4th World Congress On TVET 2014 Proceeding PDF

Conference proceedings of the 4th World Congress on TVET 2014
WoCTVET 2014 | i
Copyright The Advanced Centre for Technical and Vocational Education (ACTiVE) 2014
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Advanced Centre for Technical and Vocational Education (ACTiVE), Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia, Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor.
Edited and compiled by: Dr. Saifullizam Puteh

Mohd Fairuz Marian
Date: 1st November 2014
Publish by:
Advanced Centre for Technical and Vocational Education (ACTiVE),
Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education (FPTV)
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
86400 Parit Raja, Batu Pahat
Johor Darul Tazim
Tel: 07-456 4181 Faxs: 07-453 6585
Website: http://active.uthm.edu.my/active/activities.html
eISBN 978-983-43398-9-0
The authors of the best selected papers will be invited to extend them for publication in Journal
of Technical Education and Training -ISSN 2229-8932, indexed by Google Scholar, DOAJ
(Currently being evaluated by SCOPUS)
WoCTVET 2014 | ii
FOREWORD
It is our great pleasure to welcome you to 4th World Congress on Technical Vocational
Education and Training (WoCTVET) 2014. The WoCTVET is an international conference,
organized by the Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia. The theme for WoCTVET 2014 is "TVET Capacity Development: Career & Life Skills for
21st Century". This biennially conference serves as a multi-disciplinary forum for the discussion
and exchange of information on research development and applications on all topics related
Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET). This years WoCTVET continues its
tradition of being the premier forum for presentation of research results and experience reports
on leading edge issues of access control, including models, systems, applications, and theory.
The aim of the WoCTVET is as a platform for discussion, dissemination and sharing of
contemporary research and scientific knowledge and information in the field of teacher
education for TVET.
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the authors who submitted contribution
for inclusion. We hope that you will find this program interesting and thought-provoking and
that the conference will provide you with a valuable opportunity to share ideas with other
researchers and practitioners from institutions around the world.
Editors
Dr. Saifullizam Puteh
Mohd Fairuz Marian
WoCTVET 2014 | iii
REVIEWERS
Professor Dr. Jailani Md Yunos, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Professor Dr. Georg Spttl, Universitt Bremen
Professor Dr. Maizam Alias, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Assoc. Professor Dr. Ahmad Esa, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Assoc. Professor Dr. Muhammad Sukri Saud, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Dr Halizah Awang, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Yusmarwati Yusof, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Johnson Lim Soon Chong, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Lee Ming Foong, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Marlina Mohamad, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. D'oria Islamiah, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Mimi Mohaffyza Mohamad, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Lai Chee Sern, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Alias Masek, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Wan Hanim Nadrah Wan Muda, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Badaruddin Ibrahim, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Nor Lisa Sulaiman, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Kahirol Mohd Salleh, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Normah Zakaria, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Fazlinda Abd Halim, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Azita Ali, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Sofurah Mohd. Faiz, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Mohd Hasril Amiruddin, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Lutfiah Natrah Abas, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
Dr. Adnan Ahmad, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Dr. Aede Hatib Musta'amal, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Dr. Dadang Kurnia, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
WoCTVET 2014 | iv
CONTENTS
TRACK 1: JOB AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Why Choose to Become a TVET Teacher? Exploring the Career Choice
Motivations of Pre-Service TVET Teachers in a Technological University
Neil Andrew Francisco Calayag & Cherrypyn Biaga Barbacena
Holistic Student Development Through Co-Curriculum Activities In Polytechnic

: Methodology Approach
Nurul Haerani Mohamad
14
Youth workers with disabilities: The views of employers in Malaysia

Anizam Mohamed Yusof, Manisah Mohd Ali & Amla Mohd Salleh
22
The profession/ occupation field model as an activity theoretical instrument

for job and career development
Guenter Essl
33
Self-Efficacy Perception Of Oral Communication Ability Among Esl Technical

Students
Faridatul Mastura Mohamed Khatib & Nooreiny Maarof
45
Entrepreneurial Skills Development Strategies through the Mandatory

Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme in Nigeria
Abubakar Sadiq Usman
53
Technical And Vocational Education (TVET) A Tool For Youth Economic

Empowerment
Hadi Mohammed, Wan Azlinda Bint Wan Mohammed
59
The Needs for Employability Skills Integrations in Electrical Technology

Education Curriculum of Federal Universities of Technology, Nigeria
Dahiru Sale Mohammed & Sarimah Ismail
65
Reducing Recidivism Rates through Vocational Education and Training

Hadi Mohammed, Wan Azlinda Bint Wan Mohammed
74
Chemistry Education as Service to Humanity in Nigeria: Issues and Challenges

Mande Garba
80
Phenomenological Study: Bilingual Teaching Classroom of Batu Pahat

Community College
Faridatuljana Mohd Noor
85
WoCTVET 2014 | v
Skilling for Job: A Grounded Theory of Vocational Training at Industrial

Training Institutes of Malaysia
Ridzwan Che Rus
91
Revealed Knowledge Integration in National Dual Training System (NDTS):

Philosophy, Issues, and Challenges
Akhmal Annas Hasmori, Jailani Md Yunos, Rohana Hamza & Muhamad Afzamiman
Aripin
100
The Management Model Of Vocational Education Quality Assurance

Using Holistic Skills Education (Holsked)
Erni Munastiwi
109
Factors that influence Customer Satisfaction and Positive Word of Mouth in

Speedy product: The case of PT Telecommunication Batam, Indonesia
Alpino Susanto, Razali Hassan, and Rafiuddin Afkari
120
TRACK 2: MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP

The Importance of Personalities and Motivation on Adolescents' Academic
Achievement
Gooh Mo Lee & Syed Mohammad Shafeq
137
K to 12 Educational Reform: Perception of Technology and Livelihood

Education Teachers on Selected Variables
Racquel Dapula Baculo & Cherrypyn Biaga Barbacena
147
The Processes of Supervisions in Secondary Schools Educational System in

Nigeria
Isa Yuguda Kotirde
158
Motivations and Promotion Opportunity of Academic Citizens Towards Open

Innovation: Proposed Model
Shen Kian Tan
168
Leadership Factors That Encourages the Successful Institutionalization of

Quality Assurance Practices in a TVET Institution
Noor Aidi Nadzri & Mohamad Hisyam Mohd. Hashim
178
Transfer of IVET systems to other countries: The German example

Gerald Thiel
187
Leadership and the Characteristic of Different generational Cohort Towards

Job Satisfaction
Hadijah Ahmad
196
WoCTVET 2014 | vi
Leadership Capability of Team Leaders in Construction Industry: First Phase

Study
Wan Hanim Nadrah Wan Muda, Welfredo Herrera Libunao
Conceptual Framework For School Supervision And Teaching Quality For
Teachers Job Performance In Nigerian Secondary Schools Education
Isa Yuguda Kotirde & Jailani Md. Yunos
202
Implementation Framework System for Accreditation of Prior Experiential

Learning (APEL) in Higher Education Institutions in Malaysia.
Profesor Dr. Noraini bintiKaprawi, Profesor Dr. Wahid Razzaly & Wan Nor
Syahirabinti Wan Ali
223
212
TRACK 3: INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Engaging Vocational College Students through Blended Learning: Improving
Class Attendance and Participation
Muhamad Azhar Bin Stapa @ Mustapa
237
Dementia Disease Treatment Using Augmented Reality Technology
246
Engku Mohd Nasri Engku Mat Nasir

Serious Games A new perspective on workbased learning
Daniela Ahrens
253
The Fourth-Order Runge-Kutta Spreadsheet Calculator Using VBA

Programming for Odinary Differential Equations
Kim Gaik Tay
259
The Indicators of Instructional Design for e learning in Indonesian Vocational

High Schools
M. BruriTriyono
264
The Imperatives And The Challenges To Effective Integration Of Information

And Communication Technologies (Ict) In Nigerian Technical And Vocational
Education And Training (TVET) Institutions Toward Instructional Delivery
Bashir Abubakar & Mohamad Hisyam Mohd. Hashim
274
ICT integrations in TVET: Is it up to expectations?

Zurina Yasak
282
TRACK 4: ASSESMENT AND EVALUATION

Assessment Issue On Work-Based Learning (WBL) Programme For Diploma
Students In Malaysia: A Case Study
Wazli Watisin & Mohamad Hisyam Mohd. Hashim
295
WoCTVET 2014 | vii
Assessment For Learning : Practice in TVET

Marina Ibrahim Mukhtar, Jamil Ahmad
301
Students Psychosocial Perception of Automobile Technology Learning

Environment and Attitudinal Outcomes in North-Eastern Tertiary Institutions
of Nigeria
Ismaila Y. Shehu,, Joseph D. Enemali, Muhammad H. Muhammad , Mohd Safarin Nordin
& Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
311
Architectural Evaluation Of Thermal Comfort: Sick Building Syndrome

Symptoms in Engineering Education Laboratories
Noor Dina Md Amin, Zainal Abidin Akasah & Wahid Razzaly
321
Effectiveness of Learning Transfer in National Dual Training System (NDTS)

Azmi bin Ahmad, Wan Mohd Rashid bin Wan Ahmad, Michael Gessler & Georg Spttle
332
Validity and Reliability Learning Transfer Item Using Rasch Measurement

Model
Ruhizan Mohd. Yasin, Faizal Amin Nur Yunus, Ridzwan Che Rus, Azmi Ahmad & Mohd
Bekri Rahim
Dimensions of Learning Styles and Students Academic Achievement
Aini Nazura Paimin, , Mimi Mohaffyza Mohamad & Norasyikin Omar
343
Improvement Of Students Teachers Competence Through Retooling Learning

Organization In Business & Industry
Masriam Bukit, Ashari Joha & Iwa Kuntadi
359
352
TRACK 5: CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

Vickers Test Simulation to Improve Metacognitive Skills
Ahmed Hadi Shubber , Amirmudin Binudin & Asnul Dahar Bin Minghat
371
Efficiency Comparison of Example-Problem-Based Learning and TeacherCentered Learning in the Teaching of Circuit Theory
Noor Hisham Jalani & Lai Chee Sern
381
Perception of Continuing Program for Teacher Education Students on their

Program and Performance in the Licensure Examination for Teachers
Werson Role DeAsis
395
Impact of Computer Literacy Skill via Learning Management System (LMS) on

an Effective Learning Practice
Norhafizah Ismail & Wan Zah Wan Ali
404
Curricular Innovations In Vocational Agricuture In Nigerian Colleges Of

Education For Life Skills And Career Development In The 21st Century
Umar Abdulrazak Muazu
418
WoCTVET 2014 | viii
Model of Supervision in Communicating Expectation Using Supervisory Styles

and Students Learning Styles
Suriana Nasir
422
The Pattern of Learning Styles among Second Year Students in Business

Management and Hospitality Programs at One of the Vocational College in
Northern Zone
Tee Tze Kiong, Balakrishnan Kuppusamy, Jailani Md Yunos & Yee Mei Heong
4277
Disparity Of Learning Styles And Higher Order Thinking Skills

Yee Mei Heong
438
Production Based Learning: An Instructional Design Model in the Context of

Vocational Education and Training (VET)
Ganefri & Hendra Hidayat
447
A Comparison of the Work-based Learning Models and Implementation in

Training Institutions
Syamhanim Ismail
456
A Theoretical Review For Practicability Of Mcgregors Theory X And Y For

Students Academic Performance
Ahmad Rizal Madar
465
Basic Functional Skills Acquisition Through Mathematics Education For

Sustainable Development In Nigeria: A Case Study Of North West Zone
Garba M Koko
473
Creative Teaching In Design And Technology Curriculum: Using Structural

Equation Modeling
Nazeri bin Mohammad
481
A Survey Of Work Process-Based Learning (Wpbl) In Malaysian Vocational

Colleges
Tuan Aidil Khairuddin Bin Tuan Abdullah & Mohd. Noor Bin Hashim
489
Subject Didactic Competence of VTE Teachers from the Perspective of Studies

on Teacher Thinking
Jianping Zheng
503
Implementation of Inclusive Education in Special Education Program

Integration Learning Disabilities: Testing the Validity of Qualitative Interview
Questions
Maizatul Azmah Ab. latiff
511
Malaysian Dual-TVET Curriculum Development

Mohd Yusoff Abu Bakar
521
Teacher Training in TVET A Structural Dilemma and the Role of Standards

Georg Spttl
530
WoCTVET 2014 | ix
TRACK 6: INNOVATION AND PRODUCTION

The Effectiveness of Mastery Learning Strategy on Aboriginal Students
Knowledge Acquisition in Entrepreneurship
Mohd Hasril Amiruddin
538
Water-based Hydraulic Power Trainer for a Greener Technical Vocational

Education and Training System
Zarin Syukri Zaili, Ahmad Anas Yusof, Siti Nor Habibah Hassan
547
Capturing Creative Behaviours Whilst Using Computer Aided Design (CAD)

Through Personal Designing Exercise
Aede Hatib Musta'amal
558
WoCTVET 2014 | x
TRACK 1
JOB AND CAREER
DEVELOPMENT
WoCTVET 2014
Why Choose to Become a TVET Teacher? Exploring the Career

Choice Motivations of Pre-Service TVET Teachers in a
Technological University
Neil Andrew F. Calayag1* & Cherrypyn B. Barbacena2
College of Industrial Education, Technological University of the Philippines-Manila
1 nacalayag@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The area of TVET teacher preparation is faced with various challenges. One of which is the
limited supply of prospective teachers. To recruit more teachers, it is of paramount importance
to understand the underlying motivations behind prospective TVET teachers decision to pursue
a teaching career. This study explored the motivation related to career-choice among three-year
technology graduates pursuing a degree in technical teacher education. The triangulation mixed
method design or the QUAN-QUAL method was utilized in which quantitative data were
gathered through a researcher made, self-administered questionnaire and the qualitative data
were sourced from written essays and narratives. Participants were from two cohorts (N=56) of
students enrolled in the Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education (BTTE) program of a
technological university in Manila, Philippines. The quantitative analysis showed that the preservice teachers foremost motives were inspiration from previous teachers, the careers
challenging nature, the desire to teach practical knowledge and skills, desire to help
economically poor students to gain employable skills, and the perceive demand for TVET
teachers in the new K to 12 program of the countrys educational system. On the other hand,
seven (7) themes emerged from the qualitative analysis in which three leading motivational
themes were: interest in helping students and community/sharing practical knowledge and
skills; personal dream/calling/passion to teach; and influence of family members/ desire to help
family financially. The two sets of data were then analyzed and compared. The results
implications were then discussed as well as its importance in improving the recruitment efforts
to attract more graduates of technology programs to TVET teaching.
Keywords: Career Choice Motivations; TVET Teacher Preparation; Career Development; Technical
Teacher Education; TVET Teacher Recruitment
1. INTRODUCTION
Recent developments in the educational system of the Philippines have highlighted the
importance of TVET teacher preparation. The Department of Education, the national
government agency tasked to manage the basic education sector is now implementing the
Enhanced Education Act of 2013, in which two (2) years of senior high school (SHS) education
will be added to secondary education and one of the tracks is Technical-Vocational for students
who want to pursue a technical career after graduation. This reform has a direct impact on
TVET teachers preparation both in the aspect of quality and quantity.
WoCTVET 2014
In preparation for the K to 12s full implementation, the quality aspect is partially being
addressed through various trainings offered to in-service TVET trainers/teachers. In an
interview to the Secretary of Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, it was
emphasized that there were already massive number of trainings that have been conducted,
equipping trainers and assessors to better cater to students taking Tech-Voc courses as part of
the new primary education curriculum(Villanueva as cited by Agua, 2014).
However, the aspect of quantity is still yet to be fully addressed. With the implementation of the
reform, more TVET trainers and assessors would be needed to teach technical-vocational
courses to students2. In fact, on top of the presently existing staff shortages which the
Department of Education seek to fill through the proposed 2015 national budget, there will still
be a need for about 81, 637 teachers upon the rollout of senior high school. Out of this number,
Technical Vocational Education and Training will have the most number with an estimated
9,900 to 15, 634 vacancies for TVET teachers (Arcangel, 2014).
In the Philippines, there are several paths to be a TVET teacher. One of which is through the
system of Ladderized Education Program (LEP). Launched in 2006, students under this
program start with TVET courses that are creditable for a college degree if they decided to
pursue a higher degree (Lumague, 2007). For TVET graduates who want to pursue a career in
teaching, a ladderized Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education (BTTE) program was also
institutionalized in some institutions of higher learning. Its aim is to prepare TVET teachers who
are equipped not only with strong theoretical understanding of teaching and technology, but
also with practical exposure in industry (CHED Memorandum Order No. 56, s. 2007). There are
about 44 institutions offering the BTTE program in the Philippines (Calimlim, 2011).
Today, teacher training institutions offering this program faces the challenge of the limited
supply of teachers in tech-voc related programs especially in the areas of arts and trades,
agriculture and fisheries and these institutions need to be part of the solutions to overcome the
aforementioned challenge (Valles, 2012).This is a part of the bigger issue of maintaining an
adequate supply of good quality teachers, especially in high demand subject areas (OECD,
2011). Thus, a need for more aggressive promotion of TVET teacher preparation programs
arises and this requires an understanding of the motives why one would choose to become a
TVET teacher.
Several studies have been conducted along this line of research (Richardson and Watt, 2006,
2008; Chan, 2006; Elawar, Irwin and Lizarraga, 2007) but little of these researches have been
done specifically on the area of Technical Vocational Education and Training. Exploratory in
nature, this study aimed to spur discussions on this topic and to encourage further research and
collaboration among TVET teacher preparation institutions particularly in the Philippines and
in ASEAN as to the motivations that attracts prospective TVET teachers into the profession.
1.1 Career Choice Motivation
Motivation is broadly defined as the reasons underlying behaviour (Guay et al., 2010 as cited
by Lai, 2011). Most people are motivated to work to meet the basic needs for food and shelter
(Wade and Tavris, 2000). However, people differ on career choices. Several studies have been
conducted on motivations relating to career choices and have found that these choices are
determined by many, sometimes quite different motives (Haase, 2011).
WoCTVET 2014 | 3
This also holds true in the teaching profession. Thus far, motivation to teach has been viewed as
a complex construct as evidenced by the various theories and studies trying to explain teaching
career-related motivations. These works have attempted to explore the motivations of teachers
in choosing teaching as a career. Most of these were anchored on various theories such as the
expectancy-value theory, self-determination theory particularly its sub-theory-the cognitive
evaluation theory and the motivational theory of altruism, all in trying to theorize the factors
influencing the choice to enter the teaching profession.
The Expectancy-Value Theory was developed in an effort to understand the achievement
motivation of individuals. Applied to students motivation, the theory suggests that achievement
and achievement related choices are most proximally determined by two factors, expectancies
for success, and subjective task values (Eccles, 1983). When applied to the task of career choice,
such an approach predicts that, when more than one behaviour is possible, the behaviour
chosen will be the one with the largest combination of expected success and value which means
that individuals would likely to pursue choices for which they expect they have the requisite
abilities, to which they attach value, and to which do not demand a great cost to them.
Self-determination theory as expounded by Deci and Ryan (1985) is an integration of two
perspectives on human motivation: humans are motivated to maintain an optimal level of
stimulation and humans have basic needs for competence and personal causation (Eccles and
Wigfield, 2002). As a sub-theory, the cognitive evaluation theory lay down factors explaining
intrinsic motivation with its complexities and looks at how other factors, extrinsic in nature
such as the environmental and social factors influence intrinsic motivations. Thus, the theorys
most basic distinction is between intrinsic motivation which refers to doing something because
it is inherently interesting or enjoyable and extrinsic motivation which refers to doing
something because it leads to a separable outcome (Deci and Ryan, 2000). These two distinct
motivations have been used extensively in explaining motivations in various career settings.
Motivation in teaching careers however, might have differences with business careers primarily
because of the differences in the education system and the business system (Barnabe and Burns,
1994 as cited by Schepers, De Gieter, Pepermans, Du Bois, Caers and Jegers, 2005) As such,
intrinsic and extrinsic motivational systems might not be sufficient to cover the possible
underlying motives in choosing teaching as a career. Consequently, several studies have tapped
into pre-service teachers altruistic motives (Kyriacou, Kunc, Stephens, &Hultgren, 1999; Chan,
2006; Abulon, 2011). Altruism is defined as the mere willingness to act in consideration of the
interests of other persons, without the need of ulterior motives (Nagel, 1970 as cited by Liu,
2012). Recently, Liu (2012), modified this and defined altruism as acting in consideration of
the interests of other persons, without the need of ulterior motives.
Founded on expectancy-value theory and tapping on altruistic and intrinsic motivations, factors
influencing teaching choice framework developed by Richardson and Watt (2006), have
outlined factors such as socialization influences, task demand, task return, self-perceptions,
intrinsic value, personal utility value and social utility value as motives for choosing teaching as
a career. The framework have been used in various settings to elucidate why teachers choose to
teach (Watt et al., 2012; Kilin, Watt, & Richardson, 2012; Oztuk, 2012). In a large-scale
Australian study using the above mentioned framework, the highest rated motivations for
choosing teaching included perceived teaching abilities, the intrinsic value of teaching, and the
desire to make a social contribution, shape the future, and work with children/adolescents29.
WoCTVET 2014 | 4
Using the same framework, a study of pre-service English language teachers career motivations
in Turkey showed that participants placed a high value on intrinsic motivations although
several of the top reasons are related to altruistic motivations. Likewise, a study of in-service
teachers motives and commitment to the teaching profession in Hong Kong (Chan, 2006) also
found intrinsic and altruistic factors as the most influential motives to teach. Affiliation and
personal growth were also seen as important motives for teaching staff (Dinham and Scott,
1997 as cited by Schepers et al., 2005).
In the Philippines, a qualitative study was conducted on pre-service teachers motivation related
to career choice (Abulon, 2011). The results suggests that majority of the participants were
intrinsically motivated. Interestingly, the results of the study also suggest that the participants
still holds teaching as the noblest profession. Apparently, the pre-service teachers perception of
the profession has an influence on their career choice. In making teaching an attractive career
choice, it is therefore necessary to improve the image and status of teaching18.
1.2 The Present Study
The present study extends the work on career choice motivation among pre-service teachers to
the field of Technical Vocational Education and Training. In this study, the researchers took
advantage of the strengths that the triangulation mixed method design provides. Although the
sample might not be sufficient to make generalizations on the larger population of pre-service
TVET teachers in the region, it still offers insights on the topic and serves as a springboard for
further research on the area considering that the setting is one of the major TVET teacher
education providers in the Philippines.
2. METHOD
2.1 Participants and Setting
Participants were from both cohorts (N=56) of three-year technology program graduates. All
are enrolled in the Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education program of the College of Industrial
Education, Technological University of the Philippines in the capital city of Manila. The
university started out as a trade school known as the Manila Trade School (MTS) established in
1901 with the primary intention of developing the dignity of labor. It was then subsequently
renamed as the Philippine School of Arts and Trades (PSAT). As an answer to the need for
qualified teachers in trade courses, the first two year Industrial teacher Education was offered
at the PSAT in 1927 and the first four-year Industrial Education curriculum leading to the
degree Bachelor of Science in Industrial Education in 1951. Through its conversion as the
Philippine College of Arts and Trades (PCAT) in 1959 and as the Technological University of the
Philippines in 1978, it carried on the BSIE program under the College of Industrial Education. In
1987, the Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education (BTTE) was also offered. BTTE became part
of the system of ladderized education in which graduates of tech-voc courses can pursue a
teaching career.
WoCTVET 2014 | 5
2.2 Measures
A questionnaire was developed by the researchers to gather pertinent data. The instrument
consists of two parts.
The first part is about the participants background characteristics (e.g. age, sex, civil status, and
socio-economic status).
Exploratory in nature, the second part consists of 35 individual Likert-type items which assess
the participants motivations for choosing TVET teaching as career. The participants were asked
to rate each of the individual items as to the degree to which each of the statements applies to
their choice of teaching as a career. A 5-point scale were used ranging from not all true of me
to completely true of me. The items were drawn from the researchers previous classroom
experiences/discussions with pre-service TVET teachers and a review of related literature. The
items were face validated by one colleague of the researchers in the college, and two doctoral
students as to its structure and relevance as a motive for choosing teaching as a career. As a
result, four items were revised. Reliability analysis (Cronbach alpha) suggests a good internal
consistency, =858.
For the purpose of triangulation, the participants were asked for permission to utilize their
written essays and narrative on why they want to pursue a career in teaching. This was part of
the documents they submitted when they entered the BTTE program.
2.3 Procedure
The study was conceptualized at the latter part (March) of Academic Year 2013-2014 in which
the questionnaire was developed based on review of related literature and revised accordingly
based on comments and suggestions of colleagues (one colleague from the college and two
doctoral students). The questionnaires were administered with the consent of the participants
and retrieved with the aid of one research assistant prior to the start of Academic Year 2014 at
the College of Industrial Education, Technological University of the Philippines, Manila. It took
approximately 15 minutes for the participants to complete the survey questionnaire. Further,
with the consent of the participants, written essays and narrative were content analysed.
2.4 Data Analysis
Responses from the 35 individual Likert-type items on motivations in choosing teaching as a
career were analysed by getting the mean rating and the standard deviation. Subsequently, the
mean ratings were ranked. On the other hand, the essays and narratives of the participants
discussing why they want to become teachers were subjected to thematic analysis in which the
underlying themes and ideas were identified, coded and assigned numbers and descriptively
analysed for frequency of occurrence. Items/codes were then ranked accordingly based on
frequency. Both sets of results were then compared and analysed.
WoCTVET 2014 | 6
3. RESULTS
The participants mean age was 21.87 (SD=4.225); 29 (51%) were male while 28 (49%) were
female; of those who have indicated their civil status, 46 (87%) were single and 7 (13%) were
already married; of those who have indicated their socio-economic status as reflected by their
monthly family income, 14 (31.1%) earns between 10,000 and below, 15 (33.3%) earns
between 10, 001 to 20,000, 12 (26.7%) earns between 20,001 to 30,000, 2 (4.4%)earns
between 30,001 to 40,000 and 2 (4.4%) other participants earns between 40,001 to
50,000.
The main aim of the study was to investigate the career choice motivations of pre-service TVET
teachers enrolled in the Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education program of TUP. Table 1
shows the top 10 motives of the participants for choosing TVET teaching as a career out of 35
individual Likert type items listed in the questionnaire. On the other hand, the result of the
qualitative analysis is illustrated in Table 2.
As seen in Table 1, the motive rated the highest by the pre-service TVET teachers was the
inspiration provided by their previous teachers (M=4.41, SD=0.826). The top 10 motives also
include the challenging nature of TVET teaching (M=4.36, SD=0.749), the perceived enjoyment
of the participants in teaching useful knowledge and skills (M=4.34, SD=0.695) and their desire
to help economically poor students to gain employable skills (M=4.23, SD=0.738) which is
actually one of the goal of the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 that fully integrated TVET
into the basic education of the country.
It can also be gleaned from the results that the new law on education may have an influence on
the motives of the pre-service TVET teachers. The results imply that one of their top motives in
choosing TVET teaching as a career was the perception that the reform would require a lot of
TVET teachers (M=4.21, SD=0.756) aside from the notion that generally, there is a high demand
for TechVoc teachers (M=4.18, SD=0.664) and that they see a bright future for TVET teachers in
the country (M=4.18, SD=0.855). There is also a general feeling of wanting to contribute to the
society (M=4.18, SD=0.956).It is also important to note that the participants generally find TVET
teaching as interesting (M=4.16, SD=0.733) and teachers in TVET as highly regarded (M=4.13,
SD=0.833).
Although not reflected in Table 1, among the 35 motives listed, the least rated was having been
influenced by their peers (M=3.00, SD=1.112) and having no other choices aside from teaching
(M=2.20, SD=1.227).
The results of the qualitative analysis meanwhile suggests some similarities such as the general
feeling of wanting to help Filipino students and the community by sharing practical knowledge
and skills (f=39 or 48.15%) which is altruistic in nature. One participant noted:
my interest in the graphic designing I would like to share with my studentsto share my
techniques and knowledge to future graphic designers
Ranked second was an intrinsic motivation in which the participants sees teaching as being a
personal dream, calling and passion (f=16 or 19.75%). Under this theme, one participant said:
WoCTVET 2014 | 7
Teaching is my passion. It is something that I always wanted to do. I love interacting with people
and to help them understand things.
Extrinsic motivations have also emerged from the analysis in which some participants
expressed being influenced by family members, wanting to help them financially (f=9 or
11.11%). A participant even mentioned
share your knowledge in the studentshelp my family first before anything else, I want to help
them financially
another participant said
I want to give my family a better life and to share my knowledge and skills to my countrymen I
want to finish my mothers dream.
Influence of the participants previous teachers (f=6 or 7.41%)have also emerged from the
qualitative analysis similar to the results of the quantitative analysis. An excerpt from one
participant reads
always been my desire to teach and maybe its also because I have such great mentors before.
Another factor was the perceived demand for TVET teachers and the notion that it is a stable
job (f=5 or 6.17%).As one participant noted
Our country need teachers since were undergoing K-12 program
Another student mentioned
hard to find a job. So I decided to take a chance to become a teacher because everyone needs a
teacher
Some participants have also seen better intellectual and career growth in TVET teaching (f=3 or
3.70%). As one of the participant remarked
theres better access in professional and personal growth.
Lastly, there were also some who have mentioned that the career matches their skills and
abilities (f=3 or 3.70%). Under this theme, an excerpt from a narrative of one of the participants
read
[TVET teaching]matches with the qualifications that I currently have
Another student said
capabilities I have is far more useful or rather more adequate in teaching
WoCTVET 2014 | 8
Table 1. Top 10 Career choice Motives of Pre-service TVET Teachers based on the Quantitative
Analysis
I choose TVET teaching as my career because
Mean
Std.
Deviation
...I was inspired by my previous teachers
4.41
0.826
56
...it is a challenging job
4.36
0.749
56
...I enjoy teaching useful knowledge and skills
4.34
0.695
56
...I want to help economically poor students to gain 4.23

employable skills
0.738
56
...I found out K to 12 requires a lot of TVET teachers
4.21
0.756
56
...it gives me an opportunity to contribute to the society
4.18
0.956
56
...there is high demand for technical-vocational teachers
4.18
0.664
56
...I see a bright future for TVET teachers in the country
4.18
0.855
56
...I find teaching TVET interesting
4.16
0.733
56
...I find teachers in TVET as highly regarded
4.13
0.833
56
Table 2. Results of the Qualitative Analysis on Career choice Motives of Pre-service TVET
Teachers
Career choice Motives
Interest in helping students and community/ Sharing knowledge and

skills
39
48.15
Personal dream/Calling/Passion
16
19.75
Influence by family members/Desire to help family financially
11.11
Influence of previous teachers
7.41
More stable job/Perceive demand
6.17
Better Intellectual and Personal career growth
3.70
Career matches with skills and abilities
3.70
WoCTVET 2014 | 9
4. DISCUSSION
This study aimed at investigating the career choice motivations of prospective TVET teachers. It
utilized the triangulation mixed method design or the QUAN-QUAL method in which
quantitative data were gathered through a researcher made, self-administered questionnaire
and the qualitative data were sourced from written essays and narratives. The common
underlying motivations based from both analyses were a mixture of intrinsic, extrinsic and
altruistic motivations.
The quantitative analysis suggests that the participants chose teaching in TVET primarily
because of the influence of their previous teachers, which probably refers to their instructors in
the three-year post-secondary course they took prior to their entry at the College of Industrial
Education. This motive is extrinsic in nature and proves how influential the experiences with
mentors can be. More so, the perceived demand and high regard for the teaching profession
were also a major consideration for the participants. However, the succeeding motives in the
top 10 list offer a predominantly intrinsic and altruistic motivation.
When both sets of data were compared, it is the theme on the interest in helping students and
the community by sharing practical knowledge and skills that stands out. Items ranked 3rd, 4th,
6th, and 7thin the quantitative analysis all relates to this theme which was actually ranked first in
the qualitative analysis. Thus, it can be said that while some considers the influence of their
previous teachers and high demand for high regards TVET teachers at present as their reason
for entering the profession, it is mostly their innate passion and motivation to effect change in
the society that drives them to be part of the teaching force. This is similar to a study of preservice early childhood and elementary education students in another Philippine state
university in which intrinsic motivations such as interest in teaching and passion to teach were
ranked the highest (Abulon, 2011). Likewise in western countries, altruistic and intrinsic
motives have been the dominant reasons in choosing teaching as a career (Yuce, Sahin, Kocer
and Kana, 2013).
In contrast however, the findings of this study does not fully conform to the notion that in
underdeveloped and developing societies, most teachers choose teaching as a career based on
extrinsic motives (Bastick, 2000 as cited by Yuce, Sahin, Kocer and Kana, 2013).
The results also emphasize the role of instructors from various technology courses as
ambassadors of TVET to their students who, for some, may also be TVET teachers themselves.
Additionally, the intrinsic and altruistic motives for choosing TVET teaching as a career has to
be fully supported and cultivated during their stint at the TVET teacher training institution, in
this case, the College of Industrial Education.
In the aspect of generalizability, the current study had its sample size as its weakness. It is then
recommended that a study wider in scope and scale be conducted along the same line to
improve the generalizability of the study and to further inform the recruitment efforts of the
concerned institutions. In relation to this, prospective TVET teachers motives should be
identified and explored during the pre-enrolment stage and the data from this be gathered and
collated to provide a nationwide and ultimately regional profile of prospective TVET teachers
motives.
WoCTVET 2014 | 10
Whilst the relative dominance of intrinsic and altruistic motivation is viewed on a positive light,
the prospective TVET teachers extrinsic motivation would also have to be explored as this
provides a glimpse of the prevailing attitude and perception on TVET teaching. It is said that
extrinsic motivation is most often associated with the engagement in activities because they
lead to desirable consequences separate from the activity itself such as tangible rewards
(Reinholt, 2006). Lower extrinsic motivation may mean then that prospective TVET teachers
does not see tangible rewards separate from the activity itself. This was not explored in this
study and would be worthy of another paper on its own.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge their research assistants, Mr. Aaron Villaret and Ms.
Racquel D. Baculo as well as their colleague in the Professional Industrial Education
Department, Dr. Werson De Asisfor their assistance in the distribution of the questionnaire and
the retrieval of the pertinent narratives and essays.
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of PNU BECED and BEED Students. Retrieved from www.pnu.edu.ph
2. Agua, J.J. (2014, March 23). K + 12 requires more Tech-Voc teachers. The Freeman Press.
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4. Calimlim, C. (2011). Plenary Paper on BSIE and BTTE vis--vis ICT. Proceedings of the 2nd
National Congress on Industrial and Technology Education, Manila, Philippines
5. Chan, K. (2006). In-service teachers motives and commitment in teaching. Hong Kong
Teachers Centre Journal, Vol. 5 Commission on Higher Education Memorandum Order
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6. Deci, E.L., and Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human
Behavior. Plenum Press. New York and London
7. Deci, E.L., and Ryan, R.M. (2000). Instrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions
and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology 25, 54-67. DOI:
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8. Eccles, J. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.),
Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches (pp. 75146). San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman
9. Eccles, J.S. and Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational Beliefs, Values and Goals. Annual Reviews
Psychology
10. Elawar, M.C., Irwin, L., Lizarraga, M.L. (2007). A Cross Cultural Analysis of Motivational
Factors That Influence Teacher Identity. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational
Psychology. N. 13 Vol. 5 (3)
WoCTVET 2014 | 11
11. Haase, H. (2011). Career Choice Motivations of University Students. International Journal
of Business Administration
12. Kilin, A., Watt, H. M. G., & Richardson, P. W. (2012). Factors influencing teaching choice in
Turkey. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 40(3), 199-226.
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Motivational Theory of Altruism, Asian Philosophy: An International Journal of the
Philosophical Traditions of the East, 22:2, 93-119
16. Lumague, A. (2007, July 10). Feature: What is Ladderized Education Program?. Philippine
Information Agency. Retrieved from archives.pia.gov.ph
17. OECD (2011). Teachers Matter: Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers.
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DOI: 1 0.1007/s12564-013-9258-9
WoCTVET 2014 | 13
Holistic Student Development Through Co-Curricular Activities

(CCAs) in Polytechnic: Methodological Approach
Ahmad Bin Esa1, Nurul Haerani Bt Mohamad2 & Zalina Aishah Bt Hj Abd Aziz3
Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 ahmad@uthm.edu.my 2 haeranimohamad@gmail.com & 3zalinaaishah87@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Co-Curricular Activities (CCAs) is a very important and essential part of educational system. In
aspect of education, CCAs prepares the students to be holistic. Nevertheless more emphasis has
generally been given to the CCAs aspect resulting from the students inability to link the
excellence in performance academically to the active participation in CCAs. Besides, Holistic
Student Development (HSD) through Critical Agenda Project (CAP) of National Higher Education
Strategic Plan (PSPTN), in line with the governments efforts to produce graduates with skills in
high-impact technology and would be absorbed as workers after completing their training at a
particular company including for those who preferred to be self-employed. This paper will
discuss the methodological approach regarding the dominant factors and the effects of CCAs
among polytechnics students in promoting the progress of the HSD in polytechnic based on five
aspects which is intellectual, emotional, spiritual, physical and social.
Keywords: Holistic Students Development, Co-curriculum Activities (CCAs)
1. INTRODUCTION
Co-Curricular activities (CCAs) are an integral part of students holistic education. Through CCA,
students discover their interests and talents while developing values and competencies that will
prepare them for a rapidly changing world1. Holistic in the context of human capital
development, is not only confined to academic disciplines and enhancing skills, but also includes
aspects of mind, spiritual, character and ethics2. In other words, human capital development is
focused on aspects of humanity, which are built through a philosophy of life, religion and moral
support. With these characteristics, the human capital available is ready to transform and
develop individuals, families, communities, the country and the world in a more structured
manner.
Polytechnic as one of the education providers are responsible to educate the students to the
demands and the needs of the nation. As part of its efforts to provide students with a holistic and
well-rounded experience in the co-curriculum, Ministry of Higher Education have implementing
National Higher Education Strategic Plan (PSPTN) which now in the Phase 2 Action Plan (201120153. The Holistic Student Development (HSD) Critical Agenda Project (CAP) focuses on the
development of students personality in order to produce well-balanced graduates or human
capital in terms of appearance, patriotism, discipline and moral values towards the formation of
the nations human capital4. The updated framework will enable education providers to better
align their co-curriculum to encourage students holistic development in terms of life skills,
competencies and values5.
WoCTVET 2014
2. BACKGROUND OF STUDY
There is a long history of educational research questioning whether extra-curricular (CCAs)
have any value at all6. Some feel that extra-curricular activities may serve no more than social
function and de-emphasize, or even subvert, more critical academic work7. Others are concerned
about devaluing bright, committed students who simply are not joiners. Still others believe
that out-of-class experience serve a valuable social and personnel growth function but hold no
primacy over coursework, team projects, and assignments in facilitating the development of
interpersonal skills8.
In order to develop interpersonal skills or soft skills among students themselves, in Malaysia the
government already implementing holistic student development through National Higher
Education Strategic Plan (PSPTN). Holistic student development refer to the ways that
institutions help students learn more about who they are, what they want to do, and who they
want to become. The 4C framework; culture, curriculum, co-curriculum, and community use to
analyze and describe how colleges can become and remain holistic and student-centered9.
The concept of developing purpose is an approach to thinking broadly about life in ways that
encompass vocational plans and aspirations as well as personal interests and interpersonal and
family commitments. The college experience can help students grapple with how to reconcile the
personnel and the professional and how to create a good life10. A holistic view of student
learning and development that helps students integrate experiences in and out of the classroom
as well as inner and outer life experiences is key to helping students develop purpose and
meaning11. A holistic and integrated approach to development that recognizes the mutually
reinforcing nature of cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal development. For students to
grow cognitively and to integrate knowledge in a way that reflects learning, they also need to
grow interpersonally by considering themselves as part of a larger whole and intrapersonally by
establishing a belief system that acts as a filter, guiding choices and experiences12.
2.5 Student Involvement Theory
Significant research has been conducted regarding the involvement of students in Co-Curricular
activities (CCAs) in correlation to success in college. In particular, student involvement theory
links the amount of time and energy a student spends on the collegiate experience to
persistence13. The more involved college students are in the academic and social aspects of
campus life, the more they benefit in terms of learning and personal development 14. The
students who devote much more time and effort to academic pursuits tend to become isolated
from their peers, therefore showing below average changes in personalities and behaviors15.
Besides, through interactions in the social and academic realms, students either reaffirm or reevaluate their initial goals and commitments16. Students who lack sufficient interaction with
others on campus or have negative experiences may decide to depart the university as a result of
this re-evaluation. A primary concern is the amount of time spent on out-of-class activities and
the effect it has on academics. Some faculty members believe spending too much time on cocurricular activities means students do not spend the required time needed to study and
complete homework. However, based on previous study found a positive relationship between
academic and co-curricular involvement. Therefore, when involvement in co-curricular activities
increases, there is a corresponding increase in academic involvement. Some of these cocurricular involvements included participation in campus-wide activities, departmental
WoCTVET 2014 | 15
activities, and student clubs, serving on committees, and designing activities for clubs or
departments.
3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
There are numerous benefits of participation in co-curricular activities yet there are views that
students participation in co-curricular activities (CCAs) is a waste of time and that students
should invest their time and efforts in pursuing the core curriculum. The present study sought to
establish learners views on the significance of their participation in CCAs in developing Holistic
Students Development (HSD).
4. DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF HOLISTIC
To think holistically means to attend to the whole person by addressing issues affecting the
mind, the body, and the spirit. While educational provider always provided a great deal of
attention to the mind and most now operate recreation and health facilities to attend the needs
of the body, the spirit often receives little or no attention on campus17.
2.6 Intellectual
A primary concern is the amount of time spent on out-of-class activities and the effect it has on
academics. Previous research study found that spending too much time on CCAs means students
do not spend the required time needed to study and complete homework. However recent
research study found a positive relationship between academic and co-curricular involvement 18.
Therefore, when involvement in CCAs increases, there is a corresponding increase in academic
involvement.
2.7 Emotional
CCAs helps students gain new knowledge and skills as well as educating them against developing
unhealthy activities during their leisure time19. Prior research has highlighted that CCAs help
students reduced academic stress and tension, helping students become more alert and
productive in their learning20. Another research regarding CCAs was clearly found that the
students who was participated in CCAs was knowledgeable and skill in managing stress, thus the
body activates can cause decreasing stress and depression21.
2.8 Spiritual
Spiritual development through CCAs can reveal the person self-confidence to feel and think
success and turn person mind to final victory so it leads to think positive in any decision he
makes22.
2.9 Physical
In the process of holistic student development, positive attitudes, fun and healthy lifestyle must
be well planned by the education providers and also students themselves 23.Physical movement
is good for changing person mood and attitudes besides having a healthy body24.
WoCTVET 2014 | 16
2.10
Social
CCAs has long held intuitive appeal as an element in well-rounded college education. In social
life, the interpersonal skill are very needed as particularly with an increased corporate interest
in interpersonal skills25. Previous studies reveal that students involvement CCAs has become an
students26.
Figure 1 : Conceptual Framework (Huitt, 1995) 27

5. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
Survey based methodology was used to underlying philosophy guiding this study and
methodological triangulation as the paradigm in collecting the data. Methodological
triangulation is the type of triangulation that has been widely used in social sciences.
Methodological triangulation as the use of both qualitative and quantitative data collection
methods and analysis in studying the same phenomenon. This approach was well suited to
design of this study because this study use more than one methods in collecting the data which
is quantitative (questionnaire) and qualitative (interview) 24. For completeness purposes,
researchers use this triangulation method to increase their in-depth and understanding of the
phenomenon under investigation by combining multiple methods and theories25.
In addition to unexplored research phenomenon, triangulation for completeness purposes is of
significant in studying the complex research phenomenon25. Thus, a researcher can start by
employing the within-methods in the qualitative paradigm to generate more rich data and
getting wider understanding of the phenomenon under study. After rich data is being generated
by qualitative research method, then a researcher has to employ the quantitative research
methods in the form of data collection methods and analysis towards having deeper and more
comprehensive picture of the phenomenon under investigation26.
This study seeks to explore the concept of holistic students development (HSD) through cocurricular activities (CCAs) based on five aspects which is intellectual, emotional, spiritual,
physical and social. Therefore, this study was undertaken to fulfill below objectives as a guide to
the study:
To investigate the dominant factors that contribute to holistic students development (HSD)
through co-curricular activities (CCAs) in polytechnics.
WoCTVET 2014 | 17
To identify the effects of holistic students development (HSD) through co-curricular activities
(CCAs) in polytechnics.
To determine the relationship between the dominant factors that contribute to holistic students
development (HSD) with the effects of holistic students development (HSD) through cocurricular activities (CCAs) in polytechnics.
To propose a model of holistic students development (HSD) through co-curricular activities
(CCAs).
2.11
Population and Sample
Randomization of samples can be achieved in two levels27. In the first level, a randomization is
achieved through the selection of subjects from a homogeneous population. In the second level,
randomization is achieved by the allocation of subjects into different level of treatment. In this
study the first requirement of randomization was achieved in the two stages of a cluster
sampling technique. The first stage was the selection of the polytechnics, followed by selection of
classes.
The three institutions chosen are Politeknik Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah in Shah Alam
(Selangor), Politeknik Ungku Omar in Ipoh (Perak) and Politeknik Johor Baru (Johor). To ensure
that quality is upheld, the premier polytechnics will be benchmarked against renowned
technical institutions in order to carried out this study as this three polytechnics involve in
Critical Agenda Project (CAP) of National Higher Education
Based on the Department of Polytechnic Education Malaysia (2013) estimated the number of
engineering students (civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering) in
the polytechnic diploma reach 2362 students. Based on the sample size table Krejcie and Morgan
(1976), the total sample for this study are 335 students.
2.12
Scope / Limitation of Study
The limitations of this study are:

