Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Nima Madani
Degree project in
Electrical Engineering
Master of Science
Stockholm, Sweden 2011
XR-EE-EME 2011:013
NIMA MADANI
XR-EE-EME 2011:013
Abstract
Dierent types of permanent magnet generators for wind power application have been subject of research during last two decades. In this thesis dierent topologies of electrical generators have been investigated for
small scale vertical axis wind turbine application. A two stage induction
generator is proposed as a alternative solution with respect to the cost of
such a system. However, a biggest emphasis in the report has been put
on the design of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)
charsuitable for a small scale Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)The
acteristics of PMSG makes it highly compatible for variable speed Wind
Energy Conversion System (WECS) without any pitch mechanism.
Chapters 2 and 3 summarize a thorough literature survey on wind
energy systems and corresponding electrical machines. The principles
of wind aerodynamics is preceded by a review on wind turbine characteristics and challenges with emphasis on VAWT s. Further dierent
topologies of electrical machines with focus on PMSG s including Permanent Magnet (PM) congurations, dierent windings and thermal
behavior is presented. In chapter 4 a brief review on an alternative
solution which includes an Induction Generator (IG) for xed speed
WECS is given.
Next, In chapters 5, 6 and 7, a PMSG is designed and the design is veried by means of Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis and
thermal modeling. Chapter 5 describes an analytical optimisation of a
longitudinal, inner rotor, radial ux, surface mounted PMSG with concentrated winding and natural air cooling system. Cost of active material is chosen as the optimisation criterion. Concepts like "constraints",
"requirements", "parameters" (including material, geometry and winding) and procedure of the design are described here. In chapter 6, a
FEM model of the optimised machine is developed and the results are
illustrated. The iron losses, calculated in this chapter are utilised in
thermal analysis in chapter 7 . Thermal model developed is based on a
lumped parameter circuit . It ensures the safe thermal behavior of the
machine in nominal operation mode.
Keywords: vertical axis wind turbine, permanent magnet machines, permanent magnet generator, Finite Element Method,
fractional concentrated winding
Referat
Olika typer av permanentmagnetgeneratorer fr vindkraftapplikation
har varit freml fr forskning under de senaste tv decennierna. I denna
rapprt har olika typer av elektriska generatorer underskts fr smskalig
vertikalaxelvindkraftverkstillmpning. Utifrn kostnasdhnsyn fr ett
sdant system, en dubbellindad asynkrongenerator fresls som en allternativ lsning. Emellertid, har den strsta vikten i raporten lagts p
underskningen och design av en permanentmagnetsynkrongenerator
fr en smskalig vertikalaxelvindkraftverk. Egenskaper hos permanentmagnetsynkrongenerator (PMSG) lmpar sig vldig bra fr variabelhastighet vindenergysystem utan pitch mekanismen. I kapitel 2 och 3,
presenteras en grundlig genomfrd litteraturstudie p vindkraftsystem
och motsvarande elektriska maskiner. Principerna fr vindaerodynamik
fregs av en genomgng p vindturbin egenskaper och utmaningar med
tonvikt p vertikalaxelvinkraftverk. Vidare, presenteras olika topologier
av elektriska maskiner med fokus p permanentmagnetsynkrongeneratorer inklusive permanentmagnet(PM) kongurationer, olika typer av
lindningar och termiskt beteende. I kapitel 4 ges en kort versikt av en
alternativ lsning, vilken omfattar en dubbellindanasynkmronenerator.
Drefter i kapitel 5, 6 och 7, ges analytisk underskning och design av en
permanensynkrongenerator, vilken sedan understds och verieras med
hjlp av Finita Element Metoden (FEM) och termisk modellering. Kapitel 5 beskriver ett analytiskt optimiserings process av en longitudinell,
inre rotor, radial des, permanetmagnetsynkrongenerator med ytmonterade magneter, koncentrerad lindning och en naturlig luftkylning systemet. Kostnadden av aktivt material har valts som ett optimering kriterium. Begrepp som begrnsningar", "krav", parametrar"(inklusive material, geometri och lindningar) och arbetsde fr design r beskrivna
hr. I kapitel 6, ges en beskrivning av den utvecklade FEM-modell av
den optimerade maskinen och resultaten presenteras tydligt. Jrnfrluster berknade i detta kapitel, utnyttjas vidare i den termiskanalysen i
kapitel 7. Den termiska modellen baseras p punktvis frdelade parameterkretsen. Detta garanterar en sker drift av maskinen vid nominell
last.
Nyckelord: vertikalaxelvindkraftverk, permanentmagnet maskiner,
permanentmagnet generator, Finita Element Metoden, koncentrerad lindning
Acknowledgment
During past seven months I have had the most fascinating time working on this
thesis. So I would like to express my gratitude for the people who made this great
time.
This work has been possible by guidance of my examiner professor Chandur
Sadarangani throughout the entire work. His condence in me to tackle this task
is highly appreciated. Next appreciation goes to my supervisor Dr. Alija Cosic
who provided me with assistance whenever I needed it. I am grateful of his eort
towards guiding me along the way.
I also feel thankful of my friends and ocemates for their friendship. Shagh
Nategh and I spent a lot of time on our long discussions. Moreover, I had a nice
time with Sergio, Xiaohu, Roberto, Arif,... . EME sta are appreciated for their
help whenever I turned to them: including Peter Lnn, Eva Pettersson, Andreas
Krings, Naveed Malik, ....
I, additionally, would like to express my gratitude towards my parents and siblings. Endless love of my father, who is my hero, and my mother made it possible
for me to bear the distance. I wish the best for my little sister and my brother in
their lives in return of their support during this period. I, moreover, had a great
time in Uppsala with my aunt and my cousins that I will never forget.
Stockholm
Midsummer 2011
Nima Madani
Di,min,normal
Dm
Dy
E
f
fs
K 1
m2
m2
m
m
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
Euro
kg
Euro
kg
Euro
kg
w.sec
rad.m3
w sec 3
kg .( rad )
m
m
m
m
m
m
w.sec
kg
Hz
Jb
hrr
hrs
hss
hsw
I
kcoil
kexcess
kh
kj
kkey
kf ailure
knormal
lav
lF E
lm
L
m
Mbend
nn
nr
ns
p
Pbearing
Pmech
Pn
Pwind
Pwindage
Pcu
Pcucs
Pcuew
PF E
q
Qs
r
R
Rcu
Rth
T
T0
Tn
current density
rotor yoke height
stator yoke height
stator slot height
stator slot wedge height
rms value of nominal current
end winding coecient
Excess loss coecient
Hysteresis loss coecient
Stacking factor
correction factor for strength weakening of the
shaft due to the key slot
safety factor under failure conditions
safety factor under normal conditions
average length of half a turn of the winding coil
stator core length
magnet thickness
generators airgap cylinder length
mass ow in wind turbine
bending moment acting on generators shaft
generators base speed
generators rated speed
number of turns per slot
number of poles
rotors bearing losses
mechanical extracted power from wind turbine
generators rated power
available power in wind
rotors windage losses
total copper losses
copper losses in coil sides
copper losses in end windings
iron losses calculated in FEM
number of stator slots per pole per phase
number of stator slots
wind turbines rotor plane radius
generators airgap cylinder radius
phase winding resistance
thermal resistance
temperature
average temperature of ambient
generators rated torque
magnet angle
A
m2
m
m
m
m
A
w
( T )1.5
m3 sec
w.sec
T 2 m3
m
m
m
m
kg
sec
N.m
rpm
rpm
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
m
m
C/w
C
C
N.m
electrical
mech
mech
cu
F E
P M
perm
yield
s
List of Abbreviations
AC Alternative Current
BLAC Brushless Alternative Current
DC Direct Current
DFIG Double Fed Induction Generator
DOL Direct Online
EMF Electro-Motive Force
FEM Finite Element Method
HAWT Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IG Induction Generator
IPM Interior Permanent Magnet
LCM Least Common Multiple
m
m
%
m
sec
kg
m3
.m
kg
m3
kg
m3
1
( .m
)
N
m2
N
m2
m
rad
sec
rad
sec
Contents
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Wind Energy Systems
2.1 Wind Turbine Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Working Principle of VAWT . . . . . .
2.3 Mechanical Drive Train . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Fixed Speed or Variable Speed . . . . .
2.3.2 Geared or Direct Driven . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Operation Sequence and Control . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Operation Sequence . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Comparison Between VAWTs and HAWTs . . .
2.5.1 Design: Yaw Mechanism . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2 Design: Axis of Direction . . . . . . . .
2.5.3 Design: Direct Drive . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.4 Design: Wind turbine construction . . .
2.5.5 Design: Structural Mechanics . . . . . .
2.5.6 Aerodynamics: Performance . . . . . . .
2.5.7 Aerodynamics: Power Control . . . . . .
2.5.8 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Vibrations in Wind Energy Systems . . . . . .
2.6.1 Torsional Vibrations of the Drive Train
2.7 Noise Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5
5
7
7
10
10
11
11
11
12
15
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
16
17
17
18
19
19
19
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
19
22
24
24
26
27
28
28
29
29
30
31
31
34
34
34
36
36
37
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
43
43
44
45
45
45
45
46
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
49
49
49
50
50
51
52
52
55
56
59
59
60
66
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4 Induction Generator
4.1 Fixed Speed Induction Generator . . . . . .
4.2 Selection of Induction Motor as Generator .
4.2.1 Temperature Rise . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Two Step Fixed Speed Induction Generator
4.4 Self Excited Induction Generator . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
Winding
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . . .
Diameter
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
69
69
72
73
73
73
77
Bibliography
79
List of Tables
82
List of Figures
83
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
Background
Energy demands of the modern society has made the way open to invest great
amount of technological eort and capital to renewable energies. Figure 1.1 shows
the amount of annual capital investment in new renewable energies (excluding large
scale hydro power, traditional biomass) between 2004 and 2009. The values include
energy converted into electricity and heat.
Wind energy is one of the renewable energies which has attracted a lot of interest in recent years. By end of 2009, the capacity of wind energy power plants
has reached 158 gigga watts worldwide. The interest in producing electricity puts
certain demands on the electrical machines and drives. Mechanical energy from re-
Figure 1.1. Annual capital investment in new renewable energies between 2004 and
2009 in US Dollars [1].
