TABLE OF CONTENTS

ii
 Acknowledgements

This thesis paper could not be completed without the wholehearted

assistance and encouragement from many people. I would like to take this
opportunity to thank all of them.

Hearty thanks are given to my supervisor Dr. Pham Hoa Hiep for his help
and guidance in many ways, from the moment I entered the College, through
many difficulties and frustrations, until the very last moments before, during, and
after the viva, without which not only this thesis would have been non-existent
but I myself would have been much less complete than I am now.

I would like to give my tremendous thanks to my family for their support

and encouragement, without which I could not have been able to put all my mind
and effort into carrying out this thesis I would also like to thank other friends of
mine for their sincere feedback and encouragement.

Finally, I would also like to thank all members of the English Department
for their various help and support, and all those nice people from MA course -
academic year 2005-2008 at Hue College of Foreign Languages.

iii
 Declaration
I declare that this thesis was composed by myself and that the work
contained therein is my own, except where explicitly stated otherwise in the
text.

Le Xuan Huong

iv
 Note of Pronoun Usage
In the thesis, the pronoun he or she, when not referring to a particular person, is
intended to be gender-neutral and refers to learners, teachers, translators, etcetera
in a general sense.

v
Chapter One INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Translation is an activity of enormous importance in our modern world and

translation has become a profession. As Li (2005) comments, on the global level,
the worldwide market for translation is large and growing. According to Allied
Business Intelligence, this market is valued at US$11 billion for 1999, growing to
US$20 billion in 2004 (Sprung 2000). A study by the Europe Commission even
valued it at over US$30 billion annually, growing at 15-18 percent per year
(Anobile 2000). In the translation work proportion, technical and business
translation by far exceeds the translation of literary texts (Kingscott 1995; Venuti
1995).

Thanks to the open door policy, Vietnam has experienced more and more
foreign investments as well as cultural, social and political exchanges. Moreover,
the development of socioeconomy, especially with the joining of the recent
WTO, the market for translation and interpretation is growing larger and larger. A
visit to the biggest employment site www.vietnamworks.com shows that among
more than 600 jobs posted per week; there are nearly 20 advertisements for
translation job, while language teaching takes only 4-6 posts. It is clear that
translation job has exceeded teaching job more than three times.

As we are moving forward into the new millennium, changes are taking
place in translation markets and technology is fast becoming omnipresent. In the
face of changes and new technology, translation programs and courses must
respond to the changing needs of the society. In the process of planning and
restructuring translation programs to address and tailor the changing social needs.
Social and political changes can also effect changes in the needs in the translation
market. Vietnam is a case in point. As the result of the Doi Moi policy, Vietnam
is enjoying a much closer relationship with the globalization today. This at least
has changed the translation tasks in two ways: contents and translation directions.

Page 1
 As a language educator and a translator at Montgomery Watson Harza
Americas Construction Supervision Consultant (hereafter MWH Americas CSC),
I have been concerned about the requirements of experienced translators and
translator training. I feel that after leaving university students majoring in
translation lack skills and knowledge that enable them to work effectively in the
local and international market. Many companies wish to recruit university
graduates who can offer good quality translation service. However, it seems that
many students graduating from our colleges and universities lack the necessary
abilities and skills to function successfully as translators (Phuoc 2007). I just
aspire to conduct this research project which seeks to identify the gap between
the requirements that translators need to function effectively and their university
training.

1.2 Aims of the research

The aim of this research project is twofold. First, it investigates what

requirements translators (in-house and freelance) practicing translation on
various fields, such as basic sciences, human sciences, religion, engineering,
computer sciences, and literature need to function successfully for both domestic
and overseas markets. Second, it identifies how the translator training program at
one university can be redesigned to meet those requirements.

The project particularly seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What skills and knowledge do experienced translators need to work

effectively in the local market and international market?
2. What skills and knowledge is the BA in English-Vietnamese
translation students currently taught at Hue University?
3. What are the possible gaps between current training and professional
practices?
4. How translator training programs at the university level can be
redesigned and implemented to help translators perform their work
better?
Page 2
1.3 Scope of the study

In the small scope of the study, that data will be collected at one University in
Vietnam. The findings, thus, might not be generalized to other contexts in the
country.

1.4 Significance of the research

The findings of this research can offer useful references for the development
and implementation of translator training programs at many universities in
Vietnam to meet the actual demands in the new era. It can also help trainers and
students involving in translation enhance their training and learning.

1.5 The structure of the study

This study consists of four chapters

Chapter I provides a general background of the study as well as scope of the

study, its aims and significance of the study.

Chapter II presents a review of the literature. It focuses on the issues of the

training of translators in reference to the competence they need to acquire to be
able to function in the modern market.

Chapter III describes the methodology used as well as the participants,

research site and research methods.

Chapter IV reports on the findings from the interviews and observations

with the experienced translator in Hue College of foreign Languages and some of
the project translators who work for the World Bank projects in Quang Binh
province.

The last chapter sums up all the outcomes from the study as well as offers
practical implications of the research to translation educators and future
researchers.

Page 3
Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter I will first give different views about the nature of translation.
Then I will give an overview about the global translation market. Next the issues
of the training of translators in modern time particular in Vietnam will be
discussed. The chapter will conclude by highlighting the need of this research
project.

2.2 Definition of translation

The practice of translation dates back some two thousand years and ever
since has existed until present days. It is generally believed that translation plays
a key role in the globalization of human knowledge. Translation helps improve
international understanding, socio-cultural awareness, professional
communicative activities, performance of technologies, and so much more.

Houbert (1998) argues that translation has been in existence for a long time,
say, from the early days of human history and the translator thus is a “message
conveyor”. In most cases, translation is to be understood as the process whereby
a message expressed in a specific source language is linguistically transformed in
order to be understood by readers of the target language. However, despite this
concurrence of translation, the question of what translation is remains a
controversy issue. The result is that translation appears to be a complex process.