Only polytechnic premier involved (Politeknik Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah in Shah Alam
(Selangor), Politeknik Ungku Omar in Ipoh (Perak) and Politeknik Johor Baru (Johor).
Only co-curricular credit program involved (240 hours).
Only diploma engineering students involved (civil engineering, electrical engineering, and
mechanical engineering).
2.13
Instrument
First, the study employed a semi-structured questionnaire to collect quantitative data and
comments by participants on the open-ended questions on the questionnaire provided
qualitative data. Comments on responses provided a rich layer of information which could not
be gathered through a highly structured questionnaire. Second, semi-structured interview were
used to collect variety of data, which is essential and allows for an in-depth understanding of
social phenomena studied.
WoCTVET 2014 | 18
2.14
Reliability and Validity
The main statistical measure to determine reliability of the questionnaire was the use of
Chronbachs alpha coefficient. A pilot study was used to ensure validity of the questionnaire.
2.15
Data Analysis
Data collected was coded and analysed through a blend of both descriptive and inferential
statistics. Quantitative data were analysed with the aid of the SPSS statistical software package
version 21 and presented through a blend of both descriptive and inferential statistics.
Qualitative data were analysed using content analysis method and presented through verbatim
quotations of the respondents.
6. CONCLUSION
Based on this study, researchers hopes that students involvement in co-curricular activities
(CCAs) will positively develop a holistic students development of students personality in order
to produce well-balanced graduates or human capital as well as beneficial as it had ripple effects
on academic achievement through its impartation of skills and values necessary in students
academic pursuits.
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WoCTVET 2014 | 21
Youth Workers with Disabilities: The Views of Employers in

Malaysia
Anizam Mohamed Yusof1*, Manisah Mohd Ali 2, Amla Mohd Salleh3
1Fakulti Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
2,3Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
*aniza@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
One barrier for people with disabilities to obtain employment is negative perceptions of
employers. As a result, many disabled people are underemployed. However, a small fraction of
employers is willing to hire youth with disabilities. This paper presents the views of employers
who hire youth workers with disabilities from vocational secondary schools leavers in Malaysia.
Semi structured interviews that lasted for one and a half hours were conducted with three
employers from service industries. Keywords or phrases were extracted, clustered, and
interpreted into themes. The analysed data were confirmed with the participants to ensure
trustworthiness and reliability. The findings showed that the employers did recognize youth with
disabilities as workers. The views of employers against workers were focused on the strengths
and weaknesses in terms of personality and employee skills. The s trengths of youth workers with
disabilities in personality are hardworking, responsible, compliant, honest, and social ability. However,
youth workers with disabilities have low self-confident, and are very sensitive, and easily influenced by
negative elements. The employers realized that the youth workers with disabilities did master
the basic work skills that fulfilled the employers' needs. Nevertheless, they needed monitoring
while working and repeated learning process if new training was given to them. The findings
reported here were based on a pilot study of a larger research project. This study provided a
conceptual framework of the findings. This pioneer study is expected to provide significant
contribution in employment implications to youth with disabilities, and to reduce negative
perceptions among employers in Malaysia.
Keywords: Youth with Disabilities; Employer; Vocational
1. INTRODUCTION
The promotion of employment of people with disabilities has long been an important policy
objective in Malaysia. Besides, since the declaration of the International Year of Disabled Persons
in 1980 and the launch of the World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Person sin 1982,
the Malaysian government has opened up space for people with disabilities to improve their
quality of life by introducing arrange of policies and programmes based on the propaganda
Welfare Responsibility". The Labour Department in the Peninsular Malaysia also has
contributed services to people with disabilities. This department handles the registrations and
job placements for people with disabilities in the public and private sectors.
The Malaysian government has shown commitment in increasing employment scale for people
with disabilities. One percent of the enrolment quota allocation to people with disabilities in the
public service has been gazetted in the Service Circular since 1988. While in the private sector,
the employment practices code for the disabled was established in 1990bytheCommittee on the
Promotion of Employment of Disabled Person sunder the Labour Department, Ministry of
Human Resources. It is a guideline to government agencies, employers, organizations,
WoCTVET 2014
employees, trade unions, and organizations of persons with disabilities for registrations and
placements work in the private sector [1].
Besides, the Social Welfare Department under the Ministry of Women, Family, and Community
Development also contributes in providing registrations and placements of special needs into
the working world. Since 2006, the department has worked with the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) in introducing a job coach to help improve the placement of special
needs in the job market. Job coach is the intermediary between an individual with special needs
and an employer who seeks to adapt to the environment, the scope of work, and to identify their
ability to be able to work comfortably and productively. In addition, the department provides an
allowance ofRM300todisabled workers who earn less thanRM1, 200, andRM2, 700.00 launching
grantis provided for individuals with disabilities who want to work in the field of enterprise and
small business [2]. The opportunities provided by the government show a caring attitude and
commitment of the government in providing jobs to guarantee a better quality of life for people
with disabilities.
Besides that, people with disabilities should be educated in preparation for them to become the
work force. The Malaysian government has made the formal education at least six years at
primary level a mandatory for people with disabilities [3]. This education programme is
compulsory for people with disabilities, especially to potential youth with disabilities, as it is the
commitment of the government to ensure that they have the opportunity to acquire skills
related to academic, computer, social, life, and vocational practises [4]. This educational
programme provides youth with disabilities to become independent and to join the work force.
Additionally, youth with disabilities are not excluded from the populations in preparation for the
workforce, as the government has been providing technical vocational education and training to
them. Studies show that vocational education has helped youth with disabilities in gaining skills
and has served as preparation for them to compete in the job market [5] [6] [7]. This is
consistent with the objectives and functions of vocational education for the disabled to apply the
skills that would give them the opportunity to obtain employment to live independently [8].
Thus, youth with special needs can acquire and develop the skills to overcome life challenges
and to be able to change them to be productive individuals.
Moreover, technical vocational education and training curriculum meets the requirements of a
more flexible, focused, attractive, and appropriate to the capability and abilities of youth with
disabilities in acquiring a skill [9]. Therefore, technical vocational education and training is a
basic training to a suitable employment, especially for youth with disabilities. Hence, with
technical vocational education and training, youth with disabilities have the opportunity to
utilise the skills gained either to get a job or to use the skills to engage in business and
entrepreneurship.
Besides, consistent with the purpose of technical vocational education and training, the Ministry
of Education has set up three special vocational schools for youth with disabilities.
Establishment of schools is intended to help develop their ability in psychomotor, cognitive,
ability to work, and life skills. Capabilities are essential to ensure that youth with disabilities
have the skills to successfully manage life [10]. A successful life to youth with disabilities is being
able to expand their efforts in preparing for the working world.
Although there are measures and efforts taken by the government to provide youth with
disabilities working skills, the success rate is still low. This is because, youth with disabilities still
WoCTVET 2014 | 23
face under employment issues [11] [12]. In fact, youth with disabilities who have completed
their education at the secondary and the higher levels still face unemployment [11][13]. Though
people with disabilities have prepared themselves to enter the workforce, they still experience
many barriers in obtaining and retaining jobs [14]. One of the main barriers for people with
disabilities to get jobs is the negative perceptions and attitudes of the employers [3]
[15].Moreover, the negative perceptions are due to lack of knowledge and understanding of
people with disabilities [16]. This situation has led to discrimination towards people with
disabilities indirectly.
Furthermore, negative perceptions of employers and the public against persons with disabilities
have an impact on employment opportunities for youth with disabilities. Moreover, youth who
are still energetic and very excited to get experiences in the real working world experience
inferiority if not given the chance. Studies show that individuals with disabilities have the talent
and can contribute to work productivity [17]. In fact, individuals with disabilities can contribute
to national development and the tax payers if employment opportunities are given to them [3].
Persons with disabilities can perform and be productive as other typical workers if given the
opportunity [18].Community, especially employers, should provide employment opportunities
for people with disabilities so that they also can contribute in enhancing the country's economic.
According to [16], employers are sceptical of the capabilities and the competencies, which they
perceive to be very limited. However, this perception is not unfounded, as many youth with
disabilities in Malaysia are equipped with the necessary skills for them to work through the
technical vocational education and training provided by the government and private sectors.
Nevertheless, a small number of employers are willing to hire youth with disabilities.
Therefore, this study was conducted to explore the views of employers who hired youth workers
with disabilities. Three research questions were formulated to guide the investigation:
What drives employers to hire youth workers with disabilities?
What are the views of employers against youth workers with disabilities?
What are the employers suggestions to those who have intention to hire youth with disabilities
as workers?
2. METHODOLOGY
This case study employed a qualitative method to achieve its research purposes. This method is
based on the collection and analysis of non-numerical data, such as interviews and transcripts,
to obtain understanding of a particular issue. This approach allowed the researchers to gather
rich and in-depth perspectives that could not be gathered through quantitative methods, such as
questionnaires survey, particularly, when it comes to understanding the perspective of a
participant. Furthermore, interviewing techniques can generate detailed data that leave the
participants views intact and provide a context through which to understand the issue.
A semi structured interview format was designed to elicit information on employers
perspectives on hiring youth with disabilities. This design allowed the researchers to obtain
relevant information, and at the same time, encouraged the participants to freely express their
opinions. An interview protocol was employed to guide the interview sessions, and subsequent
questions were formed based on the participants responses. With this flexibility, the
WoCTVET 2014 | 24
researchers managed to gather unexpected significant information, as well as answers for

predetermined questions.
The study participants consisted of three employers who hired youth with disabilities who were
secondary vocational schools leavers. The criteria for the employers in this study helped the
researchers acquire youth workers with different kinds of disabilities and service industries.
Purposive sampling techniques were employed in selecting the participants in this study. In
order to identify these participants, a snowball approach was used by the researchers, by using
information from the employers and the former students.
The participants were interviewed during face-to-face meetings, which were held at their
industry areas. Prior arrangements were made with each participant to conduct the interviews
during their free time to avoid interruption to their normal schedule. The interview session was
conducted by the researcher after obtaining consent from the participants. The interview
sessions were conducted in Malay language.
The researcher initiated the interview sessions by explaining the purpose of the study to the
participants. The respondents were also informed about the confidentiality of their responses
before the researcher proceeded with general questions on the participants background. This
was followed by predetermined questions, which were structured based on the three research
questions. The length of the sessions was one and a half hours. All the participants were able to
express their views without much prompting. Each interview was transcribed verbatim and was
categorized according to the answers to the research questions.
As for validity and reliability, the researchers carried out members checking, by allowing the
participants to have a look at the data and their interpretations. This meant that the analysed
data were confirmed by the participants for trustworthiness. In addition, the researchers also
did peers checking, by requesting reviews and comments from colleagues pertaining to the
findings. The review process was carried out from time to time. Members checking and peers
examining are strategies to enhance the validity and the reliability in a qualitative research [18].
Next, each interview was transcribed in verbatim and was categorized according to answers to
the research questions. Verbatim and codes in Malay were translated into English. The data were
analysed using the typology approach, whereby keywords or phrases were extracted, clustered,
and interpreted into themes. The data analysis in this study involved five main steps: 1)
developing and coding domains or topic areas, 2) constructing core ideas from the coded data, 3)
examining the data for confirmatory, 4) charting the results, and 5) writing a narrative
summary. At last is software version 7.0was utilised to aid in managing the data.
3. RESULTS
In this study, the researchers used pseudonyms in place of the participants real names to ensure
the respondents confidentiality and anonymity.
Case 1
Mrs. Liya is the head of human resources at one of the three star hotels in Johor Bahru. She has
been also one of the preopening staff and has served more than three years at that hotel. Mrs.
Liya is responsible for obtaining staff for the hotel. In a quest to search for new staff, she was
informed by her senior sales manager staff about a vocational secondary school that educates
WoCTVET 2014 | 25
youth with disabilities. Mrs. Liya thinks that it is a good idea because she loves to give a chance
to people who really want to work. She also understands that youth with disabilities have been
given job skills while they are at school. This information has made her more excited to provide
employment opportunities to youth with disabilities to help them apply the skills they have
learned. Mrs. Liya said,
... for me they are a human, and they really have the effort. If they are willing to work hard, why
not we give them a job here, help us with their skills, and I help them to fill up their pockets.
As a civilian, Mrs. Liya only knows people with disabilities are people with physical or sensory
disability only. She claims that people with disabilities are very few. However, she has received
some exposure when she went to the vocational secondary school to offer employment
opportunities. After that, Mrs. Liya knows better on the different types of disabilities.
Mrs. Liya has heard of a statement that hiring disabled workers would be troublesome for the
employer, but she has the opposite experience. Her views on youth workers with disabilities are:
"They are hardworking, honest, and obedient to the rules, follow the procedures, punctual,
obedient, and follow the law. However, their acceptance towards certain matters is a bit slow,
but we can polish that... it is similar to teaching our child to walk...a little tiring because we have
to keep on repeating, but they would do as told within along period. Actually they are very
smart. Another thing is, they are easily influenced by negative elements...it is one of their
weaknesses. Nevertheless, they are very good in mastering basic work skills that meet my needs
as an employer.
Mrs. Liya is also aware that youth workers with disabilities have low self-confidence. Therefore,
she always motivates them. She asserts,
My expectation is not high, but if you tell me you are disabled, I do not agree. As for me, you are
just like a normal person, I do not see any deficiency, so throw the disabled title, but be an
ordinary person. Thank God, I can see them happy here. They can follow the trends... I see the
difference from the beginning when they have started working, and now I can see them goingto
the gym, following the fitness class, joining the soccer team. It is nice because they can mix with
the ordinary people.
Mrs. Liyas response to employers who wish to hire youth with disabilities employed is,
If employers do not have the awareness or knowledge of the disabled, they will always have
high expectations. When employers have high expectations, they actually degrade this group of
people. However, if the employers are not disclosed and have the knowledge of the weaknesses
of the disabled, they will tolerate in the early stages. When you tolerate and motivate them, their
self-confidence and work performance would increase. If they do not have exposure about the
disabled people, there will be no compromise between the employers and the employees. All
employers want their workers to perform in their work to retain quality, so, employers would
normally exert pressure indirectly on the youth workers with disabilities, who actually want to
work, but lack of guidance or lack of observation. This happens because the employers lack the
knowledge, for example, myself, before this, I only know disabled people are those with physical
defects, but there are hearing disability, slow learners, and extreme emotions. Hence, employers
who lack the exposure or the knowledge about the disabled appearances, characteristics, and
the types of disabilities would not tolerate, and the two parties would have poor cooperation.
WoCTVET 2014 | 26
Case 2
Mrs. Julia is the head of the housekeeping department at a four star hotel near the airport in
Johore. She has worked in the hotel industry for twenty years. Mrs. Julia started from the bottom
as a room attendant, and then, gradually promoted to her current position. Previously, Mrs. Julia
served at a hotel in Kuala Lumpur, and then, she moved to Johore since three years ago. She has
54workers under her responsibility.
In contrary from Mrs. Liya, Mrs. Julia did not realize that she has a youth worker with learning
disability who has been working for more than a year. Furthermore, the worker never revealed
himself as a disabled, especially when he applied for the job.
Mrs. Julia only realized about this matter after she was informed by a vocational school teacher
who went to the hotel she worked in. Initially, Julia was surprised because she did not know that
the employee is disabled, but she was proud of his action for trying to be a normal person. Her
views about youth workers with disabilities are,
He is diligent and he never said this is not my work. He did his work well. He is hardworking,
never absent, and his attendance is very good. Every time I go to the laundry, he wishes me. He
is very humble; he is never rough, and very polite. He is polite to anyone he meets. The way he
speaks is very good. He has his responsibilities, and so far, he has never taken any medical
certificate throughout one year working here. However, he is a little hot temper, as he easily gets
angry. I will leave him alone if he is angry. If he wants to do the job, he would do it. He has
mastered the basic knowledge and skills about housekeeping, but needed monitoring at the
early stage.
As for Mrs. Julia, it is not necessary for employers to have exposure about disabled people.
Probably, she spoke based on her experienced, as she has been lucky to get a good youth worker
with disabilities.
Case 3
Mrs. Lin manages a reflexology massage business since three years ago. She was interested in
this business because she wanted to help people with disabilities to get an opportunity in
employment. Mrs. Lin has eight employees with visual impairments and a parttime normal
employee. One of her workers is a youth of vocational secondary school leavers.
When answering the questions about the views on a youth worker with disabilities, Mrs. Lin said
pleasingly,
As for me, he is an employee who has the complete package. He has mastered his work skills. He
can manage the store, including serving customers, looking after finances, taking care of the
store, and he always looks presentable. He is a favourite among customers because he has
specialty in massage skills. In addition, he is very honest. One more thing, he has never had a
vacation. Although he always comes late, he has never had a vacation. He is always the last
person to leave this shop. He has told me that he cannot come early because he has to handle his
family first. Besides, he has been working here for a long time.
Mrs. Lin stressed the following points to those who wish to hire youth with disabilities,
Employers need to create mutual understanding and tolerance between the workers and the employer.
Employers also have to be prepared mentally, to try to understand them, learn how to control their
WoCTVET 2014 | 27
own anger because they are very sensitive. All these come from the knowledge and the exposure about
people with disabilities. Anyway, thanks to God ... I was able to improve them slowly.
The findings of the semi structured interviews are discussed according to three research
questions: (1) the drives of employers had for hiring, (2) employers views towards youth
workers with disabilities, and (3) suggestions to those who have the intention to employ youth
with disabilities.
2.16
The Drives The Employers Had in Hiring Youth Workers with Disabilities
The desire to help and provide employment opportunities had been the drives in hiring youth
with disabilities, as expressed by all the employers, except Julia. These findings are similar to the
ones obtained from studies conducted by [19] on employers who employed workers with visual
impairment.
2.17
Employers Views Towards Youth Workers with Disabilities
The interview findings regarding the views among the employers about youth with disabilities
led to two themes: strengths and weaknesses of youth workers with disabilities. Each theme is
categorized into two sub-themes: personality and work skills. The strengths of youth workers
with disabilities are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: The Strengths of Youth Workers with Disabilities
Strengths
Sub Themes
Sub-sub themes
Hardworking
Responsible
Personality
Obedient
Honest
Social ability
Work Skills
Master the basic skills
Based on Table 1, all employers have opinion that youth workers with disabilities have the
strength on personality. The personality strength of youth workers with disabilities are
hardworking, responsible, obedient, honest and have the social ability. The employers also agree
that the basic occupation skills of youth workers with disabilities are well-versed.
Meanwhile, Table 2 shows the employers views on the weaknesses of youth workers with
disabilities. The weaknesses on personality of youth workers with disabilities are sensitive, low
self-confident and easily influenced by negative elements. While a youth worker with disabilities
proficient in job skills, but they need to be monitored while they are working. Many repetitions
should be given to youth workers with disabilities if new exposures to training or procedures
are given.
WoCTVET 2014 | 28
Table 2: The Weaknesses of Youth Workers with Disabilities

Weaknesses
Sub Themes
Sub-sub themes
Personality
Sensitive
Low self-confident
Easily influenced by
negative elements
Work Skills
have to monitor when

working
training should be
repeated
The findings indicated that the employers did recognize youth with disabilities as workers.
These findings are supported by [17][18][21], which state that individuals with special needs
have the talent and can contribute to work productivity.
2.18
Suggestions to those Who Have The Intention to Employ Youth with Disabilities
The suggestions to employers who have the intention to employ youth with disabilities are as
follows:
3.3.1 Disclosure of Youth with Disabilities
Employers should have knowledge and exposure regarding youth with disabilities. This
disclosure does not just help the employers to know them better, but it can create understanding
and cooperation between the two parties to set expectations for quality of work. This is
supported by [17], whereby lack of knowledge and understanding about disabled people may
cause the employers and the public to have bad perceptions. The result of bad perceptions is
employment opportunities for the disabled people would be scarce.
2.18.2
Consciousness Regarding The Roles of Employers
Employers who hire youth workers with disabilities should have the awareness that they have a
role to help them remain in employment. Tolerance is important, as there should be a mutual
understanding and cooperation between the two parties. In addition, the employer must provide
support, either in physical form or otherwise.
WoCTVET 2014 | 29
4. DISCUSSION
The views of employment for youth workers with disabilities in Malaysia were revealed through
qualitative data. The interviews with the participants produced a number of views regarding the
strength and weaknesses on youth worker with disabilities in order to give consciousness to
community especially employers to open opportunity offering occupation to youth with
disabilities. In addition, the study gathered views regarding the measures that should be taken
by employers to enhance the employment rate and subsequently maintain the employment of
youth with disabilities in the country (Figure 1).
Personality
Strengths Weaknesses
Youth with
Disabilities
Workers
Strengths Weaknesses
Work Skills
Opportunity
Support
Employers
Disclosure of youth
with disabilities
Consciousness
regarding roles of an
employer
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Findings
Findings show that youth with disabilities have strength and weaknesses on their personality
while work skills can be the factors that driver them to successful in employment. In Malaysia,
youth with disabilities could acquire work skills through the technical vocational education and
training system that is managed by the government and the NGOs in the country. Besides that,
through these system, youth with disabilities could get an opportunity to develop and
strengthen their personality so they can meet the workforce requirements of the industry
especially employers.
Interestingly, the participants also mentioned that disclosure of youth with disabilities and
consciousnesss regarding roles of an employer are important to open the employment access
and give support to them as workers. The employers disclosure of youth with disabilities can
eliminate the negative perception and underestimate their abilities. Moreover, the
consciousness of employers towards the role will help youth with disabilities to be workers.
Employers should play a role to ensure youth workers with disabilities comfortable, happy and
satisfaction with their work. This effort will encourage the positive environment for youth
workers with disabilities and indirectly, give space for them to show their good work
performance.
WoCTVET 2014 | 30
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study provided the true picture of the view of employers against youth workers with
disabilities based on their own experiences. It also revealed the strength of the youth workers
with disabilities, and they have their own weaknesses as human beings too. This study also
stressed on the true information about people with disabilities should reach to the community,
public, and the employers.
The findings retrieved from this study have implications on the employment of disabled youth,
and generally, for people with disabilities. The employment opportunities provided to youth
with disabilities can maximize their potential. The weaknesses of youth with disabilities should
not be used as an excuse for not providing jobs, but the employer has to play a role to improve
the compatibility between the employer and the disabled workers.
Knowledge and understanding of people with disabilities should be disclosed to the public so
that they too can get the right information. Tolerance and willing to accept are the needs to
create compatibility between the employer and the workers. If the employers eliminate the
negative perceptions, it can increase the employment of people with disabilities and lead to
better working relationships and productivity.
In summary, the issue of youth employment with disabilities can be overcome by increasing the
knowledge and awareness among employers and the community. They are capable to be good
workers, provided that they received support from their employers. Open minded employers
who accept that employees have their own strength and weaknesses encourage more job
opportunities for more disabled employees. The employer will then continue with kind of
attitude to support youth with disabilities in their work. In conclusion, youth with disabilities
can be good workers with sufficient support from the employers and the community.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper was funded by the Centre of Excellence for Technical and Vocational Education
(ACTiVE), Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
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Perspectives on Employability Skills of Employees with Disabilities. International Technical
HRD & 9th ASIAN Academic Society For Vocational Education And Training Conference on
23 & 24 October 2013.
20. Raj Narayan Sharma, Shobra Singh & A.T. Thressia Kutty. (2006) Employment Leads to
Independent Living and Self-Advocacy: A Comparative Study of Employed and Unemployed
Persons with Cognitive Disabilities. Asia Pacific Disability Rehabilitation Journal 17(1), pp.
50-60.
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The Profession/ Occupation Field Model as an Activity

Theoretical Instrument for Job and Career Development
GnterEssl
guenter.essl@technikum-wien.at
ABSTRACT
The planning and control of a job and career development related to trainees and young
technicians is indicated by three features at least: It is complex in the social context, dynamic
with regard to the time and contradictory for the different topics. The proactive diagnosis of
occupational developments has to meet these three challenges although the foresighted
consultation and support of technicians are not trivial. In the following contribution the design
of a occupation (profession) field model' is introduced. The author suggests a system-integrated
point of view which has the concept "occupation/profession field" used both analytically and
classifying. Three function modes being connected with each other are conceived on the basis of
an activity theoretical approach. The target audience of these skills for the balanced assessment
and consultation of developments in technical occupation fields embraces at least three relevant
groups of people: (1) Vocational teachers should be able to represent technical work processes
embedded in organizational, social and institutional conditions. Through this they can let future
occupational profiles flow into their didactic long-term objectives. (2) The trainees themselves
should be able to adapt their professional ideas to the complex and dynamic requirements of the
globalization. Through these they become neither passive nor naive professional addressees
since they also install contradictions meaning-orientedly in possible future scenarios. (3) The
education/training management opens its perception and gates for junctions to thick
institutional and social system partners to be able to guarantee the education of their trainees in
different system contexts. The presented model is explained at the example of the Smart City
approach (focused at the interfaces of energy and mobility) which helps for the worldwide
putting through of an ecologically and economically acceptable lifestyle in the metropolises of
the 21st century.
Keywords: Occupation/Profession Field Model; Activity Theory; Education/Training Management;
Job and Career Development; Technicians; Classification; Smart City Approach
1. TOPIC GROUNDS
2.1 Description of The Smart City Approach
The following socio-economic-environmental shift is predicted at the information base of large,
worldwide operating organizations such as[1]:
By 2050, 86% of the world population will live in cities: more than 50% of the global population
lives in a city today, raising to expected 86% in 2050; between 2011 and 2050 the urban areas of
the world are expected to absorb all the population growth expected over the four decades and
the migration from rural areas to cities.
Cities contribute the most to GDP:already in the year 200750% of global GDP came from 380
cities in developed-regions; when population of a city doubles, wages and patents per capita
raise 15% on average; by 2025, 136 new cities are expected to enter the top 600; by 2025 there
will be 37 megacities with a population above 10 million people.
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Cities consume the most resources:growing urban populations are using constrained financial
and natural resources; when population of a city doubles, traffic rates per capita raise 15% on
average; cities represent three quarters of energy consumption and 80% of CO2emissions
worldwide, and represent the largest of any environmental policy challenge;
deployingtechnologiessuchaselectricitygrids,transportation,logistics,buildingmanagementandin
dustrialareascouldsaveupto15percentofglobalemissionsin2020,and about $900 billion a year by
then in energy savings for the global industry; government affords a powerful and
transformational capacity to both extend access to existing services, and expand the delivery of
new services - and to increase active citizen participation in government operations and
improving internal operations.
In connection with this, a number of sustainability models which in principle can be condensed
on three essential influence sizes was developed (see figure 1).Between these requirements the
balancing act shall not bring about (a) any discriminations for the different, particularly poorer
social groups; (b) governments must be got into the situation to be able to afford appropriate
infrastructures; (c) the ecological effects must not at selectively remain.
Having to derivedly approaches of Smart City satisfy the following criteria of this if these shall be
carried out with a high probability:
1. The fields of activity of a Smart City must be designed system integrated. A current paper
of the European Union from the year 2014 underlines the necessity that the concept
Smart City has a system integration particularly between the interfaces of Smart
Energy/Environment, Smart Mobility, Smart People, Smart Government, Smart Budget
connected with broadband communication[2].Building on it the Smart city components
should be established or intensified according to the sustainability structure and processrelated: This concerns primarily the human resources, then the most essential institutions
as well as the new technologies necessary for it. Special attention should be put on
technical infrastructures by data services according to the construction and the
interpretation.
2. The predominant part of the Smart city approaches voices in favor of an implementation
politics bottom-up. Together with the population participative approach guarantees the
motivated support of Smart City aims only one.
3. This is the reason why the population shall be appealed in detail in the context of gender
and diversity (social, religious, age etc.) management.
In the next chapter, at first an integral perspective of an occupation/profession field model shall
be outlined to be able to do justice to the complexity of the Smart City scenario just introduced.
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Fig. 1. Sustainability Triangle

2.2 Complete Perspective of The Profession/Occupation Field Model
The conception of the professional / occupational field [3]contains three mode levels which are
related to each other equally (see figure 2).This reference is produced by the following
movements which initiate self control moments by their contradictions:the moment (1) of nonidentity/ identity, (2) of difference /unity, (3) of possibility/ reality and finally (4) of
discontinuity/ continuity in space and time.In principle, it shall be expressed that a professional
field is exposed to historical contingencies like also continuities so that patternsof identity and
non-identity and of structural unity and difference arise which possibilities open but can close
again.
The central axis is taken by the activity in the mode of the meaning which is indicated by the
three features of cooperative subjectivity, object and mediating artefact.The action result arising
from this effect relationship is impregnated by a meaning-/ relevance aspect which findsitself
again in the name of the mode levels.Simultaneously, the result is not only result per se but a
value which accommodates both in the relevance mode of the societal added value and in the
relevance mode of the institutional value stability as a format by society as a whole.It shall be
expressed that a professional field arises from activity whose result thanks itself to the
transformation of an object treated with artefacts by a (cooperating) subject.The value specific
for this professional field receives its spatial-temporal stamp by processes of the added value
like the value stability.The common intersection can vary between the personal meaning of the
result value of the subjects working in the respective profession field with the relevance offers of
the societal added value and the institutional value stability - perhaps even completely include
himself as exclude (inclusion-/ exclusion moments).
The societal added value moves in the form of four regulation types:
The decision regulation points to the essential decision makers in a certain professional field.To
be thought has to protagonists equipped with power resources who query special control
responsibility for themselves.Ecological - economic processes which are reflected among others
in money form and property titles indicate an essential source of the societal added value.
The work regulations include the organization ways typical of a professional field e.g. in the form
of division of labour, management concepts, organizational and operational structures etc.
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The utilization regulations contain primarily market dependent productivity intentions which
force a permanent optimization for a favorable efficiency and effectiveness relationship.To be
thought has approximately to the quality and customer characteristics typical of a professional
field; but also to those adaptation and arrangement performances which have become necessary
for a professional working life in the context of vocational and further education
requirements.Furthermore utilization means upgradings and devaluations of work abilities
which can be observed among others at a labour market typical of this professional field.
The distribution regulations finally correspond with the value formation in the form of
properties and incomes.Performances of autonomy according to an enlarging possibility of
liberty of action (approximately according to a work ability enquired durably) and according to
a restrictive 'liberty' of everything (approximately according to a work ability released durably)
decide often here the real markedness of profession ethical and professional norm ideas.
This aspect already refers to the integral position of this occupational field model:The modes
specified less additively are defined as rather dialectical.In addition, profession ethical norm
ideas manifest themselves in institutional stabilities in the hope that a continuity is achieved by
professional identities and (political) interests.In turn this limits the possibility zone and serves
as drawing up of the border and standardization of norms to the outside like inside.The concept
mode shall therefore be translated as an operation and not as a phenomenon.
Institutions require the legitimacy to be able to define a satisfactory meaning supply like also a
meaning demand for vocational graduates of a certain professional field.The legitimacy areas
presented in the model stress primarily interests-, benefit-, education- and technology-oriented
justification complexes which are called decisive often as special in profession field-related
discourses.
It is definitely conceivable for a specific professional field that interests which presume
professional services by the right to exclusive knowledge to get or defend its monopoly on the
market are bundled and realized legally by a professional organization.An as high as possible
and consistent intersection could be reached between the subjective meaning mode of activity
and the relevance mode of the societal creation of value and make the mutual expectation
horizon of all institutions and subjects affected by it as practicable appear through this.
In principle the model described here should be understood as a hologram oscillating in itself,
which one only a very restricted strength can befit through the represented contradiction
moments.
Fig. 2. Occupation/ Profession Field Model

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2. MODE LEVELS IN DETAIL

2.3 Meaning Mode of Labour Activity
Fig. 3. Meaning Mode of Labour Activity

The activity theory makes alone the demand to itself to explain both subjective and social
connections and the multidimensionality of activity systems theoretically.A historical, genetic
and methodologically reconstructive pivotal role which shall contribute to a clarification of
learning and work activities in the subjective one like also in the organisational context befits
the societal function of the artefact use.
The following can activity theoretically be noticed (see Figure 3): (1) Human subjects acquire
world with the help of means (or artefacts or tools) and attain an active orientation only by this
usage according to a biographically process.(2) Human subjects therefore use artefacts between
themselves and the things or themselves and the relationships of this world, through what
certain parts of world are made humanly valuable and therefore acquisition
centeredobjects.World then becomes the historically pre-arranged environment according to a
thus perceptible life world be taken for true. (3) The concept 'mediating' signals functional
dimensions at three:An (a) artefact designed culturally as a means of the concrete world
appropriation can do this only through this if (b) subjects present these artefacts as concrete
world entrances by interaction in (c) practice coping application contexts intentionally and this
discloses itself for the respectively other subjects than helpful to the mastering of its action
requirements. (4) Artefact does not mean only material tool here but remedy for problem
solutions in the comprehensive meaning.Language gets "tool" special relevance as semantic and
by the cognitiveto Vygotskij. (5) Vygotskij[4] describes language as the artefact arisen culturally
as such and all broader intellectual abilities than results of a process of the
interiorisation:Intellectual tools are therefore made from subjective internalization
performances of original outside an individual accessible means. (6) These internalised
cognitive artefacts are then applied by the subject in turn, and materialize through this
linguistically, physically in an article etc. (7) Psychic functions therefore pass through a double
bow in form of an enculturization [5] - at first as interpsychic functions of social actions and in
the rest as intrapsychic functions according to individual actions. (8) Vygotskij's conceptuality of
the 'zone of the next development' indicates a particularly relevant learning phase in the human
orientation process in this respect [4],as which acquired till now artefact permits to handle a
pre-finding situation no longer independently.
Building on it Leont'jev[6] develops a concept which distinguishes the levels activity, action and
operation. The activity includes an essential meaning motive which is aligned with a certain
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object by practical action aims and executed concrete with the help of operative conditions (as
tools, models etc.).
The following conclusions can be derived from it in the meaning mode labour-/ activity: (1)
Activity goes beyond the definition of the action - for classification efforts in the area of
professional fields this means a systematic taking of global motives by society as a whole.
Elevations of professional fields then change of work process structures exclusively action and
operation-related into meaning-related work definitions; professional fields of the transport
technology e.g. transform into fields of the right to mobility and settled existence. Definitely a
vocational theory which pursues an intention which is forecasting no only but also a formal one
should exceed both action-related aims and operative efficiency and effectiveness criteria.
Furthermore meaning-oriented work activities must be connected network-likely to other
measures creating value and securing value: Primarily has to be thought with reference to
vocational education also at areas of the learning activities and esthetic, sensory game activities
(e.g. also in the form of experiments). (2) It has to be taken into account, that a subject unites
both individual and cooperative proportions in itself at the same time. Results lose her
innocence as bare outcomes in the context of the activity category, though. Activity results
therefore receive a subjective meaning as well as social and institutional value aspects at the
same time. The names of the other two function modes are therefore deduced from the two-fold
character of the activity result from (a) its subjective use meaning and from (b) its relevance for
the societal value creation and institutional value stability in the presented professional field
model. (3) Particularly material and immaterial problem solution artefacts have to be
standardized at their constituting effect in the development of occupation fields.Societal
processes of communication and cooperation mediated linguistically have to be defined on their
meaning formation potentials and at their meaning formation limits stated significantly for a
professional field.(4) Professional field typical processes of the internalization and
externalization have to be investigated and found out on learning activities for the attainment of
a 'zone of the next development' with reference to the expansion of meaning-oriented profession
field activities and the action goals related to it as well as the condition operations to be
optimized to on this in the context of (semi)autonomous subject or personality development
biographies. (5) This one finally can be analyzed for a professional field drift lifted up between
activity meaning been aware subjectively with the working persons and of socially predominant
relevance spectrum, and to be more precise up to the predefined work and business process
chains. Seem plausible in this respect to resume the discourse rope of profession and appeal and
therefore to support advisable, the two-fold character of professional tendency and suitability in
the context of the current staff management.
The following explanations to the individual mode levels of the occupation field model are
demonstrated at examples of Smart city (in the further SmC)aspects with the focus on the
interface Smart Energy (in the further SmE) and Smart Mobility (in the further SmM). Only the
logic of the introduced model shall be examined - and this at first only from the question point of
view of an education management with that.
An education management can therefore generate the following prospects in the area of job and
career development with look at the meaning mode of labour activity:
Object: System integrated implementation (bottom-up)/ Results
Why shall professional carriers of the energy and the traffic sector want to reach the object
"smartly"?
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What are the differences in the definition of the object 'Smart City' between SmE and
SmM e.g. with regard to opinion differences at motives/ action aims/ operative
conditions in?
Which common or different quality criterions are laid out by SmE and SmM at the
processing of this object?
How intensively do they actually let themselves in for a bottom-up implementation of
their products and services to the population?Which control intentions would not like 'to
lose' them respectively to achieve a system integrated roadmap?
Which normative guidelines do the interface partners follow at the realization of a
common implementation politics?
What is a 'normal' order of a 'smart' one different actually in? Which new core tasks arise
from it?
Subjectivity: Cooperative interface management
How do SmE and SmM take the historically marked possibilities of a mutual
cooperation?
Which range does SmM choose in cooperation with SmE at all? And which decision
mandates do they call in at other environmental systems like the state, the municipality,
the further market players, the civilian citizens in the field of approach towards the
demands of a roadmap?
Which previous historical, spatial development paths stamp the identities of SmE and
SmM with which consequences in the interface cooperation?E.g. what is this cooperation
type different from others therefore to cooperations between Smart Economy and Smart
Government in?
Mediating artefacts: Interface technologies/ methods/ models (competences)
Are which material and immaterial techniques (tools, models, methods, programs,
languages etc.) used for the solution of interface tasks between SmE and SmM in the
context of the respective activity motives/ action aims/ operative conditions (e.g. along
the value-added chain?
Are in the operative conditions provide which work processes between SmE and SmM
compatibly - e.g. of concult - design - integrate - deploy - maintain?
In which way do the used techniques shape the abilities, skills and competences of the
working persons operating at the interface from SmE & SmM - approximately in the
direction of hybrid professional fields (boundary between identity and non-identity of
the occupation carriers and organizations/institutions)?
Which special design options does it require at the techniques to be adequate for the
solution of interface tasks?
How do the used techniques characterize the perception of the interface tasks or the
subject of the interface?
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And finally: e.g. the extent of the difference between the subjective activity motive is how
large/ small at a occupation carrier of SmE/ SmM yes, I very much like to work for a
Smart City - and the social relevance of this motive in the public discourse?
2.4 Relevance Mode Societal Creation of Value
Fig. 4. Relevance Mode: Societal Creation of Value

A professional field model must be aimed at world whole in times of the internationalization. It
has therefore to devote itself to a complex reality determination if it liked to position a
subjective and cooperative professional behaviour in the cultural and knowledge based
complete discourse. The meaning horizon of social production and reproduction regulations has
it left openly only in such a way. For this reason (a) trans-subjective and (b) inter organisational
change or transformation levels must be provided by an occupational field model. Krysmanski
has underlined the influence of social conditions with its differentiation in property, utilization,
distribution and employee-employer relationship[7].The professional field model takes into
account this look by the fact that these relations are put into connection with the object
constitution and the result production of the meaning-oriented activity field. In addition, the
contradictory interactions of the social relationships with the subject positions and use of
artefacts move through this into the field of a scientific attention. Furthermore it might make
sense to talk of a framework about relations to consider the fact that quite different relations
seem synchronous into each other in a complete system:(1) The questions of ownership of
property refer to the "social function" of the work and aids tools, to arrangements of the
appropriation and instruction about the relevant manufacturing methods.(2)The utilization
conditions contain the "social function" of the subjects with regard to the regulation for the
value formation and using of conditions of usage (e.g. value questions of the ecology, labor,
competition, public spirit, technology).(3)The distribution relationships mean the "social
function" of the regulations assigned to the subjects for the distribution of the goods created in
the production process and services.(4)The work relations finally refer to the "social function" of
the subjects with regard to their language, cooperative and coordinating regulation for the
unfolding of creation of value by the work management. "Value" shows itself which one in this,
as a definition attempt of different stakeholders, which can refer to the stock value as a privately
available property title up to the value of a common community. In this object, also has to be
asked for the value base of professional field classifications: Whom does a preferential and as
worldwide as possible standardization attempt of professions and occupational fields serve and
which global value-added chain is supported particularly? And who is included, what excluded
in this meaning horizon?
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In the profession/ occupation field concept on hand two conceptualities are primarily defined in
the relevance mode of social creation of value as follows due to the previous observations (see
Figureure 4):(1) The category "regulation" seems more adequate than the concept 'framework
of relations' in the context of this model to underline the possibility area of alternative control
options through this. (2) With the term "decision regulations" instead of "property relations"
one shall be taken into account to the development that decoupling of product innovation and
manufacturing has taken place within the last fifteen years. Decisions are made after their
positions in global goods chains and less according to her immediate property title.
career development with look at the societal creation of values:
Decision regulations: Who has use of technical work and aids at his disposal? Who
decides on use of relevant and cognitive manufacturing methods at the realization of a
system integrated implementation policy at the interface of SmE & SmM? Which
different questions of ownership of property characterize the professional fields of
SmM and SmE? Which property variants are completely still missing?
Utilization regulations: Which historical and present utilization paths let themselves be
seen (a) at the arrangements for the pricing (b) at the external and internal work
intensity (c) at the technical productivity (d) at the assessment of conditions of usage
(ecology, labor, the competition, the public spirit, the technology)? Who prefers which
business model in view of investments and creation of value?
Distribution regulations: How is the distribution of the goods and services managed by
SmE and SmM carried out? Which fortune and income structures arise in a Smart City
with focus energy and mobility sector?
Work regulations: Which construction and workflow organizational efforts are made
to ensure linguistic, cooperative and coordinating regulations for the unfolding of the
intended value-added chain in the examined professional field of SmE and SmM? In
which way do new industry procedures play a role in the cooperation of SmE and
SmM? How is the management aware of the future vocational field in the SmCapproach? Where will shifting take place in the customer structures and customer
relations?
2.5 Relevance Modus: Institutional Value Stability
Fig. 5. Relevance Mode: Institutional value stability (with examples)