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.2. Renewable energy share of global energy consumption by 2008 [1].
newables injected to electrical machines is not controllable. This challenge has led
to many technological advancements in induction machines and permanent magnet
synchronous generators. The author, however,would like to emphasize that there is
a great room for growth in renewable energies 1 . So far wind energy contributes to
0.3 % of global energy consumption.
1.2
Objective
Main objective of this thesis is to design a suitable permanent magnet synchronous generator working with a vertical axis wind turbine. Wind energy conversion system consisting of above mentioned elements works on a variable speed
principle. In small scale wind turbines, blade pitch mechanism usually is not applied.
Instead, a power electronics converter compensate variation for the wind variation
and thus it contributes to high power coecient. The corresponding topology of
PMSG is a surface mounted machine with concentrated winding. This type of
winding suits for low speed applications since implementing high number of poles
is easy. The major benet of high pole numbers is eradication of gearboxes. Gearboxes result in lower availability of the entire system and they cause high amount of
non-user friendly audible noise. Reduction of magnetic noise by the machine is targeted at the design stage. Additionally, the chosen topology can be easily scaled by
increasing the length of the machine. Of paramount, at the design stage, objective
function is to reduce manufacturing expenses and cost of active material.
1.3
Contents
1.3. CONTENTS
Chapter 2 gives an in depth knowledge of wind energy concepts and terminology for electrical designer. The emphasis is on VAWT.
Chapter 3 reviews the principles of rotating electrical machines for wind speed
application. The emphasis is on PMSG.
Chapter 4 oers an alternative option for PMSG.
Chapter 5 illustrates analytical design stage with optimisation.
Chapter 6 veries the optimised PMSG with the help of FEM analysis.
Chapter 7 investigates thermal behavior of the optimised machine.
Chapter 8 clinches the work, conclusions and further suggested work are given
here.
Chapter 2
2.1
The amount of the kinetic energy in the air ow can be determined based on
the size of wind turbine and the wind speed. The elementary momentum theory
gives an explaination of energy conversion in ideal circumstances. The amount of
the kinetic energy of a uid mass m
with a mass density , moving at a velocity
through the area A is
1
2
(2.1)
E = m
2
and the mass ow is
m
=A
(2.2)
The power available in the wind is equal to the amount of energy yield passing per
second.
1
Pwind = E m
= A 3
(2.3)
2
It is obvious that a small variation in the wind speed inuences the available
wind power drastically. It was rst in 1922, the German engineer Betz showed that
5
the amount of extractable energy from an air stream is limited. It was shown that,
in a free air stream, the maximum energy is extracted if the wind speed is reduced
by three times far behind the turbine in comparison to in front of it. The maximum
extractable power becomes then, 16/27 of available wind power [2].
For steady state analysis of aerodynamic conversion, a power coecient diagram
is used. As mentioned, it is not possible to capture all the power in the air ow as
this would result in air standstill immediately after the wind turbine. Aerodynamic
eciency represents a ratio of captured power and available wind power. In wind
power terminology, it is more known as the power coecient. Betz factor is the
maximum value for the power coecient.
The power coecient Cp is a function of the tip speed ratio and the blade
pitch angle . Equation 2.3 above, is modied according to equation 2.4.
Pmech = Cp .Pwind =
1
A Cp (, ) 3
2
where
(2.4)
r
(2.5)
is the rotor tip angular speed and r is the rotor plane radius. Blade pitching
means that the rotor blades are rotated along their axis, in order to control the
amount of the absorbed power. 1 In wind turbines which are not equipped with
the control of the blade pitch, power coecient is merely function of the tip speed
ratio. Figure 2.1 shows a typical power coecient diagram. Power coecient is
maximum at the optimum tip speed ratio i.e. in order to capture the maximum
energy, the wind turbine rotor has to be run at this ratio. When the wind turbine
rotor is run at other tip speed ratios, eddies will develop at the blade tip. This
phenomenon reduces the captured energy and it is called stall. It explains the drop
of the power coecient at other tip speed ratios.
=
It can be observed from the power coecient diagram in Figure 2.1, that the
wind turbine is not self starting. For low values of the tip speed ratio, the value of
the power coecient is negative. Many lift based wind turbines require a minimum
tip speed ratio before they can start to absorb the power [4]. Accordingly, in order
to start up the wind turbine rotor, energy has to be supplied. There are dierent
ways to do so, one is to utilise an auxiliary self starting turbine like for example
Savonious wind turbine. Another is certain modication in the design of the wind
turbine. Furthermore, electrical starting of wind turbine is yet another possibility.
The generator is, then, fed by the grid for a short duration of time and works as
a motor in order to start the wind turbine. In this solution the wind power plant
cannot operate as a stand alone unit.
2.2
Wind Turbines
Wind turbines are categorised based on two dierent criteria; First due to their
aerodynamic function; second based on their design.
Considering the aerodynamic performance, wind turbines are divided into drag
based and lift based. The rotors which utilise the drag force of the wind are recognised as low speed turbines. However, in some turbines, the possibility of employing
the lift force is also provided. The lift based turbines are recognised as high speed
rotors. These are capable of capturing higher amount of the wind power compared
to their drag based counterparts and therefore they are the most common solution
today.
Due to the second criterion, wind turbines are classied based on their axis
of rotation. It is more common to distinguish wind systems as HAWT or VAWT.
HAWT s have beneted from technological advancements in the aircraft engineering
because of the blades propeller like design. For instance, to achieve more lift forces,
blade shapes optimisation are proposed and applied. Power coecients up to 0.5
of HAWT s have been reported. Todays VAWT s have reached power coecient
up to 0.4 at maximum. Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3 show a H rotor VAWT and an
installed HAWT respectively. Simplicity of the design of the VAWT s is benecial,
especially the possibility to accommodate some of the drive train components on
the ground together with absence of the yaw system 2 . Some disadvantages of the
system are the lower optimum tip speed ratio, inability to self start and inability to
implement blade pitching for power control purposes. In some of the researchers
opinion the VAWT power coecient can exceed that of HAWT s . A comparison
between HAWT s and VAWT s is presented in section 2.5.
2.2.1
y-axis in Cartesian coordinate system is dened as upwind region and the remaining
area is dened as the downwind region. The angle of attack is the relative angle
between the chord line of the blade cross section and the wind direction. This
angle, seen by the blades in the upwind region, is negative. Since the angle of
attack is negative, the lift force vectors produced on the blade section will point
inwards the rotor. The force can be decomposed into two dierent components, a
tangential and a normal. The former is along the tangent of the blade and the latter
is perpendicular to the blade.
Moreover, the lift force will be created in downwind region. Here the angle of
attack is positive, the consequent lift force vectors will point outwards the rotor.
Tangential lift forces, originated from upwind and downwind regions, contribute to
the torque production in the rotor. The normal forces lead to thrust along the wind
direction.
8
2.3
The term "mechanical drive train" stands for all rotating parts of the wind system
from the rotor hub to the rotor of the generator. In conventional power plant technology, two requirements by mechanical drive are met: First equity of input power
to the generator with the amount of needed power by the load; Second matching the
speed levels of the prime mover with the speed of the generator. In wind systems,
however, mechanical drive train does not meet neither of these requirements. The
power production depends on the available wind resource which is not controllable.
Furthermore, wind speed is far from rated speed of the conventional generators.
The drive trains are classied according to implementation of a wind system in
order to compare their characteristics. Each drive type possesses specic advantages
and disadvantages, such as aerodynamic and dynamic performance, controllability,
reliability, maintenance , etc.
2.3.1
In xed speed wind systems, the rotor speed is determined by the grid frequency
and its variation is limited to around 1% of the nominal speed. Usually, the
xed speed wind systems is designed in such a way that it has its optimum wind
speed equal to site mean wind speed. No means for power control is applied and
the advantage is simplicity of operation. Disadvantages are low eciency of wind
energy system in other wind conditions aside from the mean wind speed, and severe
dynamics performance. Since no control method is implemented, any uctuations
of power i.e. disturbances in the grid and/or turbulence in the wind, are passed
through the system without any damping. This reduces the quality of the delivered
power to the grid and also causes mechanical stress on the wind turbine rotor. Weak
power systems are sensitive to low power quality delivered by such wind systems.
The eciency of electrical machines varies with varying electrical load conditions. Therefore most of the xed speed wind energy systems are designed in a way
to provide the generator with high load. This can be achieved by means of two
generators with dierent ratings. Another solution is to have two windings with
dierent pole numbers in the same generator.
In Variable Speed wind systems, power electronics converters keeps the rotor
speed and the grid frequency apart. Therefore it is possible to vary the rotor
speed independent of the grid frequency. Hence, the variation in the input power
will result in the rotor speed variation. The output power from wind system will
be slightly lower than the input power which results in more stable and smooth
delivered power to the grid. The power quality of these wind energy systems is
much better compared to their xed speed counterparts. Furthermore, they have
lower noise in low wind conditions [6]. In variable speed systems, the wind turbine
is operated in a wider speed range, keeping the tip speed ratio at the optimum. The
advantage is higher energy capture, however, the disadvantage is more complicated
control method [7].
10
2.3.2
Wind energy systems can be distinguished based on whether or not they include gearboxes. Wind turbine rotors are capable of rotating at tens of rotations
per minute. However, the conventional electrical machines runs at much higher
speeds e.g. hundreds of Rotation Per Minute (rpm) . The role of a gearbox is to
transfer mechanical energy from low speed to high speed; A step up gearbox is used
then. Implementation of a gearbox has its own disadvantages, e.g. maintenance,
installation complication, cost of equipment, audible noise and losses. The gearbox
is one of the reasons for audible noise in wind energy systems. The losses in the
gearbox are comparable to the losses in the electric machine. Newly designed wind
systems are usually adapted for gearless operation. This solution has become more
reliable, more ecient and less noisy. The main disadvantage is a need for a special
designed generator which tends to be bulky.
Due to the possibility of employing power electronics converters, gearless, or
in other words, direct driven systems can suite for variable speed applications [8].
Converters oer the possibility to operate the generator at low speeds. Although
the converters are source of losses, controllability is a huge advantage compared to
the gearboxes.