Translation, whose beginning can be traced back to the Tower of Babel

(Finlay, 1971:17), is defined as “a bilingual mediated process of communication
which ordinarily aims at the production of a target language text that is
functionally equivalent to a source language text” (Reiss, 1971:161).
Furthermore, regarding the definition of translation, Brislin (1976: 1) notes:

“The general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from
one language (source) to another (target), whether the languages are in
written or oral form...”
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 Nida (1984:83) points out: “translation consists of reproducing in the
receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message,
first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Likewise, translation,
as Bell (1991:8) asserts, involves the transfer of meaning from a text in one
language into a text in another language.

Hatim and Mason (1997:1) consider translation as “an act of

communication which attempts to relay, across cultural and linguistic boundaries,
another act of communication.” In most cases, according to Houbert (1998:1),
“translation is to be understood as the process whereby a message expressed in a
specific source language is linguistically transformed in order to be understood
by readers of the target language”.

Translation can also be taken into consideration as “the process of

establishing equivalence between the source language texts and target language
texts” (Sáedi, 2004:242), which aims at passing on “an understanding to people
in their own language and create the same impact as the original text” (Galibert,
2004:1).

Translation in Nida’s view (in Nida & Taber 1974: 12): translation consists
in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the
source language message, first in term of meaning and secondly in terms of style.
Underlying Nida’s approach and view to translation is the conviction that
anything that can be said in one language can be said in another with reasonable
accuracy by establishing equivalent points of reference in the receptor’s culture
and matching his cognitive framework by restructuring the very basic elements
of the message.

Catford in his work A linguistic Theory of Translation (1965:20) defines

translation as:

Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by

equivalence textual material in another language.

Page 5
 In brief, translation has been more and more an interesting and fruitful area
for those who concern to work on. The term translation can be understood in two
ways. In broader term, translation is the process of converting words from one
language to another. According to this notion, it includes interpreting as the
conversion of spoken words from one language into another. However, what this
thesis looks at is translation with its narrower definition, concerning only the
written words.

2.3 The global translation market and today’s translator requirements

On the global level, the worldwide market for translation services is large
and growing. As the global reach of Internet expands, the translation market,
valued at somewhere between $30-40 billion, is expected to continue to grow at a
staggering rate of 30 percent a year (ibid.). Translation market is one area of the
Internet that is supposed to explode.

As a result of new technologies and the increasingly blurred economic

borders, the translation services required by a company, an institution, or a client
are not confined by geographical boundaries. Physical distance is no obstacle to
the successful conclusion of a translation assignment. The market is now
decentralized, as we are now dealing with both national and international markets
(Pym 1998); and all translators are competing with other translators from all over
the world.

Along with market decentralization, technology also indirectly influences

the text types with which translators work. There is, of course, an ever present
demand for financial, commercial, and industrial text, but the advances in
telecommunications and software, among others, also account for a considerable
and increasing volume of translation. Even a brief look at the current market
reveals that material related to software and websites is now often translated by
professionals.

In order to survive in today’s professionally challenging environment,

translators have to comprehend the importance of being able to adapt and accept

Page 6
that this profession will progressively imply much more than mere translating. It
is obviously that there is a consensus that a huge market for translation at present
technological era has been existing and growing steadily. In terms of the
profession development, in Vietnam, as well as worldwide, technical and
commercial translation have been much far outgrown than literary translation
market.

Translation is an activity of enormous importance in our modern world and

translation has become a profession. As Li (2005) comments, on the global level,
the worldwide market for translation is large and growing. According to Allied
Business Intelligence, this market is valued at US$11 billion for 1999, growing to
US$20 billion in 2004 (Sprung 2000). A study by the Europe Commission even
valued it at over US$30 billion annually, growing at 15-18 percent per year
(Anobile 2000). In the translation work proportion, technical and business
translation by far exceeds the translation of literary texts (Kingscott 1995; Venuti
1995).

Translation is undoubtedly a social phenomenon. Translators are influenced

not only by the source language text and the peculiarities of the target audience,
but also by the era to which the translator belongs.

Consequently, if willing to enter the translation job market nowadays,

candidates should expect to perform tasks varying from actual translating to
writing summaries of a translated document, preparing material for publication or
internal use, acting as an editor on source or translated texts and adapting the
content of a text for a new audience.

The market demands did not fail to produce reactions from the profession.
Translation, as a profession, has gradually come to be considered a client-
oriented operation. Consequently, the people working in this branch developed,
little by little, what has been called “translation economics: supply will match
demand, and the communicative roles assigned to the translator are determined
by the laws of the market” (Fawcett, 1981: 52).

Page 7
 Pym (1998) adds that “the market for translation is ultimately determined by
available technology,” and therefore a professional translator “should physically
possess basic computer technology,” not only to be able to work with
geographically distant clients, but also to be able to access various data banks
and information sources. Pym concludes that a translator, without this invaluable
tool, will not survive as a professional for long. Vietnam is not an exception. A
translator can sit in a corner of a very mountainous village to work and contact
directly with his clients who live in New York, Hong Kong or Silicon valley; to
do so, this translator must be equipped with a cable line and a computer.

Pym also adds that “the market for translation is ultimately determined by
available technology,” and therefore a professional translator “should physically
possess basic computer technology,” not only to be able to work with
geographically distant clients, but also to be able to access various data banks
and information sources.

Thanks to the open door policy, Vietnam has experienced more and more
foreign investments as well as cultural, social and political exchanges. Moreover,
the development of socioeconomy, especially with the joining of the recent
WTO, the market for translation and interpretation is growing larger and larger. A
visit to the biggest employment site www.vietnamworks.com shows that among
more than 800 jobs posted per week; there are nearly 30 advertisements for
translation job, while language teaching takes only 7-9 posts. It is clear that
translation job-especially field subject translation has exceeded teaching job
more than four times.