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The function of the value stability for professional fields consists that the maintenance and
further development of knowledge, performance, and even whole artefact systems is guaranteed
by an institutional grouping of interests. Moreover, 'institutionalization' draws one's attention
that professions are not embedded in the requests of public discourses alone by legal framework
conditions but also by habits and expectations provided to them. In the institutional
contradictions and conflicts the concepts are negotiated and further bequeathed to the next
generations as 'occupation constructs'- in the form of occupations, professions,
professionalization, jobs or skills depending on interpretation of the different national
traditions.
The term 'legitimacy' points at the circumstance that institutional facilities must be justified
particularly if they want to remain regulation authorities accepted too furthermore inside and to
the outside for certain purposes - and this also at infringements!
Some examples are listed exhaustive for relevant institutionalization processes (see Figureure
5).The size and the limits are established by professional communities in the area of the
legitimacy of interests. The scope of 'membership' - therefore of rights - decides thereupon
about social inclusion and exclusion. Questions being by professional concepts and by standards
of the occupational activity bundled here and queried in institutional and public discussions. The
place of legal legitimacy efforts and legal intentions also is here up to aims and wishes of the
professional reproduction of the key players organized in a professional organization
approximately. Performance legitimacy in which meaning, social need, manner of the creation of
value as well as quality and work context are justified can disclose itself in an activity field
covering approximately several individual professions. Professional field-specific rules and
forms of the cooperation and communication find here their result however also in the
education legitimacy in the form of definitions: How is competence to take and how innovation?
How is vocational training and further education organized and justified inside like to the
outside opposite whom due to particular professional constructs? And which instance alone the
legitimacy gives itself to say about it representatively of other members of this professional
field? Or which types of knowledge networks are available for particular occupational fields ?Are
they in planned, explicit manner, or are at first only available in the field of occupational
activities implicitly and rudimentarily? Are they perceptible for outsiders at all? Contents of the
technological legitimacy follow particularly in the idea of the 'agency' Rammert's explanations
[8], if it different description concepts and design formation concepts of socio-technical
constellations proven (embodied, embedded, multi-shared, hybrid open), and technique as an
agent neither as an only relevant artefact nor only as a symbolic scheme accepted.
career development with look at the institutional value stability:
Legitimacy of interests: Which statutory body, national or international professional
organization in the area of the Smart city approach define (a) the professional profiles
(b) the strategic orientation of the legally valid professional standards (c) the
profession political and legal measures?
Performance legitimacy: Which institution, organization etc. in the vocational field of
the Smart City also tries to get particularly (a) meaning, relevance, contents, outcomes
of the work activity (focused on SmE and SmM) (b) social need and use (c) the
manner of the creation of value (d) as well as the quality criterions?
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Education legitimacy: Which institution does its best in the system of the integral
cooperation of Smart city around the future development of abilities, skills,
competences in the (public, private, national, international) sectors (a) of vocational
and further education (b) of the national and international knowledge networks (c) of
innovation and (d) of rules and standards at the curricular control of the professional
education?
Technical/ technological legitimacy: Which institutions of the Smart City approach
justify the necessity of given technical settings for the sectors production, trade,
service? Institutions: public sector such as city, country, state/province, national,
international, education etc.; technology and domain of supplierssuch as ICT,
transportation, services etc.; planners and developerssuch as urban, planners, real
estate developers etc.; private investorssuch as development banks etc.; utilitiessuch as
electric, water & gas utilities etc.; individuals and communitiessuch as citizens, NGO's,
local associations etc.
3. CONCLUSIONS
The present and worldwide dynamics to changes of the professional fields of activity requires a
complex instrument of the diagnosis. With the model explained here an abstract frame was for
the first time created by professional fields for the analytical identification. It gets possible to
provide an educational basis for the inquiry of personnel developmental measures and
individual career consultations. Both the education management and the teacher and students
can profit from it because it permits a performance transfer at school in the direction of the
working world, and to be more precise in an integral (not reductive) and reflexive way.
Three function modes are distinguished which permit a distinction of professional fields
established and arising first. The central axis defines the meaning mode of work activities and
stamps the identity of the executing professional carriers in a special way. The social mode of the
creation of value establishes the particularly economic putting into action possibilities of this
activity while the institutional mode of the value stabilization is checking the legitimizing and
legal embedding and standardization of professional fields of activity.
The activity theoretical occupation/profession field model was illustrated at the example of the
so-called smart city approach. This example is excellently suitable for the testing of the
introduced model because it both represents a global solution concept for socio-ecological
challenges of the 21st century and lets expect the numerous emergences of new vocational
fields. With this profession scientific contribution a first step could be pioneered to let this one at
the reconnaissance of this new professional field get to essential facets clear.
At first secondary questions contain three thematic areas: (1) Self-control movements are of
special significance at the emergence, establishment and transformation of passed on and new
professional fields. Empirical analyses must clarify as prognoses of professional fields can be
made from first observable early forms of occupational activities: (a) at the vocational identities,
(b) at the distinction of profession fields and (c) at the potential unfolding of professional fields
of activity. (2) From such results both analytical and classifying attempts are derived to carry
out the incorporation into international professional classifications. Because also worldwide
adaptable personnel developmental measures and career consultations can be drawn up for
internationally operating professional carriers and their organization forms only in such a way.
WoCTVET 2014 | 43
(3) High attention must befit the compatibility of detected professional field typologies and the
educational operationalizations to complex, dynamic but nevertheless practically manageable
instruments of the human resources development and career advice.
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5. C. Klbl, A. R. Lurija, and A. N. Leontev, Die Psychologie der kulturhistorischen Schule:
Vygotskij, Lurija, Leont'ev. Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, op. 2006.
6. A. N. Leont'ev, Ttigkeit - Bewutsein - Persnlichkeit. Kln: Pahl-Rugenstein, 1982.
7. H. J. Krysmanski, Produktionsverhltnisse, in 1-4, Europische Enzyklopdie zu
Philosophie und Wissenschaften, H. J. Sandkhler, A. Regenbogen, and Istituto Italiano per
gli Studi Filosofici <Napoli>, Eds, Hamburg: Meiner, 1990, pp. 894906.
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WoCTVET 2014 | 44
Self-efficacy Perception of Oral Communication Ability

among English as a Second Language (ESL) Technical Students
Faridatul Mastura Mohamed Khatib 1*, Nooreiny Maarof2
1Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 2Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
1 fmasturakhatib@gmail.com, 2 nooreiny@ukm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The declining level of the English language proficiency among Malaysian graduates has caused
great concern among employers in Malaysia. Many studies have been conducted on self-efficacy
in second and foreign language settings; however there is a paucity of research on self-efficacy in
relation to speaking ability in the second language learning, especially among technical college
students in Malaysia. This study was conducted to investigate any difference in self-efficacy in
speaking English among 60 technical college ESL students based on two different semesters and
gender. Research was conducted using a questionnaire which was adapted from previous
research. The students perceived self-efficacy of speaking ability was measured on three
constructs: ability, activity perception and aspiration. In general, the findings showed that
female students and Semester 5 students possessed a high self-efficacy. Implications of the
findings in relation to theory and practice of self-efficacy and speaking proficiency are further
discussed.
Keywords: Self-Efficacy, Technical Students, Oral Communication, Speaking Ability
1. INTRODUCTION
Self-efficacy refers to a persons beliefs concerning his or her completion of a task and perceived
competency level in performing the task [1]. Self-efficacy is believed to play a key role in the
learning process by helping or hindering learners progress [2]. Bandura further proposes that a
persons attitudes, abilities, and cognitive skills comprise what is known as the self-system. This
system plays a major role in how we perceive situations and how we behave in response to
demanding situations. A persons belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation
forms an essential part in this self-system. Thus, self-efficacy can have an impact on everything
from psychological states to behaviour and motivation. This paper attempts to address the level
of self-efficacy in oral communication ability in relation of gender and semester among English
as Second Language (ESL) technical students.
1.1 Self-Efficacy in Second Language Learning
Self-efficacy has a great impact in academic settings. According to [3], the belief in self-efficacy
refers to the ability of a student in carrying out an academic task given at a specific level. Studies
on ESL learners self-efficacy and its relationship to English language achievement found that the
learners achievements corresponded to their perceptions of their own ability [4, 5]. Reference
[6] found that high self-efficacy pre-service teachers adopted more language learning strategies
than did low self-efficacy pre-service teachers.
Meanwhile in other language domains, [7] found that students who had high writing self-efficacy
beliefs spent more time on a writing task, were motivated in earning a good grade and to
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participate in writing tasks, were willing to try, and were more willing to take risks compared to
students with low self-efficacy beliefs. Students with a higher sense of writing self-efficacy also
demonstrated a greater degree of writing development than those with lower self-efficacy for
writing [8]. However, students who demonstrate poorer writing achievement possess lower selfefficacy than students who demonstrate higher writing achievement. In [7] longitudinal study,
students with lower self-efficacy exhibited more negative behaviours including a tendency to be
distracted more easily and to quit, task avoidance, rushing through a writing task or taking an
extended time to complete the task.
1.2 Self-Efficacy in Speaking
Speaking is a productive skill that challenges students capability to perform the task. The key in
communication is the ability to communicate or to speak to other people. Speaking is carried out
in a real-time which demands learners abilities to plan, process and produce the language. This
poses as a difficult task for students attempting to master speaking skills especially for ESL
learners.
Reference [9] conducted a study on self-efficacy and speaking ability of pre-university ESL
students at a private university. They found that the students had high levels of self-efficacy
regarding their ability to speak English. The study also revealed that students who are more
confident in their speaking ability performed better than those with low efficacy beliefs.In
another study conducted by [9] found that the t-test result on speaking self-efficacy level of
female students were significantly higher than male students in terms of ability and aspiration.
This finding on gender differences were similar to previous studies carried out on the
relationship between gender and self-efficacy.
Similarly, high efficacy students from the Faculty of Social Sciences at a local public university
were found to be actively involved and spoke more in the classroom. They seemed to be more
confident and tended to show a higher interest in performing speaking tasks.
A majority of technical and engineering fields in Malaysian institutions of higher learning are
often dominated by male students. As such it would be interesting to investigate whether there
is a difference in terms of confidence in speaking between male and female students. Reference
[10] found that female students exhibited higher self-efficacy in areas related to language. This
finding is also consistent with a study by [11] on gender and psychological factors in English
language learning. They found that female learners have a higher positive attitude towards the
language and a liking for it. This finding shows that even though engineering fields are
dominated by male students, when it comes to speaking ability in English, the female
engineering students seemed to be more confident than their male counterparts.
1.3 Communicative English in Technical College
The ability to speak in the English language is important in the engineering field. Studies suggest
that only 25% of long-term job success is based on technical knowledge whereas 75% makes up
soft skills [12]. For instance, at job interviews, candidates are assessed not only on their
technical knowledge, but also on their communication skills. Being confident and possessing the
ability to speak in English proficiently influences the perceptions of would-be employers and
gives the job-seeker a higher chance of being hired.
It is irrefutable that oral communication skills are essential for engineers who seek to carry out
professional practice. Previous research in the field of engineering showed that the English
WoCTVET 2014 | 46
language is of paramount importance in the academic and professional lives of engineering

students [13]. English is an essential tool in engineering education and therefore integrating
English into engineering, science and math courses are an effective way to improve the
performance of engineering students in oral and written communication. Engineering students
have been described as having low competency in the English language. Students face a lot of
difficulties in using the language and as a result of their poor performance in the English
language; many graduates are often unsuccessful in obtaining jobs for which they have applied.
Although students are required to use the English language in the classroom, many seemed to
lack interest in using the language.
This study focuses on engineering students ability to speak in English. The English syllabus
orientation in polytechnic education systems have been changed from English as Technical
Purposes (ETP) to Communicative English (CE) as a result of the polytechnic transformative
revamp action plan. It has been designed, in particular, to provide students with useful
expressions that can be used in a wide variety of social interactions and situations [14]. The
main course content for Communicative English prepares students for oral communication.
Other skills in CE modules are job-hunting skills, description of products and services and
processes and procedures, making enquiries and complaints. It is compulsory for students to
obtain a pass for the English language for it currently a required course. Grading is determined
by students accumulative marks of spoken and written assignments, quizzes and listening tasks
for the whole semester and which is then combined with their final standardized test marks.
Recent studies have shown that a majority of Malaysian graduates are not proficient in the
English language and this affects their job marketability [15]. The weak level of English language
proficiency among Malaysian students needs to be seriously addressed.
Several studies have been conducted especially in Asia on the concept of self-efficacy in
academic settings. In Malaysia, many studies have focused on correlation between learners selfefficacy and various variables, such as learners English achievement, motivation and teachers
efficacy, but few have focused on gender and level of study. In reviewing the literature, it seems
that although many studies have been conducted on self-efficacy in second and foreign language
learning settings, research on self-efficacy with regard to speaking ability in second language
learning, especially in Malaysia is still lacking. Besides that, it is also noted that most studies
examined the relationship between self-efficacy and performance in reading and listening skills,
few studies have investigated the relationship between self-efficacy and speaking performance.
This is probably because reading and listening are more easily to evaluate by objective tests and
in addition, the evaluation is easy to control for large populations [16].
Thus, it is important to examine self-efficacy beliefs in relation to speaking skills. The aim of this
study was to investigate technical college students self-efficacy in speaking English in relation to
gender and level of study.
2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1. To investigate any difference in self-efficacy in speaking English between male and
female students.
2. To investigate any difference in self-efficacy in speaking English between semester 1 and
semester 5 students.
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3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Two research questions will be discussed for the purpose of this research:
1. Is there any difference in self-efficacy in speaking English between male and female
students?
2. Is there any difference in self-efficacy in speaking English between semester 1 and
semester 5 students?
4. METHODOLOGY
4.1 Participants and Procedure
The participants of the study comprised 60 students from a Malaysian polytechnic college. They
were chosen through purposive sampling. A total of 30 male and 30 female students were
randomly chosen by semester (semester 1 and semester 5). The respondents completed the
survey questionnaire in class and were asked to indicate the extent to which they felt that each
item/statement described their own perception of their speaking ability.
4.2 Instruments
The data were collected using a 23-item 5 point Likert scale questionnaire designed by [17]
which was adapted from [18] and [19]. The questionnaire comprised four sections. Section A
contains demographic information of the respondents such as gender, level of education, age and
level of study. While Section B on group ability consisted of 14 items that focus on students
perception of their ability to speak in English. Items in this group measure attributes such as
ability to participate in discussions conducted fully in English, ability to communicate with
lecturers and international students and ability to speak in English with peers. Section C
measures grouped activity perception comprising 6 items which address students perceptions
on activity that require them to speak in English such as group discussion, role play and oral
presentations. The final part of the questionnaire, Section D, consisted of 3 items that measures
students aspiration with respect to speaking in English. Students responded to a 5-point
Likertscale ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree. The data were analyzed using
the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.
5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This section highlights the findings of the study. In this study, the mean score of 3.0 and below
represents high self-efficacy while a mean of 3.1 to 5.0 signifies low self-efficacy.
The first objective is on a comparison of self-efficacy between male and female students. Table 1
shows the mean score for male and female students on three dimensions: ability, attitude and
aspiration. It revealed that the students in the present study possess low self-efficacy beliefs on
all three dimensions. The results indicated that self-efficacy of female students (mean =3.37)
was significantly higher than male students (mean=3.8) in terms of ability.
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Table 1: Mean Scores for Male and Female Students by Self-Efficacy Domains.
Dimension
Ability
Attitude
Aspiration
Female
Mean
3.37
3.39
3.62
Male
Mean
3.80
3.45
3.76
This finding on gender differences is similar to a number of previous studies on the relationship
between gender and self-efficacy [10] found that female students exhibit higher self-efficacy in
areas related to language. In his study, students were asked to provide confidence judgment on
their academic skills and female students reported that they judged themselves to be better
writers than the boys. This finding is also consistent with a study by [9] where female students
showed higher self-efficacy levels compared to male students by ability dimension. This shows
that female students are more confident than male students in speaking in English.
Meanwhile, the findings showed that there were slight differences in term of attitude and
aspiration perception for both groups. This might be because the activities conducted such as
group discussion and role-play are part of their course assessment. Therefore, the students
found the activities relevant because these activities contribute some weight on their grades.
This study also compared two different groups of students: Semester 1 and Semester 5 students.
This comparison was done to find out whether the length of exposure to the English language
influenced students confidence to speak English. Table 2 shows the mean scores for ability,
attitude and aspiration for these two groups. The results showed that Semester 5 students
scored significantly higher than Semester 1 students for all three dimensions.
Table 2: Mean Scores for Semester 1 and Semester 5 Students in English Language Speaking SelfEfficacy.
Dimension
Ability
Attitude
Aspiration
Semester 1
Mean
3.56
3.63
3.90
Semester 5
Mean
3.00
3.16
3.40
This results are consistent with that of [17] study on pre-university students which showed that
they did have high level of self-efficacy in their speaking ability. This might be due to the fact that
Semester 5 students were just completing their industrial training. They are exposed to real
world communication in the workplace such as oral presentation and having conversations with
other workers. Therefore, through vicarious experiences, they have stronger self-efficacy beliefs
in speaking. Meanwhile, Semester 1 students took Communicative English 1 where they were
exposed to various types of communication skills such as making small talk and to get involved
in group discussions. They lack exposure to real-life jobs and to world communication as
compared to Semester 5 students.
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6. IMPLICATIONS
The findings of this present study yield several pedagogical implications for lecturers wishing to
produce confident speakers of English language. Increasing students self-efficacy might be
useful as it involves a complex interface of behaviours, cognitions and affect. According to [10], if
the lower levels of self-efficacy are identified among students, appropriate actions should be
done to help boost students self-efficacy levels through verbal persuasion and encouragement.
Persuasion is one of the four sources of self-efficacy listed by [3]. Therefore, it is important for
teachers to give positive feedback and encouragement to enhance students self-efficacy in oral
communication. Students who show low self-efficacy tend to struggle to complete a task. They
will find it hard to do which leads to frustration. Thus, having lectures and discussions in class
help them understand the task of working in a group.
In addition, students should be exposed to successful role models such as peers and lecturers.
According to [4], students will learn more by watching successful peer role modeling than
teacher role modeling because students can identify readily with their peers. Using their peers
as a role model will make them more comfortable. Therefore, students should be given chances
to observe their friends do task successfully as these will help learners to foster positive beliefs
about themselves [16].
Moreover, lecturers should be aware that all three elements: ability, activity perception and
aspiration must be taken into consideration in enhancing students self-efficacy level in speaking
English. These three elements can be integrated in teaching and assessing students.
It should be noted that as this study is a small scale research, therefore, it may be unfair to
provide generalizations regarding gender differences in self-efficacy and length of exposure to
the English language. Even so, it could be a good indication of perceived self-efficacy in speaking
English among technical students in Malaysian polytechnics. This study also adopted a
quantitative approach in order to collect data from a large quantity of population. It would be
desirable for future research to conduct a research using combination of quantitative and
qualitative method to get a more in-depth view on this topic. Further research to fill the gaps left
here would be a useful way forward.
7. CONCLUSION
In general, the findings indicate that all 60 students in the sample possess low self-efficacy belief
in all three construct, which means they have low confidence in their ability to communicate in
English. This showed that technical college students are still weak in mastering the English
language. Lack of proficiency in English language will make them less marketable for the job
market.
As language educators, we must realize the factors that would contribute to the perceived
speaking ability of these students and the reasons behind them so that they can be helped in
facing any problems in the future. By increasing students self-efficacy beliefs may help them to
achieve more in the English language learning process. It is hoped that the findings of this study
will help language educators with a better understanding in order to guide students to be better
speakers of the English language.
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REFERENCES
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4. Schunk, D. H., & Swartz, C. W. (1991). Goals and progress feedback: Effects on self-efficacy
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8. Kim, J. &Lorsbach, A. W. (2005). Writing self-efficacy in young children: Issues for the early
grade environment. Learning Environments Research, 8, 157-175.
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Entrepreneurial Skills Development Strategies through the

Mandatory Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme in
Nigeria
Usman, A. S.1*, Tasmin, R.2
1,2Faculty of Technology Management and Business, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
* sadiqusman2003@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Technical vocational education and training (TVET) plays an important role in shaping a nations
intellectual human capital. In todays world, TVET has undergone several transformations in
fulfilling its tasks to produce excellent, competitive and skillful human capital. The paper
identifies strategies to be used in enhancing skills-acquisition of undergraduate TVET students
through improved collaboration with industries in Nigeria. It reviewed two prominent forms of
technical cooperation that exist between HEIs and industries in Nigeria, vis-a-vis endowment of
chairs and other research positions to promote excellence and provision of Students Industrial
Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) positions to undergraduate students. This practice is
continuously yielding positive results within the mandate of Industrial Training Fund (ITF). The
current trend in TVET places much emphasis on entrepreneurship education to promote
creativity and poverty alleviation strategies that will generate job-creation avenues to Nigerias
teeming graduates. The paper discussed entrepreneurial education as an instrument per
excellent to unlock economic potentials of Nigerian citizens through innovative collaboration
with the industry. It advocated for a review of SIWES program to develop entrepreneurial skills
that contributes to an individuals personal development, increase his productivity and income
and facilitate participation in economic and social life. It was recommended that all hands should
be on deck to help our youths mitigate poverty by providing them with skills; entrepreneurial
attitude and knowledge to raise their output and generate income. This calls for continued
lifelong learning and training to enable continuous relevance to the world of work. In conclusion,
the authors stressed that the idea was to support practical acquisition of life skills, to make
employees more aware of the context of their work and better able to seize opportunities, and to
provide a foundation for entrepreneurs in setting up social or commercial activities.
Keywords: Human Capital; Poverty Reduction; Entrepreneurship; Technical And Vocational
Education; Self-Employment.
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the most difficult challenges facing the developing countries of the world is how to tackle
the challenge of poverty. Nigeria as nation, with a population of more than 160 million, is the
most populous country in sub-Saharan Africa that account for 52 per cent of West African
population. Poverty in Nigeria is a pervasive phenomenon especially in the rural areas which are
characterized by low level of income and acute deprivation[1]. Social and economic indicators at
the national level are poorer than standards recommended by global institutions like the United
Nations and the World Bank. No doubt, Technical vocational education and training (TVET)
plays an important role in shaping a nations intellectual human capital. In todays world, TVET
has undergone several transformations in fulfilling its tasks to produce excellent, competitive
and skilful human capital. Therefore, the need for well trained and skilled workers to meet the
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technological demands of the developing economy is more apparent now than before. In an
effort to enhance the acquisition of practical and applied skills, the Industrial Training Fund
(I.T.F) initiated the Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) in 1973. The
industrial scheme is aimed at helping students undergoing courses in engineering and
technology and other professional courses to acquire the necessary practical knowledge in
industry in addition to the theoretical knowledge gained in the classroom. However, that schoolindustry partnership which ought to be the bedrock of technical development and innovations
for the country has not been developed or established. Hungerford [2] observes that academic
institutions lay much emphasis on the theoretical training rather than practical applications of
the training. Secondly, industries do not care to participate in the educational programs due to
the fact that some industries do not realize the intimate relationship between productivity,
quality and education or training. It is therefore imperative to foster sustainable cooperation
with the industry for enhanced skills-acquisition.
2. TVET PROGRAM IN NIGERIA
2.1 From Class to the World of Work
TVET is a program that is designed to equip the industries with the technological manpower
needed to foster its socio-economic and technical functionality. Vocational/Technical schools
and industries should coexist as necessary partners. Specifically, TVET and industry should
work together to ensure that students are given the right guidance at the right time and that
curricula scopes, content and standards are relevant to the requirements of the employers. Such
joint efforts will go along way to bridge the gap between the ideal in the school and the reality in
the world of work. Technology and Vocational education is built up with a lot of practical
contents to enable learners acquire specific skills in various technical and engineering fields.
Clerk (1971), believes that school industry partnership will produce the right caliber of
engineers, scientists and technologists that will facilitate socio-economic development of
Nigeria. This makes TVET a capital intensive investment in human national development. The
economic, technological development and progress of any country are largely dependent on its
level of technological expertise. The wide economic gap between developing and developed
countries is traceable to their level of technological development[3]. This also signifies that, the
extent to which a country is developed will depend on the extent to which technological
education is encouraged and pursued. It also determines the quality of industrial work-force
which is a pre-requisite for economic and technological advancement and training worldwide.
2.2 Curriculum Relevance of TVET
TVET curriculum consists of the list of courses and activities for the trainers and the general
objectives of the program. Ogwo[4], refers to curriculum in technology education as the totality
of those experiences, knowledge, skills and activities systematically planned to educate the
students for gainful employment in any chosen occupation or cluster of occupations. This
connotes that the aim of technology education curriculum is to develop manipulative skills for
employment and or producing job makers and not job seekers. Products of our education
depend largely on the type of the curriculum of our institutions. Vocational education
curriculum should be developed based on the need of the society of which it is to serve.
Curriculum must be updated or reviewed in order to update knowledge, manipulate skills,
attitudes and values as well as match development in science and technology and their
application to stimulate a realistic work setting in the industry[5].What is apparent therefore is
WoCTVET 2014 | 54
that technology education curriculum should be geared towards development of specific skills
required for attainment of youth empowerment for self-reliance. Therefore, for the students to
attain expertise and self-sustenance, the curriculum of technology education needs to be
reviewed to meet the present and future challenges of the youth and national development. The
world of work, according to[6], has a very significant part to play and it must be the focus of the
competences needed to perform effectively. While as well provide effective work experience for
lecturers within educational institutions if their learning is to be relevant.
2.3 TVET Collaboration with the Industry
Before independence, education at all levels in Nigeria enjoyed an unquestionable social priority
because there was an urgent need to improve the literacy rate of the population. In recent years,
however, this situation has changed immensely. Nigeria has made considerable progress in
industrial development and institutions are now required to train not only the administrators,
but also vocational personnel, engineers and scientists to generate and sustain the countries
industrial growth. Quite recently, Science, Engineering and Technology education had begun to
advocate the partnership of institution training program with the activities in the fields of
industry. According to Ruth [7], school-industry collaboration represents a means to
contributing to quality training programs. The challenges to industry to succeed in an
increasingly competitive world market, is contingent upon skill personnel who learn, grow and
adapt to challenging market and techniques. There are six patterns of partnership between
industry and TVET: cross-training, co-operative work study, traditional, adult and continuing
education, shared facilities and consultant pattern.[8].Here, both institutions and industries and
the funding body (ITF) should work together for sustainable skill acquisition and economic
development.
3. SIWES PROGRAM
3.1 Overview of the SIWES Program
SIWES is planned supervised occupational experienced program involving practical activities
conducted outside the regular classroom and in a real industrial set-up. It is a skill development
program designed to expose and prepare students for real work in which they are likely to meet
in their selected courses after graduation from school. The scheme was introduced in Nigeria by
the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in 1973, to bridge the gap between theory and practice of
Engineering and Technology in Nigeria tertiary institutions of higher learning. It is the accepted
skills training program which forms part of the approved minimum academic standards in the
various degree programs in all the Nigerian Universities. It is an effort to bridge the gap existing
between theory and practice of engineering and technology, science, agriculture, medical,
management and other professional educational programs in Nigeria tertiary institutions. The
aim of the SIWES is to provide avenue for students to have industrial exposure in their own
disciplines during the course of their study. Such exposure will prepare them to fit more readily
into industrial work after their academic career. SIWES is designed to help and consolidate
school/industry collaboration of undergraduate students undergoing courses in Science,
Engineering and Technology and other professional courses to acquire necessary practical skills
in addition to theoretical knowledge gained in the classroom. It is a program that uses the work
environment to expose students to work methods and provide needed experience in handling
tools, machinery and equipment that may not be available in educational institutions.
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3.1 Entrepreneurial Skills in SIWES Program

SIWES is seen as a strategic instrument for industrialization and economic development because
of its potential to induce scientific and technological transformation within the economy. By and
large, entrepreneurial skills development potentials of SIWES program cannot be overestimated
being designed to prepare students of Polytechnics, Universities, Colleges of Technology and
Colleges of Education (Tech.) for the industrial work situation they are likely to meet after
graduation. A greater proportion of problems confronting technical/vocational education in
Nigeria today is rooted in the failure of technical and engineering institutions to impact
appropriate skills, knowledge and attitudes readily for gainful or self-employment of the
graduates. The role of SIWES in this regard is manifested in the context of the education policy,
curriculum design and development, as well as in forging the school-industry linkage vital for
labor market-driven skills development. For the scheme to achieve its full potentialities, the
curriculum design has to be repositioned towards training for entrepreneurship as part of its
priorities. The development of entrepreneurial attitudes should be seen as an essential
ingredient for its success. This will require a reward system to support innovative business
concept or idea in the course of education pursuits by the students.
3.2 Challenges Facing the SIWES Program
However, certain challenges are limiting against the development of these entrepreneurial
intentions and skills in the industry Amasa [9], observes that the SIWES program which was
designed to familiarize trained personnel with the world of works is fast degenerating into a
mere formality. The program has fallen short of expectations as a result of peer co-ordination
between industries and the training institutions. Hence, the need for the institution-industry
relation be repositioned, fused together, and be fully committed in the skill development
programs. These factors include:
Inadequate training of technicians, technologists due to inadequate training facilities;
Insufficient exposure to practical work, series of strikes and closure of schools, lack of
functional libraries, laboratory and workshops;
weak, dissipated and obsolete infrastructure, equipment and facilities due to poor
funding and corruption;
Inadequate information between schools and industries. Industry based supervisors are
often not involved in designing the training programs;
lack of proper support for research and development;
high cost of and apathy towards home-made goods;
unnecessary policy reviews and discontinuities between successive administrations, and
general bureaucratic bottlenecks;
Insufficient personnel motivation, commitment to duty, and patriotism. Supervisors are
not seriously committed and as a result student trainees are not assigned to challenging
jobs.
Lack of proper matching of individual set skills with the relevant fields needed by
industry.
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4. RECOMMENDATIONS
To enhance skill acquisition of TVET students the following recommendations should be
utilized:
TVET institutions should work out modalities for training and re-training in a way that
will benefit both the Institutions and Industries in Nigeria;
ITF and NBTE staff should pay regular visits to industries in order to supervise the
trainees on SIWES to industries;
An effective and efficient communication system should be established between the
TVET institutions and industries which would facilitate meaningful coordination of the
SIWES program;
ITF should perform need assessment on the part of the industries so that students
posting in done so as to balance the school-industry needs.
Effective involvement of the industry to achieve integrated work and learning.
Setup a database for potential TVET students and industrial companies for linking and
matching.
5. CONCLUSION
The current trend in TVET places much emphasis on entrepreneurship education to promote
creativity, innovation, self-employment and poverty alleviation strategies that will cushion the
scorching effects of unemployment by providing unlimited job-creation avenues to a multitude
of Nigerias teeming graduates. The paper discussed entrepreneurial education as an instrument
per excellence to unlock economic potentials of Nigerian citizens through the innovative
collaboration with the industry. The Federal Government of Nigeria initiated Industrial Training
Fund (ITF) policy under the enabling Decree 47 of 1971, to promote and encourage the
acquisition of skills in industry and commerce with a view of generating a pool of indigenous
trained manpower to meet the needs of the economy. Universities, Colleges of technology and
Polytechnic students should be trained to acquire more skills through industries to supplement
their theory and practice in institutions. Therefore, both institutions and industries and the
funding body (ITF) should work together for sustainable skill acquisition and economic
development.
REFERENCES
1. UNDP (2013). Human Development Report 2013, The Rise of the South: Human Progress in
a Diverse World Explanatory note on 2013 HDR Composite Indices Nigeria, Available at
http://hdrstats.undp.org/images/explanations/NGA.pdf.
2. Hungerford, C. R. (2000). Towards a new scenario for Universities business collaboration in
the education and training of employment. partnership for employee training: Implication
of Education and Industry. Dissertation Abstract International, vol. II (9), 2598.A.
3. Jen, S. U. (2004).Challenges of Polytechnic Education in Nigeria. Yola: Procter Publishers.
WoCTVET 2014 | 57
4. Ogwo, B. A. (2000). Industry-based supervisors training techniques in the students

industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) in nine states of Nigeria. Nigerian Vocational
Journal, vol. X, pp. 39-43.
5. Bappah, A. S. (2014). Repositioning technical and engineering education in the framework
of active security consciousness in Nigeria. E-Proceedings of the 2nd International
Conference on Social Sciences Research 2014 (ICSSR 2014), pp. 1-10 Available at
http://worldconferences.net/proceedings/icssr2014/toc/index.html
6. Curitiba , S. O. (1997). Towards a more effective manpower training and development in
the field of technical and technology education in Nigeria. Journal of Technical Education
Review, vol. II (2), pp. 430-439.
7. Ruth, G. L. (1999). Charting new courses for industry and education partnership. Journal of
Vocational/Technical Education Research, vol. 12 (3), pp. 27-34.
8. Greenburg. J. A and Maaji, A. S. (1999). Emerging pattern of cooperative arrangement.
Journal of Studies in Technical Career vol. 6 (4), pp. 250-256.
9. Amasa, G. D. (1996). School-industry partnership: A vehicle for social and economic
development in Nigeria. Journal of Nigeria Association of Teachers of Technology vol.2 (1),
pp. 31-42.
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Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) a Tool for Youths

Economic Empowerment
Hadi Mohammed1, Wan Azlinda Binti Wan Mohamed2*
1Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 hadimohammed41@gmail.com,2 azlinda@uthm.edu.my*.
ABSTRACT
The need for economic empowerment through Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) in
developing nations like Nigeria could not be overemphasised. Economic empowerment has
become necessary because of the complexities surrounding Nigerias economic, social and
political life which necessitated a form of education that will prepare the youths for gainful
employment. TVE will equip the youths with the skills, knowledge and competencies that are
relevant to present day techno-economic realities. This paper focussed on Technical and
Vocational Education (TVE) as a tool for economic empowerment. Its highlights how youths
benefitted from economic empowerment through Technical and Vocational Education (TVE),
Keywords: Technical and Vocational Education, Youths, Economic Empowerment
1. INTRODUCTION
The Nigerian National policy on Education (11) describes Technical and Vocational Education
(TVE) as aspect of education which leads to the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well
as basic scientific knowledge. Similarly, (16) defined Technical and Vocational Education as a
comprehensive term referring to those aspects of educational process in addition, to general
education, the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, and understanding and knowledge
relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life.
2. NIGERIAN POLICY ON TVET
2.1 TVET Policy Statement
The aims of Technical and vocational education as stated in paragraph 49 of the Nigerian
National Policy on Education (11) are as follows:
1. To provide trained manpower in applied science technology and commerce particularly
at sub-professional grades;
2. To provides technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural,
industrial, commercial, and economic development;
3. To provide people who can apply scientific knowledge to the improvement and solutions
of environmental problems for the use and convenience of man;
4. To give an introduction to professional studies in engineering and other technologies;
5. To give training and impart the necessary skills leading to production of craftsmen,
technicians and other skilled personnel who will be enterprising and self-reliant, and
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6. To enables our young men and women to have an intelligent understanding of the
increasing complexity of technology.
2.2 Mission of TVET in Nigeria
The mission of technical and vocational education is to promote the production of skilled,
technical and professional manpower in order to revitalize and sustained national economy,
reduce unemployment, and poverty.(14), technical and vocational education gives individuals
the skill to learn and become productive citizens and for advancement in the workplace.
3. POOR ATTITUDES TOWARDS TVET
Due to low recognition given to technical and vocational education by some parents who
prepare to send their children to read managerial courses has resulted to the fact that most of
the secondary school graduates and some of them who manage to pass through universities
lacks the skills, and knowledge to compete effectively in the rather tight labour market and thus
loiter around in the cities from dawn to dusk looking for jobs that are not available (2)
3.1 Needs of TVET for Youths in Nigeria
The youths are generally facing challenges due to the fact that their parents concerns more on
formal university education in managerial courses than skilled oriented courses which at the
end result in lacking technicians in various occupational trades.
The society lacks competent and skilled brick layers, carpenters, painters, auto-mechanics etc.
which the nations needs to function effectively and efficiently (9). TVE is considered as a
components part of lifelong learning as well as determinant of income and wealth distribution
by providing the youths with skills to become highly paid workers (7) Observed from the
excerpts of the federal bureau of statistics that Nigeria has a youths population of (80) million
representing 40 percent of the total population of the country. Sixty four (64) million of them are
unemployed while one million six hundred (1.6 million) are underemployed. This clearly shows
unemployment is a major problem bedevilling the Nigerian youths which contributed to the high
rate of economic crisis, poverty, social vices and insecurity. Poverty among the youths is a global
phenomenon, findings from (6) shows that the youths (47 percent) nearly make up half of the
world unemployed and similarly findings in 2008 that of the world 550 million working poor
who cannot lift themselves above US $1 per day are youths. (17), reported the global situation of
youths generally and Nigeria in particular as devastating. An overview of the global condition
of youths by the United Nations reveal that youths who form about a fifth of the worlds
population face adverse conditions of extreme inequality in terms of food, health, education,
unemployment and social security. They lives below puberty line and are torn abuse with sexual
immorality, smoking, street roaming, in search of non-existing jobs and alms giving all of which
could be blame due to insufficient economic empowerment.
Nigeria has a population of over 180 million and the human development index in 2002 ranked
Nigeria as 148th out of 173 poorest. The situation has reached an alarming stage as more than 45
percent of the Nigeria population leaves below poverty line, while 67 percent of the poor are
extremely poor. Similarly federal office of statistics (FOS) for the period of 1980-1998 indicates
that about 68 million Nigerians leave below poverty line of below $1 a day, this poverty and
WoCTVET 2014 | 60
unemployment in Nigeria among youths is associated with several factors such as lack of
employability skills, mismatch between the skills possessed by youths and available jobs.
This necessitate the needs for the youths to be empowered through vocational and technical
education which is considered relevant in equipping the youths with technical skills that will
enable them engage in productive lively hood. (17), defines youth as a a period of transition
from protection in child hood to self-determination in adulthood. It further sees youth as
comprising a series of transitions from adolescence to childhood, from dependence to
independence, and from being recipients of societies service to becoming contributors to
national economic ,political and cultural life
(4) define youth as comprises of all young person of age 18-23. (3) explain youth as synonymous
with adolescence, adding that in complex societies, there is no precise limit that is said to last
from the age of 12 -13 or 21- 22. This period could therefore be referred as a period of student
hood, embracing men and women who have just completed secondary schools education and
those in higher institution of learning.
Empowerment connotes enablement and entails making a person capable of acquiring the basic
things of life there by enhancing his / her status in the society. Narayan (10) describes
empowerment as the expansion of assets capabilities of poor people to participate in, negotiate
with, influence, control and hold accountable institutions that affect their life.
(8) Agrees that it is the opening up of individuals ability and capabilities to increase his
dependence and reduce vulnerability because with the empowerment the empowered will be
able to meet his needs in life. More so, whatever will increase the quality and standard of life of
individuals, group of people, community or Nation is empowerment. Empowerment reinforce
an individual to be more active by providing him with what he lacks hence all government and
non-government interventions be it economic, social, political and socio-cultural to improve the
youths or any group of people or even Nation is term as Empowerment.
Youth economic empowerment embraces strategies put in place to improve the potentialities
capacity of the youths. It requires the acquisition of skills, land and financial assistance and
expert advice (15). He maintained that economic empowerment is also aimed at averting ruralurban drift by creating employment and social amenities for the youths in rural areas.
Opines economic empowerment as some movement from an undesirable state of poverty
towards the desirable one of affluence. Economic empowerment suggests some corrective
measures to redress situation of economic imbalance in the society. Technical and Vocational
Education Could be used to correct this imbalance.
The Technical and Vocational Education training in different occupational areas equips the
youths with the needed skills for self-reliance and economic development. The acquired skills
enable the youths to be gainfully employed or self-employed there by providing income and
exonerating one from poverty (1)
3.2 How youths benefitted economic empowerment through TVET
There are a lot of benefits youths derived from economic empowerment through Technical and
Vocational Education; these are some of the benefits:
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Graduates of TVE acquired skills which make them employable by providing job opportunities to
themselves and others by setting up workshops in various trades such as motor vehicle
mechanics, carpentry and joinery workshops, electrical /electronic workshops, gsm repair
workshops, plumbing services workshops.
Graduate of TVE (vocational Agricultural education) became employed in food and diary
production, fish production
1. Graduate of TVE (vocational home economics education) became employed in fashion
design, child care services, food processing like baking, fruits drinks, and as hotel and
restaurant managers
2. Graduate of TVE (vocational business education) became employed as book keepers,
account clerks, clerks for office machine operating system such as photocopying, general
office duties, secretariat and related occupations
3. Provide the youths with, gainful employment through which improves their socio
economic status of the youths, by finding it easy to pay rent, transport and medical care.
3.3 Government efforts in enhancing youths economic empowerment
(12),Nigerian National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS) is a reform
agenda by Nigerian government modelled on the international monetary funds (IMF) for
poverty reduction and growth of facility to achieve some micro economic goals of stability,
poverty alleviation, and wealth and employment generation. Government established National
Directorate of Employment (NDE) to generate jobs and skills for youths under the following
units, Youths employment and vocational skills development programme which has the
following sub-divisions:(1) National open apprenticeship scheme aimed at providing youths with the basic skills and
knowledge needed in the economy, this is achieved by attaching them as apprentice to
industries and other professionals. Each participant has a monthly maintenance allowance while
training.
1. Disable person scheme by training the disable in an appropriate skill due to their
disability
2. Waste to wealth scheme by training the youths on how recycle waste product to
generate income/ wealth.
3. Schools on wheel scheme
4. Small scale industries and graduate employment programme
5. Job creation loan guarantee scheme
6. Agricultural sector employment programme: this programme has graduates farming
scheme, school leavers farming scheme, rural non-farm employment scheme
7. Special works programme intended to provide temporary employment to the
unemployed youths. The recruited workers are expected to carry out public works in all
the local government areas of the federation. Such public works include construction and
maintenance of roads, buildings and public infrastructures, tree planting, land clearing
and environmental sanitation
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8. Directorate of foods, roads and rural infrastructure charge with rural transformation
through opening of feeder roads
9. Family economic advancement policy established to aid opening of productive cottage
enterprises through loans and poverty eradication strategy program
4. CONCLUSION
Technical and Vocational Education is the type of education that equips the youths with the
needed skills to be economically empowered through gainful employment or self-employment.
To achieve this TVE has to be of acceptable standard in terms of funding, curriculum, improved
facilities and quality instructors. Therefore TVE is important for youth economic empowerment
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
The following were recommended to ensure proper delivery of TVE for effective youth economic
empowerment
Government should established more vocational training centres for the training of unemployed
youths and school drop outs
1. The existing technical colleges and skill acquisition centres should be well equipped with
modern facilities to replace the obsolete ones
2. .More budgetary allocation should be given to youths economic empowerment
programme in all the federation
3. More instructors, technologists/technicians, craftsmen and
women should be
employed to be proportionate with the number of trainees Government should partner
with non-governmental organisation to assist in funding, supervision, and coordination
of the programme
4. Local councils should be compelled to pay monthly stipend to trainees for them to be
train in the programme up to the end of the period
5. The youths should be reinforce with capital to set up their personal business
6. Entrepreneurial education leads to the development of small, medium and even large
scale business based on creativity and innovation. The success of this business in turn
helps in developing nations economy.
7. Certification should be awarded to the youths on completion of the programme.
REFERENCES
1. Ajewole-Orimogunje, C.O (2001). The role of technical and vocational Education in poverty
alleviation. Abuja press Kano, smith standard Nigeria ltd Association for business
education of Nigeria.
2. Dike, V. E.(2009) Addressing youths unemployment and poverty in Nigeria: A call for
action, not rhetoric, journal of Sustainable Development in Africa.
3. Wikipaedia http://en.wikipaedia.org
WoCTVET 2014 | 63
4. Federal Republic of Nigeria, National Economic Empowerment Development Needs

(NEEDS) Lagos. NERDC.
5. Gold, K. L. (2006). Youth Economic Empowerment as Poverty- reductionStrategy in Ilorin
metropolis. Journal of women in colleges of education (Jowice) 72, 281-287
6. International labour organisation (ILO,2009).youths entre- PreneurshipGeneva..
7. Iwuamadi, K.C. youths unemployment: entrepreneurship-Development. Indexed African
journals.online:www;afrrvjo.net
8. Musari , A.(2009), youths and national employment action plan, Abuja Guardian
newspaper, march 19 2012.
9. Moja,T.(2000) , Nigerian education analysis: An analytical synthesisof performance and
main issues.
10. Narayan, D. (2002). Empowerment and poverty Reduction (source book) Washington,
D.C.World Bank.
11. Nigerian National policy on education, 2004. Abuja-Nigeria.Abuja, Federal Minstry of
Education.
12. Central Bank of Nigeria ,(CBN), Abuja- Nigeria. CB printing press.
13. Olaitan, S..O. (1996) Technical and Vocational Education in Nigeria Issues and analysis.
Onitsha, Onitsha noble graphics.
14. Ogunlaye, O. (2000), Meeting the Challenges of the 21st century in Technical and Vocational
Education. A paper presented at the National Seminar on Technical and Vocational
Education in Nigeria.
15. .Okoro , O. M.(1994). The role of Technical and vocational education in the war against
youth unemployment in Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigerian Vocational Association.
16. Oni , C. S.(2008)Vocationalism in Nigerian education. Journal of social Science, 12(2):147150
17. Tor Any in, S A(2005).Youth empowerment and rural development In Nigeria.
Proceedings of the28th conference of counselling. Association of Nigeria (ASSON) (Pp152161)
18. UNESCO (2007); Revised recommendation concerning technical and Vocational education.
Retrieved from www.unesco.org/ education
19. United Nation (2004).world youth report 2003 The global situation Of young people, New
York .
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The Needs for Employability Skills Integrations in Electrical

