axial compressor is made up of alternate rows of rotor blades (rotor disc) and stator
blades (diffusers). In the rotors the velocity pressure and temperature increase and in the
stators the velocity decreases and the pressure and temperature increase.
16.
In an axial compressor one stage comprises one set of rotors and one set of stator
blades.
17.
Many stages are used to achieve the required increase in pressure.
18.
The increase in pressure is referred to as the pressure ratio and is determined by the
number of stages and the speed of rotation.
19.
A mismatch between the rotational velocity of the compressor and the axial velocity of the
air can cause the compressor to stall or surge.
20.
A stall is a disruption of the airflow over one or more stages of the compressor.
21.
A surge is a complete breakdown and even reversal of the airflow through the compressor.
22.
To help prevent stalling and surging, particularly at low engine RPM, Variable Inlet Guide
Vanes (VIGVs), Variable Stator Vanes (VSVs), surge bleed valves (blow off valves) and
Multi Spool Compressors may be used.
23.
To prevent inducing a stall or surge during rapid acceleration the Fuel Control Unit (FCU)
limits the rate at which fuel flow is increased thereby limiting the rate of acceleration of the
compressor.
24.
A By pass engine is one where not all of the air that enters the LP compressor goes
through the HP compressor and combustion chamber. The by pass air or cold stream
recombines with the turbine exhaust gas or hot stream after the turbine section.
25.
A low by pass engine (1:1 to 2:1) has a relatively high exhaust velocity.
26.
A high by pass engine (4:1, 5:1) has a relatively low exhaust velocity and a better
propulsive efficiency at high subsonic speed than the low by pass engine.
27.
In the combustion chamber 20% of the air is mixed with the fuel and burnt the remaining
27

Notes
80% is used for flame shaping, dilution of the burnt gasses and cooling the flame tube and
combustion casing.
28.
By pass air is not used for cooling the combustion chamber.
29.
The highest temperature of the engine is the combustion chamber.
30.
Combustion occurs at relatively constant pressure.
31.
The chemically correct air fuel ratio is 15:1
32.
The addition of heat energy at constant pressure cause the velocity of the gasses to
increase.
33.
The gas velocity is at its highest when leaving the HP nozzle guide vanes.
34.
The turbine takes energy from the gas flow to drive the compressor or fan.
35.
The turbine is effectively the opposite of the compressor and is made up of alternating
stators (nozzle guide vanes) and rotors (turbine wheel or disc).
36.
Turbines are typically one two or three stages.
37.
There are two types of turbine design, IMPULSE and REACTION turbines.
38.
Modern engine turbine blades are part impulse and part reaction and change shape from
the root to the tip of the blade to allow an even velocity into the exhaust.
39.
An IMPULSE turbine uses the velocity of the gas built up by the nozzle guide vanes to
spin the turbine.
40.
Nozzle guide vanes for an impulse turbine form a convergent duct, increasing gas velocity
and reducing pressure before entering the turbine rotor.
41.
A REACTION turbine comprises turbine blades which are designed to be convergent,

increasing the velocity and reducing the pressure of the gas flow.
42.
The engine pressure ratio(EPR) is the ratio of the exhaust gas pressure (turbine outlet) to
the compressor inlet pressure.
43.
Exhaust temperature(EGT) is measured by thermocouples fitted in the exhaust.
44.
A fuel cooled oil cooler cools the oil and heats the fuel.
45.
A fuel heater uses bleed air to heat the fuel.
46.
Bleed air is taken from the engine compressor to operate various aircraft systems, the
operating pressure is 40psi-60psi.
47.
If bleed air is used for anti-icing, the EGT will increase and thrust decrease.
48.
The control of rpm in a gas turbine engine is accomplished by varying the fuel flow.
49.
A convergent duct increases velocity and decreases pressure.
50.
A divergent duct decreases velocity and increases pressure and temperature.
51.
Diffuser vanes act in the same manner as a divergent duct
28

Notes
52.
Run down time is the time taken for the engine to stop rotating from the time the fuel HP
valve is closed.
53.
Bearing oil seals are pressurised with air using labyrinth seals.
54.
Engine over-heat will be indicated by a RED light (internal cooling air overheat).
55.
The high energy igniter units work on the principal of capacitor discharge.
56.
Igniters use two different energy levels, high energy for starting and high altitude relighting,
low energy for continuous operation during take of landing and flight during inclement
weather.
57.
Reverse thrust can be applied by reversing the cold stream only, the hot stream only, or by
reversing hot and cold stream.
58.
The engine primary instruments are:- EGT, N1, and EPR..
59.
Engines are started by using DC electrical or air turbine starter motors.
60.
A HOT start is one where the EGT reaches too high a reading during the start cycle.
61.
A wet start does not achieve a light up and will require a dry motoring cycle with igniters off
prior to a further start attempt.
62.
A HUNG start is one where the engine lights up but will not accelerate to self sustaining
speed.
29

Notes
PART 3 ELECTRICS AND ELECTRONICS - GLOSSARY
accelerate
To change velocity; increase or decrease speed.
accelerometer A device for sensing or measuring acceleration and converting it to an electric

signal.
actuator
A hydraulic, electric, or pneumatic device used to operate a mechanism by remote

control.
alternating current
An electric current which alternates around a mean point and constantly
changes in magnitude.
alternator
An electric generator designed to produce alternating current having a rotating

field and stationary armature.
ammeter
An instrument used to measure current flow.
ampere (A)
The basic unit of current flow. One ampere is the amount of current which flows
when an EMF of 1 volt is applied to a circuit with a resistance of 1 ohm.
ampere-hour (Ah)
Quantity of electricity which has passed through a circuit. Current (in
amperes) x time (in hours) = ampere-hours. Unit of measurement for battery
capacity.
amplification
The increase of power, current, or voltage in an electronic circuit.
amplifier
An electronic circuit that produces amplification. eg. of power
amplitude modulation (AM)