Besides offering a brief overview of the Training B.A in English-

Vietnamese Translation in Hue University, this survey provides new insights into
market expectations (features, skills and competences, profiles, needs,
constraints, requirements and working conditions, among others); and builds up a
picture of the ideal translation services output from the school’s training , which
may eventually lead to a consideration of the way translators are being trained

Page 8
according to professional standards by tailoring translation curricula to new
business-oriented settings of the country as Gabr (2001) stated.

The last half of the twentieth century was characterized by revolutions in

information and communication technology that have influenced numerous
professions, including translation. Archer (2002) and Askehave (2000) put it that
the new technology has made translators’ work easier, but, in order to meet
market needs. These two authors share an idea that “information and
communication technology must take up their rightful place in student training.”
The demanding of translation market expects future translators to have a broad
knowledge of the subject matter of the text, to use a large number of computer
tools proficiently, and to be versatile in the sense that they can master all
elements in the translation process.

Baker (1992) says that “There are two main types of training that a
profession can provide for its members: vocational training and academic
training. Vocational courses provide training in practical skills but do not include
a strong theoretical component”. She continues saying. “Academic training
includes a theoretical component that encourages students to reflect on what they
do, how they do it, and why they do it in one way rather than another”. She also
states that “there are professional translators that argue against formal academic
training because they believe that translation is an art which requires aptitude,
practice and general knowledge and believe that academic training is irrelevant to
the work of a translator”. However, as Judith (2005) comments people with life
experience, degrees in foreign languages and language teachers do not often have
the skills needed to enter the professions of Translating (Judith del Rio, 2005).
This has caused difficulties for departments which offer translation program but
lack of up to date teaching staff.

Regarding the translator training practice, Antony Pym (in Gabr. 2001)
states that market demands should shape the way in which translators are trained.
In this regard, Pym raises the issue of specialization: as a phenomenon triggered
by technological factors that determine the market structure, it indirectly affects
Page 9
the kinds of texts to be translated. He believes that “translator training must try to
address the phenomenon of specialization” (Pym 1998). He proposes that
students should be taught translation as:

“A general set of communication skills that they can apply and adapt to
the changing demands of future markets, and indeed changing
professions.... The greater the specialization of the market, the greater
the translators’ interest in diversifying their competence.... Traditional
philological training ...will eventually be unable to supply the skills
needed by the market.” (Pym 1998)
Most professional translators agree with Baker (1992) who states that
“every respectable profession (or every profession which wants to be recognized
as such) attempts to provide its members with systematic training in the field”.
Gabr (2001) claims that: in order to create an efficient translator, one must
consider the demands of the market.

Hiep and Huong (2007) state that “At present time, it is hardly for any
translation jobs performed without using computer. Usually the translator
receives files to be translated via email and then returns the translated texts by
email.”

The technological tools and utilities that are now available to translators, on
the one hand, have made some work easier, but these resources have also added
new problems. The translation market sets increasingly unrealistic and short
deadlines and delivery dates, and the daily volume of translation is growing at an
incredible rate. Nowadays, computer tools applied to translation and text
processing allow clients to develop their own glossaries, terminology databases,
and Translation Memories (hereafter TM). In order to put together an effective
training program for preparing, or creating, an efficient translator, universities
must consider the demands of the market. Beich points out:

“Always think of your customers as suppliers first. Work closely with

clients so that they can supply you with the information you need and, in

Page 10
 turn, you can supply them with the products and services that meet their
needs and expectations.” (Beich 1994: 15)

Thus, before students start any course in translation, they must have basic
knowledge of the Internet and the use of web-based communication channels.
However, the links between translators and computer tools are much stronger, so
in order to work with and produce digital material, students must learn to stay
constantly up-to-date with new computer technology. Therefore, students must
become familiarized with all electronic and computer tools available and used in
professional work (Gouadec 2000). The main concern in today’s translator
training programmes is the need to offer students these skills in combination with
an acceptable degree of specialization.

Gabr (2001) uses a framework inspired by professional translation in order

to set up a translator training programme. The first step is to identify market
needs and help the educator to shape the markets for future translators.
Consequently, the information and communications technology skills required
must form an integral part of undergraduate translator training in order to prepare
students adequately for their future. To this end, it seems more than logical that
university translation course modules should be taught in an online environment
that models as closely as possible the realities of the professional world (Olvera
Lobo et al. 2005).

For several decades it is very common practice that in Vietnam most

translators in practice with their main major in foreign languages; and this has led
to a false idea that graduates from foreign language schools or departments could
do the translation automatically and perform the task well. Therefore translation
is only a course in the undergraduate’s curriculum, that is to say, no school or
foreign language department offers specialized translation training.

Concerning on the technology and specialization in translation training,

Laszlo concurs with Pym, Hiep and Huong (2007) by arguing that translators
must balance their knowledge about language with their knowledge about

Page 11
subjects. He concludes that because the market wants translators who specialize,
the training of translators should address some field of specialization. Laszlo
further believes that all translation programs must also include:

“the use of computer, including word processing software, translation

software, communications equipment and general business software....
No translator can possibly work as a professional without a computer.”
(Laszlo 2000a)

Gouadec holds that the type of translation curriculum should depend on the
kind of students and the demands of the market. It should cover terminology and
specialization up to the point where the students know how to deal with the
problem of terminology in the texts to be translated and how to find information.

In a nut shell, translation, being a craft and a science, requires training based
on language theories. Therefore, a sound approach to translation teaching and
training ought to employ methods that address theoretical aspects of translation
as well as the practical aspects of translating. In order to meet the needs of the
demanding market as well as the rapid changing of technology, the future
translators should be trained on a balance of the knowledge about language and
the knowledge about subjects with the competence of basic electronic tools.