Technology Education Curriculum of Federal Universities of
Technology, Nigeria
Dahiru Sale Mohammed1*, Sarimah Ismail2
1Department of Science and Technical Education, Northwest University, Kano Nigeria
2Department of Technical and Engineering Education, Universiti Teknologi,Malaysia
1dmsale72@yahoo.com ,2 p-sarima@utm.my
ABSTRACT
In the 21st century, besides technical knowledge of core programme, graduates must have
employability skills in an attempt to compete for employment and sustain their job at the global
market. However, Nigerian TVET graduates were not equipped with the employability skills
needed by industries and as a result, they are not ready to enter into workforce. Therefore, this
concept paper was written to identify how the curriculum of Electrical Technology Education at
the Federal Universities of Technology of Nigeria has contributed to this problem. Analytical
review showed that the curriculum of Electrical Technology Education has given more attention
to theoretical courses rather than practical course. There is no course that directly teaches good
attitudes and traits in the Electrical Technology Education curriculum. As a result, there is lack of
incorporation of employability skills Problem solving and decision making skills, Lifelong
learning skills and Competencies in the curriculum. This study recommended that the
curriculum of Electrical Technology Education should be designed with equal number of
practical and theoretical courses, consist of all eleven generic skills, good traits and attitudes
courses.
Keywords: Employability Skills, Curriculum, Electrical Technology Education, Needs, Analysis,
Integrations
1. INTRODUCTION
Communication skills, problem solving skills and interpersonal skills are three soft skills that are
considered most important employability skills than most hard skills in developed countries like
UK, USA, Japan, Hong Kong, Australia, Canada and European Union and developing countries
like Singapore, Malaysia, [24], [25], [5].
Number of studies has shown the importance for graduates from higher education institutions
to possess employability skills [4], [9], [3], [6], [11], and [19] and able to apply the skills and
knowledge learned to the workforce [6].
However, in Nigeria, studies have indicated that TVET graduates at entry level of employment
are not equipped with the employability skills needed by industries and therefore they are not
ready to enter into workforce [12], [15], [18], [19]. [20] and [21], The common belief of
industries is that higher education institutions especially Federal Universities of Technology,
Nigeria should equip graduates with the employability skills to compete for employment and
success at their workplace [21].
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Therefore there is a need for those universities to have paradigm shift in each program
curriculum offered from providing the graduates with general skills [10], [21] to equip them also
with employability skills.
2. THE NEEDS OF EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS IN TVET CURRICULUM
There are five Federal Universities of Technology that offers Technical and Vocational Education
and Training (TVET) programmes to provide high technological educations and skills for
employment in Nigeria. They are Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University (ATBU) Bauchi, Federal
University of Technology Akure (FUTA), Federal University of Technology Minna (FUTM),
Federal University of Technology Owerri (FUTO) and Modibbo Adama University of Technology
Yola (MAUTECH). The TVET programmes offered at these universities are Electrical and
Electronics, Automobile and Mechanical Productions, Agriculture and Business Education and
Building and Woodwork.
However, unemployment rate that based on educational levels and gender in Nigeria was high
(refer to Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Unemployment Rate by Educational Level and Gender in Nigeria (2012)
Educational
Level
Below
Primary
Primary
Male
Female
Both
Sexes
21.5
23.7
22.7
15.6
21.9
18.7
JSS
19.5
24.2
21.7
Vocational/
Commercial
SSS
15.2
22.4
18.7
21.2
23.4
22.1
NCE/OND/
NURSING
BA/BSc/Bed/HN
D
MSC/MA/MAdm
21.9
22.7
22.2
22.6
28.8
24.6
12.6
17.5
13.7
Sources: National Bureau of Statistics, 2012

Unemployment rate of university bachelor degree that equivalent to polytechnics HND
graduates was (24.6%) higher than those who had below primary education (22.7%) and NCE,
OND and Nursing (22.2%). This high rate of unemployment of universities and polytechnics
graduates also promises the unemployment rate among ETE graduates of Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria.
The main reason of the graduates in Nigeria lacking of employability skills was due to no
incorporating employability skills into the curriculum of Nigerian at the tertiary institutions
[18]. Idris and Rajuddin [12] (2012) investigated the level of importance and competencies of
WoCTVET 2014 | 66
employability skills among the final year TVET students in Nigeria. The respondents were
sampled from automobile, electrical installation, electronics and mechanical departments in
Technical Colleges of Kano State. The questionnaire was adapted from employability skills for
Australian small and medium enterprises due to there is no employability skills model in
Nigerian education system. The responses were analysed using descriptive statistics of mean
and standard deviation. The findings of the study indicated that all final year students rated the
employability skills components high and perceived their competency low, there was significant
difference among the final year students in terms of their age, no significant difference between
the final year students in the area of competency. The study concludes that there is a need for
technical and vocational institutions in Nigeria to focus and equip the students with
employability skills [12]. Findings of these two authors indicated the employability skills in
Nigeria has not been incorporated into tertiary education system of the country [18], the need
for integration of employability skill with general skills in higher education curriculum of
Nigeria, and the need of employability skills model in Nigerian education system.
3. EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS
Employability skills are set of skills, knowledge and attributes that likely make individual to
gain, maintain and excel in employment, and obtain new employment if required and move
between roles within the same organization [4], [9], [3], [6], [11], and [19]. There are three
categories of employability skills stated in the literature across the globe, namely Core Skills,
Generic Skills and Personal Attributes [2], [24] and [25],. The skills of the employability are
listed in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Employability Skills
Category
Generic Skills
Core TVET Skills
Personal
Attributes
Employability Skills
Problem Solving and Adaptability Skills
Professionalism
lifelong learning
Team work skills
communication skills
Information Communication Technology and Computer Skills
Initiative and Enterprises Skills
Leadership Skills
Personal Organization and Time Management Skills
Goal setting Skills
Self-Awareness and Self- Learning skills
knowledge of Sciences, Technology, Engineering &
Mathematics (STEM) and Education principles
Electrical Technology Education System Approach
knowledge of contemporary issues
Problem solving and decision making skills
lifelong learning
Competency in Electrical Technology Education Discipline
Attitudes
Traits
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4. ETE IN FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES OF TECHNOLOGY, NIGERIA

The aims of the Electrical Technology Education (ETE) programme are to equip students with
depth understandings of electrical and electronic principles and skills through the integrations
of theoretical and practical courses. Courses offered in this programme are first aid and safe
work practices, good housekeeping and workshop practices, interpreting circuit diagrams,
sourcing circuit components and constructing circuits, taking measurements, installation, testing
and troubleshooting of circuits [17].
Electrical technology is offered as vocational course at technical college level and as technical
course at higher education level. The ETE is double degrees programme that combining the
element of electrical technology and educational principles. In Nigeria, the programme is taught
at college of education (technical) and universities of technology.
5. THE ANALYSIS OF ETE CURRICULUM
Curriculum refers to educational goals (sequence of skills to be achieved), methods (specific
instructional methods for teachers), materials (tools and media for teaching and learning) and
assessment (measuring the progress of students) [22].
The ETE curriculum in Federal Universities of Technology, Nigeria, consists of specific courses
offered shown in Table 1.3 (This table/ curriculum structure will make sense if you group the
courses listed as ETE program core, educational core etc., exactly as stated in your university
academic prospectus).
Table 1.3: ETE Curriculum of Federal Universities of Technology, Nigeria
Course Title
Basic Electrical Engineering i
Basic Electrical Engineering Lab i
Electrical Installation i
Electrical/Electronic Technology
Instrumentation and Measurement
Basic Electrical Engineering ii
Basic Electrical Engineering Lab ii
Electrical/Electronic Drafting i
Basic Electrical Power
Basic Electrical Machines
Electrical Installation ii
Technical Drawing
Material Science
Applied Mechanics i
Applied Mechanics ii
Circuit Theory
Electrical/Electronic Drafting ii
Energy Conversion
Power System Engineering i
Credit Unit
2
1
2
3
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Types of
Skills
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Remarks
Theory
Practical
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Practical
Practical
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Practical
Theory
Theory
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Strength of Materials
Strength of Materials Lab
Control Theory i
Maintenance and Repairs
Power System Engineering ii
Electrical Machines i
Workshop Practice and Technology
Electrical Properties of Materials
Control Theory ii
Electrical Power i
Electrical Machines ii
Power System Distribution
Power System Protection
Electrical Power ii
Tariff and Economic Consideration
Independent Study
Students Work Experience Scheme
Safety Technology
Quality Control
History and Philosophy of Science
Seminar
Project i
Project ii
Teaching Methods and Micro Teaching
Measurement and Evaluation i
Educational Technology
Psychology of Education i
Psychology of Education ii
Research Methods i
Measurements and Evaluation ii
Sociology of Education
Research Methods ii
History and Philosophy of Education
Introduction to Technology Education
Vocational Guidance
Special Methods in Sc. & Tech. Educ.
Teaching Practice
Comparative Education
Contemporary Issues in Tech. Educ.
Management of Tech. Educ. Lab
Industrial Psychology
Curriculum Dev. in Sc. & Tech. Educ.
Educational Planning and
Administration
Computer Programing for Physical
Sc.&Engineering
Statistics for Physical Sc. & Engineering
i
2
1
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
3
2
1
4
2
2
2
1
2
4
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
6
2
2
2
3
2
3
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Core Skill
Theory
Theory
Theory
Practical
Theory
Theory
Practical
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Practical
Practical
Theory
Theory
Theory
Practical
Practical
Practical
Practical
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Practical
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Core Skill
Theory
Core Skill
Theory
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Statistics for Physical Sc. & Engineering

ii
Technical Mathematics i
Technical Mathematics ii
Technical Writing
Communication Skills
Use of library
Total: 3 Courses
Core Skill
Theory
3
3
2
3
1
7
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Theory
Nigerian People and Culture
Core Skill
Core Skill
Generic Skills
Generic Skills
Generic Skills
Generic
Skills
Personal
Attribute
Theory
Total credit hour

Sources: Academic Planning Units, Federal Universities of Technology, Nigeria, 2014
a) Core Skill
Core skills are technical competencies that comprise specific knowledge and capabilities to
perform related specialized tasks with the use of equipment and tools efficiently [25] Courses
listed in Table 1.3 indicates the inclusion of knowledge of electrical technology system,
contemporary issues in education, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics (STEM) and Education
as a Core Skills courses of ETE curriculum.
The courses also indicated the lack of incorporation of problem solving and decision making
skills, lifelong learning skills and competencies in electrical discipline because of more
concentration on theoretical courses rather than practical courses. For instance, out of 67 Core
Skills Courses (145 Credit Units), 54 Core Skills Courses (117 Credit Units) (81%) are theoretical
while 13 Core Skills Courses (28 Credit Units) (19%) are Practical Courses. Even out of the 28
Credit Units Practical Courses, 17 Credit Units involve students independent studies. The roles
of Lecturers in these courses are supervision and evaluation. These courses are Independent
Study (1 Credit Unit), Students Work Experience Scheme (4 Credit Unit), Teaching Practice (6
Credit Units), Project i (2 Credit Units) and Project ii (4 Credit Units) totaling 17 Credit Units.
This means only 11 credit units practical courses that taught in Federal Universities of
Technology, Nigeria are hugely inadequate to produce competent electrical technologists with
the core skill as listed in Table 1.2 Since technical courses are essential, it means poor practical
orientations will lead to poor understandings of technology no matter the methodology
employed.
b) Generic Skill
Generic Skills are non-technical competencies involving little or no interactions with machines,
equipment and tools within and across different occupations that help individual to obtain
positive social relationships and contributes to the work environment [2]. The Generic Skills
courses that are incorporated in ETE curriculum as listed in Table 1.3 are as follows:
Communication Skills (for Oral Communication), Technical Writing (for Written Communication
to technical people only) and Use of Library (for Information). This can be summarized as
Information and Communication Skills because the use of library is taught to inform student on
how to use the library effectively while Communication Skills and Technical Writing for oral and
written communications respectively. It means out of 10 generic skills, only one of them is
WoCTVET 2014 | 70
restricted generic skill is incorporated in ETE Curriculum of Federal Universities of Technology

in Nigeria.
c) Personal Attribute
Personal attributes are good attitudes and traits of an individual that are used to get, maintain
and succeed in employment [24]. The Personal Attributes course that incorporated in ETE has
the element of good attitudes and traits to learn different cultures of different tribes and ethnic
groups for unity. However, there is no course that directly teaches good attitudes and traits in
ETE curriculum of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria.
6. CONCLUSION
Despite the numerous research findings and integrations of employability skills into education
systems of Asians, Americans, Europeans and Australian countries, the concept of employability
skills has not been incorporated into the curriculum of Federal Universities of Technology
specifically ETE curriculum in Nigeria. The core skills in the curriculum lacks of incorporation of
problem solving and decision making skills, lifelong learning skills and competencies in specific
TVET discipline (Electrical) because of the curriculum focused more on theoretical courses with
rather than practical courses. There is only one restricted generic skill out of 10 is incorporated
in ETE Curriculum of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria while no course is directly
teaches good attitudes and traits in the ETE curriculum.
The employers of labour in Nigeria have indicated the need of graduates employee to possess
core skills, generic skills and personal attributes.
7. RECOMMENDATIONS
This study recommends:
1. It is observed that ETE Curriculum in Nigeria is like general education curriculum where
theoretical courses are predominant. It is recommended that the practical and
theoretical courses should be equal, 50% each.
2. All eleven generic skills should be included in the ETE Curriculum
3. Good traits and attitudes courses should be included in the curriculum. This may be
achieved through guidance counselling, moral lessons and lectures (words of wisdoms)
from respected and distinguished people in and outside the country.
REFERENCES
1. Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ACCI) and Business Council Australian
(BCA), (2002). Employability Skills for the Future. Canberra: Training Reform Section,
Department of Education, Science and Training.
2. Australian learning and Teaching Council. (2011). Graduate Employability Indicators:
Introduction and User Guide. Canberra: Australia: Author
3. Billing, D. (2003). Generic Cognitive
WoCTVET 2014 | 71
4. Abilities in Higher Education: An International

Stakeholders. Compare, 33(3), 335-350.
Analysis
of
Skills
Sought
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5. Candy, P.C. and Crebert, R.G. (1991).

Ivory Tower to Concrete Jungle: The Difficult
Transition from the Academy to the Workplace as Learning Environment. The Journal of
Higher Education, 62(5), 570-592.
6. Common Wealth of Australia, (2002).
Employability Skills for Small and Medium Size
Enterprises: Common Wealth of Australia
7. Crebert, G., Bates, M., Bell, B., Patrick, C.J. and Cragnolini, V. (2004). Developing Generic
Skills at University, during Work Placement and in Enployment: Graduates Perceptions.
Higher Education Research and Development, 23(2), 147-165.
8. Curtin University, Victoria University,
Quensland.
(2011).
Graduates
http://tiny.cc/boliver
RMIT University and University of Southern

Employability
Indicators.
Available
at
[8] Down, C. (2012). Employability Skills: Revisiting the Key Competencies or a New Way
Forward? Retrieved on 16/06/2012 from
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/52545372/Employability-Skills-Revisiting-theKey-
Competencies-or-a-new
10. Dunne, E. and Rowlins, M. (2000). Bridging the Gap between Industry and Higher
Education: Training Academics to Promote Student Teamwork. Innovation in Education and
Training International, 37(4), 361-371.
11. Evers, F.T., Rush, J.C. and Berdrow, I. (1998). The Bases of Competence: Skills for
Lifelong Learning and Employability. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass Publishers
12. Hewitt, D.P.L. (2005). Conflicts and Harmonies among Different Aspects of
Mathematical Activity.
In Challenging Perspectives on Mathematics Classroom
Communication, 205-233, Chronaki A, Christiansen IM (Editors).
Connecticut:
Information Age Publishing, ISBN: 1593111517).
13. Idris, A. and Rajuddin, M. R. (2012). An Assessment of Employability Skills among
Technical and Vocational Education Students in Nigeria. Archives Des Science 65(7), p. 392400.
14. Lees, D. (2002). Graduate Employability-LSTN General Centre website (online) available at
http://www.gla.ac.uk/employability/docuements/litrev.rtf Retrieved 5th August, 2008.
15. Lorraine D.P. and P. Sewell, (2007). The key to Employability: developing a practical model
of graduate employability, Centre for Employability, university of Central Lancashire,
Preston, UK Education and Training. Vol. 49 No. 4, 2007, pp. 277-289.
16. Mohammed, D.S. and Ismail, S. (2014). Employability Skills Definitions and Framework for
TVET Graduates Employment. Proceedings of the 1st TVEIS International Seminar on
Technical and Vocational Education, UTM-Johor-Bahru, Malaysia, August 25-26, 2014 pp682694.
17. National Bureau of Statistics, NBS. (2012). National Manpower Stock and Employment
Generation Survey 2010. Abuja: NBS.. Available at www.nigerianstat.gov.ng.
18. National Curriculum Statements (2011). Electrical Technology Curriculum Grade 10-12.
South Africa: Government Press
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19. Oresanya, T.O., Omudewa, O.S.. Kolade, T.T. and Fashedemi, A.o. (2014). Vocational
Education and Employability: The Nigerian Situation. Journal of Poverty, Investment and
Development- An Open Access International Journal, Volume 3, p. 158- 160.
20. Rasul, M.S; Ismail, M.Y; Ismail, N; Rajuddin, M.R. and Abdu Rauf, R.A. (2010). Development
of employability skills assessment tool for manufacturing industry. Jurnal Mekanikal, No.
30, P. 48-61.
21. Robinson, J. P. (2000). What are Employability Skills?, Community Workforce Development
Specialist, Alabama Cooperative Extension System, Vol. 1, Issues 3.
22. Robinson, J.S. and Garton, B.L. (2007). An Assessment of the Employability Skills needed by
Graduates in the College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources at the
University
of Missouri. Journal of Agricultural Education, 49(4), p. 96-105
23. Universal Design for Learning Guidelines-Version 1.0 (2014) What is Curriculum retrieved
on 20/08/2014 from http://udlguidelines.wordpress.com/introduction/what-is-meantby-the-term-curriculum/
24. Yorke, M. (2006). Employability in higher education: what it is what it is not, Enhancing
Student Employability Coordination Team (ESCT), The Higher Education Academy.
25. Zaharim, A; Yusoff, Y.M; Omar, M.Z; Mohammed, A; Muhammad, N. (2009). Engineering
employability skills required by employers in Asia. Proceedings of the Asia 6th WSEAS,
International Conference on Engineering Education Rodos, Greece, July 22-24, 2009 pp195201.
26. Zaharim, A., Yusoff, Y.M., Muhammed, A., Omar, M. Z., Muhammad, N. and Mustapha R.
(2009b). Practical Framework of Employability, skill for Engineering Graduate in Malaysia.
IEE EDUCON Education Engineering 2010 the Future of Global Learning Engineering
Education, Madrid Spain on April
14-16, 2010 P.921 927, 978-1-42 44-657 12/10/828.00@2010IEEE
WoCTVET 2014 | 73
Reducing Recidivism Rates through Vocatonal Education and

Training
Hadi Mohammed1, WanAzlinda Binti Wan Mohamed2*
1Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 hadimohammed41@gmail.com, 2 azlinda@uthm.edu.my*.
ABSTRACT
Inmates who had enrolled in most of educational programme while incarcerated had lower
recidivism rates than those who did not attend the programme. Inmates need education
programme that not only teach them to read and write but also provide them with the necessary
skills that promote a positive transition to society when they are released. Efforts in this
direction would help promote
better participation of inmates in all prison education
programmes and will go along away to help the prisoner rehabilitation processes. This paper
focus on how Vocational education and training reduces recidivism.
Keywords: Reducing, Recidivism Rates, Vocational Education and Training.
1. INTRODUCTION
The aim of establishing prison institutions all over the world is to provide a rehabilitation and
correctional facility for the convict there by providing an effective environment that reduces the
risk of reoffending. Many offenders have education and skills levels below average standard are
more likely to be unemployed who has an impact on their health and ability to find housing.
2. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
The introduction of vocational education and training as part of the prisoner rehabilitation
offers opportunities for offenders to increase the likely hood of successful reintegration in to the
community and reducing the risk of reoffending(2). Providing offenders with Vocational
education and training will provide significant benefit in addressing issues that caused offences
as well as reduces their recidivism rate.
Offenders lack of educational attainment negatively has impacts on their employment prospect
which also negatively has effect on their physical and mental issues. Providing motivated
offenders the opportunity to educate themselves, the offenders life can improve through the
experiences of discipline, instilling confidence and stability (11).
According (17), meta-analysis was conducted to examine the association between vocational
education and training and reduction in recidivism, improvement in employment after release
from prison. The findings support the premise that receiving correction education while
incarceration reduces individuals risks of recidivism. They researchers also found that those
receiving Vocational education and training had improved odds of obtaining employment after
release, the findings include: correctional education improves chances of not returning to prison,
inmates who participated in correctional education programmed had 43% lower odds of
recidivism than those who did not participate. This translates to a reduction in the risk of
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recidivism of 13%, providing correctional education can be cost effective when it comes to
reducing recidivism.
A Queensland study, based on over 1,800 people who returned to custody within three years
was undertaken of the links between prisoners participation in Vocational training
programmed and their chances of returning to prison. It found that 32 percent of prisoners who
did not participate in vocational training programed before their initial release returned to
custody within two years while only 23 percent of vocational training programed participants
returned (2).
Recidivism: habitual offending, an act of a person repeating an undesirable behaviour after he
has either experienced negative consequences of that behaviour. It is also used to refer to
percentage of prisoners who are re-arrested for a similar offence (12)
Vocational Training: refers to a training which equips trainees with the process of manipulative
skills in a chosen occupation (14).(15) Defines vocational education as any form of education
whose primary purpose is to prepare persons for employment in recognized occupations. That
is to say vocational education provides skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary for effective
employment in specific occupations.
Vocational education can be conceived as a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of
educational process involving, in addition to general education, the acquisition of practical skills,
attitudes, understanding, and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic
and social life (6)
3. BENEFITS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN PRISON
Studies have address why vocational education and training programmed are successful for
reducing recidivism rates and improving opportunity for (13). Discussion focus on two main
important reasons: first training increases the amount of human capital that a parolee can offer
potential employees, and second that earning a certificate in any field signals to potential
employers a seriousness that compensates in part for the stigma of a criminal record (7)
Human capital: investment in human capital is probably the most common cited reason for
assigning inmate to a vocational education and training. Theorist about human capital
emphasize that a trained worker is worth more to the employer as an employee than one who is
not trained or skilled. The role of education for creating human capital is explicitly address in the
vocational education curricular evaluated here by an insistence that a rigorous range of literacy,
general education/ employability skills, hands on and technical skills be part of the courses (7)
The insistence is important because potential employees who have mastered particular skills
are more valuable to employers, are more likely to be hired, are more likely to generate profits
from companies and are likely to generate good wages for the employee. Skilled employees
bring to an employer human capital that people without such training do not have in a good
terms of knowledge and skill level. Notably such skills include basic protocols needed in a good
employee such as punctuality, co -cooperativeness, timeliness and team-work.
Certification: certification and criminal records are sometimes referred to in labor market as
signal (8). Licenses, certificates and other documents signal to potential employees that a
potential employee likely has specific skills, interests and commitment to a profession whereas
WoCTVET 2014 | 75
others may not. Possession of a nationally recognized certification helps overcome the stigma of
a criminal record. Formal certification as part of an education programed in prison is
particularly important.
4. HOW VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING REDUCES RECIDIVISM
RATES
Vocational education and training reduces recidivism rates by providing inmates with the
technical skills, literacy and numeracy courses, as well as motivation and employment
opportunity:
Technical skills: prisoners believed that as well as providing technical skills, the courses also
improved their communication and organizational skills, all of which would help find
employment and reintegrate in to the community upon release. A technical skill is a skill that is
required for the accomplishment of a specific task (21). Barriers to undertaking or completing
vocational training courses include the need for prisoner to undertake offending behaviour
programed and desire to earn money through paid prison work. Other factors were short
sentences (under 12 months) and long waiting lists of courses, being transferred to another
center without much more notice or being release early.
Literacy and numeracy: the educational programme offer literacy and numeracy courses as
well as higher-level qualifications such as Vocational training Diplomas. The completion rate was
found to be over 80 percent. The high completion rate was attributed to: undertaking a risk
assessment and looking at the sentence management plan to determine the educational and
vocational training needs of offenders, offering the courses as modules, having dedicated
training workshops, promoting the employment opportunities provided by the training,
recognizing the achievements of trainees who completed the course.
Motivation: Another factor that will determine an offenders recidivism is the motivation for the
offender to change (7).Argued that the analysis of former offenders indicated that their decision
to change was a significant factor in them not re-offending. Offenders with no motivation had
fatalistic and respondent attitudes towards their criminality whereas motivated offenders were
able to identify and make sense of their criminality.
(7) Argues that for some offenders, the motivation to change may need to include the severing
of negative social bonds, as he argues that this may have been a factor in their original offending
(1).describes offenders motivation to change as being instrumental in improving an offenders
mental health as they are more focused on goals and resilient to negative external and social
impacts in their lives.
In order for Technical and vocational education to benefit the offender, it is important for it to be
tailored and focused on the needs of the offender; an example of this is the needs surrounding
female offenders. Gordon and Weldon (9), Argues that issues surrounding female offenders are
compounded by other issues that can include being single percent family rejection, history of
physical or sexual abuse as well as a high prevalence of mental health issues.
A female offenders history of physical and sexual abuse is an issue that will regulate training
and education programed to be specifically tailored towards them for optimal effectiveness.
Olaitan (14) trainers and educators will need to present their programmed in a manner that is
inclusive, fair and consistent.
WoCTVET 2014 | 76
Employment opportunity: (17), describes how training and education offered to offenders
needs to be relevant to employment opportunities that exist in the location that the offender
lives and is likely to be employed in. An example of this is for offenders in areas with high
tourism, hospitality courses would be the focus likewise, and vocational training in rural areas
would focus on agriculture and forestry.
Preparing offenders for employment through vocational education and training alone may not
be enough to get them in to the employment market (16), describe how offenders, especially
those who have been incarcerated, may have significant issues that inhibit their ability to find
employment. These may include lack of recent employment experiences, being excluded from
certain types of employment, as well as the potential to weaken social connections that may lead
to employment.
Poor educational attainment coupled with poor employment record prospects on an offenders
mental health (9), indicates that 36% of male police detainee and 53% of female police detainees
reported either being diagnosed with a mental or being treated for a mental illness.
(3), describe how 01 percent of male of male offenders in prison present symptoms of
depression, while 25 percent suffer major depression. (9) Describes how many offenders with
mental health issues may have strained issue relations with their families and friends. This may
leave them alone coping with factors that may include inadequate employment and housing,
money management issues as well as medication management. Offenders benefit from training
and education from improvement to their mental health. (5) Describes how offenders who
participate in education programmes illustrate positive psychological traits that include selfreliance, autonomy and independence.
A study in Australian institute of criminology (1) data illustrate that while those with low level of
educational attainment have a higher probability of becoming a police detainee, those with
higher educational attainment have a lower probability of becoming a police detainee. This is
highlighted by the fact that while 40 percent of male police detainees and 51percent of female
police detainee had completed ten years or less. The number of male and female police detainees
more than halved had completed 11or 12 years. For those who completed university, the level of
female police detainees was five percent while male police detainees were at four percent.
However while low educational standards are of great concern of particular role is the fact that
many offenders lack even the basic fundamentals of education such as literacy skills. Offenders
who participate in vocational training and education have lower recidivism rates than offenders
who do not participate (9), argue that those offenders who participated in prison education
programme had recidivism rate at four percent. This is contrast to 65 percent recidivism rate for
those who did not participate in prison education programme.
Offenders benefit from training and education from improvement to cognitive functioning and
job prospects. (4) State that cognitive strategy that is the ability of individuals to analytically
interpret information and enhanced the more the individuals is prepared to further their
education. Higher cognitive functioning is of great importance in relation to individuals adapting
to higher education and the workplace. As offenders prepare themselves to step back in to his or
her community, they search within for a renewed sense of self image and plan to stay clear of
criminal behaviour. It has been implied that offenders returning to the community unprepared
and uneducated results in bitter individuals that could be a further threat to public safety and
increase recidivism rates which are costly.
WoCTVET 2014 | 77
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
Prison institutions should be provided with all the facilities needed for vocational education and
training thus; standard workshops, modern facilities and as well improved remuneration for all
the stake holders. There should be regular evaluation of the programed to determine the
strength and weakness of the programed. Non-governmental organization should be involved in
funding and supervising the programed. All trained inmates should be automatically employed
either in public or cooperate bodies after released. No stigmatization for the ex-convicts in the
society should be allowed. They should be fully re-integrated, be certified in accordance with the
National Vocational Qualification guide.
6. CONCLUSION
Vocational education and training as part of the prisoner rehabilitation offers opportunities for
offenders to increase the likely hood of successful re-integration in to the community and
reducing the risk of re-offending. TVE will provide significant benefit in addressing issues that
caused offences as well as reduces their recidivism rate. Therefore providing inmates with
vocational education and training is pathway to reduce recidivism rates.
REFERENCES
1. Australian institute of crime (2010), fact and figures .onliviewed.
http//www.aic.gov.au/publication/current 20 series/facts 1-20/2010/4/selected offender
profiles.
2. Callan, V. & Gardner, J. (2007). The role of Vocational and Technical. Education
Recidivism in Australia.
in
3. Cameroun , M.(2011), woman prisoners and correctional programmes

4. Australian institute of crime, no 194, online viewed 11 sept 2011.
5. Conley ,M. W (2008), cognitive strategy instruction for adolescents.Howard education
review, vol 78 no1, pp84-106
6. Ellis, J. Mcfadden, C. Caloric, S. (2008). Factors influencing the design, Establishments,
administration and governance of correctional Education for females. The journal of
correctional education, Vol 59, no3 pp198-217.
7. Federal republic of Nigeria, National policy of Education. Abuja , Nigeria.
8. Gaes, G, (2008), The impact of prison education on post release Outcomes.
9. Gaes,,G. (2013), a path way to reducing recidivism rate.
10. Gordon H R D & Weldon, B (2008). The impact of career and TechnicalEducation
programme on adult offenders: learning behind bars , Journal of correctional education, vol
54 no4 pp200-209.
11. Howerton, A, Burnell,R, Bying R, Campbelli, J (2009), The consolation of
to prison. Journal of offender rehabilitation.
Going back
12. Leanne, R. (2010 ) Australian Crime: Facts and figures, selected offender
20/2010/4.
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13. Lois, M .D. (2013). Reducing Recidivism rates through Vocational Training improves job
outlook.British journal of learning support, vol 26, issu 2pp79-82
14. Martinez,R.D. (2007), an evolving set of values-based, principle Career
education, vol 23.
&
technical
15. Olaitan S. O (1996), Vocational and technical education in Nigeria. Issues and analysis.
Nsukka , Nigerian Vocational Association.
16. Okoro O.M. (1994) The role of vocational education in the war against Unemployment.
Nsukka, Nigerian Vocational Association.
17. Pinconne , J E (2000), administering the test of adult basic education
journal of correctional education vol 57,no3, pp239-248.
At
intake.
The
18. Rand researchers (2013), Reducing recidivism rate in prison institutions.

19. Salekin, H.I., Dullard ,C L S Lee Z & Robak, P. A.(2010). Child psychology and protection
factors: IQ and Motivation to change. Psychology public policy, vol16 n02 pp15820. Visher, C. A. , Winter field,L. (2005), coggesthall M. B.(2005), Ex-offender
programmes and recidivism,Journal of experimental criminology.
employment
21. William , F , Dulla, A, Kunda, M. Woich, M (2008). Vocational

Rehabilitation
services
needs of female ex-inmates with Mental health illness. The perspective of a southern state,
journal Of applied rehabilitation counselling vol 39,no3 pp25-39
22. Zilly, G.Y. (2009)Prisoner rehabilitation. Journal of experimental criminology MACpress,
USA..
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Chemistry Education as Service to Humanity in Nigeria: Issues and

Challenges
1Mande, G, *
and 2Takuma, S
1,2Chemistry
Department, Federal College Of Education (Tech), Gusau, Zamfara State-Nigeria
1 mandegarbabt@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The knowledge of chemistry education in Nigeria had contributed immensely for national
development and to Africa in general. Today, most African sees the chemistry they study in
school as completely foreign and abstract involving symbols and formulae, atomic number and
quantum jump of electron. They lack the ability to appreciate the chemicals principles and
concept taught in school and their relevance in the explanation of things and activities within
their environment. This paper attempts to highlight the contribution of chemistry education as
service to humanity in Nigeria. The paper also discusses some issues and challenges of chemistry
education teaching and learning in Nigeria schools and suggested solution to that effect were
also preferred.
Keywords: Chemistry Education, Humanity.
1. INTRODUCTION
Science is a human intellectual construct which demands that students must be actively engaged
in thinking analysis, if their understanding is to be secured. Successful science teaching requires
that; students make sense of what they are being taught and asked to learn. Chemistry as a
branch of pure science that deals with the composition properties and uses of matter It proves
into the principles governing the changes that matter undergoes [Ababio 1990].It also includes
mans attempt to transform the natural world in order to benefit from natures complexities
and hidden resources.
Heys [1972] out lined three reasons, why we should study chemistry;
1. To discover as much as we can about the behaviour of different kinds of matter.
2. To find out the reasons for this behaviour of different kinds of matter
3. To put this knowledge gained into practical use that would lead to the development of
man.
In fact, Ikoku (1983) opined that; chemistry is often described as the Queen of the sciences, in
which almost all the other branches of sciences use some knowledge from chemistry to interpret
their principles such as medicinal chemistry, Biochemistry, geo-chemistry, molecular chemistry,
Geo physics e t c.
Chemical principles should be to understand nature in order to change it, with a view to
satisfying human needs but at the same time ensuring that minimum damage is done to natures
delicate balance. As such Chemistry is seeking to serve man in many human endeavors as much
as possible be it in industry, in the laboratories, in medicine [health sector] in home, in
agriculture, in judiciary and so on.
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2. CHEMISTRY AND THE SERVICE TO HUMANITY

2.1 Chemistry in Industry
Industries as the backbone of economy in any nation without many industries require a lot to be
sustainable. Chemistry plays a vital role in industries, such as chemical industries, polymer
industries e.t.c.
Textiles and its allied industries are very large consumes of chemicals and chemical reactions
which form the basis of the various operational processes. Virtually, all the basic processes in the
production of textile goods; vie: sizing, design, souring, bleaching, washing, dyeing printing and
finishing are chemical processes. The textile industry uses large quantities of dyestuffs, caustic
alkalis, acids, peroxides, sulphides etc. Many dyes have been produced and used to color clothes
made of cotton, silk, polyester nylon etc.
2.2 Chemistry in Agriculture
Chemistry provides the fundamental basis upon which the technology for the production,
processing and preservation of food is established. Analytical chemistry comes up in the
analysis, classification and treatment of soils to increase their fertility in order for the plants to
grow. They require large amount of nine chemicals elements [world book encyclopaedia vol. 7] I
e carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium and calcium. They
also must have smaller amounts of several other elements in littles quantities called micro
nutrients molybdenum, zinc, boron, copper, iron and manganese. Chemistry provides the
solution through mineral fertilizer industry. Fertilizers such as ammonium tetra oxosulphate
[v1], ammonium tetra ox phosphate [v] and trioxo nitrates [v] are chemicals added to the soil to
increase the fertility . Other essential chemistry input in agriculture includes herbicides,
pesticides, and chemical preservatives additives.
In Nigeria context, agriculture production today is attributed to the use and application of
fertilizers, pesticides and related agriculture chemicals. Indeed food is one of the most basic of
all human needs. For any nation to be self-sufficient in food production the use of agricultural
chemicals is very necessary.
2.3 Chemistry in Our Domestry
It should be recall that the basic raw materials used for soap making in Nigeria homes are empty palm
bunches. Cocoa plantain and cola nut peels burnt to ashes as alkali and inedible palm oil (fibre
oil).The resultant grayish substance from the mixture of heated alkali and fiber oil is the native soap.
The water we use is purified both the drinking and other domestic purposes by some chemical
processes like filtration, chlorination and sedimentation .Basically by the process of cooking we have
transformed the chemicals substances in food items into another form suitable for human consumption
apart from that the houses we live upon were constructed mainly with cement, which is a complex
mixture of anhydrous calcium silicate with anhydrous aluminates and free lime.
2.4 Chemistry in Our Judiciary
No nation can developed without law and orders chemistry plays important roles in this sector, the
knowledge of forensic chemistry contributed a lot in judge verdict, for instant detection of criminals
WoCTVET 2014 | 81
and drugs abuse through the knowledge of forensic chemistry, in which the sample of their blood can
be use for further analysis.
However, from the knowledge of chemistry we are able to know something about the
exploration and processing of oil, also chemical products that boost agriculture like insecticides,
herbicides etc the knowledge of chemistry is felt in areas of a lot industries of cosmetics,
perfume, plastics, glass, drugs etc.
3. ISSUES OF CHEMISTRY EDUCATION
The out listed are some issues of chemistry education in Nigeria;
1. Human Resources
There used to be scarcity of adequately trained skilled and equipped manpower resources in
chemistry. Chemistry education in Nigeria has been placing emphasis on theoretical aspect to
the detriment of practical acquisition which will provide technical skill that lead to technological
advancement. This may be as a result of in adequate provision of facilities and quality trained
chemists. Trained chemists have the virtues of transparency, accuracy, and precision, honesty
that scientific research and teaching requires.
To buttress this point .Onyeukwu (2000) pointed out scientific education is a universally
recognized form of human investment that yields economic benefits and contributes to any
countries wealth by increasing her productive capacity in democratic dispensation.
2. Teaching Methodology
Most of Nigeria chemistry teachers use lecture and discussion methods frequently in their
chemistry classes. They present facts and principles contained in text books and students are
rarely involved in any practical laboratory experiences. This kills the interests of students in the
study of chemistry.
3. Poor Enrolment
Most Nigerian students have a very poor back ground in primary school science. Equally, some
are attending secondary schools with some misconceptions and superstitious beliefs about
chemistry and science in general. Hence the science quarter of 60, 40 of art admission into the
universities could not be filled .Today there is a growing need for more females in Africa into the
fields of medicine. Architecture, engineering geology, Physics chemistry among others.
4. Infrastructure and Materials
There are in adequate classroom and facilities such as text books, laboratories and laboratory
equipment, in adequate electricity supply, plumbing facilities and no portable water supply
[Maduabum, 1994]. These constraints have to be attended in democratic dispensation.
5. Finance
Financial is a crucial pre-requisite which enables a programme to sustain itself effectively in
meeting the commitment of the organization. This idea was observed by Okebukola [1997].
When he lamented that the delay in the educational system in Nigeria today has been largely
ascribed to in adequate funding. He stated that whereas UNESCO prescribed funding level of
15% for GNP for developing countries such as Nigeria only between 6.0% and 7.5% GNP was
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allocated to education during the past few decades. Consequently provision of facilities for
teachers` preparation, teachers` motivation, instructional delivery, research and development
had suffered untold damage.
4. CHALLENGES OF CHESMISTRY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
Chemistry education has so much contributed to the development of the world and man in
general, but at the same time it causes serious problems to man. Chemistry was made to deviate
from its original role of making life comfortable for man to the point where man is consistently
living in fear disasters caused by chemistry output at every second of his life. For instance:
Pollutants from industries causes a lot of danger to man
The use of pesticides, insecticides fungicide etc. to kill pests which destroy our crops
causes a lot of problems to farmers.
The indiscriminate application of in organic fertilizers also causes water pollution which
may eventually causes death of the aquatic organisms.
Weapons of massive destruction designed by chemists for the purpose of war for
instance atomic bomb, x-ray bomb etc.
Poor laboratory standard and facilities to care off.
Poor teaching method, the teachers unfortunately qualified prefer to go into other
profession rather than teaching.
Students background, in this angle admission of students in the department kept silent
on the student admitted, in most cases doesnt have chemistry background right from
their post primary education.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are made in the light of the issues discussed;
1. Science education right from the primary school should be adequately equipped and
staffed with the right caliber of teachers. The skill and training given to the people in
chemistry education should link with what the society will need in democratic
dispensation.
2. The chemistry curricular content and teaching methods should be oriented towards the
application of chemical principles rather than the acquisition of paper certificates that
people carry about without getting jobs.
3. Financing of chemistry education and research should not be left to the government
alone. Funds should be sought from corporate bodies and international organization
like chemical society [CSN] All multination co-operations and firms employing up to 50
chemists should be required by law to contribute 5% of their pre-tax profit to an
endowment fund for chemical education.
4. There should be public enlighten campaign on the pervasive and crucial role of
chemistry in democratic dispensation.
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6. CONCLUSION
Chemistry plays an important role in many aspects of human Endeavour/ in all human
endeavours such as in agriculture, industries, home management etc. Most industries utilize
plants, as their raw materials, semi processed minerals and products obtained from antecedent
chemical processing of natural resources. Therefore, it is necessary to report that the
establishment of sound chemistry education is highly necessary in democratic dispensation for
development in Nigeria and other practice countries.
REFERENCES
1. Ababio O.Y. (1998) New school chemistry senior secondary science series. African Feb.
publishers L.t.d. Ikoku C . (1983) The role of chemistry in national development journal of
science Teachers Assciation of Nigeria (STAN) vol.21 edition. Maduabum (1994)
2. Mande G. (2007) chemistry education in a prospective A paper presented at National
conference held at Federal college of education Katsina August, 2007.
3. Okebukola (1997), the role of teacher education in manpower development, implication
and challenges for sustainable development in Nigeria. Sardauna journal of education
(SAJE) Vol. 2 no 2 pp 161-163.
4. Onyenkwu (2000) manpower development and utilization in Nigeria. Problems and
policies. Lagos university press.
5. World book encyclopaedia, vol. 7 pg 45-48.
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Phenomenological Study: Bilingual Teaching Classroom of