Modulation of a carrier wave in which the modulating signal
changes the amplitude of the carrier in proportion to the strength of the modulating
signal.
analogue
Infinitely variable, or an electrical circuit which operates with infinite possible input
or output signals.
angular velocity
Time rate of change of an angle rotated around an axis in degrees per
second or degrees per minute.
anode
Positive electrode of a battery; the electrode of an electron tube, diode, or

electroplating cell to which a positive voltage is applied.
antenna
A device designed to radiate or intercept electromagnetic waves.
apparent power
The power consumed by the resistance, inductance, and capacitance in
an ac circuit.
armature
In a dc generator or motor, the rotating member. In an ac generator the armature

is stationary and is acted upon by the rotating field produced by the rotor. The
moving element acted upon by the magnetic field in a relay is also called the
armature.
armature reaction
The interaction of the armature field upon the main field of a generator or
motor, resulting in distortion of the main field.
atom
The smallest possible particle of an element.
attenuation
A reduction in the strength of a signal, the flow of current, flux, or other energy in
an electronic system.
audio frequency
A frequency in the audible range, from about 35 to 20 000 Hz.
automatic direction finder (ADF)

A radio receiver utilizing a directional loop antenna which
enables the receiver to indicate the direction from which a radio signal is being
received.
automatic frequency control (AFC)
A circuit arrangement which maintains the frequency of
the system within specified limits.
azimuth
Angular distance measured on a horizontal circle in a clockwise direction from

either north or south.
back EMF
A voltage developed in the armature of a motor which opposes the applied EMF.
The same principle applied to any inductance through which an alternating current
30

Notes
is flowing.
band
A range of frequencies.
bandpass filter
A filter circuit which passes frequencies within a specific band and

attenuates all frequencies outside that band.
bandwidth
The difference between the maximum and minimum frequencies in a band.
base
The terminal of a transistor to which the control current is applied.
battery
A group of cells connected together to produce desired voltage and capacity.
bias
A voltage applied to the control grid of an electron tube or the base element of a
transistor to control the switching action.
binary system A numbering system using only two symbols 0 and 1 and having 2 as a base.
BITE
Built-in test equipment designed to monitor and test aircraft systems.
black box
A slang term used to refer to a modular component containing electrical

equipment. Slang term for Flight Data Recorder.
bonding
The connecting together of metal structures and components with electric

conductors, thus establishing a uniform electric potential among all the parts
bonded together.
brush
A device usually made of carbon designed to provide an electrical contact between a stationary conductor and a rotating element.
buffer amplifier
An amplifier in a transmitter circuit designed to isolate the oscillator
section from the power section, thus preventing a frequency shift.
bus bar
A power distribution point to which a number of circuits may be connected. It often

consists of a solid metal strip in which a number of terminals are installed.
An electrical solenoid used to connect two bus bars.
bus tie breaker (BTB)

byte
A group of binary digits handled as a group or word.
cable
A group of insulated electric conductors, usually covered with rubber or plastic to

form a flexible transmission line.
capacitance
The property enabling two adjacent conductors (plates) separated by an insulating

medium (dielectric) to store an electric charge. The unit of capacitance is the
farad.
capacitive reactance
The reaction effect of capacitance in an ac circuit. The formula is
XC =
where
1
2 fC
XC, is capacitive reactance in ohms, f is frequency in hertz,
and C is the capacitance in farads.

Capacitor
A device consisting of conducting plates separated by a dielectric and used to

introduce capacitance into a circuit.
capacity
A battery or cells total available current. Typically measured in ampere-hours for

aircraft batteries.
carrier wave
A radio-frequency electromagnetic wave used to convey intelligence impressed

upon it by modulation.
cathode
The negative electrode of a battery; the negative terminal of a diode or

electroplating cell.
cathode-ray tube (CRT) A special type of electron tube in which a stream of electrons from an
electron gun impinges upon a fluorescent screen, thus producing a bright
spot on the screen. The electron beam is deflected electrically or magnetically to produce patterns on the screen.
cell
A combination of two electrodes (positive and negative plates) surrounded by an

31

Notes
electrolyte for the purpose of producing voltage.
charge
A quantity of electricity. A charge is negative when it consists of a number of

electrons greater than the number normally held by the charged material in a
neutral condition. The charge is positive when there is a deficiency of electrons.
choke coil
An inductance coil designed to provide a high reactance to certain frequencies

and generally used to block or reduce currents at these frequencies.
Circuit
Conductors connected together to provide one or more complete electrical paths.
circuit breaker A device which automatically opens a circuit if the current flow increases beyond a
safe value.
circuit protection
The provision of devices in an electric circuit to prevent excessive current
flow. These devices may be fuses, circuit breakers, current limiters, or sensing
relays.
clutch
A mechanical device used to connect or disconnect a motor or other driving unit

from the driven device.
coaxial cables A pair of concentric conductors. The inner conductor is supported by insulation
which holds it in the center of the outer conductor. A coaxial cable is normally
used to conduct HF currents.
coil
One or more turns of a conductor designed for use in a circuit to produce

inductance or an electromagnetic field.
collector
A section of a transistor.
commutator
A rotating contact device in the armature of a dc generator or motor, which in

effect changes the ac current flowing in the armature windings to a dc current in
the external circuit.
compass
A device used to determine direction on the earths surface. A magnetic compass

utilizes the earths magnetic field to establish direction.
compound winding
A combination of series and parallel or shunt windings to provide the
magnetic field for a generator or motor.
conductor
A material through which an electric current can pass easily.
conduit
A metallic tubular sheath through which insulated conductors are run. The conduit
provides mechanical protection and electric or magnetic shielding for the
conductors.
constant-speed drive (CSD) A hydro-mechanical unit used in conjunction with ac alternators to

produce a constant frequency ac voltage.
continuity tester
A device designed to test the electrical continuity of a conductor or circuit.
A battery and light, or other indicating unit, connected in series, or an ohmmeter
may serve as continuity testers.
continuous wave (CW)
An RF carrier wave whose successive oscillations are identical in
magnitude and frequency.
control circuit Any one of a variety of circuits designed to exercise control of an operating device,
to perform counting, timing, switching, and other operations.
cosine
The ratio of the side adjacent to an acute angle of a right triangle to the
hypotenuse.
coulomb (C)
The coulomb is a unit of electric charge consisting of approximately 6.28 x 1018

electrons.
current
The movement of electrons through a conductor.
current limiter A device installed in a circuit to prevent current from increasing above a specified
limit.
cycle
A complete sequence of events in a recurrent series of similar periods, one

complete AC sinewave.
32

Notes
damping
The decay in amplitude or strength of an oscillatory current when energy is not