2.4 The Issues of translator training

2.4.1 Common issues

An important shift in modern education philosophy is becoming more and

more obvious; teachers are no longer all-knowing and students are not only
receptors of knowledge. Today, teachers must ensure that students become
autonomous life-long learners able to adapt to the fast pace of technology.
Translation teaching is not foreign to this evolution. However, the translation
course seems to be mainly targeted to undergraduates specializing in foreign
languages, and there were no special schools or universities for training

Page 12
translators. The number of qualified translators and graduated from foreign
language institutes or departments was therefore very limited.

Concerning on the translator training, Azizinezhad (2006) poses the queries

is translation teachable at all? If yes, to what extent? And he argues it is crystal
clear that no one can answer this question off the cuff, and we need to first define
what the real nature of translation is. It's only then that one can decide whether it
is something to be taught in the classroom like any other field of study and with
the same existing teaching methods. Focusing on this issue is beneficial in that
many problems regarding teaching translation arise from the fact that a great
number of experienced and skilled autodidacts in the field who have been asked
to educate beginner translators believe that translation is learned by experience
and personal intuition and can by no means be taught in the classroom. Many of
them also believe that translation theories are all of no use. On the opposite
extreme are people who argue that translation is or can become an exact science
like any other. There are still others who try to avoid the extremes and think of
translation as something in-between. These debates usually leave students in
confusion and bewilderment which results in their lack of motivation, interest
and trust in the curriculum. An attempt to meet this need was made when the
wheels of the first educational centers were set in motion to satisfy the increasing
demand of society for experts in different fields, including translation. .

Caminade and Pym (1998) put it translator training has not received the
attention it deserves until fairly recently; traditionally, translators received
unsystematic training, arbitrary teaching methods, translation activities connected
primarily with foreign language acquisition, or on the study of a foreign language
and culture. Many departments which offer translation training seem to neglect
the role of the technologies in the translator training curriculum.

Handling a translator training program is a creative task that must be

approached systematically. As Gabr (2001) puts it that translation training
requires following carefully planned steps and making concerted efforts. It is a
demanding task that necessitates teamwork, intensive research and considerable
Page 13
academic and professional background in pedagogy, training methodology,
translating and course design and delivery.

2.4.2 Specific issues in Vietnam

In Vietnam, there has been a growing concern about the quality of

translation in general and English-Vietnamese translations in particular. Indeed,
the practice of translation is not only a craft, but also a science and an art
(Newmark, 1988), which needs to be constantly improved with a view to
bringing the Vietnamese mass culture to the world. The demanding translation
market expects translators to have a broad knowledge of the subject matter of the
text, to use a large number of computer tools proficiently, and to be versatile in
the sense that they can master all elements in the translation process.

4.2.1 The Vietnamese context

Like many countries, translation teaching and learning in Vietnam mainly

focused on purely linguistic and theoretical aspects (Hiep & Huong, 2007), while
other instrumental skills that are useful for language professionals such as
documentation techniques, terminology, use of tools, computer resources, etc.,
and areas of specialization for translators, such as economics, medicine, and law
seem to be forgotten.

Since translation is multidisciplinary, translator training programs must

instill not only proficient language command in both source- and target
languages, but also, equally important, must bring together knowledge and skills
that belong to different disciplines, such as documentation, terminology, desktop
publishing, as well as some knowledge of specialized texts. Students must learn
this so that they can ultimately thrive collectively as members of a profession.

Between August 31and September 1, 2007, “The Translation –

Interpretation and Translator–Interpreter Training” Conference was held in Hue.
The conference was sponsored by the Asia Research Centre. Over 100 lecturers
and translators and interpreters attended the conference. All were interested in the
following questions: What is a reasonable arrangement for translation courses?
Page 14
What are the criteria for selection of students for translation and interpretation
courses? Should we give source –target and target – source translation separately
or combine them into one course? What is the basic content of and what are the
key points in the translation course? How should we teach translation? The
discussion proceeded intensely, but it was difficult to arrive at consensus as
everyone stuck firmly to their own arguments. Many conference participants
noticed the importance of translator education and research, and began to discuss
how to teach translation effectively. It was agreed that teachers should therefore
create environments conducive to learning different kinds of translation. Some
speakers maintained that it was better to teach general and specialized translation
together. Other speakers even thought that general translation and specialized
translation employ different translation skills and techniques; there are
similarities between teaching general translation and specialized translation,
especially in dealing with the differences between languages, and cultural
systems. The translator’s task is to bridge the gap between both languages and
cultural systems.

In short, all the above arguments show that the translator training in
Vietnam has been unsystematic and needs proper development as Mai (2007)
clarifies “…training translators and interpreters in general orientation taking into
account the objective social demand at each stage to select and introduce
linguistics data.” That is, translation is not only a subject but has also become a
new major. The teaching and learning of translation, therefore, also needs
suitable development and feasible solutions to meet the requirements of the
increasing market in recent years. Paradoxically, while translation requires highly
skills, translator training at present-day in Vietnam seems that students are
merely provided with theoretical and linguistics competence (Hiep & Huong,
2007). Improvements to the quality of translation teaching rely mostly and firstly
on translation training staff and then secondly on the academic settings.

The art of translation is a comprehensive branch of learning which demands

not only a solid bilingual foundation and an understanding of translation theory,

Page 15
but also a rich knowledge of other related branches of learning, such as
linguistics, literature, literary criticism, cultural, computer and professional tools;
as well as plentiful translation practice. It takes a long time to train a translator, a
scholar of translation studies and a teacher of translation. Concerning about the
quality of translation teaching in Hue College of Foreign Languages through
performance of graduate students, Phuoc (2007) in his opening speech at the
conference on “Translation-Interpretation and Translator – Interpreter Training”
puts it bitterly:

“Many companies wish to recruit university graduates who can offer good
quality translation service. However, it seems that many students graduating
from our colleges and universities lack the necessary abilities and skills to
function successfully as translators.”
Thus, to have a good translator generation which can function properly and
provide high quality translation, the educators in general and translator trainers in
particular must overcome the “stumbling block that threatens the success of a
translation program” - course design and development as Gabr (2001) stated.