Malaysian Community Colleges
Faridatuljana Mohd Noor1, Hairuddin Harun2.
1Kolej Komuniti Batu Pahat, 2Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 faridatul252295@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The study of bilingual teaching classroom of Malaysian community colleges was designed for
developing a brand new environment of teaching in a classroom. It was also to find the main
factors that lead to this crucial phenomenon of bilingual classroom. This study has never been
conducted among the academicians of community colleges and this is the first study invented by
the researcher in order to help in creating new environment of teaching in a bilingual classroom
and also to equip learners with good command of English language as to produce trainers who
are proficient in the language. The targeted respondents of this study were several course
content instructors from several different programs of Malaysian community colleges. Students
from semester four undertaking certificate courses from various disciplines of studies were also
involved in this research. Non-structured interviews, non-participant observation and note
taking were the methods used in this research. The result indicates various answers given by the
respondents from the interviews. The needs of the language for each classroom are highly
depend on the teachers competencies of the language used instead of the learners needs. In a
nutshell, the bilingual teaching classroom of community colleges can be evaded by practicing
better approaches and methods in teaching.
Keywords: Bilingual Teaching Classroom; Students of Community College; Styling; Course Content
Instructors
1. INTRODUCTION
The study was designed in relation with teaching techniques at Malaysian community colleges
where the course content teachers should have taught the learners in English. However, they are
not. Community College is one of the higher education institutions established in Malaysia under
the Department of Community College Education, Ministry of Education. Bilingual teaching in a
classroom does exist everywhere all over the world. This study will also refer to any similar
studies conducted in China and United States of America.
In Malaysia, English is used as a Second Language (L2). In some other countries, English is used
as second or foreign language. Therefore, bilingual teaching in Malaysian community colleges is
the best method in order to ensure learners understanding of the content and lesson taught.
Bilingual teaching is defined as teaching two or more languages used in classroom as the
medium of interaction, giving instruction and giving/receiving feedback in any subjects taught
than the mother tongue language (L1) [1]. It is designed to equip learners become bilingual that
called two-way bilingual education [2]. Bilingual teaching classroom in community college
resembles to classroom in Hong Kong where students are taught in both Chinese and English
languages in everyday classroom. Meanwhile, in some countries of United States bilingual
education is given to learners as they face difficulties in reading, writing, speaking and
understanding the English language. The study of bilingual classroom in the context of Malaysian
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community college has never been conducted in this country. Thus, by having this research it is
hoped that it can help other teachers of community colleges to improve and diversify the
teaching techniques.
There are many factors that lead to the study of bilingual teaching classroom. The main factor is
the involvements of course content instructors. Numbers of them were not interested in taking
part in this study. Another factor is the consideration of the students in the targeted classroom
whom receiving lessons in bilingual education. These learners are the most affected group who
will later join the workforce where some of the trainees need to communicate in English;
however, they are taught using other language. This is the most crucial part of bilingual teaching
in a classroom, as the course content teachers do not have required skills in teaching learners
using English language.
All established Malaysian community colleges have strong connection with industries. As
Malaysian community colleges produce semi professional skilled workers for industries, these
trainees undertaking certificate courses must be equipped with complete knowledge and skills
in order to serve the industries when they join the workforce. One of the skills that must be
taught is by giving learners good command and understanding of English language [3]. English is
lingua franca as it helps people in the universe to communicate. These community college
students should not only be equipped with good skills in communication but also to know and
understand the jargon of language according to their field of studies. Unfortunately, these
trainees are not taught accordingly as demanded by the language needs of the industries. Thus,
this study was designed to overcome the problems by providing some recommendations to this
unsolved scenario at Malaysian community colleges. This study limits to the nature of certain
community college staff and learners as there were only eight selected course content teachers
involved in this study from four main different programs who had eight bilingual teaching
classrooms. As this is a phenomenology study, the researcher did only observation, interviews
and note taking during the investigation.
Observations were conducted for all teaching classrooms. During the observations, notes were
taken down. Interview sessions were also conducted at the end of the lessons with all course
content teachers.
2. METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN
This small-scale research of study involved eight course content instructors and eight bilingual
teaching classrooms. It was designed to see the degree of bilingual language used in a classroom.
The instructors were chosen randomly from four different programs that are Mechanical
Engineering, Electrical Installation, Fashion and Design, and Tourism established in Southern
region community colleges. The participants ranged from different age and years of teaching
experience as they willing to be observed and interviewed. The observations were conducted in
two constant weeks for all classes. The notes were also taken during the observations, as they
did not allow the researcher to record a video during the observations and interviews.
As this is a qualitative study, purposive samplings of respondents were selected [4]. Semester
Four students aged from 19 to 22 years old were involved in this study. The course content
instructors ranged from 25 years old to 40 years old and have one to ten years of experiences.
From Mechanical Engineering program, two male instructors aged 28 and 35 were chosen. The
28year old instructor has 4 years of experience meanwhile the other has eight years of
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experience. They were both teaching mechanical subjects for certificate students. Other male
teachers chosen from Electrical Installation program aged 29 and 31. Both of them have six
years teaching experience and teaching electrical subjects. Conversely, two female staff from
Fashion and Design program aged 25 and newly appointed. Another female teacher aged 36 and
has 9 years of teaching experience. Finally, two teachers were chosen from Tourism program.
One female aged 37 has eleven years experience meanwhile the other male teacher aged 40 has
13 years experience. They were all volunteered to be a part of this study.
There were four main different programs of Southern region community colleges involved in
this study. However, only selected classrooms were taking part. All bilingual teaching
classrooms that involved in this study were being observed and all the instructors were
interviewed. The observations were completed in two consecutive weeks. Every class had one
hour of teaching period. As the researcher was constrained by time and there were few classes
to be observed, only 45 minutes of observation was carried out for each teaching classroom.
Upon the request of every teacher who did not allow to be recorded during the observations, the
researcher had another alternative by having notes. The notes were taken during the
observation. Each teaching session and responses given by learners were recorded through note
taking. This is important as recording method assists researcher to see the flow of the conducted
teaching approach.
Finally, every instructor of each lesson was interviewed. Again, the interviews were not
recorded, as the researcher was not allowed to do so. The results of the interview questions
were written in the same notes taken during the observation. The interviews were however not
conducted in English language as the instructors had requested to not to ask in English. All the
interview questions were asked and answered in Malay language. It proved that the teachers did
not use English in classroom as they had confessed that they have limited English vocabulary.
3. RESULTS
3.1 Observation
3.1.1
Mechanical Engineering Course
From the observations, Malay language had been used for most of the time (90%) during the
teaching process. Unfortunately, exercises given were in bilingual language. The teacher gave no
notes during the teaching process as it is assumed that the instructor has informed the learners
to find notes on their own. The responses given by the students were also in Malay language.
3.1.2
Electrical Installation Course
Electrical Installation Course trainers can be said that had almost the same way of teaching as
Mechanical instructors. However, during the observation it was found that teachers did not give
any exercises for the students, and they conversed in Malay language. The students of this
program were more passive compared to mechanical students as most of the time the teachers
just had one-way interaction of teaching process. This brought more disadvantages to the
students, as they will face more difficulties in understanding the jargon of language in their
discipline of studies.
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3.1.3
Tourism Course
Conversely, Tourism trainers were more concerned on the English language. It was found that
about 60% of the lesson was conducted in English language. It showed that the instructors
emphasized on the importance of English language among the learners. Furthermore, they
realized the importance of English not only to equip the trainees with the jargon of hospitality
language but also they will be the most important persons who will serve and entertain
customers/guests in the hospitality and tourism industry.
An alternative was taken by these teachers in order to strengthen students understanding of the
content. The notes and practices written in English were given to the students. The use of
English language has been strongly emphasized, as the learners need to deal with certain
terminologies when they join workforce.
3.1.4
Fashion and Design Course
This teaching and learning process conducted in this program was the most awful as the
teachers did not emphasized on the importance of English language. The trainers spoke in Malay
language most the time and no practice was given for the students. They were also more on
chitchatting in class. No notes were given to the student as they were only taught on hands-on
skills such as drawing, sketching and sewing. This should not be happened, as the learners
should be taught in English since they are undertaking a sort of communication skills under the
umbrella of Fashion and Design.
3.2 Interviews
The conducted interviews were mainly looking forward to answer some questions pertaining to
bilingual teaching classroom. The questions include:
1. How many years have you been teaching in community college?
2. Do you prefer to teach in English or Malay language? Why do you say so?
3. What do you think of the students responses if you are to teach in English?
4. Do you think teaching students using fully English language gives any benefits not only
for the students but also for you?
5. What is/are your opinion/s on improving the use of English language in classroom?
Below are the results of the summarized interview sessions.
3.2.1
Mechanical Engineering Course
The interviews resulting that the instructors of this program want English language to be
implemented only to semester one students. Other than that, the system of community college
education is not systematic and well arranged. Thus, they want it to be more structured, well
planned and systematic.
Moreover, none of the teachers has tried to use English language in class although the circular on
English language classroom has been introduced in 2008. As a result, the grade of the students
English spoken had deteriorating for every semester.
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3.2.2
Electrical Installation Course
The instructor of this course had almost similar thoughts as mechanical instructors in which
they wanted English language to be conducted for semester one students. The instructors have
own perception toward the teaching using English language. They emphasized more on content
instead of the language. Besides, they also requested for more English courses to be conducted,
as this is one of the ways to improve their English so that they can teach students using English
language in classroom.
3.2.3
Tourism Course
The interviewees of this course had several years of teaching experience and they were some of
the senior teachers. Based on the interview result, they like to use English in classroom, but they
do not have enough skill in English communication. In addition, they also requested for more
English courses either in-house or outside which can improve their English language. They also
realized the importance of English language not only for them as instructors but also for the
learners as they need to know the hospitality languages as trainees will be dealing with
customers in the hospitality and tourism industry.
Other than that, they agreed that the use of English language in a classroom is greatly depends
on the learners interest and competency. Upon the realization of the importance of English
language, the teachers take an effort by speaking English in class although they know it is
possible to engage learners in English language spoken in classroom. Another factor that leads to
spoken English is the learners ability. Very few of learners had pass rate English result in their
SPM examination. Thus, it is possible for the learners to respond and communicate in English
with the trainers.
3.2.4
Fashion and Design Course
The results of the interview sessions were astonishing. The trainers of this course did not have
interest in speaking English, as they believe that there is no relevancy of speaking English
language in classroom, as students do not have to speak English during examinations.
Furthermore, students undertaking courses of Fashion and Design are equipped with skills and
techniques. Any lesson given only emphasizes on skills and techniques that they need as
preparation before joining any industry. Thus, the lacks of interest among the trainers will only
give bad impact for learners speaking ability and yet they will face problem to correspond with
employers at industry.
4. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, majority of the trainers have less interest in using English in classroom except
trainers from Tourism course. The use of English language in a classroom depends on the
relevancy and needs of the instructors, not for the sake of the students. The bilingual teaching
classroom is much preferred as it helps the instructors to develop learners understanding of the
learning content and translation of English is best accepted [5]. This study proved that bilingual
teaching classroom is a crucial phenomenon exists in Malaysian community college and this
study has never been conducted earlier.
Finally, it is hoped that this study will open the heart and mind of other community college
instructors in giving the best education for learners. It is also hoped that similar studies on this
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issue can be carried out in the future in order to improve the system and policy of Malaysian
community college education in helping trainees to be well equipped with good English and to
be well employed by the industry in the workforce.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Bundle of love for Syamsul Hamirul. Dr Jasmi, thank you.
REFERENCES
1. Anderson, Theodore and Mildred Boyer. (1970). Bilingual Schooling in The United
States.Washington, DC.
2. Anderson, Theodore. (1972). Bilingual Education: The American Experience in Bilingual
Schooling, ed. by Merrill Swain. Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
3. Rennie, J. (1993). ESL and bilingual program models. (In press) Last assesed 14 April 2014.
4. Nunan, D. (1988). The Learner-centered Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
5. Bacon, H., Kidd, G., and Seaborg, J. (1982). The effectiveness of bilingual instruction with
Cherokee Indian students, in Journal of American Indian Education, pp. 34-43.
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Skilling for Job: A Grounded Theory of Vocational Training at

Industrial Training Institutes of Malaysia
Ridzwan Che Rus1, Ruhizan Mohammad Yasin2, Faizal Amin Nur Yunus3, Mohd Bekri Rahim3,
Irwan Mahazir Ismail3
1Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Sultan Idris Education University
2Faculty of Education, The National University of Malaysia,
3Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Tun Hussein Onn University
1 ridzwan@fptv.upsi.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Malaysia emphasizes towards a higher incomes developed nation by the year 2020. Towards
this end, Malaysia will require skilled and semi-skilled workers to fill jobs in certain industries to
support the country's development process. However, recent statistics show that only 28
percent of workers in Malaysia are included in the category of skilled and semi-skilled jobs. This
shows that our country is lagging far behind other developed countries show the percentage of
skilled and semi-skilled workers more than 50 percent. Previous studies have shown that there
is an issue that skills gaps between skills required by industry and skills are trained in the
training institution. Thus, this research explores the formation of skilled workers in industrial
training institutes that support the creation of skilled and semi- skilled. Qualitative study using
grounded theory methods are reaching theoretical saturation data when the sample reached 32
respondents. Data obtained using interviews, observations and document analysis and analyzed
using open and selective coding process using NVivo. The results showed that the skilling for job
is a main concern faced by the respondents. To support the formation of skills for employment of
trainees should have some trainee characteristic that fit for upskilling process.
Keywords: Vocational Training, Industrial-Training Institutes, Grounded Theory, Qualitative
Research
1. INTRODUCTION
The era of knowledge economy and globalization leads to the necessity of human capital which
comprise professional and semi-professional as well as knowledgeable and skilled labor
(Brockman, Clark and Winch 2008; Ramlee et. al. 2008; Wan Seman 2007). Over the years, the
country has relied heavily on foreign labor from Indonesia and Bangladesh to fill positions in
plantation and construction industries and also as domestic help (Malaysia 2010). If employees
released from public training institutions (ILKA) do not have the skills required by the industry,
investors will not be interested in investing in Malaysia.
A study by Ab. Rahim and Ivan Hanafi (2007) quoted a report carried out by the Asian
Development Bank on industrial workers in several countries, including Malaysia, revealing that
the technical and vocational education apprentice products did not meet the quality standards
nor were they willing to work. This may lead to decreased trust among employers in skilled
workers, and at a more serious level, it may even cause the loss of potential foreign investors.
Thus, the issue of the low quality and quantity of skills trainee output from the Malaysian
technical education system should be addressed immediately in order to enhance investors'
confidence in our country.
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2. SKILLS FORMATION PROCESSES

In Malaysia, the field of vocational training emphasizes individual skills through experiential
learning. Experiential learning or learning by doing something to get experience is based on the
notion that individuals have not the understanding of the elements of thought that remain
otherwise unchanged but is instead formed and re-formed through experience (Kolb 1984).
Previous studies show that the formation of micro-skilled workers requires a few levels of
mastery. Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) for example look at the process of understanding the
formation starting from novice to expert through the five stages shown in Figure 1:
Figure 1: Skills-formation Process (Dreyfus and Dreyfus 1980)

The novice phase is the stage in which the trainee acts only according to the instructions
specified. The amateur stage is where he/she is guided to do something in a clear cut way. The
competent stage is where the trainee is able to perform the tasks assigned. Proficient level
trainees are able to see the important aspects of the skills which can be performed better while
expert trainees are no longer bound by rules as they are able to accomplish things
independently. The model above by Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1980) describes the stages which one
must go through before he/she reaches the level of expertise. However, it does not involve other
social aspects that support the skills development process.
Brandt, Farmer, and Buckmaster (1993) explain the concept of apprenticeship skills formation
through five stages which are different from that proposed by Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1980) but
involve similar aspects of staging skills level. The model is divided into two stages i.e. cognitive
modeling and behavioral modeling. This stage only involves the observation of the behavior of
the instructor. The leveled approach also involves an attempt to gain skills and the process of
reflection on what is being done. Gradually, the levels diminish the role of teachers and improve
the ability of trainees. The ability of trainees is increased and they are finally able to perform
according to the needs of the next level of self-directed learning. The final stage is when they are
able to generalize the skills of the trainees in other tasks that require similar skills. Figure 2
shows the levels described above.
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Figure 2: Skills-Formation Process (Brandt, Farmer, and Buckmaster (1993)

The basis for developing all these skills is derived from the concept of apprenticeship, which
includes a variety of fields. Ryberg and Christiansen (2008) also introduced the ladder of
participation based on learning to grow by Engestrom (1987). In the early stages, trainees
imitate the behaviour studied. Then, they go to the next level where the trainees who were able
to things themselves with little error begin to dominate. Training for training will give
confidence to the trainees, allowing them to enter the next stage. The final stage is where the
trainees can already teach the skills they have learnt to others. Figure 3 shows the ladder of
participation.
Figure 3: Learning Participation Ladder (Ryberg and Christiansen, 2008)

The three skills formation process described in Figures 1, 2, and 3 adapt the concept of
apprenticeship where trainees learn from instructors in stages. The skills upgrading process is
seen only in terms of individual skills without looking at the social processes that support the
skills development process. Therefore, it begs the question of what are the processes
experienced by ITI trainees in order to gain skills?
3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1. What are the processes involved in developing skilled trainees in industrial training
institutes?
2. How does this process happen?
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4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
4.1 Research sample
Respondents were selected based on theoretical sampling in which we believe that those elected
can contribute to the substantive area of the study. Selected sampling method uses the snowball
method and is convenient. Respondents were selected from a group of excellent students who
were able to provide information on research topics. Studies were conducted to achieve
theoretical saturation when the number of respondents reached 32 participants comprising
administrators, teachers, employers and industry supervisors as well as students. Specifically 15
of the respondents were students, two administrators, 10 teachers, and five industry
employers/supervisors were interviewed. Respondents were selected from various areas of
study offered at selected locations. A variety of individual perspectives was sought in various
areas in order to see the diversity that exists. Explorations of different depths will give better
meaning to the main concern studied and how it is resolved in different contexts.
4.2 Data Collection
To achieve the objectives and answer the research questions set, we used three main methods of
data collection i.e. interviews, observations, and document analysis. Interview sessions were
conducted using a set of open interview questions which we developed as a guide for initial
questions before going to the general question of existence based on the responses. Interview
sessions were conducted at various locations in accordance with the requirements of the
respondents and typically took between 60-90 minutes depending on the time available to
respondents. As a customary practice, respondents provided a letter of consent so that they can
be interviewed and they are read their rights before the interview begins.
In addition to the interview memos, notes of observations were also recorded for the researcher
to reflect on the perceived situation and the concepts developed during the observation. Written
memos exist in a variety of shapes and sizes, including memos during the formation of concepts.
Document analysis was conducted on appropriate documents as it helps researchers gain more
in-depth information about the basic social processes studied.
4.3 Data Analysis
Grounded theory methods were used during the process of data analysis. We started with
writing memos after each interview was conducted, and after a while, patterns emerged and the
memos could be categorized according to indicators, incidents, concepts, and categories.
According to Glaser (1998), writing memos is a core process in grounded theory study. Ideas
emerge during the coding process, data collection, and analysis as well as relationship codes that
exist in theory during the process of writing the memo. Codes and categories that were formed
according to our own synthesis based on emerging patterns. This is different from the common
qualitative method based on the analysis of themes that have been formed earlier.
The data was then analyzed using substantive coding involving open coding and selective coding
(Glaser 2004). The constant comparative method was run simultaneously in which we compared
incident to incident, incident to concept, and concept to concept (Glaser and Strauss 1967). Each
concept that emerged was compared to other concepts. All of these processes were compared
with each other to see the emergence of concepts that eventually formed the core categories of
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the study. All data was processed using Microsoft Word and NVivo 8 in order to arrange the
coding processes
5. RESEARCH FINDINGS
Data analysis was conducted by the arrangement of theoretical memos. Five main concepts
emerged, shaping the dimensions of basic social processes of workers skills acquisition.
Trainees skills-development processes are based on the concepts formed from the memos,
observation notes, and detailed code analysis. The basic social processes that shape trainees
working skills are as follows:
5.1 Phase 1: Entering
At this phase, it was found that students choose to enter ITI due to their interest shaped by other
factors such as their friends, family, and the environment. This interest stems from the
realization that ITI as a public skills training institution will equip them with skills that enable
them to secure jobs. As respondent P6 says:
"I am interested in and committed to learn because I see that my friends who were in ITI are
already working and have good jobs. That is what motivates me to study here (ILPKL)"
The statement given by respondent P6 is supported by respondent P1:
"I was already interested in skills since I was in school. When I knew ITI offered a field that
was relevant to my interests, I applied immediately ".
5.2 Phase 2: Accepting
At this phase, students who enter ITI realize that they are there to learn. They start to accept the
fact that they must work hard to obtain knowledge and skills. This is evidenced by the following
statements given by respondents:
"When I entered this institution, I had to accept the qada and qadar (destiny) that I had
been chosen to study here. This is where God has decided my rezeki is ".-P4
"I entered ITI based on my interests so I have to accept whatever situations or conditions
here. All the things that the trainers do are for our own good so that we will become good
workers ". - P2
"My trainer emphasises that I must accept the fact that I have registered to become a student
here. So now, I must study properly so that I will be able to get as much knowledge and skills
that I can apply once I start working ".-P9
"Employers want skilled workers so we must accept the training system that is in place
here".-P7
5.3 Phase 3: Adapting
At this phase, trainees have successfully adapted to the skills and knowledge development
process at the ITI. They continue their efforts in advancing their knowledge and skills; their
dependence on the trainers slowly diminished. The following statements were given by
respondents:
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"At first, I was quite shocked. I thought that being in ITI would be the same as being in
school, but it is not. I had to adapt. ".-P1
"I got the program that I was interested in and I applied for. Once I started the program
here, I realized that there was a lot to do. Practical classes at the workshop, classes on
theory. But when I really think about it, if we want skills, we will have to adapt to
situations like this ".-P3
5.4 Phase 4: Changing
At this phase, trainees accept the skills-learning process as a routine part of their lives as
trainees. They have started to accept the industry-like atmosphere as part of the trainers
emphasis on real industrial situations.
"After studying here for a while, I have become more proficient with practical training in
the workshop. I can now do things myself with the help of the trainer ".-P10
"I observe what the trainers do and I follow them. If there is a mistake, I will correct it. If I
still do not understand something, I will ask the trainers. After a while, I have become more
comfortable and happy studying here because I know what I need to do ".-P7
5.5 Phase 5: Skilling for Job
At the last phase, trainees accept the fact that the skills that they learn will better enable them to
obtain jobs. Therefore, all the knowledge and skills input that they gain will be related to future
jobs in the industry.
"When I complete my final project, I can apply all the skills that I have learnt here. If I
forget anything, I can ask my friends. The learning process never ends ".-P5
"Whatever we do here, we must remember that the knowledge and skills that we gain here
will be used in our future occupation. Employers want workers who are not only skilled, but
ones who can also learn new things ".-P3
6. DISCUSSION
Research findings have shown five suggested basic social process phases, as described below:
6.1 Entering Phase
This phase involves the early stages where trainees choose ITI as a place to further their studies
in their fields of interest. At this stage, there are a few categories of students i.e. students who
enter based on their own interest, students who enter based on peer influence, and students
who enter due to coercion from family. There are also students who are accepted into programs
that are not of their interest due to limited places in the programs; however, because of their
strong motivation to learn, the students accept these positions and continue their studies in the
fields they were offered. This research finding agrees with a study conducted by UPM (2012) on
the early screening processes for acceptance in ITIs. This stage is also different from the early
stage of the apprenticeship model of participation and control (Ryberg and Christiansen 2008).
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6.2 Accepting Phase

In the second phase, it was found that students are willing to learn and change based on their
own accord. Trainees accept the fact that they are studying in ITI and form relationships with
new friends. At this level, trainees are willing to have extra learning sessions to increase their
knowledge and skills. Trainees also accept that their experiences of ITI were different from what
they initially expected. This stage is consistent with the early stages of the apprenticeship model
of participation and control (Dreyfus and Dreyfus 1980; Hansman 2001; Ryberg and
Christiansen 2008).
6.3 Adapting Phase
In this phase, trainees adapt to the teaching and learning environment as well as new friends.
During this process, trainees have begun to use cooperative learning have begun to choose
compatible friends to study with. The learning process in ITI mostly occurs through
relationships with friends who are familiar with the community of practice. Trainees have
successfully adapted to this situation. This stage is also consistent with the early stages of the
apprenticeship model of participation and control (Brandt, Farmer and Buckmaster 1993;
Ryberg and Christiansen 2008).
6.4 Changing Phase
At this stage, trainees receive learning skills as a routine process in life as a trainee. Trainees are
starting to accept the industrial-like learning environment emphasized by the instructor,
especially on real industrial situations. Trainees who successfully achieve this phase are
confident with their ability to adapt to the learning environment in the industry. This stage is
also consistent with the early stages of the apprenticeship model of participation and control
(Brandt, Farmer and Buckmaster 1993; Ryberg and Christiansen 2008).
6.5 Skilling for Job Phase
The final phase is where the trainees accept the fact that the skills learned are to help them
obtain jobs. Hence, any input or acquired knowledge and skills will be associated with future
employment in the industry. They are aware of what employers want from them as
knowledgeable and skilled workers and they possess the characteristics of highly skilled trainers
at their level. This finding is consistent with the self-study process outlined by Zimmerman
(2002). At this level, trainees are able to modify the context of their new knowledge skills.
Learning does not primarily involve the transfer of knowledge from trade vocational schools to
practical contexts of application, but rather the process of gaining increasing familiarity with the
objects and persons in and across different communities of practice.
These findings are also in line with the action plan of the culture of lifelong learning (20112020) which seeks to overcome seven main problems: i) the absence of lifelong learning policy
in full, ii) the lack of monitoring of lifelong learning programs at the national level, iii) poor
awareness and participation in lifelong learning programs, iv) inadequate financial support for
lifelong learners, v) inadequate mechanisms and infrastructure for implementation of lifelong
learning program, vi) the overlapping activities of lifelong learning and vii ) recognition (KPT
2011). It also supports the generalization phase that allows trainees to use their skills in other
contexts, either in industry or in practice (Brandt, Farmer and Buckmaster 1993).
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7. CONCLUSION
The concepts gained from theoretical sampling and constant sampling make the grounded
theory process an interesting method of research. The concepts that emerged from the
interviews and the exploration of these concepts became a challenge for the researchers. The
concept of vocational skills is a clear hypotheses on why trainees learn in ITIs and in the
industry i.e. to acquire skills. With these skills, trainees are able to easily find job opportunities.
These skills are acquired through a few stages or phases. This acquisition process is aided by
trainees inherent interest in their fields, even before they choose to enter ITIs. These five stages
which shape the vocational skills actually support the concept of lifelong learning as described
by the Ministry of Higher Educations (now known as Ministry of Education) strategic plan for
lifelong learning.
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Revealed Knowledge Integration in National Dual Training

System (NDTS): Philosophy, Issues, and Challenges
Akhmal Annas Hasmori1*, Jailani Md Yunos2, Rohana Hamzah3, and Muhammad Afzamiman
Aripin4
1, 2Fakulti Pendidikan Teknikal dan Vokasional, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
3, 4Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
1*akhmalannas@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to examine the implementation of National Dual Training System
(NDTS) in Malaysian Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) System. The
establishment of National Philosophy of Education (NPE) is solid evidence that Malaysia is
committed to develop potentials of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, based on a
firm belief in and devotion to God. Individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally,
and physically balanced are said to be the ultimate goal of education in this country. In the
context of Malaysian TVET System especially in the aspect of skills training system, the official
implementation of NDTS started in 2005 has been seen as the most potential system to develop
the excellent quality of human capital in this country. The main outcome of this program is to
produce Holistic K-Workers who have the integration of Technical Competence, Human and
Social Competence, and Learning and Methodological Competence. These Holistic K-Workers are
then expected to contribute efficiently towards the transformation of Malaysia to become high
income country by 2020. However, some issues and challenges surface in the context of
individuals potential development which is the development of individual as workforces in
economic model and the development of individual as human itself in Islamic model. Therefore,
this article aims to examine the current approach used in NDTS and henceforward to evaluate
the potential for Revealed Knowledge Integration to be applied into the current approach of
NDTS. The study found that even though the concept of Revealed Knowledge Integration is wellknown especially by the policy makers and the society of TVET in Malaysia, the implementation
of this kind of spiritual approach has not being well-practiced enough to fulfill the requirement
of holistic development of individuals potential as stated in NPE.
Keywords: Revealed Knowledge Integration; National Dual Training System (NDTS); Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET); National Philosophy of Education (NPE); Holistic KWorkers
1. INTRODUCTION
What is the concept of Education? What is the concept of Training? What is the concept of
Technical and Vocational Training and Education (TVET)? And what is the concept of Holistic
TVET? There are various principles and theories about holistic terminology had been
proposed by current philosophers and even the ancient Greek philosophers. All of these
principles and theories respectively rest on the assumptions that the soul is an essential
component of the individual that is connected to the individuals potentiality including
intellectual, emotional, spiritual and the physical elements. The famous words of Socrates, know
thyself is a depiction of his belief that the potential element of an individual is latent and
concealed in nature and hence, needs to be brought to surface. This innate potentiality can be
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made active through the use of right and proper technique in education and also an environment
that is conducive to its cultivation and nurturance brackets [1, 2].
What about us? What is a Malaysian principle of individuals potential development? The basic
philosophy underlying the Malaysian system is based on Malaysias very own National
Philosophy of Education (NPE) with the belief and devotion to God as its central tenet [3, 4, 5].
The NPE formulated in the early year of 1988 and implemented in the following year aimed to
nurture the holistic concept of education and training. The implementation of NPE also
witnessing a radical break from the traditional curriculum which was too content centred and
overly focused on examination. By looking at the ideals of the NPE, the Malaysian system had
clearly identified that the concepts of integration and holism are first and foremost based on the
concept of belief and devotion to God. We also must clearly understand that the spirituality in
the Malaysian context first and foremost rests upon the belief of God the Almighty and the
revelation as the greatest source of truth [6, 1].
Hence, in addressing to this point, this paper will try to discuss and argues the current approach
of Malaysian TVET System and how the concept of Holistic TVET can be implemented and at the
same time fitted into the educational philosophy of this country. This paper at the same time will
propose and discussed one of most potential Skill Development and Training (SDT) program
that can be implemented together with the concept of Holistic TVET which is National Dual
Training System (NDTS). This paper also will try to highlight the issues and challenges towards
the implementation of this kind of spiritual approach in NDTS.
2. NDTS; MADE IN MALAYSIA
What is the history of NDTS? How Malaysian start? According to [7, 8], its all started from
bilateral talks between the Governments of Malaysia and Germany back in 1986. A study known
as Basic Study on the Design of a Dual Vocational Training Scheme in Malaysia conducted by
German consultants from 1997 to 1999 with the main purpose was to strengthen TVET System
in Malaysia. This basic study then followed by the implementation of Dual System Project (DSP)
which inspired Malaysian Government to implemented our own design of dual training system
on May 19, 2004. A year later, the Malaysian government officially introduces NDTS from the
cabinet decision under 8th Malaysian Plan [7, 9].
What is the basic concept of NDTS? What is Dual Training? Dual means training in two learning
situations which is actual workplace and training institute. A company usually collaborates with
a training institute to conduct training under NDTS. The structure of NDTS implementation can
be seen in Table 1. What is the specialty of this duality nature of NDTS? This duality approach is
very crucial for the sustainability of the country in both of economic and social security factors.
This dual approach also has differentiated between two learning places which is typical
classroom set in training institutes and the real on the job set in companies or industries. In
other words, the student as apprentice has a lot of opportunity to learn and train from both of
these places.
What is the philosophy of NDTS? What is the main product of NDTS? NDTS is a practice-oriented
apprenticeship training system design to develop highly quality skilled knowledge worker in
order to meet present and future industrial needs of Malaysia. All of this as a preparation to
steer and gear up the ambition of this country to become a developed nation by the year 2020
[10, 11, 12]. The main product of NDTS is known as Holistic K-Workers who is expected to be
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prepared with the Technical Competences, Learning and Methodological Competences, and
Social and Human Competences. Technical Competences are comprises of knowledge and skills
in respecting technical field, while Learning and Methodological Competences are comprises of
lifelong learning, problem solving activities, executing, and monitoring workplace assignments
[8, 9].
Table 1. NDTS Implementation [7]
Training Period
Depends on Area and Certification Level
Training Ratio
70:30 or 80:20 (Practical: Theory). Practical training

is conducted at workplace whereas basic skills and
theory are offered at the training centre.
Delivery Method
Day Release System; 1-2 days a week of theory and

basic skills at training centre and 4-5 days a week of
practical training at the company. Block Release
System; 1-2 months of theory and basic skills at
training centre and 4-5 months of practical training
at the company.
Apprentice
School leavers or existing workers selected by the

company to undergo NDTS.
Training Allowance
Semester 1; Rm350 a month

Award of Skill Qualification
Malaysian Skills Certificate (MSC) level 1, 2, 3,

Malaysian Skills Diploma (MSD), or Malaysian Skills
Advanced Diploma (MSAD) by Department of Skills
Development (DSD).
However, the most important aspect that differentiates NDTS Holistic K-Workers from another
is there is a crucial need to develop the Social and Human Competences to the apprentice which
is comprises of character development and social integration while in the world of work [13]. In
this case, NDTS can be assumed as a TVET System that not only stressed on the development of
apprentice in technical aspects, but also stressed on the development of apprentice in human
aspects. Hence, the development of apprentice in the aspects of Social and Human Competences
in NDTS also need to be aligned with overall philosophy of individuals potential development
practices in Malaysia which is NPE that stressed the important of belief and devotion to God as
its central tenet.
3. PHILOSOPHY OF HOLISTIC TVET; REVEALED KNOWLEDGE INTEGRATION
Holistic Education practices in Malaysia can be divided into five integration aspects which can be
seen in Table 2. However, these five aspects of integration are not isolated entity from one to
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another. Integration among these five aspects should be implemented coherently if the concept
of holistic education is to be clearly defined and manifested in the context of real practices. The
integration of these five aspects is also pertinent in bringing about a clear understanding of the
various sub-concepts subsumed under the holistic concept of education namely; God or Creator,
universe, knowledge, values, skills and human existence and their inter-connections. With Islam
as the official religion in Malaysia, the principles of the National Philosophy of Education is
clearly God-centred and being holistic encompasses the meaningful integration of disciplines
both inter and intra discipline, inculcation and transmission of the 16 core values across the
curriculum with the use of language as the main vehicle in translating the principles of the NPE
into actual practice [1].
Table 2. Holistic Education in Malaysia [1]
Integration of
Knowledge, Skills,
Values and Language in
Learning
Simultaneous process of promoting an overall

development of an individual student through the
mastery of knowledge, acquisition of skills,
internalization of noble values and the proper usage of
language in teaching and learning.
Integration of Learning
Experiences in the
School Subjects
Integration of the disciplines is not to be only

understood from the perspective of integration of
subject matter. Integration of subjects must be made
against a more wholesome interpretation of knowledge
as uphold by the NPE.
Integration of Theory
and Practice in the
Subject Taught
Transfer of knowledge and skills through the subjects

taught is not devoid of the infusion of core noble
values. Thus, having these values as the platform for
character building, the teaching of various subjects
should aim at developing different student potentiality
and interest.
Integration of Learning
Experience Inside and
Outside of Classroom
Various aspects of meaningful learning process is

definitely infused with the concept of God or the
Creator which is the ultimate cause of the ecological
balance and harmony, a metaphysical position to be
found in almost every religion in the country.
Integration of Teaching
and Learning
Strategies
The development of the intellect should not be

separated from the other aspects of the individual
development which also comprise the affective and
physical dimensions.
To produce a balanced human capital from the Islamic perspective, an integrated concept must
be put in place which is a type of education and training that guides and trains the mind, body
and soul of a person based on Islamic values and its revelations which is Al-Quran and AlSunnah [14]. Islamic education and training also must emphasis the following concepts; To
produce a pious human being who are devoted to God; To carry out lifelong learning; To develop
total potential of a persons soul, mind and body in an integrated way; and To develop a persons
capability to carry out his or her duties as a servant of God and as a Caliph of God [15]. An
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Integrated Islamic Education emphasizes the unison of knowledge and not merely an installation
or imitation of ones knowledge through conventional teaching and learning practices. In the
simplest words, Islamic education rejects duality between God and the World of Work [16].
Therefore, Malaysia as on its way towards attaining the developed nation status by the year
2020 with its aspiration to success in developing human capital also need to reconsider this
spiritual aspect. Beside the development of skills to equip individuals with the competencies
required for a modern industry, the development of individuals with the quality of human being
required by God or Creator also needs to be specified and implemented [6, 17, 4, 18]. The overall
national education and training systems also need to be continuously realigned with this aspect
in order to enhance the quality, efficiency and effectiveness, yet respecting the guidelines and
rules of God.
4. THE ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
Uncivilized Perception of TVET
Since its introduction, TVET in Malaysia has always been considered by the public especially
parents, as the second choice path for the those who are academically less qualified in general
education system. This negative perception has been driven by the low academic requirements
set for the admission into most of TVET programmes in this country. There are also myths like
there will be limited prospects for TVETs product and there is no chance for them to further
their educational and professional development. This unfair perception of TVET in Malaysia has
also been created by the impression that the primary objective of TVET is only to cater for
school drop-outs, rather than as an important strategy to train skilled workers for the reality in
World of Work and for their sustainable life in the community. In addition, TVETs qualifications
and careers are still poorly perceived and recognised in the landscape of workplace in Malaysia.
There is a lot of employers who are actually not really recognise the variety of qualification due
to the highly fragmented landscape, with so many ministries and agencies issuing range of
certifications [19, 20].
Multiplicity of TVET Provider
The interesting fact about TVET provision in Malaysia it is undertaken by a lot of different
ministries, agencies and organisations, both public and private, with a multiplicity of
certification, standards and curricula [19, 21, 22, 20]. From one aspect, it shows that how our
country is serious and eager in the aspect of skilled workers development. However, this variety
of TVET providers often operate as lone ranger and do not taking into account programme
offerings in the broader context, resulting to the overlapping courses between institutions as
well as creating confusion for students, employers, and even the community itself. This kind of
too much traffic situation surely has implications towards the standardization of training and
qualification, budget effectiveness, quality assurance, recognition of prior learning, and the
further education of TVET graduates. The current governance structure also still lacks effective
coordination, sharing of resources, and articulation within the overall system. The crucial part is,
there is also no single oversight body to provide overview of TVET landscape here in Malaysia
[19, 21, 20].
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Efficiency and Quality of TVET

Despite the variety of TVET providers and standards in this country, there is still an issue of
efficiency and quality of TVETs delivery itself. There are many reports, writing, and findings
about demand and supply mismatch which will contribute to unfilled employment vacancies in
the industries. To overcome this kind of problem, it is obvious that there is a need to improve
links between training schools and the industry in order to minimize this mismatch [23, 20].
Training institutions also seem not to track the employment destination of their graduates. As a
consequent, the institutions have not taken advantage feedback from past trainees on the quality
of the training they have received to improve their curricula and training packages. In short, the
implementation of outcome evaluation and tracer studies that can improve the market
responsiveness of training programmes is still lacking [19]. Some TVET systems work well, it
just a matter of doing it right [24].
Two Thought of Policy Makers
There are two schools of thoughts that influence the policy formation of education and training
in Malaysia. The first school of thought states that the purposes of education and training is
purely to fulfil the economic interest, while the other one states that the purposes of education
and training is for human and knowledge development [4, 18]. The effect to this kind of polemic
or conflict between these two ways of thoughts later can be seen with the introduction of several
education and training implementation and evaluation system within this country. In addition,
this various system seem to rapidly changes from time to time with various of goals and
ambitions from various of TVET providers in this country [10, 25, 26, 11, 12]. There is also a
reasoning that the goal of education and training is to prepare the technocrats, bureaucrats,
scientist, economist, and highly skilled professionals that always fulfil the demand of industries
and World of Work. From their point of view, this kind of group is the group that capable to
contribute effectively towards the development of economy, industry, and trade of this country.
The slightly different reasoning states that the goal of education and training is not necessarily
require the application of specific proficiency in a certain field of work and to prepare the
industry workers. It is usually look as an experience process that related to the individuals
way of life and psychological drive to develop their self potential [3, 1, 2].
The Fitrah of Human Creation and Knowledge Development
Based on nature (fitrah), every creature called human assumes a dual role, first as a servant to
the God or Creator and the second as a caliph who is responsible for performing the role
towards his or her self, others and the environment with justice and wise [4]. Both of these roles
of human nature should be considered as the main basis for the human capital development to
ensure educational goals that have been set can be achieved and at the same time always on the
right track. In order to align with the fitrah or nature of human creation, the development
process of knowledge also must be returned to nature in the integrative way. In Islam, there are
two main sources for knowledge which is Quran and Sunnah of the Prophet. Knowledge of
Personal Management (Fardhu Ain) and Knowledge of System Management (Fardhu Kifayah)
which can be obtained from this revealed knowledge should be expressed in an integrated and
comprehensive development process. This is to make sure that the quality of human capital
produced is not only high in skill and knowledge, but also has a quality as a human itself [27, 6,
28].
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5. CONCLUSION
Rejuvenation in the cultures of academic context does not mean to rejuvenate or redesign the
whole system but more to show the way of courage to change and adopt the methods and
approaches as well as a new ecosystem environment. In this context, NDTS seem to have a good
quality in design to develop the potential of human capital as a Holistic K-Workers. However,
there are some spaces in its implementation process that can be further improved by using the
Holistic TVET Approach which is the integration of Islamic Revealed Knowledge in Intellectual
and Practical Knowledge. In short, this kind of approach is trying to instil the divine ruh (soul) as
embodied in the NPE into the existing potential training system which is NDTS.
REVEALED
KNOWLEDGE
ACQUIRED
KNOWLEDGE
Cognitive
(Minds-On)
Akhlak
Achievement
Affective
(Hearts On)
Psychomotor
(Hands On)
Figure.1. Holistic TVET Approach [14, 6, 5]
By not setting aside the economic interest, the creation of quality human capital requires them
to explore and further understand the deep spiritual potential inherent in themselves. This is
supported by [27] which stated that human spiritual potential need to be developed on the basis
of belief in God or Creator in order to form praiseworthy attributes such as cooperation, not
hypocritical, not according to their own desires and thus be able to act as a fair leader in
environmental administration. The development of mind, heart, and body is a prerequisite to the
development of quality human capital (Figure 1). When all of this potential is developed in an
integrative ways, it will produce a holistic talent that have a potential to contribute to the
community as a whole. There are two main basic needs of human life, the first one is the basic
personal and akhlak (moral) development; while the second is the development of basic skills
whether scientific knowledge, technical and vocational schools [6, 4, 14]. Thus, both of these
bases should be developed with balanced to produce quality human capital that meets the intent
of the NPE as a whole.
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The Management Model of Vocational Education Quality