Knowledge about construction and operation of gearboxes alleviates their aftermath. Gearboxes are divided into two dierent congurations; Parallel shaft or spur
gear which has a simpler mechanical construction and a gear ratio of up to 1 : 5
in each stage; Planetary or helical gearbox which has more complicated mechanical
construction and a gear ratio of up to 1 : 12 in each stage. HAWT s run typically
at 20rpm and usually requires more than one stage. Tooth ank friction and oil
ow are the origins of power losses in the gearboxes. The average amount of losses
depends on the gear ratio and the type of the gear. It is estimated as approximately 2% of full power per stage for parallel shaft gears and as 1% of full power
per stage for planetary gears. In practice precise dimensioning of gearbox is of
importance. Otherwise maintenance and operation will experience many problems
and the lifetime will be aected.
2.4
2.4.1
Operation sequence of the wind turbine is determined by means of three threshold points.
Cut in velocity CI which is the wind speed the wind turbine starts to deliver
output power. For instance, in VAWT s captured power for low wind speeds
is negative, and the cut in velocity has to be chosen at values greater than the
wind speed at which power coecient becomes positive.
11
The rated wind velocity R is the wind speed at which the captured power
reaches the generator rated power.
The cut out velocity CO is the highest wind speed at which the wind energy
system is able to operate mechanically safe. Typically this is less than 25 m/s
.
As a result, operation sequence of a wind turbine is divided into, at least, four
regions.
Region 1, at which the wind speed is less than the cut in speed. In this region,
captured power does not suce to compensate the internal consumption and
losses. Hence the turbine is parked and is not run.
Region 2, at which the wind speed is between the cut in speed and the rated
speed. It is sometimes called sub-rated region and the wind turbine is controlled using Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) in order to achieve the
optimum tip speed ratio. MPPT is introduced thoroughly in subsection 2.4.2
.
Region 3, at which the wind speed is between rated speed and cut out speed.
In this region, there are various control options, namely constant rotor speed,
constant rotor torque and constant rotor power. The rst two, comes with the
risk of torque and current overload and they need additional control measures
for overload protection. In the latter two, the speed does not reach to the
rated speed, therefore constant rotor power is proposed [9] .
Region 4, at which the wind speed exceeds the cut out speed and the wind
turbine is shut down.
2.4.2
Control
As a result, application of xed blade VAWTs with variable speed wind systems
rather than with the xed speed systems are proposed.
The VAWTs power coecients optimum is transferred to the lower tip speed
ratios compared to HAWTs, which according to E. Hau, is their major disadvantage.
As the speed of the VAWT is lower, in order to achieve the same power, VAWTs
require higher torque rate. This might increase the stiness requirements on VAWT
s [2] .
Maximum Power Point Tracking
The maximum Power Point Tracking is a control method which controls the
wind turbine rotor speed by controlling torque of the generator. The blade pitching
drive is a mechanical equipment which has a delay in response time in rapidly
changing wind conditions. Thus in gusty and turbulent winds, it can inuence the
energy yield and subsequently causes mechanical stress on the turbine. However,
in order to maximise the power production, the rotor speed of the generator can be
controlled electrically. MPPT techniques, accordingly, are developed in an attempt
to achieve the maximum power coecient. This is usually done by adapting the
rotor speed to the optimum tip speed ratio. Rotor speed of an electrical machine
can be controlled by means of the dierence in its input power and output power.
The output power of the generator, in a variable speed wind system is controlled
with the help of a power electronics converter. If the speed of the rotor needs to be
increased, the output power is kept lower than captured power. On the other hand,
when the rotor deceleration is required, the output electric power is maintained
higher compared with the captured power.
There are dierent ways of making the wind speed reference for MPPT . The
simplest one is to measure the wind speed by anemometers that is send it to the
controller. However, there are several issues associated with the wind speed measurement. Generally, measuring the wind speed at a distant place in a large wind
system comes with a certain time delay. In small VAWT s, anemometers, which are
installed nearby are provided. However, lack of quick response time can be inuential on reliability, since small VAWT s are usually installed in areas with turbulent
winds.
Sensorless MPPT method is a control method without the wind speed measurement. There are several dierent approaches for implementation of of such control
method such as constant output power, xed voltage and the wind speed prediction.
Usually, autoregressive statistical models are used for prediction of the wind speed,
based on the historical data [11]. Captured energy from each set of data is used
for predicting the wind speed at the next time frame. The accuracy of the wind
speed prediction depends on many factors including the length of the sampling time
frame. The shorter the sampling time frame, the higher the accuracy of wind speed
prediction.
One of the major considerations when selecting control method is its easy implementation. Short computation time and low sensitivity to parameter adjustment
14
is a benet.
2.5
2.5.1
Unlike the VAWTs , the HAWTs are in need of a yaw mechanism. The function
of yaw mechanism is to direct the rotor in the wind direction in order to maximise
the aerodynamic eciency. It includes an electrical motor as a drive mechanism and
a control system, which detects the wind direction and command the mechanism
to rotate. The main disadvantages are need for maintenance and the cost of the
equipment, installation and operation. Additionally, there is a delay in rotation
of of the nacelle in the right direction due to the time response. VAWTs, on the
other hand, do not need yaw mechanism, while they are omnidirectional and they
can rotate in both directions. This property makes VAWT s highly suitable for
locations where the wind is gusty or turbulent like mountainous areas and urban
neighborhoods.
2.5.2
Some advantages and considerations for VAWT s come with vertical axis of
rotation. Usually, HAWTs drive train is located in nacelle on top of the tower.
This increases mechanical stress on the tower, which requires strong foundation. In
VAWTs, a part of the drive train i.e. the generator and the control equipment can
be located on the ground. The mechanical power is transferred via a long shaft
from the hub to the generator, which has many advantages. The generator size and
weight will have low priority as a design constraint. However, torsional vibrations
of the long shaft with high torque might become a problem. A long airgap might be
a remedy. The disadvantage of this is that it might inuence the machine design,
which makes the machine costly. A dynamic analysis is proposed.
2.5.3
VAWTs are more suitable for direct drive applications compared with the HAWTs.
Electric machine in direct drive wind system usually operates with low speed and
high torque. For a constant power rating and constant torque density of a machine,
weight is positively correlated with the torque rating. Consequently design with
higher torque in direct drive will have more weight. In HAWT s higher weight
of the machine in direct drive puts more mechanical stress on the tower. Unlike
HAWTs, this is not an issue for a VAWT, as the machine is located on the ground.
15
2.5.4
Construction of the blades for VAWTs is easier compared with that of HAWTs
[3]. One reason is that the blades of a HAWT are supported at their root by
connection to the hub and they have to be sti and self-supportive. Furthermore,
they are twisted along their length for aerodynamical purposes, i.e. to increase
the power capture. This makes the mechanical construction of blades tougher. On
the other hand VAWT s blades are connected to the hub in their middle point.
Additionally, the VAWT s blades are straight and not twisted along their length,
which makes manufacturing of the blades much easier.
2.5.5
HAWT s and VAWT s are both subject to dierent mechanical stresses. The
blades of HAWT suer from cyclic reversing gravity loads as well as periodical loads
due to wind shear. Meanwhile, the blades of VAWT s are associated with bending
moments caused by centripetal acceleration. Torque ripple is generally higher in
VAWTs compared with HAWTs. This alleviates, in variable speed applications,
with higher number of blades and higher size of the wind turbine rotor.
2.5.6
Aerodynamics: Performance
2.5.7
HAWT and VAWT can use dierent methods to control the power ow. Power
control is a necessity otherwise wind turbine rotors might be damaged mechanically
in high wind speeds e.g. 25 m/s . Unlike HAWTs which use blade pitching for
power control, the small VAWT s use electrical machine to control the absorbed
power, since implementation of blade pitching does not suit their scale. The dierence between the input power and the output power from the generator can either
accelerate or decelerate the wind turbine rotor speed.
2.5.8
Noise
VAWTs have lower noise compared with that of HAWTs [3]. There are two different sources of noise; First is aerodynamic noise generated by the blades; Second,
16
the mechanical noise generated from the drive train. In general, VAWTs have lower
aerodynamic noise which is strongly related to the wind turbine rotor speed. In
wind systems with power control, rotor speeds are controlled by the optimum tip
speed ratio. HAWTs optimum tip speed ratio value is typically between 5 and 7
while it is 4 for VAWTs.
2.6
Wind systems are prone to vibrations because of slender and elastic construction.
Cyclically alternating forces can be origins of excitation of vibrations and possible
resonances, which can lead to vibration of either one component or entire wind
system. Therefore, in the design stages the vibrational modes of entire wind system
and its subsystems have to be analysed in order to assure dynamic stability. Main
dynamic vibrational behaviours are:
Aeroelastic instability of the rotor blades.
Torsional vibrations of the drive train.
Dynamics of yaw system (limited to HAWT s).
Vibration of the entire wind turbine.
2.6.1
2.7
Noise Emission
18
Chapter 3
This chapter deals with dierent topologies of electrical machines for VAWT.
In the text, Direct Current (DC) and induction generators precede synchronous
generators. This chapter, furthermore, discusses "Design of a Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Generator for a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine". Therefore the emphasis
is put on various congurations of PMSG . In sections 3.2 and 3.3, dierent categories of PM synchronous machines are described. In section 3.4, implementable
winding techniques with their eect on performance are given. Final section focuses
on thermal analysis of PM machines.
3.1.1
DC Generators
3.1.2
Induction Generators
Induction generator consumes reactive power which leads to a poor power factor
of the machine. The power factor of smaller induction machines is lower compared to
larger ones. The consumption of reactive power is penalised by many grid operators,
since it causes losses in the grid. Some solutions are oered for active or passive
compensation of reactive power. They include capacitor banks 1 or condensers 2 .
1
2
passive solutions
active solution
19
Figure 3.1. Block diagram of a xed speed wind energy system including a conventional SCIG, a gearbox and a transformer [2].