4.2.2 The real problems that universities face in training translators

The “Doi moi” policy in Vietnam meant a new era in the development of
translation training in Vietnam. Translation became an important element in the
language education system, thus establishing the role of the translation course in
foreign language majors. Then came a series of foreign investments and many
other socioeconomic events, thus promoting translation training in Vietnam.
Facing the huge demand of the market and society; and having obtained
permission and encouragement from the authorities as well as the society need,
numerous language schools and departments have incorporated translation in the
training plan.

Studies on translation teaching have been gaining impetus in recent years.

While plenty has been written on translator competence and proficiency (e.g.
Campbell 1991; Cao 1996; Shreve 1997), approaches to teaching translation (e.g.

Page 16
Gile 1995; Wilss 1996), the role of theory in translation teaching (e.g. Gentile
1991; Viaggio 1994; Gile 1995a) and empirical study of the translation process
and its pedagogical implications (e.g. Lörscher 1991; Tirkkonen-Condit 1992),
several other important aspects of translation teaching have been un- or under-
explored.

However, translation is a rather new course and it is hard for institutions to

have a complete teaching and learning system. Up to date, most foreign language
schools are paying considerable attention to linguistics knowledge such as
listening, speaking, reading and writing, and ignore other vital translation skills.
Although the country needs many professional translators, the graduates from
colleges and universities could not meet the urgent need.

Concerning on the translation training and curriculum design, Li (2000)

clearly states that “there has been little study on design and planning of
translation curriculums, yet curriculum design and planning is one of the aspects
that most directly affect the quality of translators turned out by translation
programs. Therefore, the subject of curriculum design and innovation in
translation programs merits serious study.” (Li 2000: 128)

There is general, though not universal, agreement among educators that

curriculum design and innovation should be based on learner needs (Pratt 1994:
35). However, Li (2000) suspects that many, if not all, translation programs in
operation today were driven not so much by the needs of the learners as by the
academics’ in-house theorizing and philosophizing, based on their own expe-
riences of learning languages and translation and on their particular beliefs about
the teaching of translation. Vietnam is the case, since the “Doi moi” policy, the
country has been enjoying a much closer relationship with the world. This has
changed translation tasks in at least two ways: content and translation directions.
All this has made the translation scene very different from what it was several
decades ago.

Page 17
 Given the above, there seems to be common agreement that teacher who can
meet the criteria of translation teachers are professional translators with academic
knowledge. Gabris (2000) argues that translation teachers need to attend formal
training in language and translation teaching, and should have some sort of
certification or accreditation attesting to their ability to translate. This
requirement is also supported by Barcsak: "It seems that teachers must be trained
in teaching translation" (Barcsak 1996, 174).

Gerding-Salas (2000) concludes that a competent translation teacher should

have pedagogical skills, bilingual and bicultural competencies and thorough
understanding of the theoretical aspects of translation. Harris and DeSimone
(1994) also argue that the teacher must have both training competency and
subject matter expertise. The first involves the knowledge and skills needed to
design and implement a training course, the ability to communicate knowledge
clearly, mastery of various teaching methods and techniques, good interpersonal
skills and the ability to motivate students. Subject-matter expertise refers to
mastery of the subject matter to be taught. Translation teacher development
programs must focus on developing and enhancing these skills.

In summary, how translation has been taught so far, to a large extent, based
on assumptions of teachers about translation and translation teaching. To make
matters worse, many of us teachers have not been professional translators
although we may have undertaken occasional freelance projects (mostly involving
literary texts and some technical documents). Even though some of us might have
been professional translators before joining the teaching/training profession, our
knowledge and understanding of the translation world may have become out-
dated after years of rapid change in the translation world, as a result of the
development of information technology (O’Hagan 1996) and world-wide socio-
political changes. In contrary to what the clients and the market expect, many
students graduating from our colleges and universities lack the necessary abilities
and skills to function successfully as translators (ibid.); this is a clear evidence

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for the fact that our translation programs at university are not good enough to
meet the social needs.

4.2.2 The real challenges of translator training

In the Asian map of translator training, Vietnam has no contribution to the

development of the profession; as Pym (1997) comments “As in many other
fields, the broad geographical area of “Asia” covers regions of fast growth in
translator training (notably around the Pacific rim) and others with little or no
activity. This must thus be seen as a rough area marking out the lines of actual
and potential development.”

Thus, with the growing market for language services, the changing needs of
clients, and the technological advance, translation training is as desirable and
necessary as it is for professionals from any other field. Much attention must be
focused on identifying the most appropriate aims and objectives for training
translators. The quality of translation training, to some extent, firstly depends on
the training staff and secondly on the training programs. Since translation is a
new course in Vietnam, and there is no complete system; different colleges apply
different materials, different teaching plans, books and tests based mainly on the
trainer’s perception of translation.
The existing BA curriculum for English-Vietnamese translation in Vietnam
mainly focuses on practicing translation in various fields, such as basic social
sciences, and general translation skills. In addition to translation, foreign
language is also practiced for a comparatively large amount of time. Although
there has been no systematic evaluation of the present translation curriculum, it
can be assumed that it does not meet the needs of present-day changing market.
Up to date, most experts in the fields of language teaching have turned into
teaching translation due to the lack of professional training staff (ibid.). As a
result, the translator training curriculum in Vietnam universities has undergone
many changes applied differently. This obviously has brought about the

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unsystematic of the training practice. This has brought up challenges for most
universities which offer translation program.