Assurance
using Holistic Skills Education (HOLSKED)
Erni Munastiwi
Faculty of Education and Teacher Training, State Islamic University Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta
munastiwi_erni@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This research is conducted to formulate an education quality assurance management model,
which focused on vocational schools or SMK. The model covers an early process of students
deciding to choose a certain SMK until the post graduation of students. Quality assurance is an
important aspect to improve in education, especially in SMK, which is expected to be the leading
efforts to increase human resources. Therefore, a special management model form of quality
assurance toward SMK is needed. Holistic Skills Education (HOLSKED) is one of its
manifestations which is designed to assure the quality of SMK in a simple way by doing six steps.
They are Pre-entering Behaviour, Entering Behaviour, Process, Assessment, Evaluation, and
Output which included in the early process during the students application until the process of
assuring students after half a year of graduation. This research applied Research and
Development approach. The method used in the data collection process is qualitative and
quantitative ones. The number of the samples is four SMK in which each has sixty-one people.
Three SMKs are used as the samples for the initial test, while the rest is for the model test. There
are four ways used in the data collection techniques, they are documentation, observation,
interview, and questionnaire. HOLSKED resulted in some improvement of SMKs quality:
HOLSKED could change the mindstream of the majority of students to be more creative and
productive, students do not depend on the available facilities, but on the contrary they try to find
the way to solve the lack of the facilities at their school, and normative and adaptive materials
are presented more practically, not theoretically, by the teachers. HOLSKED is an education
quality assurance management model which is constructed scientifically because it is a model of
quality assurance for SMK. In 1999, the National Education Department launched a supplement
of Competency Based Training (BCT), in which it is an amalgamation of knowledge, skills and
attitudes. The SMK graduates should have competency related to computer and
intrepreneurship. The first competence is to anticipate the era of globalization, while the second
is to develop the sipirits of entreprenurship which can create the jobs. The results of this model
prove effective, especially to develop the mindset and awareness of the students to gain special
expertise. This model can encourage vocational students to develop entrepreneurial ideas so
that graduates are capable of not only working in a company but also creating their own
businesses. The aspects developed through this model are mindset, independence, problem
solving, innovation, and entrepreneurship.
Keywords: Holistic Skills Education (HOLSKED), Vocational Education, Quality Assurance
Management
1. INTRODUCTION
Indonesia's long-term development carried out in stages, aims to improve the lives and welfare
of the people. The developments in science and technology have been able to put the meaning of
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work in the order of life. The long-term development goal is to create a strong foundation for a
fair and prosperous nation of Indonesia based on Pancasila. In a developing country, the labor as
human resources has a crucial role in development. Therefore, the labor is the most prominent
component in a work environment. In fact, education in Indonesia is still producing human
resources that need to be upgraded. If this can be realized, it could push the unemployment rate
in Indonesia. Therefore, the government prioritizes the education sector as a major
improvement program state. Mukhadis (2004: 35) argues that learning consists of several
aspects of development, namely: 1) productive creative thinking, 2) decision-making, 3)
problem solving, 4) learning how to learn skills, 5) collaboration, and 6) self-management. The
sixth aspect strongly supports the development of quality of human resources if it is integrated
with both the joints of the education system, good basic education, secondary education, and
higher education. Education should serve as an effort grow and develop creative and productive
thinking, decision making, learning about something, collaborate something, and manage selfstudents. This is in line with what Hasan Ali Yildirim and Simsek (2004: 19) started that
vocational education is considered efficient as long as it meets the needs of the students and the
industry. Students need quality education in order to meet competency levels required by the
workplace. From vocational education, industry expects quality training in priority skills for
their future workers. The effecient and qualified vocational education is the education that can
facilitate students with real experience, tools, machines, materials, and methods of work. The
concept of the quality assurance in this model is expected to guarantee the quality of holistic
students. Therefore, it is necessary to actualize the concept of Holistic Skills Education
(HOLSKED). That is a concept of quality assurance management which is expected to provide an
optimal learning service to students. Through HOLSKED the students get the embed academic
services: 1) main stream/ mindset, 2) self-reliance, 3) problem solving, 4) innovation, and 5)
entrepreneurship. HOLSKED is constructed as a model of quality assurance management
process of teaching and learning by using the six phases. The first phase is pre-entering
behavior. The second phase is entering behavior. The third phase is process. The fourth phase is
assessment. The fifth phase is evaluation. And the sixth phase is outcome.
2. PROBLEMS
Education should create learning environments that are not for school, but learning for life.
Thus, in this context students are given a way to live, not the way to learn. It needs good
management to be able to increase the quality of education. This can be achieved, if there is a
model of proper quality assurance management. In ASEAN Free Trade Area/AFTA since 2003
and in 2020 the world of free market competition, it raises the finished goods/commodities and
services. In the international system called globalization, it appears that there are various
international concepts as the embodiment of the integration process (Mashoed , 1989:160).
Therefore, it is necessary to prepare human resources that can improve the competitiveness
include quality of production and services. The increase of competitiveness is started from the
preparation of the qualified human resources including education, expertise and skills,
especially for workers in adequate amounts. Indonesia needs to prepare human resources at the
secondary level in accordance with the needs of the business and industrial world. Those human
resources need to be prepared by the government. It is time for the world of education to be
more flexible with the current needs of the globalized world, in order to blend in and forward.
The existence of a vocational school becomes very important. On the one hand, vocational
education according to Grubb is: "vocational education is Considered helpful in developing what
can be termed as skill-culture and attitude toward manual work, in contrast to pure academic
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culture and preference fro white collars jobs; to serve simultaneously the hand and the mind, the
practical and the abstract, the vocational and the academic .... (Grubb, 1985: 526-548).
Vocational school prepares a person to do the job. On the other hand, vocational school is able to
deliver a line of formal education to the world of work. Just as it is stated that vocationalism will
be with us for years to come, and more countries will attempt (...) to tune their formal education
system to the world of work .... (Crites, 1996: 19). Vocational school will not be able to achieve
the goal to build the excellent and independent human resources if there is no holistic quality
assurance. Therefore, the HOLSKED is developed to ensure the quality of vocational secondary
school as a whole.
3. AIMS
The aim of Holistic Skills Education (HOLSKED) is preparing a blue-print of learning system as a
whole by considering the aspects of educator competence before deciding to become an
educator himself and the aspects of students who are followed up since they enter school,
during the learning process until the graduation of students and when determining job. What is
mean by skills in HOLSKED is both a theoretical capability and applicative capability. This
method is inspired from the one applied to the 'School Patronage' in West Sumatra initiated by
Prof. Kumaidi, Ph.D. which used the four phase in the target schools namely: the first phase is
students profile, the second phase is lesson plan (RPP), the third phase is classroom action
research (CAR), and the fourth phase is learning evaluation. (Kumaidi, 2005:100). When
compared between the 'School Patronage' and 'HOLSKED', HOLSKED is more detailed and
specific. The 'School Patronage' is generally constructed for primary and secondary education.
HOLSKED is constructed specifically for vocational education. When viewed from philosophy of
language, holistic means considering a whole thing or being to be more than a collection of parts.
According to the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2005). Literally, HOLSKED (Holistic
Skills Education) is a concept of quality assurance which is specifically used for vocational
schools (SMK). Conceptually, HOLSKED is a management model of education quality assurance
as a whole, which aims to ensure the quality of education/learning from the beginning/early
learning to the end. The term of HOLSKED implies an expectation that the vocational graduates
have multiabilities (cognitive, psychomotor, and affective). Besides, the SMK graduates can
develop various things as follows: 1) mindset can be developed when the students have already
understood the benefits of choosing SMK; 2) independence can be developed when the mindset
has been properly embedded so that the students will be independent in solving problems; 3)
problem solving can be developed when the students face problems in which they should be able
to find the best way to solve the problems; 4) innovation can be developed when the students
face problems requiring renewal; and 5) entrepreneurship which aims that the graduates of
vocational goal are not only able to get jobs in the companies, but are able to create their own
business as well. There are six phases in the HOLSKED. The first phase is pre entering behavior
in which teachers recognize and map the students. The second phase is entering behavior in
which the interaction between teachers and students is more in-depth than the first phase. The
third phase is process which is the implementation of the learning process. The fourth phase is
assessment which is the competency based student learning outcomes. The fifth phase is
evaluation which is the evaluation process from pre entering behavior to assessment. And the
sixth phase is output which is the final result of learning. HOLSKED is expected to bridge the
deficiencies, both in the aspect of pre-learning, learning process, and post-learning. The method
is designed in a simple way and does not require complicated understanding. As in the 'School
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Patronage' program, it was so successful in carrying a discource the 'simple, assessible and
uncomplicated that it has made various changes and developments.
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4. LITERATURE REVIEW
According to the Collins English Dictionary (2005) the meaning of model is a pattern, example,
or a reference. HOLSKED is a benchmark of quality assurance management for vocational
schools. HOLSKED quality assurance management model is systematically designed and easily
implemented.
According to Suharsimi (2008:4) that a management education is an activity or series of
activities, in the form of business process management group of human cooperation which is
incorporated in educational organizations, to achieve the educational goals that have been
previously set, in order to be effective and efficient. Moreover, Mulyani A. Rahadi (1983: 2-5)
emphasizes that the meaning of the definition above is as follows: 1) management is an activity
or series of activities undertaken from, by and for human; 2) a series of activities is a process of a
complex and unique educational management; 3) management process is carried out with a
group of people who are members of the organization; 4) the process is undertaken to achieve
predetermined objectives; 5) management process is done so that the goal can be achieved
effectively and efficiently.
Thus, the HOLSKED education management model is a series of educational activities carried out
by a group of people to achieve the goals.
Education is an aspect of life that is affected by the quantity and quality of other aspects of life.
Education is everybody's problem. This is due to that there is a learning process in the
education. Basically, humans have the potential to be good. Therefore, they should get a touch of
education. Education is a conscious effort directed to achieve the improvements in all aspects of
life.
In that education, the parental involvement (as first and main educator first), other adults,
community leaders and educators will be very important. The teachers as an educator occupies
a professional position, and this position is a profession that is very involved in formal
education. Educators/teachers can be said to occupy a very strategic position in managing the
learning process in formal education. Their duties are designing, directing, and managing the
learning process in order to achieve the goals. In that context, they do not only teach students in
order to be able to master the science but human values as well. In other words, beside
achieving the instructional effects, these nurturant effects are also important to achieve so that
the four pillars of education formulated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Culture
Organization (UNESCO) namely: learning to know, learning to do, learning to be and learning to
live together can be implemented together or one after another. (Tilaar, H.A.R., 1998: 69).
Professionalism is distinguished by the nature and depth/breadth of the work so that there is:
occupation (job just for a hobby or pleasure; vocation (simple job) and profession (skillsoriented job) .... (Suharsimi Arikunto, 2008: 230). Professional is a job that can be justified so
that the kind of work that does not require accountability in principle is not including
professional job. (Dedi Supriyadi, 1999: 95). Thus, the professional competence of teachers has
specific characteristics or traits, which covering: 1) requiring intellectual activity, 2) requiring
specialized knowledge, 3) requiring professional improvement, 4) requiring training, 5)
requiring career growth, 6) requiring the recognition, 7) giving priority services, and 8) having
the power with professional organizations (Sutomo, 1983: 4).
Vocational education is an education unit whose mission is to develop professional attitude, able
to competence, and is able to work and to have a career. The specific purpose of the education is
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to increase the intelligence, knowledge, personality, noble character, and skills. The statement
essentially illustrates that the vocational education duty is to prepare Human Resources (HR)
having the competence, independence, and ability to work. Substantially, the vocational
education has a responsibilty to teach and educate the students so that they have capabilty,
insight, skills in the fields of industry, and master he concepts of industrial engineering. The
vocational education is education of talents, interests and specific skills that is planned and given
to individuals who are interested to develop/prepare themselves in the scope of employment in
the area of occupational and occupational groups. Bartel, (1993: 11). That is, the flexibility in
determining occupational choice by considering the talents and interests owned by the students.
Therefore, the principle of vocational education is to guide and direct and facilitate the needs of
students in having careers. According to Law No. 20 Year 2003 on National Education System, it
is stated that vocational education is a secondary education of vocational school (SMK),
vocational aliyah school (MAK), or other equivalent forms with various kinds of their respective
expertise programs. It has 3 level/3 year education program and 4 level/4 year , in which each
is adapted to the demands of existing competencies in the workplace. The SMK goal involves two
things: 1) to take advantage of local potentials ranging from natural resources, minerals,
agriculture, fisheries; and 2) the relevance of emphasis on employment needs. Both of these
objectives can improve Indonesia's competitiveness in the area of local and global needs of
industry. Thus, in order to achieve the SMK goal, it requires a management that can improve the
quality of vocational schools.
The education quality assurance is the standard setting and fulfillment process of the quality of
management education consistently and continuously. Quality assurance is the entire systematic
action plan which is necessary to provide a belief satisfying certain requirements of quality. The
key requirements for an effective quality assurance are the underlying purpose must be
improvement. (Roger Brown, 2004:162). In the context of education, what is meant by quality
includes input, process and output. The successful quality assurance in educational institutions
can be achieved when every member of the organization contributes to the quality process.
Human resources within an organization/institution have important roles in implementing the
quality assurance. In general, there are five important things to consider in the process of
implementing the quality assurance of education. They are guidelines, policies, targets,
management mechanism, and activities. The five factors are a source of power in the
implementation of quality improvement
that should be interralatedly implemented. The
existence of a strong guidelines that will support the emergence of the policy so that the
program has a specific target. In these targets it is imperative that the work mechanism is based
on the initial guidelines. In the mechanism of action it is certainly needed optimal activity
performance as well. It is also stated that the quality of education is determined by the quality of
the inputs and the process that will ultimately produce quality outcomes or quality of the
results. Input is dealing with human resources, materials, and funds to support the elements in
the school, such as teachers, classrooms, instructional materials, and so on. Process is dealing
with activities in the school such as the presence of teachers and students, as well as staff
development. Outcomes is dealing with the results of education, such as the standard ability of
students, the students abilities in writing, and so on. Therefore, the quality of the inputs and the
process are very important aspects to improve the quality of education to enhance the quality of
results or outcomes. The quality assurance of education institutions (schools) is carried out to
anticipate problems during the process. The quality assurance starts from the selection of entry
(entry transition), grade placement according to the ability of students (on-site transition) and
graduation (exit transition) using the standard. After the students are at school, the school
ensures them to access to education through the curriculum, support services and qualifications
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of educators who are competent to achieve maximum results. The school ensures the running of
education by setting financing and support based on the standard, contract management,
mentoring and perform data quality management. In general, the effective schools have
controlled all these processes so that the resulting output can meet the demands of customers
and the result is that the schools can work optimally. The schools have a lot of alternative
activities, ensuring all activities performed to meet quality criteria and satisfy customers so that
the organization can achieve quality, effective, and work optimally. On the basis of these
conditions, an educator/teacher is required to have competencies that support the
implementation of quality assurance. HOLSKED model is for vocational school (SMK), then SMK
teachers are demanded to be more creative by exploiting the local potential of the schools so
that there is integration between the learning plan, the local potential, teaching materials, and
instructional media. The aim is that the learning in the field will be actual.
5. METHOD
The method of this research is both qualitative and quantitative (mixed). The total sample
comprised is 244 people consisting of 4 SMKs in which each compriseses 61 people with the
following details: 1 principal, 20 teachers, and 40 students. There are four ways used in the data
collection techniques, they are documentation, observation, interview, and questionnaire. The
type of this research is research and development (R&D). The reason to use this kind of research
is related to the results of the product and testing the effectiveness of a product . In addition, the
R&D process is suitable to develop something that needs to be tested the effectiveness of the
final result. This research aims to find and formulate new things dealing with education with
maximal result. Therefore, the R&D is not intended to test the theory but to find a product. The
R&D is a process or steps to develop a product. This research is to design a management model
of education quality assurance, called holistic skills education (HOLSKED) specifically for
vocational school (SMK). The stages of the R&D includes: collection of information and data,
planning , draft products development, early field trials, revision of the results of early field
trials, field trials, refinement of field trials product, testing the implementation of the field, the
refinement of the final product, and the dissemination and implementation ( Borg & Gall, 1989:
17). The ten phases are grouped into four parts. The first part consists of two phases which
include the collection of information/data and planning. The second part consists of one phase
which includes the development of the product draft. The third part consists of six phases which
include early field trials, revision of the results of early field trials, field trials, refinement of field
trials product, testing the implementation of the field, and refinement of the final model. The
fourth part consists of one phase wich include the dissemination and implementation .
Based on the procedures above a series of steps of R&D is carried out in circle and each step
that will be passed or carried out always refers to the results of previous steps until it gains a
new educational product eventually. The approach to the R&D is considered to be appropriate or
suitable for the development of models of education quality assurance. This model is specially
formatted for SMK because the purpose of the model is effective and adaptabel for the school
conditions. This approach has the advantage of a systematic work procedure, cycles, and
considering the needs and the real situation in the school.
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PRE ENTERING
BEHAVIOR
ENTERING
BEHAVIOR
TEACHER
PROCESS
COMPETENCE
PEDAGOGY
PROFESSIONAL
SOCIAL
PERSONAL
TEACHER
TEACHER
UNDERSTANDING
STUDENTS
LEARNING
PLAN
LEARNING
PROCESS
HOLSKED
S
S
STUDENTS
CAPABILITY
PSYCHOLOGY
MOTIVATION
PHYSIC
TEACHER
STUDENTS
HAVING
GLORIOUS
PHILOSOPHY
TEACHER
KS
CAR
LPMP
Figure 1: HOLSKED Model

6. RESULTS
The products of these modeling results is the quality assurance HOLSKED models for SMK. From
the test results of the model showed that the model has proven effective, especially to develop
the mindset and awareness of students about what it means to have a special skill. This model is
also an incentive for vocational students to infuse with strong ideas of entrepreneurship so that
the school graduates are not only able to work in a company, but they make the business fields
themselves as well. The aspects which are implanted through this HOLSKED models are: 1)
main stream (mindset), 2) self-reliance, 3) problem solving, 4) innovation and 5)
entrepreneurship. The students main stream (mindset) in deciding themselves to go to
vocational schools must be implanted to the functions and benefits through various processes,
such as pre-entering behavior and entering behavior. It is hoped that the students going to SMK
and choose specific areas of expertise can be perceived as the right decision and it is an interest.
That is, that the system is able to deliver them into good positions in the world of work. The
process will give effect to the seriousness of the students so that the students who are not
competent will be reduced. In addition, the students seriousness is due to the interest of their
expertise, not because of compulsion. The self-reliance aspect is formed when the mindset has
been properly embedded. The problem solving, students will be more independent in their
activities in order to resolve the problems faced. The students who have been their passions
embedded in specific areas of expertise will be trying to find solutions to problems, especially in
schools, even if there is no facilities in the school. There is a case at SMK 1 Pundong in which it
has no computer laboratory. The students could overcome such problem by working with
nearby net-cafe. The Innovation, students have a high level of innovation. The entrepreneurship,
sense of awareness not to waste the time is able to create and produce something. Students can
understand the spirit of entrepreneurship, tough, and never give up. Innovation, students are
able to create something new. They tend to be enthusiastic students in producing something, but
on the other side they do not want static so they always think to find something. The above
process is the establishment of the useful human resources. Therefore, the model HOLSKED
should be implemented on the basis of the commitment of the school community.
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The following is the data of the model test result:

Pre Entering Behavior:
Table 1: The Spread of Pre Entering Behavior (%)
No
A
B
C
D
Advisability
Very useful for school
Need implementating
Make change for school
Make it easy for school to know the atmosphere of student.
Low
-
Medium
20
10
35
10
High
80
90
65
85
Entering Behaviour
Table 2: The Spread of Entering Behavior (%)
No
A
B
C
D
Advisability
Very useful for school
Need implementating
Make better changes for teachers
Make it easy for school to know teachers performance and totality.
.
Low
5
Medium
20
10
35
10
High
80
90
65
85
Low
-
Medium
10
High
90
Process
Table 3: The Spread of Process (%)
No
A
B
C
D
School Curriculum
Process influences the development of teachers and students very
much
Process can construct students more independently
Process can make students be able to solve problems
Process directs students to be more productive, inovative and
competent in entrephrenurship
20
20
-
80
80
100
Assessment
Table 4: The Spread of Assessment (%)
No
A
B
C
D
E
F
School Curriculum
Students development get academically increased
Students development get skillfully increased
Students productivity and creativity get increased
Students spirits of entrepreneurship get increased
Students independence get increased
Adaptive attitude
Low
-
Medium
60
20
40
20
-
High
40
80
60
100
80
100
Medium
2,5
17,5
30
28
High
92,5
80
70
72
42,5
52,5
Evaluation
Table 5: The Spread of Evaluation (%)
No
A
B
C
D
Result
HOLSKED has good influence for students development
HOLSKED has good influence for teachers development
HOLSKED has good influence for learning system
HOLSKED has good influence for students attitude
HOLSKED has good influence for education environment
Low
5
2,5
5
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Out put
Table 6: The Spread of Output (%)
No
A
B
C
D
Output
Students projection to get academic competent
Students life skill projection
Expertise application in the corporate world.
Projection assurance half prior to students graduation
Low
-
Medium
80
15
25
15
High
20
85
75
85
CONCLUSION
The management model of vocational education quality assurance HOLSKED consists of six
phases. The first phase is pre entering behavior, in which teachers recognize and map the
students. The second phase is entering behavior, in which the interaction between teachers and
students is more in-depth than the first phase. The third phase is process, which is the
implementation of the learning process. The fourth phase is assessment, which is the
competency based student learning outcomes. The fifth phase is evaluation, which is the
evaluation process from pre entering behavior to assessment. And the sixth phase is output,
which is the final result of learning. The product of this model is the model of quality assurance
HOLSKED for SMK. The aspects embedded are: 1) the main stream, 2) independence, 3) problem
solving, 4) innovation, and 5) entrepreneurship.
7. SUGGESTION
It is recommended that the implementation of the management model should be optimal and it
is based on the steps of HOLSKED. It is proved that this model is effective especially to develop
the mindset and self-reliance that can overcome the problems, and grow the students
awareness about the specific skills. In addition, ths model can be a driving force to instill the
ideas of entrepreneurship so that graduates are able to work and are able to create jobs. The
school management plans for two additional phases. They are prestudy, pascastudy and
mentoring students after they finish their studies. The teachers are delivered material dealing
with psychology and HOLSKED guide. The implementation of HOLSKED becomes more
meaningful if the class teacher coordinates with the school principal. The class teacher
coordinates with another teacher as a mentor of five students in the classroom. Attempting to
build networking with companies, teachers are expected to be able to guide students to produce
something new. The implementation of HOLSKED should be supervised by
outsiders/stakeholders, particularly the quality assurance institution that is able to provide
guidance on various matters relating to the quality of education. The schools can customize
HOLSKED structure in accordance with the conditions of the school.
The HOLSKED quality assurance management model is implemented in accordance with the
learning activities. The registration process uses the mechanism of HOLSKED models. The
requirements of the HOLSKED model are as follows: 1) good school organizational structure; 2)
socialization of HOLSKED model; 3) Staff commitments; 4) networking with the companies; 5)
students have mindset, self-reliance, can solve the problem, innovative and entrepreneurial
spirit; 6) provide a budget for pre-study and post-study activities; 7) HOLSKED team formation;
8) HOLSKED guide.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Acknowledgement is addressed to Prof. H. Soenarto, Ph.D. , Prof. H. Kumaidi, Ph.D. and Prof. Dr.
H. Soemarto for their guidance and direction in the writing of this paper . In this opportunity, the
author would like to thank secondary vocational schools, the teachers and students who become
the object of this research. Hopefully, this writing is useful for the world of education, especially
vocational education. This model can still be developed based on the condition of the school.
REFERENCES
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2. Simsek, Hasan dan Yildrim Ali (2004). Vocational School in Turkey: An administrative and
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Erziehungswissenschaft Revue Internationale de lEducatio Journale 46 (3/4). Kluwer
Academic Publishers. p. 19
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Organisasi, perilaku, struktur dan proses.
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layanan pembelajaran. Forum Pendidikan, 30, 02, p. 100
7. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. (2005). Oxford University Press. p. 743
8. Collins English Dictionary Express. (2005). Harper Collins Publishers. p. 358.
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10. Mulyani A. Nurhadi. (1983). Administrasi perpustakaan sekolah. Yogyakarta: Yayasan
Pendidikan Kartika. p. 2
11. Tilaar, H.A.R. (1998). Beberapa agenda reformasi pendidikan nasional. Dalam perspektif
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14. Sutomo, et al. (1983). Profesi kependidikan. Semarang: IKIP Press. p.4
15. Bartel, E. Elliot (1993). Rethinking of vocational high school. Journal of Vocational High
School. Faculty of Education Technology Toronto University. p. 11
WoCTVET 2014 | 119
16. Brown, Roger (2004). Quality assurance in higer education: The UK experience since 1992.
London and New York: Routledge Falmer. p. 162
17. Borg, W.R. & Gall, M. D. (1989). Educational research: an introduction. Fifth edition. New
York: Longman. p. 17
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Influential Factors on Positive Word of Mouth in

Telecommunication Service Industry: the Case of PT.
Telekomunikasi Indonesia
Alpino Susanto1, Razali Bin Hassan2, and Rafiuddin Afkari3
1,2Fakulti Pendidikan, Teknik dan Vokasional, UTHM,
3Fakulti Sains, Teknologi dan Pembangunan Insan, UTHM,
1susanto.alpino40@gmail.com,2razali@uthm.edu.my and 3rafiuddin@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research is to analyze how the positive word of mouth is influenced by the
factors of product quality, service quality, competitive price, promotion, customer value, brand
image and customer satisfaction as the intervening variable toward positive word of mouth.
Speedy is an internet service provider of PT. Telekomunikasi Indonesia, and the customers of
this brand name product is the population of this research. The sampling technique applied is
(n=N/ N (d)2 +1 means Number of population divided to Number of population times The
precision value (0,1) square plus one. SPSS 17 is used as the analysis software. The results and
implications of this study was that theoretically to support the previous researches that the
product quality, service quality, competitive pricing, promotion, customer value, and brand
image so-called independent variable, simultaneously influence customer satisfaction and
positive word of mouth levels. At the level of one-to-one correlation between independent
variables toward customer satisfaction, there are 2 variables: Product quality and customer
value are proven influence the customer satisfaction, but the other 4 variables: service quality,
competitive pricing, promotion, and brand image are not proven influence the customer
satisfaction and word of mouth. The Customer satisfaction as an intervening variable between
independent variables and word of mouth is proven influence word of mouth. At the managerial
level, this study hopefully would contribute to PT Telkom Indonesia in improving services
quality to customers, moving forward increasing customer satisfaction and positive word of
mouth.
Keywords: Product Quality; Service Quality; Competitive Price; Promotion; Customer Value; Brand
Image; Customer Satisfaction; Positive Word Of Mouth
1. INTRODUCTION
Telecommunication technology world is growing fast along the rapid change of current demand
and needs of human civilization. The now days communication needs to extend the rapid and
instant either as written or verbal. At the early stage, the communication is only done through
voice or data only such as telephone, fax and telegram, and then grew up to the combination of
voice and data which is now so-called internet. The communication through internet is the
promising choice as its growing keep up the users demand. Internet is a complete combination
as a communication tool combining data and voice, connecting one another world-wide and
open source access is really conveying wide spread of information, advertisement and many
aspects. Right now, internet is considered as the biggest communication link in the world, as in
[1].
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Speedy is the biggest internet service provider in Indonesia, from 1.7 million Customers in 2010,
then it had been doubled to be 3.4 million in 2011. Batam as one of the city in Riau Archipelago
Province in Indonesia, in which the population of this research, Speedy controls 35% of market
share. Although PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia through their product name Speedy dominates
the internet provider business, this company as like other companies never stop looking for the
best strategy to be the winner on business competition.
A number of studies have examined the effect of various factors to the customer satisfaction. But
the measurement of the factors in the internet service is rarely found. Product quality is as one
of factor that influences customer satisfaction. Product Quality encompasses the features and
characteristics of a product or service that bears on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
In other words, product quality is defined as fitness for use or conformance to requirement as
in [2]. Internet as the product has the close relationship with the service from the provider. As in
[3], Service Quality is considered as how far the different of the reality versus the expectation of
customer upon the service. In addition, customers have a strong belief in the price and value of
their favourite brands so much so that they would compare and evaluate prices with alternative
brands as in [4]. Information that delivered to the customer through promotion may impress
positive or negative. The future company depend on the brand that means product orientation
only is not enough. Reference [5] stated that there are three functions that we have from brand,
Customer satisfaction is the base of the next enhancement of the product survival or the loose of
the opportunity on the business competition. The level of customer satisfaction may vary one to
another, and the impact of the satisfaction may influence the other factor, as in [6]. If the
customers perception is negative, they tend to react negatively, but if positive, they will react
positively.
Customer satisfaction can be discussed from two different angles: psychologically and
economically. From customers psychological point of view, if the purchase result is better than
what a customer expects, the customer will feel satisfied. Researchers suggested customer
satisfaction as an emotional reaction which results from a purchase experience. Reference [7]
thought that customer satisfaction is an overall accumulative evaluation of a company after
consumers have experienced their products or services. Reference [8] stated that satisfaction
with previous interactions has significant influence on word-of-mouth. Nonetheless, it is
important to measure the impact of customer satisfaction to word of mouth.
Word of Mouth is a consumer-dominated channel of marketing communication where the
sender is independent of the market. It is therefore perceived to be more reliable, credible, and
trustworthy by consumers compared to firm-initiated communications as in [9]. Word of mouth
is a powerful influence on behaviour, especially on consumers information search, evaluation,
and subsequent decision making as in [10]; [11]; [12]; [13]. It provides information concerning
product performance and the social and psychological consequences of the purchase decision as
in [10]. Word of mouth can convert lower order cognition and affect into higher order cognition
and effect, subsequently leading to committed behaviours as in [14]. It is the credibility of Word
of mouth that, when combined with the premise that a receiver will be more involved in a Word
of mouth exchange than in an advertisement, lends itself to the formation of such higher order
beliefs and cognitions. Therefore, It is crucial that a firm identifies the level of word of mouth
and is able to fulfil them, just to establish a fundamental level of its business. If a firm succeeds in
delivering basic factors at a satisfactory level lead to a higher level of word of mouth, at the end,
is to win the competition.
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The purpose of this research is to investigate how the respondents are influenced by factors of
product quality, service quality, competitive price, promotion, customer value, and brand to
customer satisfaction as the mediator to word of mouth. Questionnaires were distributed to 116
respondents in Batam. F Test, Linear Regression and t test are used on this research.
a) Product Quality
Product Quality encompasses the features and characteristics of a product or service that bears
on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. In other words, product quality is defined as
fitness for use or conformance to requirement, as in [2].
Customer can repeat the purchasing of the same brand or make a move to the other brand
because of reality of quality that gotten from the product. The awareness of quality was defined
as a awareness and desire for product with quality high, and need to make a best or perfect
choice to compare to buy product first time or from brand that are, as in [4].
b) Service Quality
A common definition of service quality is that the service should correspond to the customers
expectations and satisfy their needs and requirements as in [15]. Service quality is a kind of
personal selling, and involves direct interactions between salespeople and potential buyers.
Reference [3] stated that Service Quality is defined as how far difference between reality and the
hope of customers upon service that they got.. Hope of the customers basically same as what
kind of service that ought to be given by a company to customer. Value that is given to customer
constitutes service quality facts.
Reference [3] stated the concept of quality basically consist of relative factor. That is how far the
perspective used to determine the specification. In keep up with character and the commitment
of the specification, we need to understand the service quality drive.
c) Competitive price
Reference [16] stated that price is probably the most important consideration for the average
consumer. Consumers with high brand loyalty are willing to pay a premium price for their
favoured brand, so, their purchase intention is not easily affected by price.
Loyal customers are willing to pay a premium even if the price has increased because the
perceived risk is very high and they prefer to pay a higher price to avoid the risk of any change,
as in [4]. Basically, long-term relationships of service loyalty make loyal customers more price
tolerant, since loyalty discourages customers from making price comparison with other
products by shopping around. Price has increasingly become a focal point in consumers
judgments of offer value as well as their overall assessment of the retailer.
Customers have a strong belief in the price and value of their favorite brands so much so that
they would compare and evaluate prices with alternative brands, as in [17]; [18]. Consumers
satisfaction can also be built by comparing price with perceived costs and values. If the
perceived values of the product are greater than cost, it is observed that consumers will
purchase that product or service. Price is described as the quantity of payment or compensation
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for something. In this research, the competitive price is the product and the component of the
product that customer get the best value compare to other internet provider service.
d) Promotion
Reference [19] stated that Promotion is an important element of a firms marketing strategy.
Promotion is used to communicate with customers with respect to product offerings, and it is
also a way to encourage purchase or sales of a product or service. Sales promotion tools are used
by most organizations in support of advertising and public relations activities, and they are
targeted toward consumers as final users.
Promotion is a marketing mix component which is a kind of communication with customer.
Promotion includes the use of advertising, sales promotions, personal selling and publicity.
Advertising is a non-personal presentation of information in mass media about product or
service. It greatly affects consumers images, beliefs and attitudes towards products and brands,
and in turn, influences
Their purchase behaviours, as in [17]. This shows that promotion, especially through
advertising, can help establish ideas or perceptions in the consumers minds as well as help
differentiate products against other brands.
Reference [19] stated that promotion is an important element of a firms marketing strategy.
Promotion is used to communicate with customers with respect to product offerings, and it is
also a way to encourage purchase or sales of a product or service. Sales promotion tools are used
by most organizations in support of advertising and public relations activities, and they are
targeted toward consumers as final users.
Reference [20] stated on his research that promotion has relationship with customer
satisfaction.
e) Customer value
Reference [21] stated that Customer value is a customers perceived preference for and
evaluation of those product attributes, attributes performances, and consequences arising from
use that facilitate (or block) achieving the customers goals and purposes in use situations. This
definition adopts a customer perspective on value derived from empirical research into how
customers think about value. It incorporates both desired and received value and emphasizes
that value stems from customers learned perceptions, preferences and evaluations. It also links
together products with use situations and related consequences experienced by goal-oriented
customers.
Reference [21] then stated that the concept of customer value suggests a strong relationship to
customer satisfaction. The customer value hierarchy suggests that desired value is composed of
preference for specific and measurable dimensions-attribute performances, and consequence
linked to goals for use situations. Desired value, in turn, guides customer when they form
perception of how eel or poorly a product has performed in the use situation. That is, they
evaluate use experiences on the same attributes; attribute performances, and consequences
constructed in their desired value hierarchies. Received value may lead directly to the formation
of overall satisfaction feelings, or they may be compared to one or more other standards.
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f) Brand Image
Well- known brand names can disseminate product benefits and lead to higher recall of
advertised benefits than non-famous brand names as in [18]. There are some unfamiliar brand
names and alternatives available in the market place in the specific of internet provider.
Consumers may prefer to trust major famous brand names. These prestigious brand names and
their images attract consumers to purchase the brand and bring about repeat purchasing
behaviour and reduce price related switching behaviours, as in [16]. Furthermore, brand
personality provides links to the brands emotional and self-expressive benefits for
differentiation. This is important for brands which have only minor physical differences and are
consumed in a social setting where the brand can create a visible image to the consumer and
about the consumer itself.
Reference [22] stated that brand name is the creation of an image or the development of a brand
identity and is an expensive and time consuming process. The development of a brand name is
an essential part of the process since the name is the basis of a brands image. Brand name is
important for the firm to attract customers to purchase the product and influence repeat
purchasing behaviour. Consumers tend to perceive the products from an overall perspective,
associating with the brand name all the attributes and satisfaction experienced by the purchase
and use of the product.
g) Customer Satisfaction
Reference [23] stated that, satisfaction is an overall customer attitude towards a service
provider, or an emotional reaction to the difference between what customers anticipate and
what they receive, regarding the fulfillment of some need, goal or desire.
Many researchers have looked into the importance of customer satisfaction. Reference [24]
defined satisfaction as: a persons feelings of pleasure or disappointment that resulting from
comparing a products perceived performance (or outcome) in relation to his or her
expectations. Reference [25] said that satisfaction can be associated with feelings of acceptance,
happiness, relief, excitement, and delight.
There are many factors that affect customer satisfaction. Reference [26] stated that these factors
include friendly employees, courteous employees, knowledgeable employees, helpful employees,
accuracy of billing, billing timeliness, competitive pricing, service quality, good value, billing
clarity and quick service.
In order to achieve customer satisfaction, organizations must be able to satisfy their customer
needs and wants as in [27]. Customers needs state the felt deprivation of a customer as in [28].
Whereas customers wants refer to the form taken by human needs as they are shaped by
culture and individual personality, as in [24].
h) Positive Word of Mouth
Word of mouth has a greater impact on product judgments, attitude formation, and decision
making than formal marketing communications, as in [29]; [30]. While research has clearly
identified the potential of online communities, there is little evidence of how verbal social
interactions are formed in this particular situation. If Traditional communications theory
considers Word of Mouth as having a powerful influence on behavior, especially on consumers
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information search, evaluation, and subsequent decision making, then this is considered as an
important factor to be considered for a firm. Word of mouth provides information concerning
product performance and the social and psychological consequences of the purchase decision as
in [24]. Reference [28] stated that Negative Word of Mouth arises from dissatisfied customers,
negative reviews or products that fail to meet expectations work to fit problems and improve
products, and the positive Word of Mouth is the vice versa.
Reference [29] mentioned that Positive Word of Mouth communication is Interpersonal
communication between individuals within networks that either explicitly or subconsciously
identify preferences. The interaction between one person to the other person within a social
community would grow the positive word of mouth about the product they are using. Someone
who is satisfied with one product is predicted would access his or her positive experience
through positive word of mouth to someone else, possibly within their close community first
which he or she familiar with or intimately. Positive Word of Mouth by one individual can reach
hundreds or thousands of people through resources, essentially at its core Word of Mouth is an
action that exists between two people. It is a communication between one person that has
experienced a particular product to the others. Positive Word of Mouth occurs when good news
testimonials and endorsements desired by the company are uttered.
3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
The in-depth review of the literature related to this subject leads the authors to propose that the
word of mouth of internet service industry in specific internet service provider (the brand name
is speedy) could be captured by customers satisfaction. And the factors (e.g. product quality,
service quality, competitive price, promotion, customer value, brand image) would form
customer satisfaction of this service industry.
The proposed theoretical framework for the study is depicted in Figure 1. Then the
developments of related hypotheses to the proposed model are discussed next.
Figure 1: The Theoretical Framework
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4. PRODUCT QUALITY AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION

Some empirical evidence indicated that both quality and satisfaction have subordination to
price; therefore, quality and satisfaction are also related as in [30]. Higher customer satisfaction
is the result of a better quality because quality may also be influenced by over weighted
information as in [30]. This leads to the following hypothesis:
H1: There is a significant and positive relationship between product quality and customer satisfaction.
5. SERVICE QUALITY AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
Reference [31] stated that Companies can benefit from the fact of knowing how customers
perceive the service quality and knowing the way of how to measure service quality. Therefore,
the management can use the specific data obtained from the measurement of service quality in
their strategies and plans. This indicated the importance of examining the effect of service
quality on customer's satisfaction.
Customer satisfaction has been considered to be based on the customer's experience on a
particular service encounter. Reference [32] it is in line with the fact that service quality is a
determinant of customer satisfaction, because service quality comes from outcome of the
services from service providers in organizations. This leads to the following hypothesis:
H2: There is a significant and positive relationship between service quality and customer
satisfaction.
Competitive Price and Customer Satisfaction
Reference [33] found that if the price of cellular connection is low, service is best, so customer
will likely to buy. Marketing decisions should be more concentrated on price rather than quality,
as quality is more objective. Price is used as an indicator of product quality, which results in
better expectations from the product and determines higher satisfaction as in [30]. This leads to
the following hypothesis:
H3: There is a significant and positive relationship between competitive price and customer
satisfaction.
Promotion and Customer Satisfaction
Reference [34] found that the Customer satisfaction with respect to sales promotion mix in
shopping malls (e.g. lucky offers, warranty offers, benefit offers, exchange offers, and discount
offers) impact customer satisfaction perception across different demographic variable. In
internet service provider competition, there are some offers in term of price, access, and billing
discount to attract the customer attention to start the purchasing or reorder. This leads to the
following hypothesis:
H4: There is a significant and positive relationship between promotion and customer
satisfaction
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Customer Value and Customer Satisfaction

Reference [35] the study shows that for customer satisfaction is dependent upon customer
value. Customer value is strongly dependent upon four types of benefits and four types of cost.
All the sub factors of cost and benefit has strongly influence on customer value. Greater the
customer value greater the satisfaction. Research also concludes that product benefit and service
benefit are important dimensions while creating customer value.
Reference [36] a study in credit card sector, found that emotional value have a positive and
significant correlation with all the dimensions in customer satisfaction. It shows that emotional
value has the highest correlation with the customer satisfaction performance level achieved.
This leads to the following hypothesis:
H5: There is a significant and positive relationship between customer value and customer satisfaction
Brand Image and Customer Satisfaction
Reference [37] argued that "image cannot be measured by attribute measurements alone but
must include measurements of consumers' perceptions of the value and benefits attainable from
using the brand". This indicated the importance of examining the effect of image based benefits
on consumer's satisfaction. Customers were more satisfied with the salesperson when he/she
perceived high social and functional benefits happen.
Reference [37] the study has shown the importance of brand image benefits on satisfaction and
loyalty. The identification of brand image benefits of the branded product will help practitioners
to establish effective marketing strategies. It is very important to understand brand image
dimension judgments from customers' point of view, and whether these image dimensions are
parallel to their perceptions, expectations, needs and goals. Knowing this, may assist managers
to develop a
Marketing strategy based on consumers' perceptions and meanings of the product. By
maintaining and strengthening the brand images and values, it will hopefully position the brand
positively in the minds of consumers and toward their satisfaction. This leads to the following
hypothesis:
H6: There is a significant and positive relationship between brand image and customer
satisfaction.
Customer Satisfaction and Word of Mouth
Reference [38] Stated that positive word of mouth by customers depends on Basic Services,
Value Added Services and Convenience provided. The study was on the Mobile Services
Providers of Indian Telecom Industry, and found that the most important determinant for
consumers satisfaction and their positive word of mouth are Customized, Convenience, Network
Coverage and Call tariff. The study indicated that the customer satisfaction is significantly
related to positive word of mouth. This leads to the following hypothesis:
H7: There is a significant and positive relationship between customer satisfaction and Positive
Word of Mouth.
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6. METHODOLOGY
Population and sample selection
The population of this study is the customers of PT Telkom internet product: Speedy in Batam.
The number of the customers is 4670 as of 31 October 2011. The sample size formula as stated
by Bungin, (2008) is adopted
n = _____N_____
N (d) + 1
n = number of sample
N= The Number of population (4670 customers)
d = The precision value (0,1)
The number of sample 98. To fulfill minimum value, questionnaire is distributed to 130
customers.
Measures
Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according
to certain pre-specified rules, as in [39]. There are four measurement scale: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio. Reference [40] stated that to measure research variable, by using scale that
will be used as benchmark to determine its intervals whether high lot, big or small as a
measuring instrument. This research is considered as quantitative research.
Data collection was performed by using closed questionnaire, that measures the customers
response. There were 27 questions, and each variables has number of questions as: product
quality (4 questions), service quality (4 questions), competitive price (3 questions) , promotion
(4 questions), customers value (3 questions), brand image (3 questions), customer
satisfaction(3 questions), and positive word of mouth(3 questions). The scale measurement is 5point Likert scale, they are 1 for very disagree, 2 for disagree, 3 for neutral, 4 for agree and 5 for
very agree.
Pre-test was performed by gathering data from 35 respondents to contest the validity and
reliability of the research instruments. Through SPSS 17 program, the validity of the test has r
table = 0.381, then Corrected Item-Total Correlation from all indicators per variables > 0.381.
Therefore, it is concluded that all indicators of the questionnaires are valid.
The reliability test: Cronbachs alpha based on standardized items of each variable is > 0.7,
except the competitive price variable is 0.697. However, all of them considered as reliable as >
0.6.
F-test is basically used to measure if all independent variables included to the model all-together
influence the independent variable, as in [[32]. Therefore the F-test needs to be used to know
the degree of influence from independent variables to dependent variables.
Linear regression is analysis model to know how far the influence of one variable to another
variable, as in [33]. There is one dependant variable (Word of Mouth), one intervening variable
(Customer Satisfaction) and more than one independent variable (product quality, service
quality, competitive price, promotion, customer value, and brand image).
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To test constant significance, t-test is used , whether each independent variable individually
influence the dependent variable. The Hypothesis is:
H0 = coefficient regression is not significant.
H1 = coefficient regression is significant.
The significant level () = 0.05
a. If t-test result is >0.5, H0 acceptable.
b. If t-test result is <0.5, H0 unacceptable.
7. RESULTS
Reliability and Validity
From table 2 below, the Cronbachs Alpha (coefficient alpha) of each variable. All the variables
show a high degree of reliability which is >0.7, therefore all variables considered reliable. The
test was done to all 116 respondents, and this included the 35 respondents upon the pre-test.
Table 2: Reliability Test
Variable
Cronbach's
Alpha
Product Quality
Service Quality
Competitive Price
Promotion
Customer Value
Brand Image
Customer Satisfaction
Word of Mouth
0.862
0.781
0.763
0.834
0.872
0.807
0.861
0.859
Cronbach's Alpha
Based on Standardized
Items
0.863
0.781
0.763
0.833
0.872
0.809
0.861
0.859
Number of
Items
4
4
3
4
3
3
3
3
Validity test, n= 116, r table of n 116 = 0.230, corrected item total correlation of all indicators per
variable > 0.230. Therefore, it can be concluded that all items of indicators is valid as r table is
>0.230.
Table 3: Validity Test
Variable
Product quality
(X1)
Service quality
(X2)
Competitive price
(X3)
Statement
Corrected Item-Total
Correlation
Internet connection of the speedy is fast
0.688
The Feature of speedy to serve customer is attractive
0.653
Access of speedy is stable
0.733
The speedy reputation is good
0.770
The length of speedy installation is fast
0.557
Product knowledge of the customer service is good
0.578
Customer complaint management is well organized
0.625
Customer service is polite
0.589
The price of speedy is not expensive
0.571
The price of speedy is cheaper than other internet

provider
0.621
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The price of speedy is as per the speedy product quality

Promotion (X4
Variable
Brand Image (X6)
Customer
Satisfaction (Y1)
Word of Mouth
(Y2)
0.590
Speedy promotion is attractive
0.600
The message of speedy promotion is easy to be

understood
0.615
The frequency of speedy promotion is high
0.734
Speedy price promotion is more promising
0.712
Corrected Item-Total
Correlation
Statement
The name of speedy is commonly known as internet
provider
0.613
The name of Speedy is well-known
0.700
The name of Speedy is unique
0.662
I am comfortable to use speedy
0.729
I am satisfied to use speedy