3.1.3
Synchronous Generators
The synchronous machines have many advantages over induction machines. One
of them is a higher eciency. It is because the magnetising current is not a part
of the stator current. In induction machines reactive power for rotor excitation is
carried by stator winding as well as the active power for conversion. Accordingly,
synchronous generators will have better eciency and better power factor. In variable speed wind systems, usually, the synchronous generators are connected to the
grid via a power electronic converter. The amount of deliverable active power from
Synchronous Generator (SG) depends on rating of a converter in Volt-Amperes and
the power factor of SG . Thus, for the same rating of the converter, the closer the
power factor gets to unity, the more active power can be delivered.
Additionally the rotor speed does not depend on the electrical load conditions.
In wind systems it is more convenient to control the rotor speed merely based on the
wind speed. The other advantage is that they can have longer air gaps compared to
induction machines. In induction machines, the airgap length is kept small to limit
the magnetisation current and to improve the power factor [15] . In synchronous
machines, on the other hand, it is desirable to have a longer airgap as it helps to
reduce armature reaction and the synchronous reactance which in turn improves
the stability.
Fixed speed wind systems with SG have the same disadvantages as their IG
counterparts. The dynamics of the grid and the wind turbine are transferred to
each other without considerable damping which can lead to the loss of synchronism
with the grid. Since the rotation speed is determined by the frequency of the grid,
the system becomes even more sensitive. In addition, there is also need for starting
and synchronising equipment too.
The signicance of a variable speed wind systems equipped with a SG lies in their
capability to meet the aerodynamic requirements in the widest speed range. To keep
the tip speed ratio at its optimum, the wind turbine rotor speed varies proportional
to the wind speed. This, unlike IGs, provides rotor speed independency from load
22
conditions. Wide operational speed range, from zero to rated speed, is benecial
for control purposes.
Operational advantages of a SG with power electronics converters are numerous,
like for example voltage regulation which is handled by the grid-side-converter.
Another advantage is that dynamic disturbances of the grid and the wind turbine are
isolated from each other and SG is not at risk of losing synchronism. Furthermore,
starting and synchronising equipment is not needed as this is taken care of by power
electronics converter. The only advantage of IGs over SGs is that the converter is
not dimensioned for full power. However, with recent decrease in cost of power
electronic components, this is not of concern anymore.
Wounded Rotor Synchronous Generator
Wounded Rotor Synchronous Generator (WRSG) s have been scope of research
for many years. The main advantage of WRSG over PMSG is that it intrinsically can
produce reactive power and subsequently regulate the voltage. Thus it is possible to
control the power factor according to electrical load conditions. In power production
WRSG injects the reactive power to compensate loads reactive power consumption.
Nonetheless the WRSG has not gained popularity among the wind turbine manufacturers. It is mainly because that the brushes for DC excitation in WRSG require
maintenance. Mechanical vulnerability of rotor windings arising from rotation leads
to winding insulation damage.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
Self excitation brings about various benets. One is the elimination of the rotor
copper losses. Hence PMSG s are more ecient compared to WRSG s. Unlike
WRSG no external power supply is needed. The maintenance is eliminated since
brushes and slip rings as well as the rotor windings are removed.
The common issue with WRSG is the relation between the frequency induced
and the mechanical speed of the rotor. When the wind speed changes, the rotor speed and thereby the frequency of the induced voltage changes. However, in
variable speed applications with PMSG this is usually not of concern since the generator is connected to the grid through a converter that will adapt the frequency of
the induced voltage to the grid frequency. One other consideration is that, unlike
WRSG, the eld provided by magnets is not controllable. Thus, it is not possible
to regulate the voltage and the reactive power. In variable speed wind systems, this
is, usually, not an issue since the grid-side-converter regulates the output voltage
and the power factor is determined by the grid. Lower maintenance requirements
and thus lower cost are the main reasons why PMSGs are proposed with variable
speed wind systems.
Yet another issue that needs to be considered is the risk of demagnetisation of
magnets due to the temperature rise; the magnets can be partially or fully demagnetized. In partial demagnetisation the magnetic properties are weakened. In full
23
demagnetisation magnetic properties are completely lost and they require remagnetisation which is a tedious task and in some cases impossible and a new rotor is
required. Thus a thermal study is suggested to guarantee that the magnet working
temperature is, in any conditions, preserved low. Additionally, the partial demagnetisation is usually a case during a short circuit where some parts of the magnets
are exposed to high opposing magnetic elds.
In [16] it is shown that PMSG s are more suitable for gearless applications
compared to WRSG s. In comparison of PMSG and WRSG and varying the number
of poles, it can be shown that once the number of poles reaches high values, the rotor
yoke height of WRSG becomes thicker. Consequently, weight and size of WRSG
surpasses that of PMSG.
3.2
PM Synchronous Machines
A direct drive wind energy systems cannot employ a conventional high speed
(and low torque) electrical machines. Hartkopf et al. in [17] has shown that the
weight and size of electrical machines increases when the torque rating increases for
the same active power. Therefore, it is essential task of the machine designer to
consider an electrical machine with high torque density, in order to to minimise the
weight and the size. In [18] and [19], it has been shown that PM synchronous machines have higher torque density compared with induction and switched reluctance
machines. Thus a PMSG is chosen for further studies in this work. However, since
the cost eectiveness of PMSG is an important issue, low manufacturing cost has
to be considered as a design criterion in further steps. There are a number of different PMSG topologies; some of them are very attractive from the technical point
of view. However, some of the state of the art topologies suer from complication
in manufacturing process which results in high production costs.
PM excitation oers many dierent solutions. The shape, the size, the position,
and the orientation of the magnetisation direction can be arranged in many dierent
ways. Here, presented topologies include those of which are investigated for low
speed applications or variable speed applications. This list encompasses radial or
axial ux machines, longitudinal or transversal ux machines, inner rotor or outer
rotor machines and interior magnet or exterior magnet machines. Slotless machines
are not presented here.
3.2.1
Figure 3.3. Cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction, respectively, of a typical radial ux PMSG [21].
Figure 3.4. Cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction, respectively, of a typical axial ux PMSG [21].
the stator windings are located in the radial direction. A circumferentially laminated
stator is required for reduction of iron losses, which complicates manufacturing
process [23].
Scaling of axial ux machine is another drawback. Unlike radial ux machines,
any increase in length is accompanied by increase in airgap diameter. Hence, to
increase the power rating a new design and a new geometry is needed [24]. One
other way to increase the power rating is by increasing number of stators and rotors.
This, however, makes the machine costly.
3.2.2
Longitudinal or Transversal
more the major drawback with rotational ones is relatively dicult manufacturing
process. Yet another drawback is that, in rotating transverse PMSG, mechanical
construction is weak due to large number of parts.
3.2.3
The rotor surrounds the stator in outer rotor machines. In these machines, the
magnets are usually located on the inner circumference of the rotor. Accordingly,
for the same outer diameter of the machine, in the outer rotor machine the rotor has
higher radius compared with the stator and it can be equipped with higher number
of poles for the same pole pitch [21]. Another advantage is that the magnets are well
supported despite the centrifugal force. Furthermore a better cooling of magnets
is provided. Outer rotor machines are common for small HAWT turbines, where
sometimes the hub carrying the blades is directly xed to the rotor [25].
However, the inner rotor machines are a more common solution present on the
market today. In small machines, the main contributions to the losses are copper
losses and therefore the stator winding has the highest temperature rise in the active
material of the machine.
Hence, it is more benecial to put the stator winding, rather than the magnets,
closer to the housing, where the cooling properties are good. This causes less temperature rise for the same amount of losses. Figure 3.6 shows an inner rotor PMSG
and an outer rotor PMSG .
27
Figure 3.6. Inner rotor PMSG (left) and an outer rotor PMSG (right) [26].
3.3
PM Congurations
The PMSG can be divided into dierent topologies depending on the magnet
arrangement on the rotor. These are introduced below. However, it should be
mentioned that the rotor congurations are not restricted to the given examples,
e.g. in interior magnets various congurations are implementable.
3.3.1
A common topology is where the magnets are mounted on the surface of the rotor, sometimes referred to as exterior magnet, but, more known as Surface Mounted
Permanent Magnet (SMPM) machine. The magnets are glued and/or bandaged to
the rotor surface in order to withstand the centrifugal force. Usually, the magnets
are oriented or magnetised in radial direction and more seldom in circumferential
direction. The direct and quadrature reactances are almost equal. Construction of
the rotor core in SMPM is the easiest among dierent PM congurations due to
simple rotor geometry. Figure 3.7 shows a surface mounted rotor for a PMSG.
28
3.3. PM CONFIGURATIONS
Figure 3.8. Two dierent inset magnet rotors for PMSGs [15].
3.3.2
Inset Magnets
In inset magnet machines, rotor core of SMPM machine is modied with iron
interpoles. Iron interpoles are protrusions of rotor core wherever magnets are not
present on the surface. Interpoles cause saliency and the inductances in direct
and quadrature directions are dierent. In these machines, part of the torque is
reluctance torque and the torque density is higher compared to SMPM . The
magnets are radially magnetised. The ux leakage is higher in comparison to SMPM
which results in lower power factor.
Therefore, in direct drive application, the inverter utilisation is lower compared
to geared applications. This topology is not common in gearless wind systems.
Figure 3.8 shows two dierent inset magnet rotors for PMSGs.
3.3.3
Buried Magnets
In this conguration the magnets are put inside the rotor and therefore it is
referred to as Interior Permanent Magnet (IPM) machine. There are many dierent
ways in achieving interior magnet conguration. The magnets can be magnetised
in radial direction as well as circumferential direction. The thickness of iron bridges
between the magnets has to be designed carefully to avoid saturation. Again, the
inductance in quadrature axes is dierent from that in direct axes direction. Figure
3.9 shows six dierent buried magnet rotors for PMSGs.
The main advantage of this PM conguration is that weak PM material such as
ferrite can be used. Another advantage is magnetic protection against short circuit
conditions [15]. It is because in faulty conditions, iron bridges between magnets
get saturated which prevents high reverse demagnetising eld to reach the magnets.
This topology is suggested for high speed applications due to mechanical strength
of the rotor against the centrifugal force.
Burying magnets in production stage is a complicated process. Moreover a nonferromagnetic shaft is vital, otherwise a large part of magnets ux penetrates the
shaft, which is located nearby, and it will not be utilised for magnetisation of the
29
Figure 3.9. Six dierent buried magnet rotors for PMSGs [15].
airgap. Like inset magnet machines, the ux leakage is high which reduces the
power factor, the eciency and the inverter utilisation.