The first challenge fall into the shortage of the competent translator trainers;
as the coming of the “Doi moi” policy of Vietnam in 1986, the country decided to
open the door to the world. In order to answer the shortage of language teachers,
many young and unqualified teachers were recruited. Hiep (2001) clearly puts it
this policy caused a tremendous growth in the number of English as a foreign
language classes and a severe shortage of teachers of English. To meet the great
demand for English teaching, a considerable number of young teachers of
English have been recruited in haste, without undergoing careful consideration of
their skills or abilities. It is a universal problem at most institutions in Vietnam
that university graduates become teachers overnight without adequate
preparation in TEFL methodology (Hiep, 2001). As a matter of fact, this teacher
force is under taking the translation teaching in most of universities.

It is commonly accepted that, competent staff is very important in an

academic setting like translation training. The training staff should be
experienced translators themselves, having done work in the subject areas they
are to teach. Since continuity in training is an essential element for the successful
education of translators, the staff should make a long-term commitment to their
institution and students, devote their time and energy to the profession. As
motioned above that most of those who are currently teaching translation have
never received any sort of training in teaching translation; that most translation
teachers have never been engaged in translation research activities; and that most
translation teachers lack professional background in translating. As Gabr (2002)
proposed that it is of great importance for translation teachers, either academics
or professionals, should therefore receive training in teaching translation, and this
training should include modules on theoretical aspects of translation, translating
general and specialized texts, translation tools available for translators, and
research in translation studies.

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 He also added that translation teachers also need to receive training on
pedagogical issues related to teaching translation, training of translators, and
classroom management. Translation teachers not only need to master the
language technology skills they will be teaching, but they are also required to
keep themselves updated with the ever-speeding-up advances made in translation
technologies. It is true that the rapid changing world of computers represents a
major challenge not only for translators but also for most people working on
training in terms of translation training. Lastly, translation teachers should be
acquainted with the latest developments in information technology and electronic
tools for translators. Without satisfying these requirements, translation teachers
will not be able to do their job effectively.

Sainz supports with a similar view:

“I agree ... the most adequate and competent teachers at university are
those who, apart from their teaching positions, are also practicing
professionals in the subject they are teaching.” (Sainz 1994, 139)

The second challenge is that the quality of the inputs, that is the back
ground knowledge of the translation students. The entrance examination is the
first link of the chain, and it offers information about the candidates. It is
necessary for universities to select outstanding students form the inputs to take
the translation training. The art of translation is a comprehensive branch of
learning which demands not only a solid bilingual foundation and an
understanding of translation theory, but also a rich knowledge of other related
branches of learning, such as linguistics, literature, literary criticism, semantics,
pragmatics, computer and contemporary technology, etc., as well as plentiful
translation practice. Therefore, it is impossible for an ordinary student to be
successful in translation practice. Dong (2007) has suggested some criteria for
selecting translation and interpretation selection in training; among his
suggestions, background knowledge plays a critical important role.

Further more, Tracey is of the same opinion that:

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 “The effectiveness of training is determined by how well graduates of
the training system do on the job. Theoretically, the individual who does
well during training will do well on the job. But this goal ... can be
achieved only if training is an integrated system that begins with the
establishment of realistic prerequisites for entrance into the training
program, continues with the application of valid screening and selection
procedures” (Tracey 1992, 393).

Last but not least, we need an official or national accreditation organization

to accredit translators; as Australia with NATTI (National Accreditation
Authority for Translators and Interpreters), America with ATA (American
Translation Association) and many amongst others. In most countries in the
world, if one wishes to provide language services as a freelance, one question is
inevitable: “Are you certified?”, or “Do you have an ATA?” By definition,
accreditation means to furnish with a credential or to certify as meeting official
requirements (Macquarie Dictionary); a key element of the professional
accreditation process is testing, to evaluate the knowledge, skills, and abilities of
individuals are typically offer language services. As mentioned in the previous
paragraph, today different institutions apply different texts books and testing
techniques; thus it is vital important to standardize the translation training system
with an authorized accreditation system. This translator credentials would offer
fair and objective measurement, and play a very important role in the
standardization of translation body, the guarantee of translation quality, and the
protection of the translator’s rights. It is a guide to translation training of various
levels and types, and sets a high demand for the training.

2.5 Conclusion

Above are some of amongst many concepts and views on translation, each
translator, theorist and scholar is of different point of views; and sometimes go
contrary to each other. However, translation is understood in the broader term,
translation is the process of converting words from one language to another. The
analysis is not a comprehensive one but it has touches upon some most common
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issues at the translation market, domestic as well as the global level, which can
be observed from different angles to analyze the needs of contemporary society;
and it has revealed that the changing market and rapid pace technology do affect
on translation practice and result in dissatisfaction to the quality of translator
training. Thus, university graduates do not meet the market needs in terms of
quality so far is understandable. Graduate students cannot meet the selection
criteria of the employers when apply for translation job; this obviously reveals
that the present training needs a sound approach to translation training ought to
employ methods that address theoretical aspects of translation as well as the
practical aspects of translating. In addition, to make the matter worse most of the
teachers of our translation training system do not seem to adequately meet the
objective of developing efficient translator trainers for their professional
background in term of translation teaching. Additionally, to verify and validate
the quality of translation graduates, an official and authorized accreditation
centre is proposed to establish. This translator credentials to put forward fair and
objective measurements in the standardization of translation body, the guarantee
of translator quality, and the protection of the translator’s rights. It will act as a
guide to translation training of various levels and types, and sets a high demand
for the training.

The purpose of this thesis has, for better training, first and foremost it is
necessary to identify the training needs, it is thus expected that interview data
provided by professional translators and translation theorists and translation
students will help pinpoint the issues that need to be tackled for future planning
and actions regarding the training of professional translators.

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Chapter Three METHODOLOGIES

3.1 Introduction

“Everywhere, our knowledge is incomplete and problems are waiting to be

solved… the role of research is to provide a method for obtaining those answers
by inquiringly studying the evidence within the parameters of the scientific
method” (Leedy 1997:3).
As set out in chapter One, the aim of this research project is twofold. First,
it investigates what requirements translators (in-house and freelance) practicing
translation on various fields, such as basic sciences, human sciences, religion,
engineering, computer sciences, and literature need to function successfully for
both domestic and overseas markets. Second, it identifies how the translator
training program at one university can be redesigned to meet those requirements.