introduced to replace that lost through circuit resistance.
decimal system
A numbering system using ten symbols to represent quantity.
delta connection
A method of connecting three components to form a three-sided circuit,
usually drawn as a triangle, hence the term delta.
desynn
an electrical system of position transmitting using DC electrics
dielectric
An insulating material used to separate the plates of a capacitor.
dielectric constant
A measure of the effectiveness of a dielectric for holding a charge in a
capacitor. Air is given a dielectric constant of 1; mica has a dielectric constant of
5.5. Jet fuel has a dielectric constant of 2.1
diode
A semiconductor device used to block current flow or as rectifier.
ipole
A two pole electrical distribution system where the airframe cannot be used to
complete the circuit
dipole antenna
An antenna consisting of two equal lengths of wire or other conductor

extending in opposite directions from the input point. Each section of the dipole is
approximately one-quarter wavelength.
direct current (dc)
An electric current which flows continuously in one direction.
discriminator A circuit whose output polarity and magnitude are determined by the variations of
the input phase or frequency.
distance-measuring equipment (DME)
An electronic system used with radio navigation
equipment to provide an indication of the distance to a specific point.
distortion
Undesirable change in the waveform of the output of a circuit compared with the
input.
donor
An impurity used in a semiconductor to provide free electrons as current carriers.
doping
a means to improve the conductivity of a semiconductor material by adding

controlled amounts of a second material.
doppler effect The effect noted as one moves toward or away from a source of a sound-wave or
electro-magnetic-wave propagation. Moving toward the source results in receiving
a higher-frequency sound or signal than the source is emitting, and moving away
from the source results in receiving a lower-frequency sound or signal.
electrolyte
An solution which conducts an electric current.
electromagnet A magnet formed when a current flows through a coil of wire.

electromagnetic induction
The transfer of electric energy by means of interaction between
magnetic flux and a conductor.
electromotive force (EMF)
electron
The force which causes current to move through a conductor.
A negatively charged particle which orbits around the nucleus of an atom.
electrostatic field
The field of electric force existing in the area around and between any two
oppositely charged bodies.
equalizer circuit
A circuit in a multiple-generator voltage-regulator system which equalizes
the output voltages of the generators by controlling the field currents of the
paralleled generators.
excitation
The application of electric current to the field windings of a generator to produce a

magnetic field.
fading
A decrease in strength of a received radio signal.
farad
The unit of capacitance.
feedback
A portion of the output signal of a circuit returned to the input.
ferromagnetic materials
field
Magnetic materials composed largely of iron.
A space where magnetic or electric lines of force exist.
33

Notes
field coil
A winding or coil used to produce a magnetic field.
field frame
The main structure of a generator or motor within which are mounted the field
poles and windings.
filament
The heated element in an electric light bulb.
filter
A circuit arranged to pass certain frequencies while attenuating all others. A highpass filter passes high frequencies and attenuates low frequencies; a low-pass
filter passes low frequencies and attenuates high frequencies.
flux
Electrostatic or magnetic lines of force.
flywheel effect The characteristic of a parallel LC circuit which permits a continuing flow of current
even though only small pulses of energy are applied to the circuit.
forward bias
A voltage applied to a semiconductor which creates a low resistance within that

semiconductor.
free electrons Those electrons so loosely bound in the outer shells of some atoms that they are
able to move from atom to atom when an emf is applied to the material.
frequency
The number of complete cycles of a periodic process per second. In electricity the
unit of frequency is the hertz.
frequency modulation (FM)

Modulation of a carrier by causing changes in carrier frequency
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
fuse
A metal link which melts when overheated by excess current; used to break an
electric circuit whenever the load becomes excessive.
gain
The increase in signal power through a circuit.
galvanometer A device for measuring electric currents. It usually consists of a current-carrying

coil which produces a field to react with the field of a permanent magnet.
gate
An electronic switching circuit commonly employed in digital electronics to

produce required outputs in response to particular inputs. The outputs are either
on" or "off" to produce the binary digits 1 or 0. Also, the control circuit built into
various semiconductor devices.
generator
A rotating machine designed to produce electricity by electromagnetic induction.
ground
An electrical connection to the earth or negative side of the electrical supply
ground wave
That portion of a radio wave which travels to the receiver along the surface of the
earth.
harness
A bundle of wires typically routed between various sections of the aircraft.
heat sink
A metallic surface designed to dissipate heat from electronic components.
henry (H)
The unit of inductance. It is the amount of inductance in a coil which will induce an
emf of I V in the coil when the current flow is changing at the rate of 1 A/s.
hertz (Hz)
The unit of frequency. One Hz is equal to 1 c/s.
horsepower (hp)
A common unit of mechanical power. The time rate of work which will
raise 550lb through a vertical distance of 1 ft in 1s; also 33 000 ftlb/min. One
horsepower is equal to 746 W of electric power.
hydrometer
A calibrated float used to determine the specific gravity of a liquid.
impedance (Z) The combined effect of resistance, capacitive reactance, and inductive reactance
in an ac circuit. Z is measured in ohms.
inductance
The ability of a coil or conductor to oppose change in current flow (generate a

Back Emf)
induction motor
An ac motor in which the rotating field produced by the stator induces
currents and opposing fields in the rotor. The reaction of the fields creates the
rotation.
inductive reactance (XL)
The effect of inductance in a circuit. The formula for inductive

34

Notes
reactance is measured in ohms and is calculated by the following formula:
X L = 2 f L
Where f is the frequency in hertz and L is the inductance in Henrys
inertia
The tendency of a mass to remain at rest or continue in motion in the same

direction.
insulator
A material which will not conduct current
interpoles
Small magnetic poles inserted between the main field poles of a generator or
motor in series with the armature circuit to compensate for the effect of armature
reaction.
inverter
1.
A mechanical or electronic device to convert DC to AC (Rotary or Static
inverter).
2.
A logic gate whose logic output state is always the opposite of the input.
ion
An atom or molecule having a resultant electric charge due to loss or gain of an

electron. Loss of electron (positive ion) or a Gain of electron (negative ion).
ionization
Thc process of adding or subtracting electrons from atoms by using electrical

means.
joule
A unit of work, energy and heat
junction box
An enclosure used to house electrical terminal strips and other circuit

components.
keying
The process of modulating a CW (carrier wave) with a key circuit to provide

interruptions in the carrier in the form of dots and dashes for code transmission.
kilo
A prefix meaning 1000; e.g., kilohertz. kilovolt. . etc.
kinetic energy The energy which a body possesses as a result of its motion. It is equal to
where M is mass. and V is velocity.
1
KE = MV 2
2
LC circuit
A circuit network containing inductance (L) and capacitance (C).
lead-acid cell A secondary cell which produces voltage using a sulphuric acid electrolyte and
lead compound electrodes.
Lenzs law
A law stated by H. F. E. Lenz in 1833 to the effect that an induced current in a

conductor is always in such a direction that its field opposes the change in the
field causing the induced current.
light-emitting diode (LED)

A semiconductor that utilises a light-producing material such as
gallium phosphide. The material produces light when an electric current is passed
through it in a certain direction. LEDs are often used for digital displays.
limit switch
local oscillator
A switch designed to stop an actuator at the limit of its movement.