In [21] , F. Libert studies two dierent buried magnet topologies and concludes
that both gives rise to manufacturing problems. One is called V-shaped buried
magnet design and the other is called tangentially magnetised buried magnet design.
The author also mentions some saturation problems when the number of poles is
high. This is a common problem for the buried magnet topologies. If the number of
poles increases, the distance between magnets decreases (when rotor core diameter
is kept constant). Therefore, the narrow iron bridges get saturated more easily.
Figure 3.10 shows cross section of a pole pair of a V shaped buried magnet design
(left) and a tangentially buried magnet design (right).
3.4
Winding
3.4. WINDING
Figure 3.10. Cross section of a pole pair of a V shaped buried magnet design (left)
and a tangentially buried magnet design (right) [21].
shows a single layer concentrated non-overlapping winding with the same values of
Qs and q as Figure 3.11.c).
The term overlapping is usually omitted. For instance "overlapping distributed
winding" is almost always referred to as distributed winding. In this text, on
the other hand, "concentrated winding" stands for "double layer concentrated nonoverlapping winding".
3.4.1
Distributed Winding
Distributed winding has been used for Brushless Alternative Current (BLAC)
machines for decades. One of the advantages of distributed winding is that it can
give high value of winding factor when q is high and the full pole pitch is chosen.
Nonetheless, it has some drawbacks, like for instance its long end windings. End
windings do not contribute to induction of the phase voltage. The role of end
windings is limited to carry the current from one coil to the other. Thus, end
windings are associated with copper losses and it is desired that the end windings
are as short as possible. In distributed winding, when the coil sides are far from
each other, the copper losses will be higher and the axial length of the machine will
be longer. Thus distributed winding reduces the eciency of the machine. If the
size of the machine is a critical design parameter, the concentrated winding should
be considered.
3.4.2
Concentrated Winding
In concentrated winding the coil turns are concentrated around one tooth and
therefore it will benet from short end windings due to non-overlapping property.
Another advantage is better heat conductivity between the winding and the tooth.
Furthermore, segmentation of stator core teeth is possible [28]. In this way, the
windings can be pre-pressed and the coils can be made with rectangular shape,
which, in turn, will give high slot ll factor and high torque density.
Concentrated winding exhibits high fault tolerance on SMPM s and is associated
with increase in leakage inductance [29]. Implementation of concentrated winding
31
increases leakage inductance which in turn limits high currents in short circuit
conditions. In fact in faulty conditions, the excitation eld of WRSG is reduced
to protect the machine. However, excitation of PMSG is not controllable. Hence,
introduction of higher ux leakage may be an advantage. In addition, due to nonoverlapping property, coils are physically and thermally seperated in a better way
compared with distributed windings. This reduces the risk of phase to phase short
circuit in the event of damaged winding insulation. Furthermore, the torque ripple in
SMPMs with high pole numbers and concentrated windings is reduced [21]. Higher
ux weakening capability is another characteristics of concentrated winding.
32
3.4. WINDING
33
3.4.3
3.5
Thermal Behaviour
There are dierent sources of losses in electrical machines i.e. iron losses, copper
losses, etc. The losses give rise to temperature, which has dramatic inuence on
performance and lifetime of electrical machines. Hence, study of thermal behaviour
of an electrical machine is vital.
The temperature rise in the machine is strongly dependent on the load. In wind
systems, the speed and the torque are very often lower compared with the ratings
of the machine and varies with the wind conditions. The advantage is that the
average temperature rise will be lower in comparison to the rated operating point.
However, in order to guarantee high performance and long lifetime in any operation
condition, the thermal calculations are performed based on the rated operation.
In the following subsections, consequences of temperature rise are presented and
dierent cooling systems are discussed. A brief introduction to heat transfer theory
is given, while more detailed theory is left for the reader. The most emphasis is put
on introduction of sources of losses in the last subsection.
3.5.1
Performance
Thermal loading determines pretty much the power rating of the electrical machine. Values such as current density are often limited to a certain value depending
on the cooling conditions in an electrical machine. This bounds current loading
and respectively torque rating of the electrical machine. In other words, even if
it is possible to manufacture more compact machines with higher torque densities,
cooling capability restricts further reduction in the size.
Lifetime
The lifetime of an electrical machine is also aected by the so called thermal
ageing, which inuences the insulation. One of the requirements on winding insulation is to transfer the heat and to tolerate thermal stresses during normal and
34
Insulation Class
A
E
B
F
H
3.5.2
Cooling System
Cooling system facilitates dissipation of the heat, which will reduce temperature
rise in the machine. Usually electrical machines are forced cooled by air or water. In
air cooled machines a fan forces the air along the airgap. In water cooled machines
the pump forces the water through tubes that are located in ducts. There are
dierent possibilities for putting the ducts inside the machine, they can be located
axially or spirally. Moreover, they can be located within the mantel (frame) or in
the stator core. Putting ducts in stator core provides better heat transfer, however,
it inuences the manufacturing process of the stator laminations.
Kylander has developed an analytical model for thermal analysis of induction
machines based on experimental results [31]. The model introduces thermal resistances. Lindstrm has developed a thermal model for a PMSG [32].
3.5.3
Conduction
Heat transfer through a substance is dened as conduction. The substance can
be in any state: gas, liquid or solid. To measure conductive property of a material
thermal conductivity is introduced. Usually the value of the thermal conductivity
of materials lies in the range between 0.026 W/m/K for air and 427 W/m/K for
silver [33]. Conduction is modeled by Fouriers law which also can be applied when
heat is generated inside the body. However, when the time variation of conduction
is considered, specic heat capacity of the body, which represents thermal capacity,
is also introduced. In steady state analysis, however, this is neglected.
In the eld of electrical machines, conduction is the most common form of heat
transfer in both steady state and transient conditions.
Convection
Heat transfer from a heat source by means of uid movement is dened as
convection. Fluid ow is caused by an external force either in natural or in forced
conditions. In the former, discrepancy in uid density creates the force; In the
latter the force is caused by a pump or a fan. To measure convective property of
a uid, heat transfer coecient is introduced. Average heat transfer coecient of
a uid lies in a range between 6 W/m2 /K for natural air convection and 120, 000
W/m2 /K for condensing of steam [33]. Estimation of this value is complicated, since
it depends on many variables like geometry of the surface, temperature dierence,
ow mechanical characteristics and physical characteristics of uid i.e. viscosity.
Convection is explained by Newtons law of cooling.
In the eld of electrical machines, convection is the second most common form
of the heat transfer in the steady state, but it does not play a remarkable role in
transient conditions.
Radiation
Heat transfer by means of radiation does not need any substance. Thermal
radiation is a function of couple of parameters as reectivity, temperature dierence,
emissivity and geometry. It is modeled by Stefan Boltzmans law. In electrical
machines the amount of radiation is negligible.
3.5.4
Losses in PMSG
The normal losses involve copper losses in stator windings, iron losses in stator
and mechanical losses such as friction. The iron and the copper losses are the biggest
contributors to the losses in PMSG . One advantage of PMSG over IG is elimination
of the copper losses in the rotor, namely slip loss [34] . Estimation of normal losses
is easy and the corresponding knowledge is well established. On the other hand
estimation of stray losses is complicated as they depend on many parameters. This
complication might lead to inaccuracy in the calculations of the thermal behaviour
of the machine. A thorough discussion of losses is presented in order to improve a
better perspective over variety of origins of losses.
Stator Core Losses
Various phenomena associated with variation of magnetic ux results in the
stator core losses. Among them, the rotational and excess losses are probably less
well known while the hysteresis and eddy current are more familiar. Here, hysteresis
and eddy currents losses are introduced rst together with Epstein frame test. Then,
the two former are presented. Finally counteractive measures are suggested.
Eddy currents are induced in the stator iron due to variation of magnetic eld
based on the Faradays Law and they create losses based on the Ohms Law. The
amount of losses depends on the time rate of change of magnetic ux density. Assuming sinusoidal variation of magnetic ux density, eddy currents loss will depend
on electric properties of material as well as applied eld, including frequency and
maximum value of magnetic ux density.
Hysteresis losses are caused by magnetic properties of ferromagnetic material
in a time varying magnetic eld. The amount of these losses depends mostly on
the magnetic properties of the material but also on the applied eld, including its
frequency and maximum value of magnetic ux density.
To estimate the iron losses in the stator, the results from Epstein frame test
are used in analytical calculation. Accurate prediction of iron losses is much more
dicult in comparison to copper losses. Accordingly, steel manufacturers provide
the machine designer with results from the Epstein frame test. In this test the iron
losses of steel material, subjected to various magnetic ux densities (in terms of
amplitude and frequency) are measured. Simplied analytical models are developed
to estimate the iron losses in electrical machines based on the results of Epstein
frame test. These analytical methods are validated by means of comparison to
experiments on similar machines or FEM simulations.
Angular direction of magnetic eld is, usually, constant in the stator. But it
varies in regions of stator where the teeth and the yoke are connected to each
other. This results in rotational loss. In the region where it exists, it adds to the
core losses. Excess loss is not a well-known phenomenon. In order to include the
eect of rotational and excess losses, the value of estimated core losses is, usually,
multiplied by a correction factor.
Calculated results of core losses may dier from the experimental results for
a number of reasons. Applied eld in the machine is assumed to be uniformly
38
sinusoidal in dierent physical points and the magnetic properties of the material
are assumed to be uniform. However, in real machines these conditions are not
prevailing perfectly. A waveform of the magnetic ux density is non sinusoidal and
non uniform. Inuence of harmonics, which results in non sinusoidal magnetic ux
density, on the core losses will be introduced later in the text. Furthermore, the
magnetic property of material varies when it is subjected to mechanical stresses
during manufacturing e.g. punching.
There are various solutions available in order to reduce the core losses. Some
more common are laminated core with thin iron lamination, high resistivity and
alloyed contents like silicon. These measures reduce eddy current losses. Another
solution in order to reduce the iron losses is to reduce nominal frequency. However,
the frequency is proportional to the rotor speed and to the number of poles. As
the rotor speed is determined by the application, the frequency, therefore, cannot
be chosen arbitrarily. Furthermore, increasing the number of poles reduces the pole
pitch which in practice cannot be chosen too short.