The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the research methodology that was
applied for this research. The research design, data collection methods and
analyzing of data will be discussed. Unrau and Grinnell (2008:256) view the
research methodology as the use of qualitative or quantitative approaches to find
and answer to a specific problem. De Vos (2002:255) elaborates on this definition
and suggests that the descriptions of participants, research design, sampling,
methods of data collection and measuring instruments be included as part of the
research methodology.

3.2 Research Approach

The research employed a multi-stage ethnographic and qualitative approach

due to the fact that those approaches have been used widely in educational
research. The strength of the methodology employed lies in the fact that it has as
holistic focus, allowing for flexibility and the attainment of a deeper, more valid
understanding of the subject than could be achieved through a more rigid
approach.

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 First, the qualitative approach to research is typically used to answer
questions about the nature of phenomena with the purpose of describing,
interpreting and understanding them from the participants’ point of view.

Second, as Creswell (cited in Leedy, 1997:104) defined a quantitative study

as ‘an inquiry into social or human problems, based on testing a theory composed
of variables, measured with numbers and analyzed with statistical procedures in
order to determine whether the predictive generalizations of the theory hold
true". In contrast, he defined a qualitative study as ‘inquiry process of
understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic
picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and
conducted in a natural setting’. Denzin & Lincoln (2000a) added that: ‘Qualitative
research is multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach
to its subject matter’. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their
natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret phenomena in terms of
the meanings people bring to them.

Third, qualitative research takes the reader into the multiple dimensions of
specific problems or issues and displays them in all their complexity. Creswell
(1998: 15) put it that qualitative research can be defined in terms of its relation to
quantitative research. Quantitative research measures and answers questions such
as: ‘how many, how often, what proportion or what size.’ Qualitative research in
contrast, leads to understanding and often answers questions like, ‘why’, ‘how’,
‘in what way’, ‘will’ and ‘to what extent.’ There are three reasons why a
qualitative approach as opposed to another approach was chosen. Firstly, the
research question starts with ‘to what extent’, or ‘possible gap’ i.e. what are the
possible gaps between current training and professional practices?

In sum, the study examines the requirements of a professional translator

needed by the demanding market. It looks at whether a newly graduate can
perform the translation tasks. It thus examines whether there are positive and
negative factors of the market impacting on the training process. It analyses the
training needs, and helps pinpoint the issues that need to be tackled for future

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planning and actions regarding the training of professional translators. Secondly,
a qualitative study was chosen because the topic needs to be explored. Thirdly, a
qualitative study was used because of the need to present a detailed view of the
topic. The wide-angle lens or distant panoramic shot would not have sufficed to
present answers to the problem investigated in this study.

Research Methods

To find the answers to the research questions, both questionnaire and interview
were used to collect the data for this project.

Participants

Participants for the research consisted of 3 groups: The first group

included 6 experienced translators working at Translation and Interpretation
Center (Hue College of Foreign). 20 minutes of direct interview for each
correspondent were taken; the results were hence reliable and sufficient for
further analysis.

Table 1 (list of participants)

Subjects Number Age Methods

Experienced translators 6 35-50 Interview and questionnaire
Trainers 5 35-50 Questionnaire
Students 40 21-30 Questionnaire
Total 51

Response rate
Dillman (1978, p. 50) suggests only “eligible responses” should be used to
calculate “a more direct” indication of response rate (see Table 2).

Table 2 Formula used to calculate the response rate

number returned
Response rate = x 100
number in sample – (ineligible + unreachable)

Even though this procedure was in place, it was found that six respondents
did not return the questionnaire for this project. Therefore they were completely
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excluded from data analyses that related any way to design process and industrial
designer, however they were used in general data analyses in regard to translator
training issues.

Questionnaire
All of 40 translation trainers and the fourth year students at the chosen
university were distributed with questionnaires due to be collected within four
days since the delivery. Advanced level of English had been chosen as the highest
criteria in translation; otherwise, no translation practice was realizable.

The total number of survey questionnaires were delivered to participants

was 40. However, 4 of these participants indicated that they were too busy to fill
out the questionnaire and returned on time; and in spite of the initial email
contacts, other 2 subjects indicated that the survey questionnaire delivered to
them was not applicable, because they either did not wish to participate in any
research, or had forgot the questionnaire elsewhere. Therefore, the total number
of received survey questionnaires was 34. Babbie (1986, p. 221 cited in Sohal,
Simon, & Lu, 1996, p. 76) stated that a 50 per cent response rate “is adequate for
analysis and reporting.” He considers “a response rate of at least 60 per cent” as
good “and a response rate of 70 percent” as very good. This represented a
response rate of 85 per cent out of 40 respondents (see Figure1). The details of
the procedures were as follows:

The questionnaire was of a semi-structured with mostly multiple-choice

questions as shown in Appendix 1. There were two sets of questionnaires
prepared to carry out the investigation. The first set was for the translation
trainers and experienced translators; the second section was for the translation
students as shown in Appendix 2, which were:

(i) Section A: this section comprised the multiple choice questions which
were more on the perceptions and point of views of the trainers on the
translating current training practice. This section consisted of fifteen
questions whereby questions like how long the respondent undertook

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 the training practice; what were the reasons they chose the field; how
they acquired the knowledge and experience in the subject; what were
the main exercises/tasks that they and the learners normally involved in
classes.

(ii) Section B: this section was more on the issues and factors which
affected the performance of the translation training process at university
level. There were altogether fifteen questions on the issues affecting the
ways which could contribute to the improvement of the training and
build competent translators. Problems in approaching the language
market; problems in engaging up to date translators; the manner in
carrying out works at the work place and issues which reveals the
expectations of learners. There was an open-ended question on what the
respondents can suggest in order to improve performance of training
and learning at school besides the above stated questions.