The internal-oscillator section of a superheterodyne circuit.
logic circuit
A circuit designed to operate according to the fundamental laws of logic.
logic gates
Fundamental circuits used to manipulate electrons. Typically several logic gates

are contained within one integrated circuit or microprocessor.
loop
A control circuit consisting of a sensor, a controller, an actuator, a control unit, and

follow-up or feedback to the sensor. Also, any closed electronic circuit including a
feedback signal which is compared with the reference signal to maintain a desired
condition.
loop antenna A bi-directional antenna consisting of one or more complete turns of wire in a coil.
35

Notes
low-pass filter A filter circuit designed to pass LF signals and attenuate HF signals.
Mach number The ratio of actual speed to the speed of sound. An object moving at the speed of
sound has a Mach number of 1.
Machmeter
An instrument for indicating the speed of a vehicle in terms of Mach number.
magnet
A solid material which has the property of attracting substances containing iron.
magnetic field A space where magnetic lines of force exist.

magneto
A special type of electric generator having a permanent magnet or magnets to

provide the field.
master switch A switch designed to control all electric power to all circuits in a system.
mega
A prefix denoting one million, e.g., megahertz, megohm, etc.
micro
A prefix denoting one millionth e.g. microsecond
micro switch
A spring loaded switch requiring very small force to trip the switch contacts.
microprocessor
An integrated circuit that can be programmed to perform a variety of
desired functions. The circuit contains an arithmetic and logic unit, a controller,
some registers, and possibly other elements.
microwave
An electromagnetic wave with a length of less than 10 m; i.e., it has a frequency of

30 MHz or more.
mu
One-thousandth of an inch.
milli
A prefix meaning one-thousandth; e.g., milli-ammeter, milli-ampere, milli-henry,

etc.
modulation
The impressing of an information signal on a carrier wave.
modulator
That portion of a transmitter circuit which modulates the carrier wave.
molecule
The smallest particle of a substance which can exist in a free state and maintain
its chemical properties.
multimeter
A combination instrument designed to measure a variety of electrical quantities

e.g. Volts, amps, ohms.
mutual inductance
The inductance of a voltage in one coil due to the field produced by an
adjacent coil. Inductive coupling is accomplished through the mutual inductance of
two adjacent coils.
neutron
A neutral particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
neutral plane Of a DC generator the plane of the commutator where the voltage across the
carbon brushes is zero.
nickel-cadmium cell A secondary or primary cell which produces voltage using a nickel
compound for the positive electrode and a cadmium compound for the negative
electrode.
nominal voltage
The battery voltage with a load applied (12v or 24v)
north pole
The north-seeking pole of a magnet.
null
An indicated low or zero point in a radio signal.
octal system
A numbering system which consists of one or more digit groups used to represent
a base 8 number.
off load voltage
The battery voltage with no load applied. (13.2v or 26.4v)
ohm
The unit of resistance which limits the current to 1 A when an emf of 1V is

applied.
ohmmeter
An electric measuring instrument designed to measure resistance in ohms.
Ohms law
A law of current flow stated by Georg S. Ohm as follows: One volt of electrical
pressure is required to force 1amp of current through 1ohm of resistance; also, the
current in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional
to the resistance. The formula for Ohms law may be expressed V=IR or E=IR
36

Notes
open circuit
A circuit with an unwanted disconnection, or infinite resistance.
oscillator
An electronic circuit which produces alternating currents with frequencies

determined by the inductance and capacitance in the circuit.
oscilloscope
An electronic device utilizing a CRT for observing electric signals.
parallel circuits
Two or more complete circuits connected to the same two power
terminals.
parallel bus system
A power distribution system which connects all operating generators to
one bus bar.
peak voltage
The maximum level of a variable voltage.
peripheral
A device used to send information to or receive information from a computer.
permeability
The property of a magnetic substance determining the flux density produced in the
substance by a magnetic field of a given intensity.
phase angle
The angular difference between two sinusoidal waveforms.
piezoelectric effect
The property of certain crystals enabling them to generate an electrostatic
voltage between opposite faces when subjected to mechanical pressure.
Conversely, the crystal will expand or contract if subjected to a strong electrical
potential.
placard
A label placed on or near an aircraft component containing information necessary

for flight safety.
potential difference (PD)

in Volts
The difference in electrical potential between two points measured
potentiometer A voltage divider

power
The rate of doing work. Electrical power measured in Watts. Calculated by formula
W = V x I , I2R or V2 divided by R
power factor
The ratio of real power to apparent power, cosine of the phase angle between
voltage and current
primary cell
A cell which is impossible or impractical to recharge, is discarded when

discharged
primary winding/coil
proton
The input winding of a transformer
A positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
proximity sensors
An device used to detect the position of a moving object or 'target'.
radio frequency
All frequencies above the audible range, usually above 20,000 Hz.
rate gyro
A gyro unit whose output is proportional to the rate of changing direction.
rate signal
Any signal proportional to a rate of change
ratiometer
A measuring instrument in which the movement of the indicator is proportional to

the ratio of two currents.
rectification
The conversion of alternating current to direct current by means of a rectifier.
rectifier
A device which permits current to flow in one direction only.
reactive power
The power consumed by the inductive and capacitive circuit measured in

VAR or KVAR
real power
The power consumed by resistive devices measured in Watts or Kilowatts
relay
An electric switch operated by an electromagnet.
reluctance
The property of a material which opposes the passage of magnetic flux lines
through it.
residual magnetism
resistor
The magnetism which remains in a de-energized electromagnet.
A circuit element possessing a finite amount of resistance.