Laminations are annealed after they are stamped or cut, in order to compensate
the manufacturing stresses. Variation of magnetic characteristics in cut edges is
then avoided.
Mechanical Losses
Mechanical losses are relatively small in comparison to other losses especially in
low speed applications. It encompasses two parts, namely windage and bearing.
Windage losses are caused by mechanical friction of air and rotor surface. It
depends on various parameters and phenomena and it is quite complicated to calculate more accurately. For instance it depends on gas properties and the prevailing
gas ow characteristics. In electrical machines the gas ow is mostly turbulent in
high speed applications and it is laminar in low speed application. An experimental
equation in [35] gives a rough estimate of windage loss.
3 4
Pwindage = Cf m
R L
(3.1)
where is the mass density of the gas, m is the mechanical angular speed of
rotor and R and L are radius and length of the airgap cylinder respectively. Cf is
the friction coecient which is empirically determined.
Mechanical loss in the bearings depends on parameters like bearing type, lubricator physical characteristics, shaft mechanical load and rotor speed, where lubricator
characteristics are dependent on the temperature. An experimental equation in [35]
gives a rough estimate of bearing loss.
3
Pbearing = Cb Dm
m
(3.2)
Stray Losses
Stray losses are divided into stray no-load losses and stray load losses. Generally,
the former is represented by permeance variation and the latter is represented by
leakage ux. Space harmonics origin is due to the non-sinusoidal distribution of
windings, saliency and slotting eect in an electrical machine. Time harmonics
are generated by power electronics converters operated with electrical machines.
High frequency of parasitic eects results in induction of eddy current in metal
parts. Active material of the machine like stator conductors, rotor core and rotor
permanent magnets are prone to stray losses.
In the following, stray losses are introduced based on the location of losses.
First AC winding losses are discussed, second stray losses in permanent magnets
are described and nally stray losses in rotor core are mentioned.
Stator Winding
Eddy currents are induced in the stator windings in the form of skin and proximity eects. If the source of varying applied eld is the winding itself, the phenomenon
is called skin eect. If the source of varying applied eld is an external origin like
rotor magnets, the phenomenon is called proximity eect. Eddy currents originating from skin and proximity eects in machines will give rise to non uniform current
density distribution within the conductor, i.e. less concentration in the centre and
more concentration on the circumference. As a consequence, eective cross section
area for the current will be lower compared with the available cross section. This
leads to higher AC resistance and higher losses.
Permanent Magnets
Eddy currents losses can be induced in permanent magnets in certain conditions.
As mentioned, certain slot pole number combinations in concentrated winding design will result in space harmonics. This inuence is more pronounced in high speed
machines with high frequency. F. Sahin in [35] suggests an analytical estimation
of eddy current losses in permanent magnets. In order to reduce these losses a
proposed solution is magnet segmentation. In general no load stray losses caused
by permeance variation can be reduced by increasing the airgap length or by using
magnetic wedges.
Rotor Iron
Eddy currents losses can be induced in rotor core in certain conditions. In absence of parasitic eects, the magnetic ux density in the rotor iron is constant.
Harmonics, e.g. created by the slotting eect, distort magnetic ux in the rotor.
However, in SMPM machines, eective airgap is large and these losses are insignicant [12]. Again these losses are more pronounced in high frequency machines, but
40
41
Chapter 4
Induction Generator
A multiple step xed speed WECS including induction generator is already
proposed in section 3.1.2. In order to work as xed speed wind system, the system
has to be operated at speeds higher than synchronous speed. Induction machine
is able to start in Direct Online (DOL) mode. DOL means that an induction
machine, which is at standstill, is able to accelerate when it is directly connected
to the grid. Another benet in xed speed WECS with induction generator is less
mechanical stress on the drive train compared with synchronous machine. Usually,
the induction generator is operated between the synchronous speed and just above
the synchronous speed. The dynamic disturbances in the grid and from the wind
turbine will be reected in the variation of the slip i.e. the speed of the machine.
One disadvantage with the induction generator is reactive power consumption.
Therefore, induction generators require some form of reactive power compensation.
This can be provided with introduction of capacitor banks. Some control of the
capacitor banks should be implemented due to the power variation of the load.
However, this may add some extra cost. Another disadvantage with the induction
generator is their so called inrush current. During starting, the current in induction
machine is high, which may cause some damage to the windings.
4.1
Fixed speed wind turbine is still a popular concept in the rapidly growing global
wind market. Figure 4.1 shows the market share of installed xed speed WECS
in large wind turbine market. The cost of power produced by WECS is a function
of capital cost, system reliability and the energy yield. According to the theory,
energy yield of variable speed WECS is higher compared with the xed speed one.
However a lower capital cost and higher reliability makes the xed speed WECS
an attractive solution. Values between 4 % - 20 % have been reported for the
increase in energy yield by utilizing variable speed instead of xed speed systems.
The reason for variation in the reported values is the methodologies adopted by
dierent researchers. Therefore, in this chapter a more cost eective xed speed
43
Figure 4.1. Time variation of market share of yearly installed power of xed speed
WECS (including induction generator, capacitor banks, soft starter and output transformer) [37].
WECS is to be veried.
One possible topology for xed speed WECS is an induction generator connected
to the line where the load is located in between. The grid maintains the voltage
and the frequency and provides the machine with magnetizing current which is
associated with reactive power consumption. As a result, the machine is capable
of production of active power. The power produced by the generator may exceed
the power consumption by the load and the remaining power can be injected to the
grid. However, there should be an agreement between the grid operator and the
owner of the generator how to regulate the injected power [36].
4.2
Induction machines are the most prevalent motors on the market. Therefore, in
order to utilise an induction machine as generator a few considerations has to be
taken into account.
44
4.2.1
Temperature Rise
4.2.2
Eciency
Eciency of the induction motor working as generator is lower for the same slip.
Therefore, it is recommended that high eciency induction motors are chosen for
generator applications. In order to increase the eciency of the induction machine,
thinner iron lamination together with the lower loss density material can be used
and also copper with high conductivity properties in windings.
4.2.3
Size
It is suggested that the power rating of the induction machine should be around
25 % higher compared with the power rating of the wind turbine. Eciency of
an induction machine is maximum at the rated slip. For a small scale induction
machine this can be around 80 % . Therefore the size of the induction motor should
be selected in such a way that at full load, the machine works at 80 % of its rating
[38]. This ensures that the temperature rise, while working either as a motor or as a
generator is the same. For instance, if a 12 kW induction generator is to be used, size
of the induction machine is 15 kW . One should consider that in motor operation
mode, the hot spot is in the stator winding, since the power losses in the stator
winding are the major fraction of the losses in the machine. In generator operation
mode, the corresponding power loss has to be provided from the shaft power and
later on delivered to the stator winding via the rotor and the airgap. This causes
some additional copper losses in the rotor and therefore further temperature rise in
the rotor [38]. Hence, for the same temperature rise in the machine, the induction
generator has to be derated.
4.3
Multiple step xed speed WECS is proposed to increase energy yield of xed
speed wind system. Rotation speed of the wind turbine in a xed speed WECS
including an induction generator is determined by the induction machines operating
range. Therefore in a single step xed speed system, selection of a gear ratio is of
concern. Since the rotation speed will be maintained independent of the wind speed,
45
the tip speed ratio will vary quite often. This means that the power coecient
deviates from its optimum value. The choice of the wind speed corresponding to
the optimum tip speed ratio inuences selection of gear ratio and vice versa. If a
low gear ratio is selected, the rated wind speed is at a high wind speed and for low
wind speeds the power coecient is low. On the contrary, if a high value for gear
ratio is chosen, the machine rotates slowly and the rated wind speed is at a low
wind speed and then power coecient drops for high wind speeds [39] .
The concept of two step induction machine aims to have high value of power
coecient for both low and high wind speeds. With a two step induction generator,
it is possible to adapt the rotation speed of the system to the prevailing wind speed
for the same gear ratio. Therefore, the variation of the tip speed ratio is halved.
Two step induction generators with two dierent windings have two dierent pole
numbers. The low speed step works at low wind speeds while the high speed step
is at high wind speeds.
The list of functions that have to be provided in a multiple step WECS is:
Measurement of wind speed and direction.
Starting command to the machine (to start as a motor).
Switching command (between the two steps) to the generator.
Mechanical brake for the wind turbine.
Overload protection.
Command of switching in the electrical load.
However a multiple step IG working in a WECS suers from [40]:
Switching transients when changing poles.
High torque peaks with machines designed for low rated slip and high losses
with machines designed for high rated slip.
Lower energy yield in comparison to variable speed WECS.
4.4
It is suggested that a two step xed speed WECS is equipped with a capacitor
bank. A simulation study has been done by S.S. Murthy et al considering inrush
current, reactive power and eciency of a single step 55 kW induction generator
together with a xed speed wind system [39] . The results shows that during start
of the electrical machine, the motor inrush current reaches to 6 p.u. and it lasts
for almost 1 second. For the steady state analysis reactive power and eciency are
studied for dierent wind speeds. A consistent reactive power, around 0.7 p.u. , is
required from the grid even though the wind speed is very low. Subsequently, the
46
produced active power is very low, around 0.03 p.u. . The power factor, therefore,
is very low and varies between 0.043 and 0.67. The eciency is very poor and varies
between 20% and 40% .
For the case study above, it is obvious that the power factor is too low at low
load conditions. Thus, the power factor correction in some way is required. A
brief discussion on this solution, which sometimes is entitled self excited induction
generator, is presented below. However, in order to minimise the cost of the system,
the nal solution with a two step induction generator proposed in this report does
not include a capacitor bank.
Requirements on self excited induction generator for application as wind generator are:
High eciency.
Low voltage regulation.
Low harmonic contents.
Figure 4.2 shows the operating zones of the induction machine optimised for working either as a generator or as a motor. Induction generator works in both saturated
and unsaturated operating zone. On the other hand the motor works only in unsaturation mode. The diagram is drawn with magnetizing reactance on the horizontal
axis and the ratio of back Electro-Motive Force (EMF) and frequency on vertical
axis.