Interviews

Interviews allowed the researcher to record the ideas and comments from
the participants. Interview following the questionnaire were used to clarify and
fill in possible gaps in the completed questionnaire.

Interviews are considered the most functional and practical way of

conducting this research for the reason that it allows the researcher to have
personal contact with the respondent and to share some of the respondent’s
personal experiences. Leedy (1997:199) identifies two types of interviews,
namely the structured and the semi-structured interview. The author states that
questions in the structured interview resemble questions that would be used in a
questionnaire, for instance “Have you ever heard of a translation tool, e.g. Déjà
Vu?” This type of interview has a rigid structure. The respondent can only give
one of a few possible answers, for instance “yes”, “no” or “maybe”. The semi-
structured interview allows for elaboration on the questions asked, for instance

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“Why do you often get difficulties in integrating yourself in the market?”
Although this type of interview is still quite rigid, it can rather be seen as a
guided interview as it still allows a certain amount of “freedom”. De Vos (2002:
297-298) calls this type of interview the guided interview. Furthermore, De Vos
(2002:297 and 305-306) identifies two types of interviews, the one-to-one
interview and focus group discussions. The guided interview is quite functional
in this study as it allowed the researcher to explore specific aspects of the
relationship between the professional requirements and the training process.
Guidance was quite important, as the topic is of such a nature that trainer’s
perceptions towards market needs and other issues between translation training
and translation in practice which can easily distract the interviewee. It is
furthermore important for the researcher to keep in mind that an interview
schedule should be carefully compiled, be pilot-tested and be free from bias
before it is used with the sample (Leedy 1997:199).

For the purpose of this study interviews were conducted by using one-to-
one interviews. The interviews were semi-structured or guided and an interview
schedule was used. (See Appendix 3 and 4 for the details of the interview
questions)

Interviewed 5 translators working as both translators and trainers at Hue

College of Foreign Languages were conducted. The interviewees were chosen for
their relevance to the conceptual questions rather than their representativeness.
Initial participants (at the first group interview) were asked to suggest names of
other translators or trainers involved in the topic of the research (for example, in
the case of Dr. Hoa) or people who are practicing translation and general
networking through personal contacts expanded the sample. The decision to stop
adding respondents was taken when nothing new was being learnt from the
interviews and a state of theoretical saturation was achieved. The interviewees
were selected on the basis of their closeness to the topics of the study project and
their levels of experience in translation and translation training issues. All the
interviews were conducted in English and for the purpose of this thesis; the
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interviews were not translated into Vietnamese. All interviews were transcribed
in Microsoft Word format (in English) and extensive notes were also taken
during the fieldwork. The information gathered from these interviews was
objective and the researcher did not interfere nor resist creating any biases in the
interviewing process.

3.3 Data Analysis

Interview transcripts and written notes were analyzed systematically

through iterative and repeated re-reading of them. This made it possible to gain
an increasingly profound understanding of each interviewee’s viewpoint and
perspective, of links and contradictions within and across interviews, of complex
contextual factors emerging from the aforesaid interviews and of the many
relationships between the relevant concepts. Main data source was obtained from
the questionnaires, and secondary data were from interviews and by researcher
self experience at the workplace. Graduation theses, conference proceedings,
monographs, and other internet documents were used to supplement main data
source; and for the major intention of constructing the hypothesis of domains in
response to the research question.

For this research, there were two sources of data that were analyzed
inductively: the data from the interviews and the data from the questionnaire. The
data were analyzed using an inductive approach allowing the prevailing pattern,
themes and categories of the research findings to emerge from the data rather
than be controlled by factors predetermined prior to their collection and analysis
(Patton, 1987). The analysis of the transcripts and field notes comprised of
labeling the data, creating a data index, sorting the content of the data into
meaningful categories, and determining a list of themes. The constant
comparative method was used in conducting the analysis. In constant
comparative analysis, data are recorded, categorized and compared across
categories. Patton (1990) describes the process of categorization as one of
constantly revisiting the logical explanation and the concrete data whilst looking

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for significant relationships. Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest that the main task
of categorization is to organize those data that appear to relate to the same
content into temporary categories. The details of the data analysis process are
outlined below.

1. The researcher repeatedly read the categorized and indexed responses of

the interviews and questionnaires and reviewed literature relevant to the
research questions.
2. The researcher grouped the codes that were developed in the previous
step by re-reading the data using the constant comparative method along
with a review of the relevant literature of the research questions to form
categories.
3. The researcher wrote a summary of the findings from the interview
questions and questionnaire responses based upon the categories
derived from data analysis.

3.4 Conclusion
This chapter focused mainly on the methodological aspect of research. It
explains the methods of how data were collected and how it was analyzed in the
context of a qualitative research study. These methods are also discussed with
regards to validity and reliability. In-depth interviews with individuals will be the
main method for data collection. The chapter covered the methods of the study
and dealt with data collection and their derivation from primary and secondary
sources. The chapter also detailed the approach used and conditions under which
the various stages of investigations were carried out from the development of
initial contacts, the choice of the cases, preliminary questionnaire, pilot survey,
and design and administration of the research instrument (questionnaires). It
further indicated how issues of validity and reliability were addressed through the
use of several data gathering methods. The method adopted for this study
involved extended on-site visits to the three institutions in Hue and Dong Hoi
city, and in-person interviews with trainers and translators of these institutions,
followed by an email survey with the same set of questionnaire. Main data source
was obtained from the questionnaires, and interviews, self experience at the

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workplace for the secondary data source for the major intention of constructing
the hypothesis of domains in response to the research question. Graduation
theses, conference proceedings, monographs, and other internet documents were
used to supplement main data source.

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