37

Notes
resonance
A condition in an LC circuit in which capacitive reactance and inductive reactance

are equal.
reverse bias
A voltage applied to a semiconductor which creates a high resistance within that

semiconductor.
reverse-current relay A relay incorporated into a generator circuit to disconnect the generator
from the battery when battery voltage is greater than generator voltage.
rheostat
A variable resistor.
ring laser rate sensor (laser gyro)

A solid-state angular rate sensor which employs a laser
and photo-sensor to detect motion.
ripple
A small periodic variation in the voltage level of a dc power supply.
rotor
The rotating part of an electric motor or generator.
secondary cell
An electrolytic voltaic cell capable of being repeatedly charged and

discharged.
secondary winding/coil
selectivity
The output winding of a transformer.
The ability of a radio receiver to tune in desired signals and tune out undesired
signals.
self-inductance
The property of a single conductor or a coil causing it to induce a voltage
in itself whenever there is a change of current flow.
Selsyn
A trade name of the General Electric Company applied to self-synchronizing units,

or synchros.
semiconductor controlled rectifier (SCR)

means of a gate signal.
A semiconductor rectifier that is controlled by
sensor
A sensing unit used to actuate signal-producing devices in response to changes in

physical conditions.
series circuit
A circuit in which the current flows through all the circuit elements via a single
path.
servo
An actuating device which feeds back an indication of its output or movement to

the controlling unit, where it is compared with a reference at the input. Any
difference between the input and output is used to produce the required control.
shielding
Metal covers placed around electric and electronic devices to prevent the intrusion
of external electrostatic and electromagnetic fields.
short circuit
A circuit with an extra unwanted connection causing a bypassing or part of a

circuit and increase in current flow.
shunt
A calibrated resistor connected in parallel an electric device to bypass a portion of

the current.
side bands
The bands of frequencies on each side of carrier frequency produced by

modulation.
signal
The electric current, voltage, or waves constituting the inputs and outputs of
electric or electronic circuits or devices. A signal may be the electric energy
carrying information or may be the information itself.
sine curve or wave

A graphical representation of a wave proportional in magnitude to the sine
of its angular displacement; hence, the sine wave is most useful in representing ac
values.
skip distance The distance from a transmitter to the point where the reflected sky wave first
reaches the earth.
sky wave
That portion of a radio wave which is reflected from the ionosphere.
slip rings
Conducting rings used with brushes to conduct electric current to or from a

rotating unit.
solenoid
An electromagnetic device having a movable core.
solid-state
An adjective used to describe electrical devices which use a solid material, such
38

Notes
as silicon or germanium, to control current flow.
space wave
The radio-wave frequencies which are capable of traveling through the

ionosphere.
split-bus electrical system

bars.
split-field motor
A power distribution system containing two or more isolated bus
A motor field containing two separate windings; one for clockwise rotation,
one for counterclockwise rotation.
split-phase motor
An ac motor which utilizes an inductor or capacitor to shift the phase of
the current in one of two field windings. This causes the resultant field to have a
rotational effect.
square wave
An electric wave having a square shape.
squat switch
A switch activated by the compression and extension of a landing gear strut.
squirrel cage rotor
A rotor for a brushless ac induction motor.
standing waves
Stationary waves occurring on an antenna or transmission line as a result
of two waves, identical in amplitude and frequency, traveling in opposite directions
along the conductor.
Star connection
Internal connection of a 3 phase alternator, one end of each phase
winding is connected to the star or neutral point, allows for uneven loads on the
bus bars.
starter-generator A unit which is used on turbine engines to provide starting torque and generate
electrical power.
stator
The stationary winding of a rotating ac machine.
strobe light
A high-intensity flashing light created by a high voltage discharged into a gaseous

flash tube.
substrate
The semiconductor material upon which diffused and epitaxially deposited regions
are formed to construct diodes, transistors, and similar devices.
superheterodyne
A radio receiver using the heterodyne principle to produce an intermediate
frequency (IF).
switch
A device for opening and closing electric circuits.
synchro
A device for transmitting indications of angular position from one point to another.
synchronous motor An ac motor whose rotor is synchronized with the rotating field produced
by the stator. The speed of rotation is always in time with the frequency of the
applied alternating current.
synchroscope An instrument designed to show whether two rotating elements are in
synchronization.
tachometer
An instrument designed to indicate the rpm of a rotating device.
tank circuit
A parallel resonant circuit including an inductance and a capacitance.
terminal
A connecting fitting attached to the end of a circuit element.
thermocouple A junction of two dissimilar metals which generates a small current when exposed
to heat.
three-phase system An ac electric system consisting of three conductors, each carrying a
current 120 degrees out of phase with each other. Three-phase systems are used
extensively in modern electric and electronic actuating systems.
thyristor
A four-layer semiconductor device with two, three, or four external terminals.

Current flow through a thyristor may be controlled by one or more gates, by light,
or by voltage applied between the two main terminals.
transceiver
A unit serving as both a receiver and transmitter.
transformer
A device to convert one AC voltage to another
transformer rectifier
A device to convert AC at one voltage to DC at another

39

Notes
transistor
A three layer semiconductor used as a switch or amplifier (NPN or PNP)
transmitter
An electronic device to generate an RF carrier wave, an electrical device to

develop a signal in one place and send it to another
true power (real power)

kilowatts.
The power consumed by the resistance in a circuit watts or
The process of adjusting circuits to resonance at a particular frequency.
tuning
ultrahigh frequency (UHF)
Radio frequencies between 300 and 3000 MHz.
vector
A quantity having both magnitude and direction.
velocity
A measure of speed with direction.
very high frequency (VHF)
The frequency range between 30 and 300 MHz.
very low frequency (VLF)
The frequency range between 3 and 30 kHz.
VHF omni-directional radio range (VOR)

