Physics

Classical
Physics

Quantum
Physics

Applications

Statistical
Physics

Electro-
magnetism
 Blackbody Radiation
(Beginning of Quantum
Physics)
Quantum theory began when scientists study
the spectrum from the energy radiated by
bodies that were heated.

The distribution spectrum is the relative

amount of energy that is associated with
each wavelength

Blackbody is object that absorbs all the

radiation and when equilibrium state is
achieved, it will reflect all the radiation.

2
Example; black carbon cavity with a small
opening where radiation can enter and
escape.

Figure 1 - Experimental black body curve for

5000 K

3
• The black body radiates energy at every
wavelength.

• The curve gets infinitely close to the

horizontal (x)-axis but never touches it.

• Black body shows a peak wavelength, at

which most of the radiant energy is emitted.

• At 5000 K - peak wavelength ~ 5 x 10-7 m

(500 nm) which is in the visible light region, in
the yellow-green section.

• At each temperature the black body emits

a standard amount of energy. This is
represented by the area under the curve.

4
Fig 2: Black body radiation curves showing
peak wavelengths at various temperatures

As the temperature increases, the peak

wavelength emitted by the black body
decreases.

It moves from the infra-red towards the visible

part of the spectrum.

5
Visible radiation is emitted even at these lower
temperatures and at any temperature above
absolute zero a black body will emit some
visible light.

As temperature increases, the total energy

emitted increases - the total area under the
curve increases.
.

Wien's Displacement Law

The displacement of the peak is given by an

empirical relation

pT = constant = 2.898 x 10-3 mK

p: wavelength at the peak

T: temperature in K

Wein’s Law

ae
b / T
E( ,T) = 5

a and b are constant.

6
Stefan Boltzmann’s Law
The total power radiated per unit area at
temperature T is

4
E(T) =
T

= 5.6699 x 10-8 watt/m2-K4

These laws are not derived from any physical

model.

7
Rayleigh-Jeans Theory

Assumption - blackbody consists of oscillators

1
k T
with energy 2 B

where kB = 1.34 x 10-23 J/K is the Boltzmann

constant.

The total energy is

px2 1 2
H = T +V = + kx
2m 2 where k is the

spring constant.

8
Rayleigh-Jeans Law

Energy per unit volume is given as:

8
k BT
I( ,T) =
4
Derivation:

Oscillating charged particles will emit

electromagnetic waves.
1
Each degree of freedom will contribute 2 kB T .

The spectral energy density is given by

I(
,T) = n(v)kBT

n(v): numbr of oscillators per unit volume at

frequency v, also known as Jeans number.

8
v 2
n(v) =
c3
d c
n(v)dv = n( ) = n( ) 2
dv v

9
 8

n() =
4
8

I(,T) = 4 kT


Rayleigh-Jeans

Experimental

Rayleigh-Jeans theory is only applicable for

large
.

At lower wavelength, it predicted – ultraviolet

catastrophe – which was not observed in
reality

A fundamental mistake in this model.

10
Planck Radiation Law
Postulate 1

The amount of energy (
) emitted or absorbed

by an oscillator is directly proportional its
frequency (v)

 = hv

where

h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s

is called the Planck’s constant.

Postulate II

An oscillator cannot have an arbitrary energy

but must occupy one of the discrete energy
states given by

n = nhv, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …..

11
The amount energy emitted or absorbed are
quantized

Each energy quanta of electromagnetic

waves are called photons.

At T > 0 K, the oscillators are in the higher

energy states.

The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution gives

thedistribution of the oscillators at
temperature T

N(n) = Noe
 n / kB T

N(n): number of oscillator with energy
n

No: constant at all T.

12
The average energy of the oscillator can be
written as

 N(n) n
n= 0
=

 N(n)
n= 0

 nhv
N e 0
kBT
nhv
n= 0
=

 nhv
N e 0
kBT

n= 0

hv
  2 hv
0 + hve kBT
+ 2e kBT
+ ......
=  hv  2 hv
1+ e kBT
+e kBT
+ ....

 1+ 2x + 3x 2 + ..... 

hv/ k B T
= hvx 2 3
 where x = e
1+ x + x + x + ...

13
 
2 

= hvx
( )
 1
x  hvx
= =
hv

1 
1
x e hv/ k B T
( )
 1
x 
8
hv 3 1
I = n(v) =
c3 ehv/ kB T 1
8
hc 1
= n() =
5 ehc/ kB T 1

14
 Wave-Particle Duality

Classical physics states that energy can be

transported by either waves or particles.

Example;

i) a disturbance on the surface of a pond is a

wave phenomenon

ii) a ball thrown into the air shows the transport

of energy by a particle.

However,the Davisson-Germer experiment,

shows that electron which is known to be a
particle – exhibits wave properties

In the e/m experiment, electron shows the

particle property (denoted by mass m).

15
The de Broglie Wave
The de Broglie wave - relates the particle
property with the wave property
h
p = mv =


h: Planck constant
p: momentum

: wavelength

Example:

An electron with kinetic energy of 100 eV.

Find the de Broglie wavelength of the
electron.

h
Using the de Broglie relation p =

.

Need to determine p.
2 p2
K = 2 mv =
1
p = 2mK
2m hence

m is the mass of electron.

16
 h 6.626 10
34 Js
= = = 1.2Å
p 2(9.110 kg)(1.6 10 J)

31
19

Example 2:

A ball of mass m = 1 kg, travel at 10 m/s. Find

the de Broglie wavelength.

h h 6.626 10
34 Js
= = = = 6.6 10
35 m = 6.6 10
25 Å
p mv (1 kg)(10 m/s)

17
Davisson and Germer
Experiment

(Wave nature of electrons)

Using electron beams off nickel crystals and

analysed how the electrons were more likely
to appear at certain angles than others.

Intensity maximum at
= 50o and V = 54 V

This result can be explained as constructive

interference (a wave phenomenon).

Similar to Bragg’s relation in X-ray diffraction.

18
Wave nature of electron

50
n
=2d sin
 = 90
= 65

2

Lattice spacing for nickel d = 0.91 Å

= 2dsin
= 2 (0.91) sin 65 = 1.65 Å

19
Particle nature of electron
h h
p= = = 1.67Å
de Broglie wavelength

2mK

20
The wave-like properties of light were
demonstrated by the famous experiment first
performed by Thomas Young

21
22
Important experiments -
development of quantum
physics
1. Black body radiation
Electromagnetic waves are made up of
particles known as photon with quantized
energy
2. Compton effect
Shows the particle property of
electromagnetic waves

3. Photoelectric effect
Shows the particle property of
electromagnetic waves

4. Frank-Hertz Experiment
Shows that the energy level of atoms are
quantized

5. Davisson-Germer Experiment
Shows that electron has wave nature

23
6. Stern-Gerlach Experiment
Shows that the z-component of angular
momentum is quantized and the existence of
electron spin

24
Relation between de Broglie and Planck

h

=
p de Broglie

2

= k: wavevector
k

h hk
p= = =
k
 2

h

= (h-bar)
2

E = hv Planck

 h
=h =  =

2
2

25