47
Chapter 5
5.1
Table 5.1 shows the requirements which has to be fullled by the generator.
5.1.1
The shaft must be able to withstand the high torque in the machine. The
mechanical calculations for minimum shaft diameter guarantees the safe transfer of
the mechanical power from the machine to the turbine. Rated torque of the machine
Rated power
Rated speed
Base speed
Airgap length
Cooling system
Cogging torque
Outer diameter
Lifetime
Eciency
Minimum shaft diameter
Pn
nr
nn
Dy
Di,min
12 kW
100 rpm
90 rpm
1.5 mm
Natural air convection
around 1%
<2m
100, 000 hours
around 94 %
> 0.1269 m
49
kkey
mech
mech
knormal
yield
perm
kf ailure
1
1
2
2.2 108 N/m/m
4.4 107 N/m/m
12
is
Tn =
Pn
2nn
60
12kw
290rpm
60
= 1273N m
(5.1)
1
The bending moment acting on the shaft is chosen to be 10
of the rated torque.
1273 N m
Therefore Mbend =
=
127.3
N
m
There
are
two
dierent
values for mini10
mum shaft diameter which should both be met; one for normal conditions and the
other for failure conditions. The minimum shaft diameter in normal conditions is
Di,min,normal =
32
perm
mech
2
Mbend
+ 0.75(mech knormal Tn )2
(5.2)
v
u
u 16kf ailure kkey Tn
3
=t
yield
mech
(5.3)
Table 5.2 shows the parameters used in equations 5.2 and 5.3 1 . Consequently,
Di,min,normal = 0.1269 m and Di,min,f ailure = 0.1123 m
5.2
Design Parameters
Selection of the design parameters is essential for this work. In the following
subsections, they are categorised and justications are presented. The main criteria
for selections are the cost and the electromagnetic performance.
5.2.1
Material
Active material of the machine includes permanent magnet, steel sheet for the
rotor and stator laminations and copper for windings. Suitable materials are chosen
to provide sucient electromagnetic performance and average cost.
1
50
Remanence ux density at 20 C
Temperature coecient of remanence ux density
Mass density
Br0
aP M
P M
1.2 T
0.0009 1/K
7700 kg/m3
Permanent Magnet
VACODYM 655 AP by Vacuumschmelze GmbH is chosen as the permanent
magnet material. The characteristics of this material are given in Table 5.3. The
vendor produces VACODYM 2 series as well as VACOMAX 3 series. The coice
of VACODYM is because of its high energy density. VACODYM is produced in
dierent shapes and they are classied in three main categories:
HR (High Remanence)
TP (Transverse Pressed)
AP (Axial Pressed)
VACODYM AP series was chosen since it can have arc segment shape. Figure 5.1
shows magnetic characteristics of VACODYM 655 AP.
Iron
M400 50A by Surahammar Bruk AB is chosen as steel material for stator and
rotor laminations. Selection of this material is fullled as a trade o between cost
and electromagnetic performance. Table 5.4 shows the characteristics of M400
50A. Detailed datasheet is given in appendix A . Figure 5.2 shows the magnetic
characteristics of M400 50A.
5.2.2
Geometry
Table 5.5 shows the design parameters corresponding to the geometry. These
are called independent geometry parameters, since their values are independently
chosen from other geometry parameters. Figure 5.3 shows typical geometry of the
machine. Some of the independent geometry parameters can be seen in Figure 5.3.
The geometry variables determined by optimisation are the six rst independent
geometry parameters. The rest of the independent geometry parameters are selected
by the designer and selection criterion of the important ones is described in the
present chapter.
2
3
NdFeB base
cobalt base
51
thickness
Mass density
F E
0.5 mm
7700 kg/m3
5.2.3
Temperature
Insulation class E is selected for the insulation material. Table 5.6 shows the
nominal temperatures.
5.2.4
Winding (Concentrated)
Based on the discussions presented in section 3.4.2 fractional slot double layer
concentrated winding is chosen. Table 5.7 shows the winding parameters.
Selected pole slot combination is done in accordance to discussion presented in
section 3.4.2, for instance:
Winding factor is as high as 0.945 .
The machine is symmetrical with 8 similar sectors.
Least Common Multiple is as high as 576.
52
1.5
0.5
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
Magnetic field in [A/m]
10000
bts
hrs
hrr
hss
D
lm
hsw
p
Qs
bs0
53
12000
Figure 5.3. Typical geometry of an inner rotor surface mounted PMSG [21].
120 C
20 C
70 C
Connection type
Number of poles
Number of stator slots
Stator slot ll factor
Nominal line-line voltage
p
Qs
fs
Wye
64
72
0.5
400 V
54
5.3
Design Procedure
Figure 5.4 shows the owchart followed for optimisation of PMSG. In the rst
step, design requirements and constraints are introduced. In the next step, design parameters like characteristics of chosen material, winding parameters, etc are
introduced. In this step, still the design variables are not assigned any value.
Magnetic design is the rst step after assigning the values to the airgap diameter
55
b (T )
B
b
Brs (T )
bts (T )
B
brr (T )
B
2)
b
J(A/mm
(0.2, 1.2)
(1.1, 1.5)
(1.5, 2.0)
(1.3, 1.6)
(3.0, 5.0)
1
1 + r lme
(5.4)
(5.6)
Bm s
2
(1 )
kj Bts
D
(5.7)
hrr =
bts =
In these equations kj is the stacking factor and s is the slot pitch. Table 5.8
includes design limitations of the ux density in various localities of the machine.
The slot geometry can be calculated in this step. Table 5.8 , moreover, includes
the limitations of the current density of a standard non salient pole synchronous
machine4 . This is to ensure safe thermal behaviour of the machine.
5.4
Design Objective
Electrical machines can be designed for dierent purposes, thus the optimisation
criterion will be dierent. Some of the criteria are presented below:
torque per unit length
eciency
weight/size
cost
4
see Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 in [42] for more information
56
0.3 T
N/A
3.1
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.4 T
N/A
3.8
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.5 T
N/A
4.4
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.6 T
N/A
4.9
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.7 T
N/A
5.2
11.6
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.8 T
N/A
5.4
12.0
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.9 T
N/A
N/A
12.1
21.4
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1.0 T
N/A
N/A
11.9
21.1
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1.1 T
N/A
N/A
N/A
20.2
31.5
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1.2 T
N/A
N/A
N/A
18.8
29.3
42.2
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
The criterion torque per unit length has been used in the design of PMSG for this
purpose5 . Here it is assumed that other specications like weight, size and cost will
be minimised. Various machines are investigated with respect to the fundamental
airgap ux density and the airgap diameter. Due to the violation of the restrictions
mentioned in Table 5.8 some combinations in the design are, therefore, excluded.
On the other hand, cost of active material, including permanent magnet, iron
and copper, is also one of the criteria in the current application. Considering cost
coecient of active material 6 as
cF E = 1 Euro/kg
ccu = 8 Euro/kg
cP M = 220 Euro/kg
The cost of active material for the machines shown in Table 5.9 is calculated and
given in Table 5.10.
The optimised machine for the highest torque per unit length is the one with
airgap diameter of 1.22 m and airgap ux density of 1.2 T . However this machine
is 12 times as expensive as the optimised machine for the lowest cost of active
material which has airgap diameter of 0.635 m and airgap ux density of 0.7 T . In
the following chapter results of simulation in a FEM software for the latter machine
are presented. 7
57
b
D/B
0.245 m
0.440 m
0.635 m
0.830 m
1.025 m
1.220 m
1.415 m
1.610 m
1.805 m
2.000 m
0.3 T
N/A
1.46
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.4 T
N/A
1.23
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.5 T
N/A
1.14
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.6 T
N/A
1.15
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.7 T
N/A
1.26
1.06
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.8 T
N/A
1.50
1.18
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.9 T
N/A
N/A
1.46
1.29
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1.0 T
N/A
N/A
2.11
1.74
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
58
1.1 T
N/A
N/A
N/A
3.14
2.69
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1.2 T
N/A
N/A
N/A
18.45
15.16
12.98
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Chapter 6
6.1
Initial Considerations
This section treats some considered assumptions for the development of the
model in the software platform. It includes both technical and software aspects.
Geometry
1
8
Physics
Stator and rotor iron are of laminated steel sheet with stacking factor of
0.96 .
Magnetic characteristics of the magnet are modeled by the relative permeability and the remanence ux density. In other words it diers from
Figure 5.1 .
A three-layer airgap is considered: One belonging to rotor mechanical set,
one belonging to stator mechanical set and the last one of compressible
air quality.
An electrical circuit is made in Electriux .
1
2
59
1 2
Solver
6.2
This section covers the simulation results in Flux2D model. Figure 6.4 illustrates
distribution of the iso value lines of the ux and the color shade of the ux density
at t = 1.25 103 sec at no load operation mode.
Figure 6.5a) shows induced voltage of the optimised machine in one electrical
cycle and Figure 6.5b) shows its harmonics spectrum. As seen from Figure 6.5b)
the back EMF spectrum shows very low harmonic contents. The peak fundamental
phase EMF is 251 V .
3
Due to the short length of the machine compared to its radius, three dimensional simulations
are suggested for future work.
4
Simulation with current sources containing Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) currents is suggested for future work.
60
Figure 6.2.
elements.
Figure 6.3. The electric equivalent circuit applied to the FEM model.
61
Figure 6.4. Iso value lines of the ux and color shade of the ux density at t =
1.25 103 sec at no load operation mode.
62
200
250
200
Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)
100
100
100
50
200
0
150
0.005
0.01
0.015
time (sec)
0.02
0
0
5
10
Harmonic orders
15
Figure 6.5. Induced phase voltage (phase A) a) Time variation of induced voltage
(left) b)Harmonic spectrum of induced voltage (right).
Figure 6.6 illustrates distribution of the iso value lines of ux and the color shade
of ux density at t = 1.25 103 sec at full load.