An electronic air navigation system which
provides accurate direction information in relation to a certain ground station.
The unit of emf or voltage.
volt
volt-amperes (VA)
Product of voltage and current in a circuit.
voltage divider
A resistance arranged with connections (taps) to provide for the removal

of voltages of any desired level. A potentiometer is often used as a variable
voltage divider.
voltage drop
The electrical 'pressure' drop created by current travelling through a resistance.
voltage regulator
A circuit which maintains a constant level voltage supply despite changes
in load or RPM.
voltmeter
A voltage-measuring instrument.
The circuit in a receiver or amplifier which varies loudness.
volume control
watt (W)
The unit of electric power. In a dc circuit, power (in watts) = volts x amperes, or
P(W) = El.
wattmeter
An instrument for measuring electric power.
waveguide
A hollow metal tube designed to carry electromagnetic energy at extremely high

frequencies.
wavelength
The distance between points of identical phase in a radio wave. The formula for
wavelength is A (lambda) = 300 000 000/f where A is wavelength in meters, and f
is frequency in hertz.
Wheatstone bridge
A bridge circuit consisting of three known resistances, one unknown
resistance, and a galvanometer. The indication shown by the galvanometer is
used to determine the value of the unknown resistance.
zener diode
A diode rectifier designed to prevent the flow of current in a reverse direction until
the voltage in that direction reaches a predetermined value. At this time the diode
permits a reverse current to flow.
DC. ELECTRICS KEY FACTS

THEORY
1.
The unit of measure for Potential Difference (PD) or Electromotive Force (EMF) is called
the Volt (V).
2.
The unit used to measure the current flow of electricity is the Ampere (A).
40

Notes
3.
The unit used for measuring the resistance is called the Ohm ().
4.
The unit used for measuring electrical power is called the Watt (W).
5.
If the voltage in a circuit is doubled, the current will double.
6.
Ohms law states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to voltage and
inversely proportional to resistance:
V = IR
7.
Power in a circuit can be calculated by using one of the following formulae:

W = V x I, W = V / R or W = I x R
8.
The total power consumed in a circuit is found by the calculating the sum of the power
consumed by each individual component.
9.
To find the power consumption of individual components, only the V, I and R for that part
of the circuit must be considered.
10.
If a number of resistances are connected in series, the total resistance will increase and is
equal the sum of the individual resistances:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
11.
If a number of resistances are connected in parallel, the total resistance will decrease and
is calculated using the following formula:
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
RT R1 R2 R3
12.
If two resistances are fitted in parallel, the total resistance can be calculated as follows:
Total resistance.
13.
RT =
R1 xR2
R1 + R2
A voltmeter measures EMF or Potential Difference and is connected in parallel.
14.
An Ammeter measures current flow and is connected in series.
CAPACITORS
1.
2.
A capacitor stores an electrical charge and the unit of capacitance is the Farad.
Three factors effect capacitance: area of the plates (greater area = greater
capacitance), distance between the plates (the greater the distance the less the
capacitance) and the nature of the dielectric.
3.
A capacitor 'appears' to pass AC and block DC.
4.
Capacitance increases with capacitors in parallel:
CT = C1 + C2 + C3
And decreases with capacitors in series: -
41

Notes
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
CT C1 C2 C3
BATTERIES
1.
The electrolyte of a lead acid battery is Sulphuric acid and distilled water.
2.
The specific gravity of a lead acid batterys electrolyte indicates the strength of the
electrolyte and the state of charge of the battery, i.e. SG 1.27 charged and 1.17
discharged.
3.
The normal way to check the state of charge of a lead acid battery is to compare its On
Load voltage with the Off Load voltage
4.
The total voltage of batteries connected in series will be the sum of the voltages of the
individual batteries, but total capacity will be the capacity of one battery, in amp-hour.
5.
The total voltage of batteries connected in parallel will be the voltage of one battery, but
the total capacity will be the sum of the capacities of all the batteries in amp-hour
6.
A battery having a capacity of 40 amp/hr will deliver 4 amps for 10 hours, 8 amps for 5
hours, 40 amps for 1 hr, etc. The battery capacity is measured at the 1 hour rate.
7.
Spillage from a lead acid battery should be neutralised by using a dilute solution of sodium
bicarbonate.
The electrolyte of a Ni-cad battery is potassium hydroxide.
8.
9.
Overcharging of a Ni-cad battery could lead to a thermal runaway and this is prevented
by a thermal switch.
10.
If a lead acid battery is left discharged in low temperatures the electrolyte may freeze.
11.
If a lead acid battery is almost discharged, an increase in load will result in a reduction of
voltage.
12.
The advantages of a Nicad battery over a lead acid battery are: does not deteriorate if left
discharged when stored, not prone to spillage, stable voltage under load and more robust.
GENERATORS
1.
A DC generator has a rotating armature and a stationary field.
2.
In a DC generator the current and voltage in the armature are AC.
3.
A DC generator uses a commutator to convert AC to DC.
4.
Electromagnetic induction is the induction of an EMF (voltage) by cutting lines of magnetic

flux with a conductor.
5.
A DC alternator has a rotating field and a stationary armature.
6.
A DC alternator converts AC to DC by means of a rectifier.
7.
A Voltage regulator controls the strength of the field current to maintain the correct output
voltage regardless of generator speed or load conditions.
8.
A series wound generator has the field windings in series with the load and as load
increases so does the generator output voltage.
9.
A shunt wound generator has the field windings in parallel with the load and as load
increases the generator output voltage decreases.
42

Notes
10.
A compound wound generator has some field windings in series with the load and some in
parallel, so the output voltage remains almost constant with an increase in load.
11.
A DC generator is usually excited by residual magnetism.
12.
If residual magnetism is lost it may be necessary to Flash the field, this restores the
residual magnetism by momentarily passing a large current through the field coil in its
normal direction of flow.
13.
For two DC generators to operate in parallel, the output voltage of both generators must
be the same to equally share the load, this is achieved by an equalizing circuit.
14.
The equalizing circuit detects out of balance voltages and applies correcting values to the
field current through equalising coils in the voltage regulators. NB: the voltages are
equalized not the field currents.
15.
When the nominal voltage of the battery is quoted as 24 volts, the generator is regulated
to 28 volts and when the battery voltage is quoted as 12 volts, the generator is regulated
to 14 volts.
A twin-engined aircraft with a generator on each engine has the generators connected in
parallel with a voltage regulator for each generator.
16.
17.
If the output of two paralleled generators differs, circulating current will flow from the high
output generator to the low output generator.
18.
During flight, if one generator fails on a twin-engined aircraft, it may be necessary to switch
off some unnecessary loads (load shedding).
19.
Generator failure is indicated by the load ammeter showing zero and a failure warning
light.
20.
On a multi-engine aircraft with a generator fitted to each engine, there will normally be one
loadmeter (ammeter) per generator.
21.
On an aircraft fitted with a loadmeter, it will indicate the total current passing from the
generator to the aircraft loads and battery charging current.
22.
A centre zero ammeter is fitted between the battery and the bus bar and can indicate
current flow into or out of the battery.
23.
A rectifier converts AC to DC.
24.
An inverter converts DC to AC.
25.
A DC generator/alternator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
43