Speedy works as what I want
0.801
0.684
I am pleased to let other knows about speedy
0.692
I will recommend speedy to other voluntarily
0.770
I will recommend speedy to my friend
0.740
F test
Table 4: F test (6 Independent Variables to Dependent Variable Customer Satisfaction)
ANOVAb
Model
Sum of
Squares
df
Mean
Square
Sig.
1 Regressio
35.329
6
5.888
30.550 0.000a
n
Residual
21.008
109
0.193
Total
56.337
115
a. Predictors: (Constant), product quality, service quality,
competitive pricing, promotion, customer value, and brand image
From table 4, Anova or F test, the F value is 30.550, level of significant is 0.000, as the probability
(0.000) is smaller than 0.05, therefore from the data can be concluded that the 6 independent
variables have a level of influence toward customer satisfaction. This regression model can be
used as customer satisfaction variable.
Table 5: F test (Intervening Variable Customer Satisfaction to Word of Mouth)
ANOVAb
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Sum of
Squares
13.917
36.535
df
1
114
Mean
Square
13.917
.320
Sig.
43.426
0.000a
Total
50.452
115
a. Predictors: (Constant), Customer Satisfaction
b. Dependent Variable: Word of Mouth
From table 5, Anova or F test, the F value is 43.426, level of significant is 0.000, as the probability
(0.000) is smaller than 0.05, therefore from the data can be concluded that the intervening
variable customer satisfaction has a level of influence toward customer satisfaction. This
regression model can be used as customer satisfaction variable.
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Regression Analysis
Table 6: Regression of 6 Independent Variables toward Customer Satisfaction
Coefficients a
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Standardized Coefficients
T
Sig.
-0.384
0.702
0.285
3.535
0.001
0.147
1.769
0.080
-0.068
-0.841
0.402
0.089
0.973
0.333
0.366
4.603
0.000
0.136
1.673
0.097
Std. Error
Beta
Model
(Constant)
-0.116
.302
product
0.301
0.085
quality
service
0.168
0.095
quality
competitive
-0.065
0.077
pricing
promotion
0.098
0.101
customer
0.339
0.074
value
brand image
0.140
0.083
a. Dependent Variable: Customer Satisfaction
1
Coefficient of Product quality is as 0.285, Service Quality as 0.147, Promotion as 0.089, Customer
Value as 0.366, and Brand Image as 0.136. Those amount are positive. This means, if the level of
variables increases one point, the level of customer satisfaction would increase one point as
well. Contrary to that, Coefficient of competitive price is -0.068, this means, if the level of
variable increases one point, the level of customer satisfaction would not increase.
Table 7: Regression (Variable Customer Satisfaction toward Word of Mouth)
Coefficients a
Unstandardized Coefficients
Model
(Constant)
Std.
Error
1.779
0.269
customer
0.476
satisfaction
a. Dependent Variable: positive Word of Mouth
0.072
Standardized
Coefficients
Sig.
6.611
0.000
6.590
0.000
Beta
0.525
Coefficient of determination of Customer Satisfaction variable is 0.476. This means that if the
level of variable increases one point, the level of customer satisfaction would increase one point.
Coefficient of determination
Table 8.Coefficient of Determination (6 Independent Variables toward Customer Satisfaction)
Model Summary
Adjusted R
Std. Error of the
Square
Estimate
1
0.792a
0.627
0.607
0.43902
a. Predictors: (Constant), product quality, service quality, competitive pricing, promotion,
customer value, and brand image.
Model
R Square
R square is 0.627. This means 62.7% of customer satisfaction variable can be explained by the 6
independent variables, yet the rest about 37.3% due to other factors.
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Table 9.Coeffisient of Determination (Customer Satisfaction toward Word Of Mouth)

Model Summary b
Adjusted
Model
R
R Square
R Square
1
0.525a
0.276
0.269
a. Predictors: (Constant), customer satisfaction
b. Dependent Variable: positive word of mouth
Std. Error
of the
Estimate
0.566
R square is 0.276. This means 27.6% of Word of Mouth variable can be explained by the
Customer Satisfaction, yet the rest about 72.4% due to other factors.
t test
Table 10:T test (6 independent variables toward Customer Satisfaction)
Independent Variable
t-value
Significant
0.001
product quality
3.535
service quality
1.769
0.080
competitive pricing
-0.841
0.402
promotion
0.973
0.333
customer value
4.603
0.000
brand image
1.673
0.097
The t test value >1.96 and significant level <0.05 are on the Customer value and Product quality
variable. This means that H1 and H5 are acceptable for the two variables. Each variable
influences the Customer Satisfaction significantly..
The t test value <1.96 and significant level > 0.05 are on the Service quality, Promotion,
Competitive price, and Brand image. This means H2, H3, H4, H6 are not acceptable for the four
variables. Each variable individually doesnt influence customer satisfaction significantly.
Table 11: t test (Customer Satisfaction toward Word of Mouth)
Variable
Customer Satisfaction
t-value
6.590
Significant
0.000
The t test value >1.96 and significant level <0.05 are on the Customer Satisfaction. This means
that H7 is acceptable for the variable that influences the Customer Satisfaction significantly.
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8.
CONCLUSIONS
The six independent variables of this research: product quality, service quality, competitive
price, promotion, customer value, and brand image have a level of significant impacts on
customer satisfaction.
For the case of internet service provider, higher customer satisfaction is not the result of a lower
price because the customer satisfaction was influenced by customer value and product quality.
Reference [4],[17,[18], the customer value is a strong belief in the price and value of their
favourite brands so much so that they would compare and evaluate prices with alternative
brands. This previous research about the price is contradicting with the current result, that the
needs of a fast internet access may cause the customer does not care how much he/she should
pay from the various alternative, but the urgency of the internet accessibility for the business
purpose or other need was the first priority.
The customer satisfaction influenced the positive word of mouth level, but not as a dominant
factor.
Practical recommendations
The result of this study indicated that if PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia has limited fund and must
decide the very priority sector to increase customer satisfaction, from the six independent
variables of this research, customer value and product quality are the most recommended.
As the customer satisfactions is not the dominant factor, the company would need to search the
other factor that would impact to the level of positive word of mouth, such as such as customer
loyalties, customer background knowledge and etc.
Word-of-mouth marketing is a rapidly developing field, as consumers are becoming increasingly
media-savvy, the next research may need to include customer satisfaction toward positive word
of mouth through internet community. Knowing this, may assist managers to develop a
marketing strategy based on consumers' perceptions and meanings of the product.
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TRACK 2
MANAGEMENT AND
LEADERSHIP
WoCTVET 2014
The Importance of Personalities and Motivation on

Adolescents' Academic Achievement
Gooh Mo Lee a*, Syed Mohamed Shafeq b,
a, b Department of Guidance and Counseling, Universiti Technologi Malaysia
moleelh@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This article highlights the importance of personalities and motivation towards adolescents
academic achievement in secondary schools. The sample consisted of 300 secondary school
students in Malaysia. They were picked by using Simple Random Sampling Method. The
instruments used are assessment in this study is Big Five Inventory designed by Oliver John
(1990), and Scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic designed by Harter (1980, 1981). The reliability
test for Big Five Inventory is 0.71 and motivation is 0.62. Multiple regression showed that
factors such as age, gender, as conscientiousness, openness to experience, extraversion,
neuroticism and easy work are contributing factors of academic achievement. A predictor model
was constructed via analysis of multiple regression analysis (stepwise). Several
recommendations were presented to parents, teachers, school administrators and Malaysian
Ministry of Education to enhance the adolescents academic achievement.
Keywords: Personalities, Motivation, Academic Achievement
1. INTRODUCTION
Adolescents academic achievement is often associated personalities and motivation. Personality
is defined as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others
(Blonigen, Carlson, Hicks, Krueger, & Iacono, 2008; Robbins & Judge, 2011). The big five factor of
personality is one of the most widely accepted comprehensive models of personality (McCrae &
Costa, 1987). The big five factor are extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience,
conscientiousness, and neuroticism
Much research has been done concerning student motivation in higher education (Cameron and
Pierce, 1994; Eisenberger and Cameron, 1996; Deci, Koestner and Ryan 1999: Pintrich &
Garcia, 1991; Pintrich et al., 2003).Student motivation has a great impact on students
education, academic performance, and future occupational status. Intrinsic motivation is
internal and can only be experienced by the student. Intrinsic motivational factors include
autonomy and competence, goal-setting and goal-achievement, self-esteem, and satisfaction. All
of these intrinsic motivational factors are important in students academic performance while in
school. These should also be utilized throughout an individuals life. Extrinsic motivation is
external to the student, and many times students have no control over them. Outside influences
that sometimes persuade the student to perform (i.e. money, family, professors, etc.) may
actually have a negative effect on students long-range intrinsic motivation. In this analysis,
intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors will be discussed, and the impact to which they have
on students performance (GPA).
WoCTVET 2014
This research is to identify the importance of personalities (conscientiousness, openness to

experience, extraversion, neuroticism and agreeableness), motivation (challenge, curiosity,
independent mastery, easy work, dependence on adolescents academic achievement.
METHOD
1.1 Population of Study
The population of this study is 300 students from three government secondary schools in
Malaysia by using the simple random method. Their ages ranged from 14 to 16 years. Of this,
122 were male and 178 were female students. Consent from all to participate in the study was
obtained. Rapport was established by explaining the importance and the relevance of the study.
Participants are assured that their responses would be kept confidential and utilized only for the
research purpose. They were asked to complete the questionnaire by themselves following the
instructions written at the top of the first page.
1.2 Instruments
Big Five Inventory (BFI) is designed by Oliver John (1990) to analyze how ratings of various
personality traits are correlated in humans consists of 40 items rated on 5- point Likert scale
anchored by 1: Strongly Disagree to 5 Strongly Agree.The scale provides scores on five
subscales, each of five items: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and
openness to experience. According to John & Srivastava (1999), the Alpha coefficients were .75
to.90 and average above .80. Three month test-retest reliabilities range from .80 to .90, with a
mean of .85 in American and Canadian samples.
Harters (1980, 1981) scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic is used to assess motivational
orientation in the classroom consists of 33 items rated on 5- point Likert scale anchored by 1:
Strongly Disagree to 5 Strongly Agree. The scale provides scores on six subscales, each of six
items: challenge, curiosity, independent mastery, easy work, pleasing teacher and dependence
on teacher. The Cronbachs Alpha value for Motivation Questionnaire is 0.62. The reliability of
each subscale ranges from .54 to .84 (Harter, 1981).
1.3 Data Analysis
The data collected for this study will be analysed using Statistical Packages for Social Science
version 17.0. Multiple regression analysis (stepwise) were used to analyze the data.
2. RESULTS
Based on Table 1 below, the analysis of the model 1 (openness to experience) is 0.566. R2 which
is bigger, more capable uses the independent variables (openness to experience) to explain the
dependent variables (academic achievement), F (1, 298) = 140.33, P =0.000 <0.05. From the
beta, the openness to experience factor is (beta = 0.212, t = 3.643, sig = 0.001). This means that
the proposed model that fits the data has only 32%. This conclusion is also supported by the
analysis of variance, in which the value of 0.001 is significantly lower than the specified
significant level of 0.05. This finding means that the first predictor of openness to experience as
shown by the first model accounted for 32% increase in criterion (intrinsic motivation).
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The analysis of the model 2 (openness to experience and conscientiousness) are 0.639. R2 which
is bigger, more capable uses the independent variables (openness to experience and
conscientiousness) to explain the dependent variables (intrinsic motivation), F (2, 297) =
102.44, P =0.000 <0.05. From the beta, the openness to experience and conscientiousness factor
is (beta = 0.288, t = 5.378, sig = 0.001). This means that the proposed model that fits the data has
only 40.8%. This conclusion is also supported by the analysis of variance, in which the value of
0.001 is significantly lower than the specified significant level of 0.05. This finding means that
the first predictor of openness to experience and conscientiousness as shown by the second
model accounted for 40.8% increase in criterion (intrinsic motivation).
Therefore, the analysis of the model 3 (openness to experience, conscientiousness and
extraversion) are 0.671. R2 which is bigger, more capable uses the independent variables
(openness to experience, conscientiousness and extraversion) to explain the dependent
variables (intrinsic motivation), F (3, 296) = 81.02, P =0.000 <0.05. From the beta, the openness
to experience, conscientiousness and extraversion factor is (beta = 0.257, t = 4.689, sig = 0.001).
This means that the proposed model that fits the data has only 45.1%. This conclusion is also
supported by the analysis of variance, in which the value of 0.001 is significantly lower than the
specified significant level of 0.05. This finding means that the first predictor of openness to
experience, conscientiousness and extraversion as shown by the third model accounted for
45.1% increase in criterion (intrinsic motivation).
However, the analysis of the model 4 (openness to experience, conscientiousness extraversion
and neuroticism) are 0.682. R2 which is bigger, more capable uses the independent variables
(openness to experience, conscientiousness and extraversion) to explain the dependent
variables (intrinsic motivation), F (4, 295) = 64.25, P =0.000 <0.05. From the beta, the openness
to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion and neuroticism factor is (beta = 0.128, t =
2.848, sig = 0.001). This means that the proposed model that fits the data has only 46.6%. This
conclusion is also supported by the analysis of variance, in which the value of 0.001 is
significantly lower than the specified significant level of 0.05. This finding means that the first
predictor of openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion and neuroticism as shown
by the forth model accounted for 46.6% increase in criterion (intrinsic motivation).
Model
R
Square
.320
Adjusted
R
Square
.318
R
Square
Change
.320
.566 a
.639 b
.408
.404
.088
.671 c
.451
.445
.043
.682 c
.466
.458
.015
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1. Predictors: (Constant), openness to experience

2. Predictors: (Constant), openness to experience, conscientiousness
3. Predictors: (Constant), openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion
4. Predictors: (Constant), openness to experience, conscientiousness, neuroticism
Table 1: Result of Multiple Regression Analysis for Contributions of Age, Gender, Personalities
on Intrinsic Motivation
Figure 1: Predictor Model: Age, Gender, Parenting Styles and Personalities on Intrinsic
Motivation.
Figure 1 shows the result of multiple regression (stepwise). From the analysis carried out found
that there is a significant variable for personalities on intrinsic motivation. Based on Table 2
below, the analysis of the model 1 (openness to experience) is 0.348. R2 which is bigger, more
capable uses the independent variables (openness to experience) to explain the dependent
variables (extrinsic motivation), F (1, 298) = 41.08, P =0.000 <0.05. From the beta, the openness
to experience factor is (beta = 0.191, t = 2.971, sig = 0.001). This means that the proposed model
that fits the data has only 12.1%. This conclusion is also supported by the analysis of variance, in
which the value of 0.001 is significantly lower than the specified significant level of 0.05. This
finding means that the first predictor of openness to experience as shown by the first model
accounted for 12.1% increase in criterion (extrinsic motivation).
The analysis of the model 2 (openness to experience and age) is 0.425. R2 which is bigger, more
capable uses the independent variables (openness to experience and age) to explain the
dependent variables (extrinsic motivation),F(2, 297) = 32.71, P =0.000 <0.05. From the beta, the
openness to experience and age factor is (beta = 0.225, t = 4.307, sig = 0.001). This means that
the proposed model that fits the data has only 18.1%. This conclusion is also supported by the
analysis of variance, in which the value of 0.001 is significantly lower than the specified
significant level of 0.05. This finding means that the first predictor of openness to experience
and age as shown by the second model accounted for 18.1% increase in criterion (extrinsic
motivation).
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Moreover, the analysis of the model 3 (openness to experience, age and neuroticism) is 0.450. R2
which is bigger, more capable uses the independent variables (openness to experience and age)
to explain the dependent variables (extrinsic motivation), F (3, 296) = 25.04, P =0.000 <0.05.
From the beta, the openness to experience, age and neuroticism factor is (beta = 0.150, t = 2.770,
sig = 0.001). This means that the proposed model that fits the data has only 20.2%. This
conclusion is also supported by the analysis of variance, in which the value of 0.001 is
significantly lower than the specified significant level of 0.05. This finding means that the first
predictor of openness to experience, age and neuroticism as shown by the third model
accounted for 20.2% increase in criterion (extrinsic motivation).
The analysis of the model 4 (openness to experience, age, neuroticism and conscientiousness) is
0.469. R2 which is bigger, more capable uses the independent variables (openness to experience
and age) to explain the dependent variables (extrinsic motivation), F (3, 296) = 20.79, P =0.000
<0.05. From the beta, the openness to experience, age, neuroticism and conscientiousness factor
is (beta =0.162, t = 2.572, sig = 0.001). This means that the proposed model that fits the data has
only22.0% This conclusion is also supported by the analysis of variance, in which the value of
0.001 is significantly lower than the specified significant level of 0.05. This finding means that
the first predictor of openness to experience, age, neuroticism and conscientiousness as shown
by the forth model accounted for 22.0% increase in criterion (extrinsic motivation).
Model
R
Adjusted
R
Square
R
Square
Square Change
.121
.118
.121
.348 a
.425 b
.181
.175
.06
.450 c
.202
.194
.021
.469d.
.220
209
.018
1. Predictors: (Constant), openness to experience

2. Predictors: (Constant), openness to experience, age
3. Predictors: (Constant), openness to experience, age, neuroticism
4. Predictors: (Constant), openness to experience, age neuroticism, conscientiousness,
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Table 2: Result of Multiple Regression Analysis for Contributions of Age, Gender, Personalities
on extrinsic motivation
Figure 2: Predictor Model: Age, Gender, Parenting Styles and Personalities on Extrinsic
Motivation.
Figure 2 shows the result of multiple regressions (stepwise). From the analysis carried out
found that there is a significant variable for age and personalities on extrinsic motivation.
Figure 3: Predictor Model: Age, Gender, Personalities (conscientiousness, openness to

experience, extraversion, neuroticism and agreeableness) and motivation (intrinsic and
extrinsic) on adolescents academic achievement
Figure 3 shows the results of multiple regression (stepwise). From the analysis carried out
found that there are a significant variance for age, gender, personalities and motivation on
adolescents academic achievement.
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3. DISCUSSION
Hence, this result finding implies that personalities, motivation age and gender play an
important role on adolescents academic achievement. Result from regression analyses revealed
that personalities such as conscientiousness, openness to experience, extraversion and
neuroticism are the main predictor of adolescents academic achievement. This view was proved
by (Conrad, 2006; Erez and Jugde; 2001) in which the study showed students who are more
conscientious are more likely to behave in ways that support the learning process such as
attending classes.
Therefore, openness to experience and extraversion also had been showed as being related to
college achievement (O'Conner & Paunonen; Trapmann et al., 2007). Thus, in concurrence with
these findings, Oliver, Guerin, and Gottfried's (2007) research on temperamental task
orientation and its relation to high school and college achievement provides substantial support
to the evidence that conscientiousness has an influence on academic achievement.
In addition, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation show a strong significant on academic
achievement. The finding are consistent with the studies of Azizi and Kamaliah (2006) which
stated that any students who is highly motivated whether intrinsic or extrinsic will in excel in
their academic achievement. Therefore, it is obvious that from the result of this research,
motivation plays a big part in students achievements. Ross (1999) also agreed that there a
relations between motivation and achievements.
This view is also supported by (Ginsberg, 2004; Barker, Dowson, & McInerney, 2005; Pascarella
and Terenzini, 1998) which has found moderate to strong correlations between academic
motivation and academic achievement. Besides, research has shown that intrinsically motivated
students are more likely to persist when experiencing an academic challenge (Vallerand &
Bissonnette, 1992) addition, research indicates intrinsically motivated students have a stronger
academic self-concept (Cokley, Bernard, Cunningham, & Motoike, 2001).
Goodman et al, (2011) also found that successful students were found to have significantly
higher motivation for achievement than unsuccessful students. Moreover,(Elliot &Church, 1997;
Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996; Harackiewcz, Barron, Pintrich, Elliot, & Thrash, 2002) discovered
significant relationship between academic performance and motivation.
4. CONCLUSION
Analysis of this study also is expected to give information about personality of students and
motivation which can affect their academic achievement. It is hoped that the findings can help
students, teachers, school administrators, parents and the government (MOE); to be used as a
guide in programmers to be organized within or outside of school; to implant a good personality
and high motivation to prepare them as the generation of the potential leaders.
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Recommendations Based on the Findings

Results from the research are hoped to contribute to the:
i. Significance to parents
The findings of this research can help parents to continue to motivate their children. Kazmi
(2011) agreed that parental encouragement will influence cognitive development of their
children and it will significantly related with adolescents' academic achievement.
ii. Significance to teachers
The findings of this research can help teachers in overcoming learning difficulties among the
students. The teachers can build a learning atmosphere that covers aspects which will enhance
the motivation level of the students, intrinsically or extrinsically. Therefore, this study can help
teachers to motivate and care about their students learning and interests. Teachers can
introduce topics in an interesting and challenging way, use various teaching strategies and
promote student involvement by allowing participation in the selection of teaching activities.
Besides, teachers should strive to become leaders in their own classrooms; thereby they can
nurture the students to become future leaders and drivers of the nation.
iii. Significance to the Unit of Guidance and Counselling
The findings of this research can help school counselor to develop more programs such as study
skills group, time management training, and achievement motivation groups that will increase
their academic achievement. School counselors can also help to develop a positive school climate
by conducting awards program that have a wide variety of students, not only for those students
who are always first in class. For example, awards can be given to the student who improve the
most in mathematics, science, or language subjects. Counselors can work with teachers and
administrators to establish these awards. This study can help counselors to acquire parents
involvement through parent consultation, parent education classes that teach parents parenting
skills as well as ways to support their children in schools.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Research Management Centre of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for
encouraging us to publish article in international publication With this support we managed to
publish more articles in the next issues. Hopefully, the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia will
provide more financial incentive to support research grant and research publication.
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K to 12 Educational Reform: Perception of Technology and Livelihood

Education Teachers on Selected Variables
Racquel D. Baculo1*, Cherrypyn B. Barbacena2
College of Industrial Education, Technological University of the Philippines-Manila
1 racquel.baculo@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In 2013, the Philippine president signed into law the Enhanced Basic Education Act which has
reshaped the educational landscape in the Philippines. This change from a 10 year basic
education cycle into a system with mandatory implementation of kindergarten plus 12 years of
basic education was a reform that has brought teachers and other stakeholders into discussions
and debates. With the view that the challenge to any change is the mind-set of the stakeholders,
a study was conducted by the researchers in 2013. This paper discusses the results of the
aforementioned study particularly focusing on organizational support, physical structure,
commitment to change and the self-perceived K to 12 competencies of selected high schools in
one district of the division of city schools, Manila in line with the implementation of the K to 12
curriculum vis-a-vis Technology and Livelihood Education. There were 97 respondents
comprised of school administrators, master teachers, and teachers of Technology and Livelihood
Education-vocational and home economics. The main source of data was a researcher-made
questionnaire which was face and content validated by a panel of experts. The data suggests
positive outlook for the Technology and Livelihood Education sector but at the same time, some
areas of concern were also discussed. The findings might then be used to guide the
implementation of the program.
Keywords: Perception of TLE teachers on selected variables.
1. INTRODUCTION
Change initiatives have swept through the education sector, brought about by technological
advancements and globalization demands. Such changes are needed to help learners develop
skills essential for life and learning. With this premise, the role then of the educational system is
to ensure effective and efficient delivery of such change. Therefore, all stakeholders are inclined
to be to implement change and should be properly informed and prepared to commit.
Recently, the Philippines has undergone change in curriculum. The education initiative is in
response to the urgent and critical need to improve the quality of basic education in the country.
Seemingly, such change is also considered as an attempt to answer the commitment of the
Philippines to achieve Education for All (EFA) goals not only for the development of each
Filipino, but also for the overall social and economic progress of the country.
Accordingly, the Philippines is dedicated to attaining the Education for all (EFA) goals not just
for the development of Filipino academically but also in the overall growth of cognitive,
emotional, social, and economic progress of the country.
To ensure the attainment of the mentioned goals, it is imperative that the schools that serve as
catalysts be ready to embrace and implement such curriculum change initiative.
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The implementation of the K-12 Curriculum has shaped up the educational landscape in the
Philippines. The new curriculum is aligned to the international standard of education.
One of the demands for 21st century learners is to complete the 12 years in Basic Education.
Since the Philippines is the only country in Southeast Asia and one of the three remaining among
all the countries in the world completing the 10 year basic education cycle, there is no other
way but to respond to the demand.
The enactment of the Republic Act No. 10533 or also known as Enhanced Basic Education Act of
2013, was signed by President Benigno Aquino last May 15, 2013. It was a manifestation that,
indeed, the Philippines is answering the demand for globalization. The reform initiative is an act
of enhancing the Philippine Basic Education system by strengthening its curriculum and
increasing the number of years for Basic Education.
K-12 Curriculum encompasses at least one (1) year of Kindergarten education, six (6) years of
elementary education and six (6) of secondary education. In that case, secondary education
includes four (4) years of Junior High School and two (2) years of Senior High School education.
Moreover, the K-12 Curriculum is also in line with the 1987 Philippine Constitution, stating that
a state or a country itself shall establish, maintain, and support a complete, adequate and
integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and society. And such
mandate like the K-12 Curriculum gives justice to the basic rights of every Filipino child, the
right to a quality education and the right to quality life.
The features of K-12 Curriculum will address the mastery of the competencies; ensure smooth
transition between grade levels and continuum of competencies; relevance and responsiveness;
use of integrative, inquiry-based and constructed approaches to develop the learners and focus
on the optimum development of the Filipino child.
Since enhancing the quality education is urgent and critical, the K-12 Curriculum is being
implemented to all private and public elementary and secondary schools in the country. The full
national implementation of K-12 Curriculum will be in school years 2016.
Getting familiar with the implementation process of the new curriculum is based on the system
of instructions and explanations where teachers, individually and as a part of the group, are
introduced to the new curriculum, aimed to develop students knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
various types of behaviors. It also means introduction of new resources. Each change demands
investing efforts to cope with a series of problems emerging in the process, to organize and
manage implementation and achieve objectives set. The implementation also requires: human
resources, financial resources, and the timeframe determined by school calendar and operation
plans as well, deriving from the curriculum.
Public high schools in District 5, Manila, Philippines just like any organization are also sensitive
to their environment and they look for different ways to conduct operation. The implementation
of the K-12 Curriculum is an educational effort that somehow changes the way school
administrators and teachers manage instructional delivery.
The effectiveness of implementation process depends on several factors. It needs the consensus
and involvement of all the actors in the process. Each actor shall consider the consequences on
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his role in the implementation process of new curriculum. The question of being prepared to
adapt to an educational change requires an atmosphere of support and many other factors.
It is in the light of the many challenges facing the K-12 Curriculum implementors that the
present study was conceived. Findings of the study will benefit all the stakeholders in the
implementation of the new curriculum.
For school administrators, they have a clearer view of the implementation practices, which may,
in turn, result in identifying challenges and issues that may serve as inputs to enhance the K-12
Curriculum.
In this regard, the researcher is motivated explore the components of the K to 12 reform:
perception of TLE Teachers on selected variables. The study seeks to describe the perception of
TLE teachers on selected variables in the k to 12 reform in District V, Manila. Specifically, this
research sought to answer the following questions.
What is the profile of the respondents in terms of: age, sex, highest educational attainment and
subject are taught?
How do the respondents describe the perception of TLE teachers in terms of: Structure,
Commitment and self-perceived K to 12 competencies?
Is there a significant relationship between the organizational support, physical structure,
commitment to change and the self-perceived K to 12 competencies with the implementation of
the K to 12 curriculum vis-a-vis Technology and Livelihood Education.
Based on the research questions presented, the following hypothesis is tested.
There is a significant relationship between the organizational support, physical structure,
commitment to change and the self-perceived K to 12 competencies with the implementation of
the K to 12 curriculum vis-a-vis Technology and Livelihood Education.
2.1 Educational Change
Educational change occurs if there is a need for change; if there is a need for clarity about the
goals and needs in the organization; also, if there has a complexity to the extent that change is a
requirement for those change agents that are responsible for implementation; and finally, if
there is a need for change for the practicality and quality improvement in a particular
educational system.
The purpose of educational change is to help the schools accomplish their goals more
effectively by replacing some structures, programs, and practices for the better ones (Fullan,
1991). There are many different types of educational changes as cited by Widen (1994) those
involving small changes and those that involve big changes which need to implement conceptual
changes in school as to the school programs, structures, and practices.
Moreover, educational change theory by Michael Fullan on his model focused on the human
participants taking part in the change process. As cited by the study of Ellsworth (2001), the
new meaning of educational change presents guidelines for resisting, coping or leading change
efforts from perspective ranging from the student to the national government. Different from the
study of Rogers (2005), whose work focuses more on the characteristics of the innovation and
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the adopters, Fullan (1991) focuses on the roles and strategies of various types of change agents.
He also reiterates, that there are four broad phases in the change process which include
initiation, implementation, continuation, and outcome.
In the view of reforms in education in the Philippines, the school today has to be geared to the
rapid societal changes and the new responsibilities for the new breed of Filipinos. The three
most important agents of change in the society that give direct input to the improvement of the
curriculum are the academe (institutions), the government, and the industries (both public and
private companies). Some government institutions, such as the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED) and the Department of Education (DepEd), are directly involved in upgrading the
curricular programs of learning institutions. They oversee and control the operations of schools,
colleges and universities
Every person is a change agent. When these stakeholders debate over education in the required
competencies of the 21st century learners that are considered, there are only two fundamental
statements on which consensus is reached. First, education is the most important thing for the
countrys future and second, education is not going well (Moreno, 2009). That triggers education
to change and there is a need to think of what the directions of change should be
Complexity in the change process involves a lot of stakeholders. From initiation to the outcome
of the particular change in curriculum, stockholders play a vital role. The word curriculum
according to Wikipedia is from the Latin word that means to course or run. A school
curriculum is basically concerned with the course of study that identifies the specific goals of
education for each development stage in school. Those goals are usually stated as target
competencies a learner should achieve at a specific stage of his stay in school.
On the other hand, curriculum change can be described as the transformation of the curriculum
scheme such as goals and objectives, content, design (Hooper, 1971 as cited in Amimo, 2009) or
it could be done in more minor sense by modifying the curriculum such as changing the learning
activities and adding one more topic to the curriculum (Shindu&Omulondo, 1998).
2.2 The K-12 Curriculum
K-12 marks a new chapter in Philippine education. As mentioned earlier, the curriculum change
from Basic Education Curriculum Secondary Education Curriculum and now the K-12
Curriculum will mirror the educational system of the Philippines that will continuously serve as
an arena for change.
K-12 Curriculum was implemented under Republic Act No. 10533 or also known as Enhanced
Basic Education Act of 2013. It is an act of enhancing the Philippine Basic Education System by
strengthening its curriculum and increasing the number of years for basic education. It is
considered as one of the milestones in the President Aquino Administration in Education. In the
purpose of strengthening the quality education, lengthening the years in Basic Education and
The Philippines is committed to achieving its Education for All (EFA) goals not only for the
development of each Filipino, but also for the overall social and economic progress of the
country. Part of the Philippine Education for All Plan of Action 2015, is Critical Task No. 5, the
expansion of basic education, targeting that by 2015, the Philippines has lengthened its cycle of
basic education schooling to make it twelve years.
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One of the significant changes of the K-12 Curriculum according to K-12 Toolkit (2012)
Graduates of K-12 students will now be recognized academically in other countries as widely as
possible. Also, because of the educational change in the world, education brought by
globalization increased cross-border provision that has resulted in increased quality assurance
of education.
Students of Kindergarten should be at least five (5) years old and ought to undergo first on one
year Preschool before entering the Kindergarten education, which is mandatory and is provided
for free through Republic Act no. 10157.
The Second stage in educational system in K-12 Curriculum discusses to the elementary
education. It consists of six compulsory years of Basic Education. The entrant age on this level is
six (6) years old. Meanwhile, on the third stage of compulsory basic education referring to the
secondary education consists of four years in Junior high school and the remaining two (2) years
is for Senior High School education. The typical entrant age for Junior and Senior High School
levels are twelve (12) and sixteen (16) years old, respectively.
President Benigno Aquino III says that there is an urgent need to add two more years in basic
education. For those who can afford 14 years in basic education before entering the tertiary level
can have the best universities and eventually get best jobs after graduation. In order to give the
public school children an even chance of succeeding, the Philippine education should at least 12
years in basic education.
Furthermore, the stakeholders of the new curriculum such as DepEd, NEC and SEAMEOINNOTECH envisioned the Filipino Graduates to be globally competitive; be legally employable,
be socially aware, pro-active and involved in public and civic affairs and to contribute to the
development of progressive, just and humane society. In addition, they are also envisioned to
possess sufficient mastery of basic competencies such as literacy, numeracy, skills holistically,
and to develop themselves to the fullest, be emotionally developed and competent to live a
meaningful life.
Likewise, the new curriculum is in line with the Philippine Constitution law stating that a state
or a country itself establish, maintain, and support a complete, adequate and integrated system
of education relevant to the needs of the people and society. And such mandate like the K-12
Curriculum gives justice to the basic rights of every Filipino child, the right to a quality education
and the right to quality life.
Subsequently, change in curriculum can be described as change in goals. As cited by SEAMEOINNOTECH on K-12 toolkit (2012) there is a significant change in curriculum in terms of goals.
The Basic Education Curriculum 2002 focuses on the development of reading skills and values of
self-reliance and patriotism. It also puts emphasis on interactive learning approaches and
integrative teaching approaches which integrate competencies and values within and across the
learning areas.
Moreover, the K-12 Curriculum is focused on the learners acquisition of skills as the
requirement for the 21st century learners. There are four skills in new learning goals to be
considered, These are as follows: (1) learning and innovation skills such as creativity, curiosity,
critical thinking, self-direction, and higher order thinking; (2) Information, media, and
technology skills. The k-12 learners should be able to manifest skills in terms of media and visual
and, information literacies as well as the basic, economic, and multicultural literacy and of
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course, global awareness. (3) Effective and Communication skills. It includes personal, civic
responsibility, collaboration, interpersonal skills and interactive collaboration of the learners
that respond both to the local and to the global needs. Lastly, the 21st century learners should be
able to attain in life and career skills. For instance, the learners should have flexibility and
adaptability skills in such stressful scenario that they should be able to overcome the challenges.
They should have a sense of initiative and self-direction. Also, they should have a sense of
leadership and responsibility with developed social and cross-cultural skills that can be applied
when they are employed on whenever job they want.
Indeed, the goals in the K-12 Curriculum developed holistically the 21st century learners who
should be equipped and competent locally and internationally; Filipino graduates who are ready
for employment, entrepreneurship, and middle-level skills development and higher education
upon graduation.
2.3 The Present study
This study dealt with the perception of TLE teachers on selected variables with the
implementation of K-12 Curriculum in TLE- Grades VII & VIII, during the school year 2013-2014.
The respondents of this study were composed of school administrators; principals, head
teachers, master teachers and teachers in TLE Vocational and Home Economics. The selected
public high schools in District V, Division of city schools Manila, Philippines were Araullo High
School, Manuel A. Roxas High School and Manila High School.
METHODS
1.1 Participants and Settings
This research study was conducted at selected public high schools in District V, DepEd Manila in
the Philippines. These included Roxas High School, Manila High School and Araullo High School.
There were two departments involved in the study to where the respondents belonged: the TLEVocational and TLE Home Economics Departments. Participants composed of 97 total
populations from schools administrators, school heads, master teachers and teacher of selected
public high schools in Manila. The universal sampling method was utilized for the school
administrator-and-teacher respondents.
1.2 Measures
The questionnaire was developed by the researchers to gather pertinent data. The main
instrument used in gathering data was survey-questionnaire. There was only one questionnaire
for school administrator-and-teacher respondents.
The questionnaire checklist had two (2) parts. The first part was for the profile of the
respondents that covered the type of respondents, age, sex, highest educational attainment, and
subject area taught.
The second part was a Likert scale type of questionnaire, wherein the school administrator-andteacher respondents provided the data on the Perception of Technology and Livelihood
Education Teachers on Selected Variables such as organizational support, physical structure,
commitment to change and the self-perceived K to 12 competencies.
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The questionnaire on organizational support was a modified instrument used from Partnership
Management Board for Curriculum and Assessment Implementation. In terms of Physical
Structure, the instrument was adapted and modified from the study of Talambayan (2008) and
Sor (2011).
The instrument for commitment to change item statements were adapted and modified from the
study of Molining (2013) and in 3-model theory of commitment by Allen and Meyer (1990).
To measure the self-perceived K to 12 competencies, the instrument was a modified attributes of
a K-12 teachers released from K -12 Toolkit (2012).
1.3 Procedure
Permission from Division of city schools of Manila Superintendent, Dr. Ponciano A. Menguito,
and some managers and administrators in selected public high schools in District V, DepEd
Manila were sought in the study.
Upon approval, the questionnaires were distributed, answered and accomplished by the school
administrator-and-teacher respondents of selected public high schools in District V, DepEd
Manila. The respondents were given enough time to accomplish the questionnaire. Afterwards,
the questionnaires were retrieved from the respondents right after they had finished answering
the questionnaire.
The result was checked and tabulated using Microsoft Excel and was transferred to SPSS 21.0
(Statistical Package for Social Sciences) for statistical treatment.
1.4 Data Analysis
To determine the Perception of Selected Technology and Livelihood Education Teachers in the
Selected Variables the gathered data were treated and analyzed statistically using the following
statistical tools. First, the frequency and percentage counts were utilized to describe the profile
of the school administrator-and teacher-respondent in terms of age, sex, highest educational
attainment, and subject area taught. Weighted mean and standard deviation were used to
describe school related factors (organizational support, physical structure, commitment and
self-perceived K to 12 competencies). Spearman rho was used to measure the significant
relationship between the profile of the respondents and the Perception of Technology and
Livelihood Education Teachers on Selected Variables such as organizational support, physical
structure, and commitment to change and the self-perceived K to 12 competencies.
RESULTS
Majority of the respondents were TLE teachers (80 or 82.5%), with ages 51-60 years old (34 or
35.1%), female (76 or 78.4%), holders of bachelors degree with masters units (50 or 51.5%)
and teaching TLE- Home Economics (47 or 48.5 %).
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Mean and Standard Deviations on the Perceived

Selected variables in terms of organizational support,
physical structure, commitment to change and selfperceived K to 12 competencies
Mean
SD
Interpretation
Organizational 4.07
support
0.634
Good
Physical
structure
4.04
0.862
Good
Commitment
to change
4.18
0.74
Moderately
committed
0.614
Much ready
Self-perceived 4.12
K
to
12
competencies
Figure 1: Mean and Standard Deviations on the Perceived variables in terms of organizational
support, physical structure, commitment to change and self-perceived K to 12 competencies
The respondents perceived their structure in terms of organizational support as good (M= 4.07,
SD= 0.634; physical structure (M= 4.04,SD= 0.862), commitment indicated by affective (M= 4.24,
SD=0.771); normative(M= 4.43,SD= 0.517) and continuance (M=4.18, SD= 0.74) were described
as moderately committed. Also, the self-perceived K to 12 competencies rated as Much ready
(M= 4.12, SD=0.74).
Relationship between the Profile Variables, and the Perception of Technology and
Livelihood Education Teachers on Selected Variables
Significant relationships existed between profile variables and the perception of technology and
Livelihood Education teachers on selected variables the K-12 Curriculum in TLE- Grades VII and
VIII. For principles and values, competency of K-12 teachers (r = 0.526**) at .000 level of
significance); structure in terms of organizational support (r= 0.609**, .000 level of significance),
school site (r= 0.686**, .000 level of significance), classroom/laboratory shop (r= 0.616,.000
level of significance). For commitment, affective (r= 0.411**, .000 level of significance),
normative (r= 0.438**, .000 level of significance) and continuance (r= 0.405**, .000 level of
significance).
Figure 2: Relationship between the organizational support, physical structure, commitment to
change in terms of self-perceived K to 12 competencies with the implementation of the K to 12
curriculum vis-a-vis Technology and Livelihood Education.
Variable
Rvalue
Significan
ce level
Interpretat
ion
Organizationa
.559*
.000
Significant
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l support
Physical
structure
.439*
*
.000
Significant
Commitment
to change
.411*
*
.000
Significant
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Further in terms of self-perceived competency of the K-12 teachers the organizational support
(r= .559** with .000 level of significance); in terms of physical structure (r= 0.439**, .000 level of
significance). For commitment to change, (r= 0.411**, .000 level of significance).
DISCUSSION
Majority of respondents are TLE- Home Economics teachers, female, belonged to 51-60 years old
and Bachelors degree holders with Masters units. The schools have highly competent and
moderately committed school administrators and teachers. The schools manifest good structure
in terms of organizational support and physical structure. The schools are much ready in the
implementation of the K-12 Curriculum in TLE in terms of organizational support, physical
structure and commitment to change. There is no significant relationships existed between the
respondents profile and the Perception of Technology and Livelihood Education Teachers on
Selected Variables such as organizational support, physical structure, commitment to change
and the self-perceived K to 12 competencies.
Thus, the hypothesis stating that there is a significant relationship between the respondents
profile and the Perception of Technology and Livelihood Education Teachers on Selected
Variables in terms of organizational support, physical structure, commitment to change and the
self-perceived K to 12 competencies is confirmed.
After the discussion the following recommendations are offered. Since the structure of the
schools in terms of organization support and physical structure is good, schools are encouraged
to strengthen organizational support and continuously improve physical structure.
On the findings that the respondents are found to be moderately committed, school
administrators and teachers are encouraged to pursue further education, attend trainings and
seminars to understand fully educational reform initiatives and will, in turn, manifest high
commitment as curriculum change implementers.
It is strongly recommended that the implementation of the K-12 Curriculum be improved in TLE
through seminars/ workshops for more awareness of the principles and values, enhancement of
the competencies and updates on pedagogy. It is proposed that future researchers consider
utilizing other variables related to the study covering a larger scope of school-respondents.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
WoCTVET 2014 | 156
The researchers wants to extend their special thanks to Mr. Neil Andrew F. Calayag and
to all her colleagues from different schools in District V, Manila, her family and friends to make
this research possible and most specially to our almighty God.
REFERENCES
1. Anderson P.M. Pedagogy Primer.2008.
2. Bilbao Purita et.al. Curriculum Development. Loremar Publishing,2010.
3. Rowe, L.M. Teacher training and effective pedagogy in the context of
Publishing Inc,. 2002
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4. The New Websters Dictionary of English Language.