Figure 6.7a) shows no load airgap ux density at t = 1.25 103 sec and
Figure 6.8 shows its harmonics spectrum. As can be seen from the gure, the
no load airgap ux density spectrum shows very low harmonic contents. This is
strongly dependent on the pole and slot number combination5 . The peak value of
the fundamental no load airgap ux density is 0.74 T which is 4 % lower compared
to the expected value (0.77 T )6 . The sags in the waveform that can be observed
from Figure 6.7a) represents the permeance variation caused by the slot openings.
Their presence reduces the fundamental value. The order of harmonics with highest
peak value are the 5th and the 7th. Figure 6.7b) shows the airgap ux density at
nominal load. The peak fundamental value of the airgap ux density at nominal
load is 0.72 T . It can be noted from Figure 6.7b) , that there are some spikes,
these indicate a presence of the armature reaction caused by the currents in the
windings.
Figure 6.9 shows the torque of the optimised machine at DC current. The
torque is maximum at = 7 mech. .
Figure 6.10 shows the cogging torque. 7 The peak to peak value of the torque
in Figure 6.10 is the absolute value of the cogging torque for the total machine
which is 17.5 N m . Figure 6.11 shows the torque at nominal load. The peak to
peak value of the torque in the bottom of Figure 6.11 is the absolute value of the
torque ripple for the total machine which is 56 N m . The mean value of the torque
is 1193 N m and it is 6 % lower compared with expected value (1273 N m ). The
5
63
Figure 6.6. Iso value lines of the ux and color shade of the ux density at t =
1.25 103 sec at full load operation mode.
64
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
10
20
30
40
Position (mechanical degree)
10
20
30
40
Position (mechanical degree)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0
10
15
20
Harmonic orders
25
30
Torque (Nm)
1000
500
0
500
1000
1500
4
6
8
Position (mechanical degree)
10
65
Torque (Nm)
5
0
5
10
0
4
6
8
Position (mechanical degree)
10
12
Torque (Nm)
6
8
10
12
Position (mechanical degree)
Torque of the machine (partial scale)
14
16
18
14
16
18
Torque (Nm)
1220
1200
1180
1160
6
8
10
12
Position (mechanical degree)
Figure 6.11. The total torque of the machine at nominal load (Full scale at the top
and partial scale at the bottom).
amount of the cogging torque is 1.5 % and the amount of torque ripple is 4.7 % .
6.3
Iron Losses
This section describes calculation of iron losses in stator and rotor lamination
in Flux2D. The Bertotti model is chosen in order to describe the iron losses in steel
sheets. Equation 6.1 shows the relation between dierent components of the iron
losses as a function of frequency and ux density. The electrical frequency is the
same in all locations in the iron, however the ux density is dierent8 . Iron losses
are given by equation
PF E = kh f B 2 +
8
66
(6.1)
kh
kexcess
dF E
kj
f
59.23
723
4.05
0.0005
0.96
48
x 10
Power Loss
Density (w/m/m/m)
3
2
1
0
0.5
1
Applied Flux Density (T)
1.5
Figure 6.12. Fitted curve for iron loss density of M400 50A.
Iron
Iron
Iron
Iron
losses
losses
losses
losses
in
in
in
in
rotor in no load
stator in no load
rotor in nominal load
stator in nominal load
3W
117 W
9W
182 W
Table 6.2. Iron losses in rotor and stator of the optimised machine calculated in
FEM simulations.
where kh and kexcess are hysteresis and excess loss coecients, dF E is the steel sheet
thickness and is the steel sheet conductivity. Table 6.1 shows the loss coecients
considered in FEM simulations.
The rst three parameters are calculated based on the curve tting for given
iron loss density in the iron material datasheet 9 . Figure 6.12 shows the tted curve
for iron loss density of M400 50A.
By introducing the loss coecients to FEM models, the iron losses in stator and
rotor are calculated at no load and at nominal load conditions. These values, which
are later used in thermal analysis, are shown in Table 6.2 .
9
see appendix A
67
Chapter 7
7.1
Thermal Model
Loss type
Iron losses in stator
Copper losses in coil sides
Copper losses in end windings
value in W
182
342
272
The rotor losses (iron losses and windage losses) and relevant thermal resistivities are neglected.
The losses and thermal resistivity of magnets and bearings are neglected.
Thermal capacitances of dierent materials are neglected. In other words a
steady state analysis is performed.
The ambient temperature is assumed to be 20 C .
Considered losses of the machine in the thermal analysis are given in Table 7.1.
The value of iron losses in the stator is calculated in section 6.3 by means of
simulation in Flux2D. Total copper losses at nominal load is
Pcu = 3Rcu I 2
I = 31.14/ 2 = 22.02 A
70
(7.1)
(7.2)
Thermal resistance
Rth1
Rth2
Rth3
Rth4
Rth5
value in C/W
2.4041 104
0.0058
0.0078
0.0150
0.0030
where
Rcu =
1
(7.3)
(7.4)
Since the temperature of winding is not known, the expected value could be used.
Considering class E , the hot spot temperature is expected to be lower than 70 C .
Then cu = 2.4 108 m
The coil side copper losses and the end winding copper losses are distinguished
by
lF E
Pcucs =
Pcu
(7.5)
lav
Pcuew = (1
lF E
)Pcu
lav
(7.6)
71
Value in C
20
31
40
41
7.2
72
Chapter 8
Conclusions
In this work, a surface mounted, radial ux, inner rotor, longitudinal PMSG
with concentrated winding and natural air cooling is optimised with respect to the
cost of active material. Active material includes iron, copper and PM material.
Selection of topology is based on easy manufacturing process. For instance, to scale
up the machine for three times higher torque rating, the length of the machine can
be increased by three times and a new design can be avoided. The optimisation
objective function is set to minimise the cost of active material. Total active weight
of the machine is limited to approximately 110 kg. From the requirements, the
size limit on outer diameter of the machine is met by far. The shaft diameter is
higher than the minimum permitted value 1 which represents mechanical continuous
operation despite the high torque density. A FEM model is developed in Flux2D
and the performance is veried. Results from FEM analysis show low harmonic
contents in the induced voltage and the airgap ux density. Also by employing
a concentrated winding a high winding factor of 0.945 is achieved. The torque
ripple and the cogging torque are very low (respectively 4.7 % and 1.5 %) and the
cogging torque agrees very closely with corresponding constraint (around 1 %). The
eciency is 93.4 % at nominal load (magneto-static analysis) and it agrees with the
value required by the application(94 %). The machine enjoys from low temperature
rise which serves the purpose of very long lifetime well.
8.2
Further Work
Various tasks can be conducted based on the present design. The list below
encloses the most interesting ones.
3D FEM analysis: The simulation software in this task has been Flux2D. In
two dimension simulations, eect of end windings on electromagnetic analysis
1
73
74
75
Appendix A
77
78
Bibliography
[1] J. L. Sawin and E. Martinot. Renewable 2010: Global status report. Technical
report, Renewable Energy Policy Network for 21st Century, September 201.
[2] E. Hau. Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics.
Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2000.
[3] S. Eriksson. Direct driven generators for vertical axis wind turbines. PhD
thesis, Uppsala Univ., Sweden, 2008.
[4] J. Kjellin. Experimental vertical axis wind turbine system. PhD thesis, Uppsala
Univ., Sweden, 2010.
[5] P. Deglair. Analytical aerodynamic simulation tools for vertical axis wind turbines. PhD thesis, Uppsala Univ., Sweden, 2010.
[6] K. Thorborg O. Carlson, J. Hylander. Survey of variable speed operations of
wind turbines. In Europ. Wind Energy Conf, pages 406409, 1996.
[7] E. Muljadi D.S. Zinger. Annulaized wind energy improvement using variable
speeds. In IEEE trans. Industry applications, volume 33, pages 14441447,
1997.
[8] M. Leijon S. Eriksson, H. Bernho. Evaluation of dierent turbine concepts
for wind power. In renewable and sustainable energy reviews, volume 12, pages
14191434, 2008.
[9] M. Andriollo et al. Control strategies for a vawt driven pm synchronous generator. In SPEEDAM, pages 804 809, 2008.
[10] D. E. Berg S. Johnson, C.P. van Dam. Active load control techniques for wind
turbines. In Sandia National Laboratories tech. report, 2008.
[11] S. Islam K. Tan. Optimum control strategies in energy conversion of pmsg
wind turbine system without mechanical sensors. In IEEE trans. On energy
conversion, volume 19, 2004.
[12] M. Wing J. F. Gieras. Permanent magnet motor technology: design and applications. Marcel Dekker Inc, Basel, Switzerland, 2 edition, 2002.
79
BIBLIOGRAPHY
URL:
[42] V. Hrabovcova J. Pyrhnen, T. Jokinen. Design of Rotating Electrical Machines. John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 1 edition, 2010.
List of Tables
Dierent classes of an insulation material due to IEC 85. . . . . . . .
35
49
3.1
5.1
5.2
6.1
6.2
7.1
7.2
7.3
50
51
52
53
54
54
56
57
58
67
70
71
72
82
67
List of Figures
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
1
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
6
8
9
9
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
3.1
Block diagram of a xed speed wind energy system including a conventional SCIG, a gearbox and a transformer [2]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Block diagram of a typical DFIG including a transformer [2]. . . . . . .
3.3 Cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction, respectively, of a typical radial ux PMSG [21]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Cross sectional view in radial direction and in axial direction, respectively, of a typical axial ux PMSG [21]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Fraction of a typical transversal ux PMSG [22]. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Inner rotor PMSG (left) and an outer rotor PMSG (right) [26]. . . . . .
3.7 A surface mounted rotor for a PMSG [15]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Two dierent inset magnet rotors for PMSGs [15]. . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Six dierent buried magnet rotors for PMSGs [15]. . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10 Cross section of a pole pair of a V shaped buried magnet design (left)
and a tangentially buried magnet design (right) [21]. . . . . . . . . . . .
3.11 Windings in low speed PMSG a) distributed overlapping winding. b)
concentrated overlapping winding. c) double layer concentrated nonoverlapping winding. d) single layer concentrated non-overlapping winding [27]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12 A typical magnet characteristics curve [20]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1
4.2
21
22
25
26
27
28
28
29
30
31
32
36
44
47
List of Figures
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
52
53
54
55
60
61
61
62
63
64
65
65
65
66
66
67
70
78
84