Notes
VOLTAGE REGULATORS AND CUT-OUTS
1.
In a DC generating system the voltage regulator controls the system voltage within
prescribed limits, regardless of r.p.m. and load.
2.
A simple voltage regulator is effectively a variable resistor fitted in series with the field coil
of the generator.
3.
A generator cut-out is fitted to prevent the battery current feeding back into the generator
when the generator voltage falls below battery voltage.
4.
A generator is brought on line via the cut-out by an increase in generator voltage above
battery voltage.
5.
Generator cut-out contacts are kept open by spring tension and closed electromagnetically.
MOTORS
1.
A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
2.
The direction of rotation is determined by Fleming's Left Hand (LH) Rule:

First figure = Field,
3.
seCond figure = Current
thuMb = Motion.
There are three types of motors:

a. Series Motor where the field is in series with the armature. They have a high start
torque and are used for starter motors and actuators.
b. Shunt or Parallel Motors where the field is in parallel with the motor. They are constant
speed (within 10%) and used for pumps and fans.
.
c. Compound Motors, which have a series and a shunt field and have the characteristics
of both motors.
4.
There are two types of motor actuator, Rotary used for fuel/air/hydraulic shut-off valves
and Linear used for control trim or temperature control as they can be inched into an
intermediate position.
5.
Brake coils are energised to release the actuator brake and de-energised to apply the
brake (they are in series with the field coil).
6.
Limit switches limit the normal range of travel.
7.
The Rotary actuator indicator shows cross hatch when the actuator is travelling or if the
electrical power has failed.
BUS BARS
1.
Bus bars (BB) are low resistance distribution points for the aircraft loads.
2.
Aircraft loads and the battery are connected in parallel to the generator.
3.
The Hot/Vital BB is connected directly to the battery and cannot be isolated from it.
4.
Load shedding is the term used when electrical loads are reduced, for example after a
generator failure those systems deemed to be non-essential are switched off.
44

Notes
5.
There are three types of BB:

a. Hot/Vital (fire extinguishers etc.).
b. Essential (Radio, Navigation equipment etc).
c.
Non Essential (oven, cigar lighter etc).
FUSES AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS

1.
The reason for fitting fuses and circuit breakers in both AC and DC circuits is to provide a
safety measure when a circuit is overloaded.
2.
A trip free circuit breaker cannot be reset until the fault causing the trip has been removed
from the circuit
3.
It is possible to hold a non-trip free circuit breaker in to complete the circuit whilst a fault
exists. This is a practice however that must not be undertaken.
4.
If a circuit breaker trips it should be reset when the fault has cleared, but only ONCE. If a
fuse blows it should be replaced by one of the correct rating, ONCE only.
5.
A fuse is said to have blown when excessive heat from an overload melts the fuse wire.
5.
A short circuit will cause a fuse to blow.
6.
An open circuit will result in a loss of power to all equipment fitted in that circuit.
CIRCUITS. SCREENING AND BONDING
1.
A unipole or earth return system is one in which the negative terminals of the battery
and generator and the negative terminal of all of the components are connected to the
aircraft structure.
2.
Bonding is used to protect the aircraft from static electricity discharge by maintaining the
same potential between all components in the aircraft structure.
3.
Static wick dischargers are fitted to dissipate static electricity from the aircraft to the
atmosphere.
4.
To prevent radio interference from electrical components, conductors must be screened

with a suitable insulating material.
5.
Static electricity is discharged through an aircrafts wheel/s whilst on the ground, usually
the nose wheel.
45

Notes
AC ELECTRICS - KEY FACTS
Peak value
+
Rms value
360
0
45
90
180
270
Phase angle
One cycle
1.
AC voltage rises from zero to a maximum value of one polarity then falls to zero and rises to a
maximum value of the opposite polarity before falling back to zero.
2.
Current alternates about a mean point.
3.
RMS (root mean square) value is the effective value of voltage or current and is equal to the peak
value x 0.707
4.
Number of cycles per second = frequency - measured in Hertz.
5.
Frequency dependent on speed of rotor and number of magnetic poles in rotor.
6.
In an AC circuit Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance have to be considered.
7.
Inductance is the ability of a circuit to create a magnetic field. Measured in henries, dependent
upon number of coils and soft iron core. Current lags voltage.
8.
Capacitance is the ability of a circuit to store an electrical charge measured in farads, is

dependent upon area of plates, distance between them and nature of the dielectric. Current
leads voltage.
9.
Effects of Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in an AC circuit

Resitive circuit I and V in phase
Inductive Circuit I lags V
Capacitive Circuit I leads V
Opposition to current flow in a resistive circuit is resistance Ohms R
Opposition to current flow in an inductive circuit is inductive reactance Ohms XL
Opposition to current flow in a capacitive circuit is capacitive reactance Ohms XC
10.
If frequency increases XL increases and Xc decreases and vice versa.
11.
If frequency in an inductive circuit decreases, current increases (XL decreases).
12.
If frequency in a capacitive circuit decreases current decreases (XC increases).
13.
Real power is the power absorbed by the resistive loads and is measured in Kilowatts (KW)
46

Notes
14.
Reactive power is the power absorbed by the reactive loads and is measured in Kilovolt-ampreactive (KVAR)
15.
Apparent power is the total power absorbed and is measured in Kilovolt-amps (KVA)
16.
Power factor is the ratio of Real power to Apparent power and is never greater than one.
17.
AC generators are rated in KVA.
Real power (KW)
Power factor = Real power (KW)

Apparent power (KVAR)
Apparent power
(KVA)
Phase angle
Reactive power (KVAR)
18.
In a 3-phase AC generator the phase windings in the stator are 120 apart.
19.
A 3-phase AC generator can be Star or Delta connected. The Star has a neutral or star point, the
Delta does not. The Star can operate with unbalanced loads on the bus bars, the Delta cannot.
20.
In a star connected generator the line voltage is greater than phase voltage (line = phase x 1.73)
and the line current is the same as phase current.
21.
In a delta-connected generator the line voltage is the same as phase voltage and the line current is
greater than phase current (line = phase x 1.73)
22.
A practical AC distribution system will have a star connected generator having 115v/200v 3 phase
output. The loads are connected between the line output and the neutral point (single phase 115v)
23.
AC generators (alternators) can be brushed or brushless.
24.
Brushless generators will have an exciter generator and be self-excited.
25.
An exciter control relay will control the current to the voltage regulator and exciter field (field coil).
26.
The exciter control relay will trip and reduce the generator output to zero in the event of a
persistent over excitation fault.
27.
Frequency wild AC is produced when the generator rotor speed varies with engine speed and can
be used for electrical anti-icing/de-icing systems.
28.
Frequency wild generators cannot be paralleled.
29.
If an aircraft with a frequency wild AC system needs constant frequency AC it is derived from an
Inverter after first converting the frequency wild AC to DC.
30.
To obtain constant frequency from an AC generator the rotor must be driven at constant speed.
Standard frequency - 400 Hz.
31.
A Constant Speed Drive Unit (CSDU) is a hydro mechanical device to convert a variable input
speed to a constant output speed.
47

Notes
32.
The CSDU has its own independent oil supply monitored for low pressure and high temperature.
33.
A disconnect unit can disconnect the CSDU from the engine gearbox anytime the engine is
running. It can only be reconnected on the ground with the engine stopped.
34.
The disconnect unit is operated by a momentary switch from the flight deck, it is not automatic.
35.
A Generator Circuit Breaker (GCB) allows the generator to be connected to its load bus bar.
36.
A Generator Control Unit (GCU) controls the manual and automatic functions of the GCB. The
GCU monitors the operation of the GCB and automatically opens it under certain fault conditions.
36.
A Bus Tie Breaker (BTB) connects two bus bars together.
37.
Most 3 and 4 engine aircraft allow their generators to operate in parallel. Most two-engine aircraft
do not operate their generators in parallel.
38.
Before generators are connected in parallel their voltage, frequency and phase sequence must be
the same.
39.
After paralleling there must be two load sharing circuits, real and reactive load sharing.
40.
The real load sharing circuit matches the torque at each CSDU to share the KW load.
41.
The reactive load sharing circuit matches the voltage by adjusting the field excitation current to
share the KVAR load.
42.
The synchronising bus bar allows generators and their load bus bars to be connected in parallel
after the voltage, frequency and phase sequence are correct. NB it does not synchronise
anything.
43.
The APU (Auxiliary Power Unit) will have a generator similar to the engine driven generator, but it
cannot be paralleled with any other generator.
44.
In a split bus system the generators are not designed to operate in parallel so the phase
relationship between the generators is unimportant.
45.
In a split bus system the BTB closes after a generator failure in order that one generator can feed
two bus bars.
46.
Earth faults, line-to-line faults and differential faults are automatically detected and cause selective
tripping of BTBs and GCBs to isolate the fault.
47.
A Transformer converts AC at one Voltage to AC at another voltage. It can be a step up (increase

voltage, more turns of wire on the secondary coil) or step down (decrease voltage, less turns of
wire on the secondary coil).
48.
Transformers are rated in KVA and cannot transform power (power in = power out).
49.
Auto transformers convert 115vAC to 26vAC for instrument supplies.
50.
Rectifiers convert AC to DC. In a single phase half wave rectifier there is one diode and the
frequency of the output is the same as the input.
51.
A TRU (Transformer/Rectifier unit) converts AC at one voltage to DC at another and supplies all of
the DC needs of the aircraft. Typically 115vAC to 28vDC.
52.
An inverter converts DC to AC.
53.
There will be indications of Voltage, Frequency, Power (KW, KVAR) GCB open or closed, BTB
open or closed and generator failure.
48

Notes
54.
AC motors work on the principle of a rotating magnetic field produced by supplying AC to the stator
windings.
55.
The rotor of a synchronous motor rotates at synchronous speed.
56.
The rotor of an induction motor rotates at less than synchronous speed. The difference is called
slip.
57.
A three-phase induction motor can be reversed by reversing any two of the phase connections.
58.
If one phase of a three phase AC motor become open circuit then the motor will run at half speed
and if it is stopped it is unlikely to start again.
59.
If an AC induction motor is supplied with an under frequency supply it will under speed and
overheat.
60.
An induction motor is sometimes known as an asynchronous motor.
49

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Steve Chesher Feb 08

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS REVISION

Valve overlap remains the same, whatever the engine RPM

The compression ratio = Total Volume/Clearance Volume

The thermal efficiency of an engine increases with an increase of compression ratio.

FRICTIONAL HORSEPOWER (FHP) is the amount of power lost in overcoming the

INDICATED MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (IMEP) is the average pressure exerted on

The firing order of a four-cylinder in-line engine is: 1.3.4.2.

The camshaft of an engine a1ways rotates at half engine speed.

A normally aspirated engine is one that has no supercharger.

Ignition is advanced as engine speed increases or as fuel/air mixture weakens, to ensure

Steve Chesher Feb 08

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS REVISION

Excessive valve clearance can reduce Volumetric efficiency.

COOLING AND LUBRICATION

Cylinder head temperature is measured by a therocouple attached to the hottest cylinder

Steve Chesher Feb 08

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS REVISION

The chemically correct mixture strength is 15lbs of air to 1 lb of fuel by WEIGHT.

To compensate for poor scavenging at slow running, the mixture is enriched.

Steve Chesher Feb 08

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS REVISION

The fuel pump pumps the fuel to the injector nozzles.

Fuel is metered by the fuel control unit.

A separate priming system is not required

There will be a throttle valve but no venturi.

Steve Chesher Feb 08

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS REVISION

Hydraulicing refers to an accumulation of liquid in a cylinder, which could cause damage

Excessive cylinder head temperatures could be caused by prolonged use of a weak

Carburettor hot air is used in flight to overcome carburettor icing.

Manifold pressure can be indicated as either of the above.

Steve Chesher Feb 08