5. SEAMEO INNOTECH.K-12 Toolkit.2012.
6. Agar, Irene C. Correlates of Teachers Competence and Students Achievement in Science at
Las Pias East National High School, DepEd, Las Pinas City. Unpublished thesis,
Technological University of the Philippines, Manila, 2011.
7. Alicaya, Elias S. Determinants of a Performance Management Effectiveness of Vocational
and Technical Secondary School Teachers in the Province of Cavite. Unpublished
Dissertation, Technological University of the Philippines, Manila, 2006.
8. Caraan, Cecilia Angcaya. The Readiness of Rogationist College-Technical Education
Department for Accreditations as Competency Assessment Center . Unpublished Thesis,
Technological University of the Philippines, Manila, March, 2013.
9. Bael, Ronalyn S. Factors associated with Material Resource Generating Practices of Public
School and Administrators of Pililla- Jacujala District in the Division of Rizal. Unpublished
Thesis, Technological University of the Philippines, Manila, 2003.
10. Barcenas, Rogel Espiritu Instructional Leaders Readiness for Information Communication
Technology (ICT) Implementation in Basic Education in the Division of Laguna.
Unpublished Dissertation, Technological University of the Philippines, Manila, 2008.
11. Bulaon, Renato Correlation in Student Achievement in Technology and Home Economics
and Selected Schools in the Division of City Schools, Caloocan City. Unpublished Thesis,
Technological University of the Philippines, Manila, 1995.
12. Dagdayan, Zennas A. Competencies of Technical and Vocational Education Administrators
and Institutional Levels; Perspective for the Development of a Competence Assessment
Model.Unpublished Dissertation, Technological University of the Philippines, Manila,
1994.
13. Daquil, Ma. Isidra V. The Readiness of the Schools in the Implementation of the 2010
Career Pathways in the Technology and Livelihood Education-Information and
Communications Technology (CP-TLE-ICT): Inputs to Curriculum Development.
Unpublished Thesis, Technological University of the Philippines, Manila, March, 2010.
14. Guevarra, Jr., Virgilio O. Predictors of the Effectiveness of the Strengthened TechnicalVocational Education Program in Selected Vocational High Schools in Region IV-A
Evaluation. Unpublished Dissertations Thesis, Technological University of the Philippines,
Manila, March, 2007.
WoCTVET 2014 | 157
15. Molining, Marife H. The Influence of Job Enrichment on the Teachers Organizational
Commitment at Selected Secondary Schools, City of San Jose, Del Monte, Bulacan, School
Year 2012-2013. Unpublished Thesis, Technological University of the Philippines, Manila,
2013.
16. Salvador, JovitaManlangit. The Effectiveness of the Secondary Technology and Home
Economics Program DCS., Manila. Unpublished Dissertation.Technological University of
the Philippines, Manila, 1989.
17. Sor, JhomarCabaldo. Predictors of Organizational Performance of General Secondary
Education and Strengthened Technical and Vocational Education Program (STVEP) in the
Selected
Secondary
Schools
of
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IV-A,
Calabarzon.Unpublished
Dissertation.Technological University of the Philippines, Manila, 2011.
18. Tabaranza, Leonardo A. Predictors of Readiness of Lifelong Learning Key Implementors
through Alternative Learning System and Technical Education: Inputs to Staff
Development. Unpublished Dissertation.Technological University of the Philippines,
Manila, 2006.
19. Talambayan, Darwin S. Readiness of General High Schools in the Implementation of
Technical-Vocational Program in the Division of Laguna: Inputs to Skills Development
Training Model. Unpublished Dissertation.Technological University of the Philippines,
Manila, 2008.
20. Herscovitch, L., & Meyer, J.P. Commitment to Organizational Change: Extension of a Three
Component Model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 474-487, 2002.
21. Fullan, Michael Educational Change Theory(1990)
22. Lewin, K. Frontiers in Group Dynamics: Concept, Method and Reality in Social Science.
Human Relations, 1947.
23. Meyer and Allen. Model of Organizational Commitment: Measurement Issues, 1990
24. http://www.gov.ph/k-12/
25. www.deped.gov.ph
26. http://www.strategies-for-managing-change.com/change-management
27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
28. http://www.warriorlibrarian.com/LIBRARY/inoovate.htmlwww.howtochangemanagemen
t.com/commitment-to-change
29. http://www.lencd.org/group/learning-package/document/how-assess-change-readiness
30. www.customwritingtips.com
31. http://www.seameoinnotech.org
32. http://www.p21centuryskills.org
WoCTVET 2014 | 158
The Processes of Supervisions in Secondary Schools Educational

System in Nigeria
Isa Yuguda Kotirde1, Professor Jailani Bin Md Yunos 2
Modibbo Adama University of Technology Yola School of Technology and Science Education Yola
Nigeria, Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia
1 isakotirde@yahoo.com, 2.Jailani@uthm.edu.my.
ABSTRACT
The process of supervision in secondary school (SS) in Nigeria is of paramount to the attainment
of monitoring secondary schools activities for national development and the administration of
the schools entirely. The aim of this paper is necessitated to relate the need for the process of
supervision of both human and materials resources for achieving the ultimate goals of secondary
school system in Nigeria. However, this paper highlights some certain basic concepts such as
supervisions, needs of supervision, and process of supervisions, who is a supervisor, importance
of a supervisor and responsibility of a supervisor. The problems associated with supervision and
the way forward. However, in Nigeria both supervisors and Teachers use different strategies of
supervision to monitor the activities of the students when they are in the school. Though the
strategies may differ from one another but they are out to achieve the same goal and objective.
The data was analysed descriptively and using basic means aimed at giving a clear and detailed
overview of the situation. Based on the findings it can be concluded that process of supervision
is becoming a serious problem that is yet to be properly addressed in Nigeria Secondary School.
In conclusion, Supervision at every local, national and international level should take their
responsibilities seriously by engaging on educational activities that could enhance their skills.
These include, among others, strategic seminars, workshops, regular visits and exchange
programs pursuit of higher educational qualification and Supervisors that excel in their
assignment should be rewarded accordingly either in kind or cash.
Keywords: Process, Supervision, Secondary School, Problems, Goals And Objectives
1. INTRODUCTION
Secondary school level is the bridge between the primary and tertiary levels of education in
Nigeria. The importance of secondary education made the federal government to state the broad
aims of secondary education as preparation for useful living within the society and for higher
education. The underline principle here is that the secondary schools should be able to provide
quality secondary education to all those who can benefit from it. However, it appears that the
secondary schools are not living up to expectation in discharging this obligation.[1], lamented
the products of todays secondary system can neither usefully live in the society nor move into
higher institution without their parents aid or forgery. They not worth for themselves or
respect the views and feelings of others. They Love no iota of dignity of labour except for things
that will give them quick money.
The present situation of supervision in schools as reported by [2], showed there has not been
thorough supervision of schools in recent past decades. This lack of supervision in schools has
been the bane of failure in secondary school educational policies in Nigeria. A system not
supervised and evaluated is in dire need of collapse. [3], sees in many schools there are lack poor
WoCTVET 2014
or ineffective supervision of personnel and instruction materials. It is the duty of the school
administrators to supervise and monitor instruction regularly thereby reducing inequalities
within the horizontal and the vertical instructional delivery system of the school.
When supervision is absent, it leads to lack of communication, which leads to the indiscipline of
students in the school. Students will become rude to the teachers, principals and to one another,
low grade shall be recorded in their academics, crimes of various types shall be exhibited
absenteeism, lateness, talking in the classrooms, disrupting the activities in the classroom and
others. Less supervision causes gross negligence and often the cause of low morale and low
productivity amongst students. Discipline in schools is the readiness or ability of students to
respect authority, observe and obey school rules and regulations to maintain high standard of
behavior necessary for the smooth running of the teaching and learning processes. Discipline is
the business of enforcing simple classroom rules that facilitate learning and minimize
disruption. The rules on students discipline are aimed to enhance positive and constructive
paradigm of values. Principals are trends and they provide for a proper learning ambience. This
agrees with the study of [4], that the success of any school administrator lies in the degree of
supervision/participatory leadership the principal has with his students. He also reported that
the development of supervision plan or strategy is needed to institute in schools. Teachers use
different strategies of supervision to monitor the activities of the students when they are in the
school. Though the strategies may differ from one another but they are out to achieve the same
goal.[5], opined that misbehaviour problems can be prevented students are supervised or
monitored and feedback is given. Students behaviour should also be reviewed regularly by the
head-teachers and should also be rewarded at the end of the session.
Reference [6], identified several processes that developed in supervision including: scientific
management, democratic interaction approach, cooperative supervision, supervision as
curriculum development, clinical supervision, group dynamics and peer emphasis, as well as
coaching and instructional supervision. The best approaches will often differ, depending on the
school and the situation within the school.
In Nigeria, education is on the concurrent list of government and this makes the issue of
instructional supervision to vary from one state to another. However, some states have adequate
arrangement in place to effectively supervise instruction at all level of education particularly in
secondary school whereas some states failed to put necessary machineries in place to effectively
supervise instruction in their secondary schools[7], opines that quality assurance in education is
the process of ensuring continuous improvement in all aspects of education business in an
institution of learning to satisfy the needs and expectations of the institutions customers
(society). [8], showed that instructional supervision has always been regarded as an essential
and integral part of school administration and basically geared towards the improvement of all
factors in teaching and learning.
2. THE NEEDS OF SUPERVISION IN SCHOOLS GENERALLY
According to [9], supervision is an important requirement in educational management that
concerns itself with the tactics of efficient and effective management of human and material
resources. And also [10], supervision is a way to advise, guide, refresh, encourage, stimulate,
improve and oversee teachers in the hope of seeking their co-operation in order that they may
be successful in the task of teaching and classroom management.
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Similarly,[11], defines supervision a s a process of guiding, directing and stimulating growth

with the overall view of improving teaching and learning process better for the leaner. The
foregoing definitions could be summarized by stating that supervision of instruction materials is
an educational process that focuses on the improvement of teaching and learning in a good
system.[12], supervision of instruction involves motivating the teacher to explore new
instructional strategies to improved teaching and learning. The teacher must be made aware of
educational goals and standards to be implemented.
The observer must be objective during the observation process and maintain Confidentiality it
is also important for the observer to provide positive feedback and appropriate resources for the
teacher to utilize and understand his duty efficiently. [13], posited that supervision of
instruction is a process of assisting the teacher to improve himself and his instructional abilities
so as to enhance effective teaching and learning. An effective teacher is that teacher who can
bring about improvement in all that he or she does in the system and More so, {8}, suggests that
supervision of instruction is necessary because:
=>Not all teachers are dynamic and knowledgeable but the system is dynamic. This means that
supervision is necessary so as to enable these categories of teachers to get improved in terms of
teaching and learning activities.
=>Teachers need to be skilled and up to date in the teaching profession and this can only be
achieved when teachers are supervised regularly and effectively in order to enhanced good
relationship between supervisors and teachers Base on the above assertions we may able to
analyse that the needs for proper and effective rigorous supervisions in our modern secondary
schools is to create a good atmosphere for a dynamism proper and normal interactions among
intellectuals [14],
3. THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION
Purpose of school supervision is to ensure to the stimulation of professional growth of the
teachers and their entire school system and to motivate teachers, it equally ensures that the
teacher do what is expected of them so that the students learn. It is geared towards ensuring
efficiency and effectiveness in the school system definition, used in this work, has a cyclical,
three-pronged approach to supervision: instructional supervision, professional development,
and evaluation. The three aspects included in supervision approach are all integrated and each is
part of the supervision process as a whole. All of the facets are essential threads necessary to
complete the entire representation of teacher supervision. But, regardless of how supervision is
defined, why is supervision of teachers important? Is there a link between teacher supervision
and improved instruction.
Achieving the purposes of educational supervision makes the achievement of the goals of
education much easier. This becomes more imperative and pressing because of the increased cry
globally about immorality and corruption in the education sector [15], [16). The importance of
educational supervision includes:
Proper guidance from experts: The purpose of supervision is to provide academic guidance by
an experienced teacher or expert/specialist in different school subjects so that newer or junior
teachers are able to develop their skills and capacity.
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4. THE SS SUPERVISION PROCESS

The SS supervision process in Nigeria involves the following stages, input and output in figure
1.1 below
fig 1.1 stages of secondary school supervision in nigeria, at the start of the supervision process,
the parties concerned work out modalities to:
1. Regularity of supervision example. Two hours every month or more depend on the type
of the supervision they want to perform within the system.
2. Aims and objectives of supervision is to address the worker issues, to set tasks for proper
evaluation and implementation
3. Conditions under which supervision is to take place Will matters discussed and be
strictly confidential and should be implemented fully after the exercise is presented the
authority.
Reference [17], view supervision as a combination of supervisory beliefs and educational
philosophies with the purpose of building trust, empowering teachers, and fostering reflection.
They maintained that supervision should be inquiry orientated, and it should encourage
teachers voices as well as acknowledges the context and complexity of teaching
Supervisors are faced with a threefold responsibility of protecting the welfare of the client,
mentoring supervisees in their professional development, and protecting the interests of the
profession and public at large. Counselling supervisors take on multiple roles when they become
involved in the supervision process which can be those of a supervisor, educator, mentor,
evaluator, and role model for the counselling profession.
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5. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITY OF SUPERVISOR

Reference [`18], can be described as any certified individual assigned with the responsibility for
the direction and guidance of the work of teaching staff members. This implies that supervisor
has the role of assisting the teachers to do their work better through collaborative efforts. And
also [19], defined supervisor as a person by virtue of his functions, carry out duties, which deal
with managing both human and material resources within the school system and how they can
be best utilized. In other words, supervisor is expected to assist in the learning environment to
maximize the available resources to achieve the set goals. Supervisor is anyone assigned the
function of helping teachers to improve on their instructional competencies [20].
Supervisors usually wear two or three other hats, but their specific responsibilities tend to
include some or all of the following arranged in ascending order of scope or reach:
Mentoring or providing for mentoring of beginning teachers to facilitate a supportive induction
into the profession.
Bringing individual teachers up to minimum standards of effective teaching (quality assurance
and maintenance functions of supervision).
Improving individual teachers' competencies, no matter how proficient they are deemed to be.
Working with groups of teachers in a collaborative effort to improve student learning.
Working with groups of teachers to adapt the local curriculum to the needs and abilities of
diverse groups of students, while at the same time bringing the local curriculum in line with
state and national standards.
Relating teachers' efforts to improve their teaching to the larger goals of school wide
improvement in the service of quality learning for all children.
With the involvement of state departments of education in monitoring school improvement
efforts, supervisory responsibilities have increasingly encompassed the tasks at the higher end
of this list. In turn, these responsibilities involve supervisors in much more complex,
collaborative, and develop-mental efforts with teachers, rather than with the more strictly
inspectorial responsibilities of an earlier time.
6. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION IN
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NIGERIA
There are various factors hindering successful educational supervision in Nigeria.[21] ,
identified these factors as:
1. Government issues
The many authors from Nigeria [22], have opined that government contributes to the problems
associated with supervision through these ways:
4. Inadequate funding coming from the government of the day where as they pay less
attention in terms full funding of educational system in Nigeria more especially during
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the civilian era education is not a helping matter many institutions of higher learning
where not paid salaries over nine months.
5. Political instability where its dominate all sectors are suffering due to some attitudes of
present government inability to restore and normalizes the school calendars to focus on
learning activities in the system.
6. Constant change in educational policies due to personal interest and greediness by
hungry politicians.
7. Lack of adequate training for supervisors in the system led to the total destruction in
teaching and learning because many supervisors are not qualified to perform their duty
due the fact that they lack basic training and retraining of the supervisors and we all
adhere that education is dynamic we changes.
8. The poor remuneration of all categories of teachers in Nigerian educational system,
teachers in Nigeria are regarded as third class citizens in our modern society due to
government attitude, molestation and the section regarded as a dumping ground for
those who have no choice.
Insufficient staffing/shortage of competent and qualified supervisors to do the work of
supervision, Lack of materials and resources for the effectiveness of the system to improve, Lack
of facilities and resources (vehicles) for supervisors at all of education sector, Poor conditions of
Nigerian roads for the supervisors to function well and to carry their duties successfully, Lack of
effective evaluation in the system of all categories of civil servants in the county led to the
Politicisation of the appointment of supervisors and other agencies
2. Teachers issues
Teachers contribute to the problem of schools supervision in the following ways: Parents,
teachers, and government at large, what makes a school good or bad depends upon the judgment
that is made about its resources and activities. Inspection and supervision across the world has
been considered a process of assessing the quality and performance of schools by internal and
external evaluations. In recent years, many countries have re-examined their inspection and
supervision systems in the face of demands that schools should be made more transparently
accountable for the outcomes and standards that they achieve and, therefore, responsible for
continuously assessing their performance.
Since its origin in the early nineteenth century in Britain, school supervision has been the main
instrument of facilitating and ensuring quality improvement in schools. It started in the form of a
systems tool for monitoring by Her Majestys Inspectors of Schools that was based on a top-todown authority and control model, as well as on rules, regulations, acts, and codes.
Unprofessional attitudes to work from the teachers because they are not motivated that is why
they pay less attention to their duty.
Lack of interest in work because some see teaching as a last job in a modern society and some of
them Lack of basic knowledge or formal training for teaching and learning situation.
Lack of qualifications for position of teaching many of the present day teachers in Nigeria today t
lacks basic qualification for teaching in our modern day schools and no proper supervision to
monitor the recruitment for the teaching appointments in schools.
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3. The Way Forward

The primary objective of the supervision process in secondary schools is to offer teacher direct
assistance to improve their performance toward the goal of increasing student learning. To
achieve the goals of instructional supervision in secondary schools, efforts must be geared
toward overcoming most of the challenges facing instructional supervision. In addition, if
education would be one of the tools to realise the goals of transformation agenda of the present
government in Nigeria, there is need to improve upon the quality of learning in secondary
schools through effective supervision of instruction in the following ways:
=> Adequate funding: Government at all level must strive to make adequate fund available to
education sector in order to procure the necessary materials that will aid effective supervision of
instruction in secondary schools. This can be done by way of increasing the grant usually
allocated to school on termly basis. Government can also seek public private partnership in
funding education since it has become clear that government alone can no longer provide
necessary funds that are required in the education sector. The United Nations resolution was
that 26% of nations budget should go to education sector. Implementing this resolution would
equally boost the fund available to the education sector which will afford all agencies and
parastatals in education to carry out their educational activities effectively.
=> Capacity building among major stakeholders: In order to ensure adequate and effective
supervision of instruction in secondary schools in Nigeria, government need to embark on
capacity building of supervisors, administrators as well as teachers to enable them perform their
duties effectively. This can be done through regular training, induction programmes, seminars
and workshops to equip them with necessary skills and keep them abreast of the current trends
in the school system. They can equally be given opportunities to participate in international
conferences in other to acquit themselves with what operates in the school system outside the
shores of Nigeria.
=> Selection of qualified supervisors: One of the ways of ensuring effective supervision of
instruction is to select or appoint personnel who have technical skills about education especially
at the secondary schools level. Government should not sacrifice the merit and competence on
the altar of political affiliation. Qualified personnel in the field of education with sufficient
knowledge, skills and experience in secondary school education should be appointed as
supervisors in order to exhibit all sense professionalism in carrying out their functions in the
school system.
=> Employment of supervisors with higher educational qualifications: Supervisors with higher
qualifications are more likely to perform better in the field than those with lower qualification
[23]), education personnel with higher qualifications display more confidence in their
workplace. In addition, they are more accessible to quality information, and adapt to changing
occupational conditions than their counterparts with lower qualification, who are usually more
indisposed and ill-equipped in adapting to modern changes.
4. Secondary School education
Secondary school education should be regarded as a strategy for effective and efficient social
transformation at all fronts in independent African states. It must be understood that formal
secondary education is primarily the most significant of all national investments. It is a
knowledge production centre, as skills production system, as a complex multi-layered system for
WoCTVET 2014 | 165
social, political, cultural and economic development system. Further to this, the secondary
school system is a formal institution vested with the responsibility of imparting and developing
knowledge, skills and attitudes essential for individuals to fit into society and be able to
contribute productively to its development[24]
The entrance to secondary education is based on an examination. Secondary education is
divided into junior and senior secondary, and technical and vocational education. The Junior
School Certificate is awarded after three years of junior school. The Senior School Certificate is
awarded after three years of senior secondary education. It replaced the West African GCE "O"
level in 1989. Pupils who complete junior secondary school are streamed into senior secondary
school, technical college, out of school vocation training center or an apprenticeship. Technical
secondary education is offered in secondary commercial schools which offer six-year courses
including academic subjects and specialization. At the end of the course, students may take the
examinations for the Senior School Certificate. Vocational education produces low level
manpower and is offered in technical colleges or business and engineering skills training
Centres. Technical colleges are the only alternative to senior secondary schools as a route to
further formal education and training after junior secondary education. To enter university,
students have to pass the University Matriculation examination (UME).
7. CONCLUSION
Supervision requires the leader to oversee, assess, evaluate and direct teachers as well as school
administrators to ensure an educational institution is meeting its goals. Also, successful
supervision promotes a vision to implement change in the school system that facilitates
improvement. The supervision of instruction is by design a developmental process with the
main purpose of improving the instructional programmes, generally and teaching specifically.
Only when this process is carefully planned and executed can success be assured.
The supervisory function is best utilized as a continuous process rather than one that responds
only to personnel problems. Thus, administrators with supervisory responsibility have the
opportunity to have tremendous influence on the school activities and help ensure the benefits
of a strong programme of instruction for students. Successful supervisor should be
knowledgeable about educational leadership, management and administration. They should
know the culture of the schools and communities in order to ensure effective supervision of
instruction. Supervisors of instruction should be knowledgeable of real life issues and education
is dynamic
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WoCTVET 2014 | 168
Motivations and Promotion Opportunity of Academic Citizens

Towards Open Innovation: Proposed Model
Tan Shen Kian1*, Wan Fauziah Wan Yusoff2
Faculty of Technology Management and Business, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 shenkian@yahoo.com,2 fauziahy@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
It is highlighted severally that the slow progress of Malaysia third economy transformation is
caused by poor collaborations of the innovation ecosystem among education, government, and
industry sectors. Without understanding the motivation factors of Malaysia academic citizens
towards open innovations, the overall speed of the new economic transformation program will
not be accelerated. This working paper, hence has two main objectives; (1) to determine
motivation factors that will exert academic citizens efforts to participate in open innovation;
and (2) to test whether promotion opportunity become a moderator of their motivation
towards open innovation. To achieve these objectives, this study proposes a new model of
Personal-Environmental Factors which accumulated and developed from comprehensive
reviews on motivation theories and empirical findings. The model will be furthered by a
quantitative web-based survey method to reach all academic citizens from twenty public
universities in Malaysia. It is expected that findings from this study will provide the universities
involve as well as the Ministry of Education some key motivation factors which then can be used
as a future promotion criteria to motivate academic citizens to collaborate in open innovation
actively.
Keywords: Motivation Factors, Promotion Opportunity, Academic Citizens, Open Innovation
1. INTRODUCTION
National competitiveness factors have experienced a great shuffle from factors of labour, land
and natural resources to potential to produce, acquire, utilize and disseminate knowledge [1].
Since the late nineties, Malaysia has determined this conjuncture and has started its
transformation into knowledge-based economy. The transformation process has followed with
clear objectives where national competitiveness and progress by the year of the 2020s will be
supported by innovation-led performance, rather than conventional skills-based [2].
Despite the clear objective in transforming Malaysia economy base, to date the progress has
been commented as moving slowly. It is mainly due to the poor engagements in the innovation
ecosystem. In order to speed up the overall prospects, four key components which are
education, government, industry and ventures are required to increase their progressiveness to
promote knowledge and innovation in human capital development [3].
As one of the four key components in developing an innovation ecosystem, Ministry of Higher
Education Malaysia has undertaken its mission in developing higher education environment that
encourages the growth of premier knowledge centres and individuals who are competent and
innovative with high moral values to meet national and international needs. Obviously, among
the twelve Pillars of Initiatives introduced by the MOHE Implementation Plan for Development of
Innovative Human Capital at Tertiary Level (2010), the issues of Motivation have been found to
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be given highest attentions. For instance, Public Awareness and Appreciation that comes under
Pillar 2 Initiative has an expected outcome of cultivating highly motivated students and
academician staffs. Besides, People Competency under Pillar 3 also expecting both Academic and
Governmental staffs are more motivated to innovate. Furthermore, Product/Idea Performance
on Innovation under Pillar 6 set a strategy of motivating University to develop technologies and
explore innovations in the global world. The statements above have revealed that the factor of
motivation among academicians should be clearly determined for successful implementation of
the Pillars [3].
2.1 Higher Education
Higher education nowadays is holding a key role in achieving knowledge-based economy to
stimulate innovation in the creative industries by pioneering and delivering courses, graduates,
ideas, opportunities and research [4]. The main competitive advantage offer by higher education
is producing academic attainments to contribute to firms and government. Besides, higher
education also supplies graduates who are a continual source of innovation. In the theory of
Triple Helix, higher education together with industry and government are interacting closely
while each maintains its primary role and distinct identity [5]. A new and more direct role arises
from the Helix further requires higher education to practice capitalization of knowledge by
organizing their academic and technical knowledge and transfer to firms.
2.2 Open Innovation
Open innovation is defined as organizations permeable innovation process where projects can
be launched from internal or external sources and new technology can enter at various stages
[6]. This is often a result of alliance or collaborations between partner firms that results in
greater technology acquisition and exploitation [5]. Open innovation was distinct into two
different dimensions: inbound or outside-in open innovation and outbound or inside-out open
innovation [7]. Outside-in open innovation refers to the use of discoveries of third parties and
involves opening up to, and establishing relationships with external organizations with the
purpose to access their technical and scientific competences for improving its own innovation
performance. In contrast, the inside-out dimension suggests that companies look for external
organizations with business models that will better exploit and commercialize their particular
technology than just depend on their own internal paths to market.
2.3 Motivation
Motivation is defined as the willingness to exert high levels of effort, toward organizational
goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need [8]. Three key elements
in the definition are further provided as an effort, organization's goal, and need. Motivation is
one of the most important factors in affecting human behaviour and performance. The level of
motivation an individual or team exerted in their work task can affect all aspects of
organizational performance. However, understanding human needs and preferences will not be
the same from one to another. Thus, one set of motivation package designed for an individual or
group may not turn up as the same effect to the others. This in fact has been earlier supported by
reference [9], in his article what makes individual do something is not necessarily the same for
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another individual. Moreover, reference [8] also commented individuals are showing a
discrepancy on their basic motivation drive. As a result, based on reference [10], organizations
should obtain a clear understanding in employees dissimilarities in needs and preferences for
motivation factors to boost up their performance towards overall organization's goal.
2.4 Promotion Opportunity
Factor of promotion refers to the actual change in upward status within organization that
employs is serving. It creates the opportunity for employees self-advancement, increased levels
of responsibility and a higher social standing according to his or her abilities, skills and work
[11]. Particularly, promotion opportunity refers to the degree where employees perceive the
opportunities of their statuses are officially being granted to move upwards within their
organizational hierarchy. Employees expect to work in jobs that provide them with
opportunities to be promoted to higher yet challenging positions [12].
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Theoretical Framework
This study will explore Personal and Environmental Factors towards academic citizens open
innovation. The academic citizens motivational issues will be explored because of the high
attention given by MOHE towards implementation of the Innovative Human Capital at Tertiary
Level. Figure 1 represents the research model of the study.
Figure 1: Proposed Research Model
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The independent variables in this research are Personal-Environmental Factors. Details of each
sub-factor under the Personal-Environmental Factors groups were determined from reviews of
current motivation theories and empirical findings. Factors collected from process of reviews
are further merged and integrated into this new model of Personal-Environmental Factors. It
will be used to study respondents extents of preferences towards the factors. On the other hand,
dependant variable in this study is open innovation. This variable will be measured according to
academic citizens frequency of collaboration in open innovation.
Lastly, Moderator variable is academic citizens perceptions of their promotion opportunities.
It is determined from governmental blueprints and empirical papers in discussing the
promotion criteria in public universities. Criteria for promotion opportunity arrived from
universal three core responsibilities are used to study respondents extent of satisfactions for
promotion opportunity in terms of transparency, consistency, and positive perceptions towards
its criteria.
3.2 Research Design, Instruments and Samples
The study employs a quantitative approach that is able to provide a comprehensive descriptive
statistics and Structural Equation Model to answer the objectives of this study. A questionnaire
designed is consisting three sections. In section 1, the respondents are required to fill their
demographic profile such as gender, age, position and working experience. By using a sevenpoint Likert-type scale with anchors ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree,
section 2 requires the respondents to indicate their extent of preferences towards motivation
factors experienced from their workplace, as well as satisfactions towards their job promotion
criteria. The last section 3 requires respondent to indicate their frequency of academic citizens
participation in open innovation. Respondents will be asked for the frequency on collaborations
for Open Innovation if they are given chances to perform. Every respondent was asked to score
to what extent of frequency you are collaborating on open innovation? Likert seven-point
scale ranging from 1 (Never of the chances when I could have) to 7 (Every time of the chances
when I could have) will be used to access the frequency.
This survey instrument will go through a Validity test. One set of questionnaire will be sent to
three experts to review for validation. The purpose of Validity test is to confirm the extent to
which questionnaire designed is able to measure what this research is intended to measure.
Another Reliability test will also be used in this research before the actual survey is conducted. It
will measure the stability and consistency of the data during the research process. According to
reference [13], in order of the elements in the Independent and Dependant variables to be
accepted as reliable, both motivation factors and promotion opportunity must exceed 0.7
Cronbachs Alpha value. There will be 115 elements from 23 motivation factors and 15 elements
from 3 criteria of Promotion Opportunity stated above to be tested for reliability.
The process of data collection is using web-based survey method. A well-designed and verified
questionnaire will be uploaded onto surveymonkey.com. Next, the researcher will visit the
community website of each public university to collect targeted respondents email address.
Lastly, address of the web-based survey will be sent by email accordingly.
The duration of this stage of the survey is estimated for three months started from the date of
web-based survey is distributed. In order to facilitate response rate, follow-up will be conducted
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throughout this stage by e-mailing remind letters for respondents who are yet in response every
twice a week.
The population of this study is academic citizens in all public universities in Malaysia who have
experienced or interest in conducting, participating or supervising in either academic or
industrial research. Sample for the survey will be selected based on simple random sampling
method. Next, samples will be drawn from each public university and merge together for data
analysis. This will ensure all respondents of every university are represented in the research, so
as to increase the efficiency.
Based on the stated population as of December 2011, currently there are 27,433 academic
citizens from twenty public universities [14]. As this study has chosen all public universities as
the population in this research, according to the reference [15], a sample size of 5243 is
confirmed from summing up the total population of all public universities with 27433 academic
citizens.
4. SIGNIFICANCE
4.1 Contribution to Practical or Practitioner
The model will contribute to the implementation plan on Development of Innovative Human
Capital at Tertiary Level. Since the Pillars of Initiatives are considered as the foreground of high
demand for motivated academicians, specifically, findings arrived from this study are useful in
terms of the development of specific guidelines for academic citizens motivation. The guidelines
then can be referred by Malaysian universities and ministries, especially in encouraging
academic citizens to be more active in open innovation activities.
Furthermore, since this research will study the extent of satisfactions for the factor of promotion
opportunity among academic citizens, the results of this study are able to benefit both public and
private education industry. The understanding of academic citizens satisfactions in promotion
criteria may serve as a benchmark for universities and colleges in revising their implementation
of job promotional systems.
4.2 Contribution to Body of Knowledge
Besides, this research will offer academic contributions by generating an up-to-date, well
categorised list of new Personal-Environmental Factors to the body of knowledge in the field of
motivation. All motivation factors will determine from a comprehensive study on theories and
empirical literatures on the subject of motivation/ job satisfactions/ performance, following by a
process of comparison, sorting and integrate into a new list of Personal-Environmental Factors.
This research product not only to be used in this this research; in fact, it will be helpful to other
researchers in their area of social science research.
4.3 Contribution to Policy
Lastly, the statistical result of this research will offer both government and universities an
opportunity to take a glimpse into Academic Citizens current extents of satisfactions in
motivation factors and Promotional Opportunity, as well as their actual participation level in
Open Innovation. Obviously, descriptive statistics generated from the survey is useful for MOHE
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and universities in observing the progress of Implementation Plan for Development of

Innovative Human Capital at Tertiary Level, compare the extent of satisfactions among the four
broad-based universities, and serve as reference in designing future motivation packages or
adjust their promotional requirements.
5. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this working paper has presented researchers interest in studying motivation
factors of academic citizens to participate in open innovation. Research results arrived from this
study will not only benefits practitioners in getting a clear picture of academic citizens extents
of satisfaction on variety motivation factors as well as their promotion criteria; correlations of
motivation factors towards open innovation and moderator variable of promotion opportunity
among the two variables will also clearly identified.
REFERENCES
1. Perangkaan Pengajian Tinggi Malaysia (2011). Retrieved
http://www.mohe.gov.my/web_statistik/perangkaan2011.htm
Jan
2013
from
2. Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development (2008),OECD Fact Book 2008:

Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics, Retrieved 10 Feb, 2012, from
http://oberon.sourceoecd.org/vl3060281/cl23/nw1/rpsv/ fact2008/index.htm.
3. MOHE Implementation Plan for Development of Innovative Human Capital at Tertiary
Level (2010). Retrieved Jan 2013 from http://www.mohe.gov.my/portal/penerbitan-kptselanjutnya/473-mohe-implementation-plan-for-development-of-innovative-humancapital-at-tertiary-level.html
4. Geoffrey Crossick. (2010). Creating Prosperity: The Role of Higher Education in Driving the
UKs Creative Economy. Universities UK.
5. Chesbrough, H. (2006). The Era of Open Innovation D. Mayle (Ed.) Managing innovation
and Change .
6. Chesbrough, H. (2003c). Open Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting
from Technology: Harvard Business Press.
7. Chesbrough, H., Vanhaverbeke, W., & West, J. (2006). Open Innovation: Researching a New
Paradigm: Oxford University Press, USA.
8. S. Saraswathi (2011): A Study on Factors that Motivate IT and Non-IT Sector Employees: A
Comparison. International Journal of Research in Computer Application and Management,
Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 72-77.
9. Burke R (2007). Project Management Leadership. CapeTown: Burke.
10. Bourgault M, Drouin N, & Hamel . (2008). Decision Making within Distributed Project
Teams: An exploration of formalization and autonomy as determinants of success. Proj.
Manage. J., 39: S97-S110.
11. Stephen P. Robbins (2009). Organizational Behaviour: International Version, 13/E. Pearson
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12. Jane M. N., Mike E. I, Namusonge G.S. (2012). Determinants of Academic Staff Retention in
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13. Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
14. Ministry of Education Malaysia (2013). National Education Statistic: Higher Education
Sector 2012. Retrieved 6th June 2014 from http://www.mohe.gov.my/web_statistik/
15. Krejcie, Robert V., Morgan, Daryle W. (1970). Determining Sample Size for Research
Activities,Educational and Psychological Measurement.
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Leadership Factors that Support the Successful Institutionalization

of Quality Assurance Practices
in a TVET Institution
Noor Aidi Nadzri1 & Mohamad Hisyam Mohd. Hashim 2
Department of Polytechnic Education, Ministry of Education, Malaysia
Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 aidi.nadzri@moe.gov.my, 2 mhisyam@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Quality assurance amongst higher education institutions has been a subject of increasing focus.
Ironically, quality in higher education is a term that is considerably vague and highly contextual
with definitions ranging from the perspective of achievements of the desired outcome to that
directly related to costs. Many essential elements determine the quality of an organization.
Among the common elements that are linked to quality as outlined by past researches are
communication and information, policy, core values, rewarding quality, structure, resources and
leadership. For TVET to become a mainstream education option, improving the availability,
access and quality of TVET for the technical pathway is equally as important as the academic
pathway of tertiary education. The challenge lies in ensuring the quality of TVET institutions
especially to the stakeholders as TVET is still looked upon as an alternative route of education.
With the gazette of MQA Act 2007, all polytechnics were directed to conform fully to all
standards and criteria as set by Malaysian Qualification Framework (MQF). Continuous internal
and external audits were carried out to ensure that all of polytechnics educational programmes
are quality assured. During the process, many elements were observed as contributors towards
the success of the initiatives and leadership was observed to be among the major contributor.
This concept paper will examine past researches to identify leadership determinants in quality
assurance related framework. Leadership factors that could support the successful
institutionalization of quality assurance practices in a TVET institution will also be investigated.
Keywords: Total Quality Management; Quality Assurance; Leadership; TVET
1. INTRODUCTION
Quality assurance amongst higher education institutions has been a subject of increasing focus
as a result of many factors among which is the rapid expansion of the higher education sector,
the increasing requirements of stakeholders for higher education institutions to respond to the
trend of globalization and the ever continuous changing demands and expectations of respective
industries and communities. Higher education account for a substantial proportion of public and
private expenditure and are universally regarded as vital instrument of social and economic
policy aimed at promoting individual fulfilment, social progress and national prosperity. In line
with Malaysias initiative towards propelling the nation to become a developed nation, the New
Economic Advisory Council (NEAC) [1] highlighted the role of Higher Education Institutions
(HEIs) in supporting the New Economic Model (NEM) namely:
Producing skilled human capital needed by market
Being the source for R&D and innovation
Improving the outcome of the education (in particular higher education) sector
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Producing human capital that is competitive with high skills who can earn high income
while ensuring low income groups to have access to quality education which will help
improve their livelihood
Attracting the best talent for producing human capital, innovation that will lead growth,
ensure
Inclusiveness and promote sustainability
The role of HEIs as highlighted by the NEAC requires all HEIs to truthfully relook at their
existence such that graduates produced contribute meaningfully to the success of the NEM. The
demand for access to higher education in Malaysia has been met through the liberalisation of
education policy that saw the growth of private educational institutions superseding the role of
the government as a higher education provider from the late 1990s. But the role put forth on the
HEIs by the NEAC goes beyond just mere accessibility but instead accessibility to quality higher
education.
This role for higher education to be of quality is indeed a grave challenge because quality in
higher education is a term that is considerably vague and highly contextual with definitions
ranging from the perspective of achievements of the desired outcome to that directly related to
costs. Many essential elements determine the quality of an organization. Among the common
elements that are linked to quality as outlined by past researches are communication and
information, policy, core values, rewarding quality, structure, resources and leadership. Geoffrey
D. Doherty as sited in [2] established that despite the enormous volume of published books and
journal articles on the subject of quality the concept of quality is still frequently
misrepresented, misunderstood, or both, by many academics. The term quality is therefore very
subjective and very much dependent on personal interpretation and judgement. It is also
established that quality assurance approaches is mainly driven by demands of external agendas
that focuses on institutional aspects at a higher level instead of that by academic consideration
that focuses on students aspects at the lower level and that it leans more on the accountabilityled views rather than the improvement-led views[3]. Therefore a balance between quality
assurances approaches that gives focus to issues at the higher level such as governance and
stakeholders requirements to that at the lower level such as students satisfaction and
programme evaluation is indeed critical to ensure that indicator data at all levels is evaluated
and acted on.
Due to the difficulty in defining quality in higher education, [2] suggests that a simplistic
approach to quality assessment would be to briefly describe what quality is, set certain
standards that can be assessed, compare these with the work done in each institution and draw
a conclusion on the quality of the institution in question. This simplistic approach to a certain
extent is adopted in many countries quality assurance evaluation processes including that of
Malaysia and personal observation from various auditing processes conducted is that it is indeed
not without flaws especially in that it is very subjective to the auditors interpretation.
Generally, TVET is often seen as an alternative route or a last choice education as a
consequence of diverse factors among which is the lack of quality in TVET. Up till today,
education path way amongst majority of school leavers in Malaysia is to pursue higher education
in the academic line and this is reflected in that on average only 10% of students enrol in TVET
institutions annually in Malaysia. This scenario is low compared to the 44% in the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, hence reflecting the
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unattractiveness of TVET in Malaysia [4]. With reference to the 4th role of the HEIs in the NEM as
highlighted by the NEAC where HEIs is to produce human capital that is competitive with high
skills, this specific role should definitely be the focus of all TVET providers in Malaysia. This will
only happen if the competitiveness of TVET providers is increased by the offerings of quality
assured programmes.
2. QUALITY ASSURANCE IN TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND
TRAINING (TVET) INSTITUTIONS
Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) as defined by [5] refers to an educational
process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences,
and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to
occupations in various sectors of economic and social life. Despite the negative existing
perception of TVET, [6] determines that TVET is increasingly recognized as an effective means
of empowering young people to engage in productive and sustainable livelihoods. The 10th
Malaysia Plan highlighted that for Malaysia to move up the value chain to become a high-income
economy, there must be significant increase of enrolment in technical education and vocational
training (TEVT) as well as raising the overall training quality to up skill the workforce [7].Skilled
human capital base in Malaysia can be increased via quality TVET to those with keen interest,
ability and talent whereby it will be immediately applicable in the labour market. For TVET to
become a mainstream education option, improving the availability, access and quality of TVET
for the technical pathway is equally important to that of the academic pathway of tertiary
education. The challenge lies in the ensuring of the quality of TVET institutions especially from
the perspective of the stakeholders.
Reference [6] underlined three important measures required towards quality assuring TVET
institutions namely:
1. Validation of qualifications and/or standards
2. Accreditation and audit of education and training institutions
3. Quality assurance of assessment leading to the award of qualifications.
Reference [6] also emphasized that quality enhancement is one of the main objectives of TVET
system on top of increasing attractiveness of education, training and promoting mobility among
technical and vocational students. Susan Holland as cited in [6] also defines quality
improvement in Vocational Education Training (VET) to include establishing mechanisms for
accreditation and national recognition certification of students achievement. Quality assurance
in TVET therefore relates to issues pertaining to standards, auditing and accreditation,
assessments and certifications.
2.1 Polytechnics Under Purview Of Department Of Polytechnic Education (Dpe): Quality
Assurance Initiatives
With the official gazette of Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 and the establishment of
Malaysian Qualification Agency (MQA) on 1 November 2007, the implementation of the
Malaysian Qualifications Framework (MQF) as a basis for quality assurance of higher education
and as the reference point for the criteria and standards for national qualifications came into
place [8]. MQA, being the entity that is responsible for monitoring and overseeing the quality
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assurance practices and accreditation of national higher education, is responsible towards

developing standards and criteria and all other relevant instruments as national references for
the conferment of awards with the cooperation of stakeholders. MQAs function is also to assist
in the recognition of qualifications and to facilitate in the articulation of qualifications amongst
different HEIs. Under the MQF, eight levels of qualifications in three national higher education
sectors are established and are supported by lifelong education pathways. The three sectors
under the MQF are Skills, Vocational and Technical and Academic. With the establishment of
MQA, higher learning institutions in Malaysia realign their educational programs, systems and
procedures towards meeting the criteria and standards as outlined by MQA.
Prescribing to the need of establishing an effective quality assurance system and in overcoming
the issue of lack in quality of TVET institutions, the Department of Polytechnic Education (DPE),
Ministry of Education Malaysia (MoE) and all 33 polytechnics under its purview pursue to
conform fully to the prescribed quality assurance and quality control standards and requirements
by seeking certification and recognition from national and international certification and
standardization organization for all of its educational programmes whilst its operational
processes adheres to a prescribed quality management system (QMS). The Director General of
DPE in his key-note address at the Inaugural National Conference for Technicians & TVET Semiprofessionals in 2013 [9] referred to the Boston Consulting Group study in 2011 commissioned
by the Ministry of Human Resource Malaysia identified the establishment of approximately 1000
TVET institutes in Malaysia under various ministries in which 45% are public institutions, 3%
are state institutions and 52% are private institutions. Despite the large percentage of private
TVET institutions, 70% of total numbers of students are enrolled in public TVET institutions.
The Boston Consulting Group also established that there is a lack of coordination in the TVET
delivery system amongst providers in Malaysia. The lack of coordination amongst TVET
providers in Malaysia may further strengthen the view that TVET is second option education
best suited for students with lesser academic abilities as supported by [10] in which they
established the absence of a single national authority with a complete overview of the entire
TVET landscape often leads to different, competing, or confusing standards within a single
country. Based on The Boston Consulting 2011 report, enrolment across all industry sectors is
highest in the polytechnics MoE with a total of 55% as compared to 15% in Giat MARA, 9% in
Community Colleges and 9% under the Ministry Of Human Resource.
Initiatives towards achieving quality in polytechnics educational programs is indeed a
continuous and challenging effort with a very significant milestone achieved in the year 2000
when the first polytechnic was awarded the MS ISO 9001: 2000 certification. With the gazetted
of the Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007, efforts to embed standards as prescribed in the
Code of Practice Programme Accreditation (COPPA), developed by MQA, within institutional
QMS procedures was rigorously carried out. This process requires that all polytechnics to reexamine their existing processes based on the systemic thinking of input, process and output
cycle as in Diagram 1. Feedback mechanism serving as input to the continual quality
improvement (CQI) process was established that forces the system to implement the complete
Plan Do Check and Act (PDCA) cycle. In addition, the official implementation of the outcome
based education (OBE) in the polytechnic system began in Jun 2010 semester and the process of
constructive alignment of the curriculum, instruction and assessment was vigorously carried out
to ensure polytechnic education programmes accomplish the OBE philosophy as prescribed by
MQA. In ensuring all educational programmes offered in all of the polytechnics adhere to the
required process of achieving the Full Accreditation (FA) status from MQA, DPE developed a QA
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strategic plan with comprehensive action plan spanning from 2010 till 2015. Among major focus
of the action plan developed includes:
1. Buying in process: creating sense of urgency
2. Capacity building on QA requirements and accreditation process
3. Attaining management commitment
4. Creating quick wins
5. Developing effective reward mechanism
6. Institutionalizing the QA culture
Diagram 1: Polytechnics' Quality Assurance System

In addition to recognition and accreditation initiatives at the national level, DPE also pursue to
be recognized at the international level. Earlier of 2014, the curriculum for 7 of DPEs
engineering programme was reviewed against the National Technology Benchmarks (NTB) and
is recognized by the Canadian Technology Accreditation Board (CTAB) to be fully compliant to
the standards of Dublin Accord.
The 7 engineering programmes are:
1. Diploma in Civil Engineering
2. Diploma in Mechanical Engineering
3. Diploma in Electrical Engineering
4. Diploma in Mechatronic Engineering
5. Diploma in Mechanical Engineering (Manufacturing)
6. Diploma in Electronic Engineering (Computer)
7. Diploma in Electrical and Electronic Engineering
To further pave polytechnic recognition at international level, 3 Premier Polytechnics namely
Politeknik Ungku Omar, Politeknik Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Azizi Shah and Politeknik Ibrahim
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Sultan was awarded the Gold level accreditation by the Asia Pacific Accreditation and
Certification Commission (APACC) in May of 2014. This Gold level achievement is the first
amongst the 93 TVET institutions from 8 countries who applied for the APACC accreditation.
APACC under the Colombo Plan Staff College for Technician Education (CPSC) was initiated in
December 2004 in Seoul, Republic of Korea and representatives from seventeen member
governments signified their commitment to establish a regional body for accreditation and
certification of TVET institutions. According to CPSC, the core principle of the APACC
accreditation and certification initiative is to harmonize the quality of TVET, standardize skills
taught in TVET institutions in the region, and facilitate greater mobility of workforce in Asia and
the Pacific region. Hence, achieving Gold level from APACC, being the only regional body that
accredits TVET institutions in the Asia Pacific region, proves that Polytechnics MoE is indeed a
leading TVET institution in the Asia Pacific region.
A major challenge faced in ensuring homogeneity in the implementation of quality assurance
practices is the large size of the polytechnic education system. With 33 institutions comprising of
approximately 8000 academic staffs and offering more than 200 educational programmes to
about 100,000 students, the success of quality assurance initiatives at the polytechnics varies
from one institution to another due to many factors. From personal observation, among the
main contributing factors towards the successful institutionalization of quality assurance
practices are leadership, comprehensive strategic plan and strong support system. Leadership,
arguably, is seen to be of utmost importance because they set the direction of the institution.
3. FACTORS TOWARDS THE INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF QUALITY
ASSURANCE
The institutionalization of quality assurance is an evolving process that requires an organization
to continuously embrace the PDCA cycle until quality assurance is formally and philosophically
integrated into its structure and function. Reference [11] developed a framework to
institutionalize quality assurance based upon years of experience in assisting developing
country health systems to design and implement quality assurance by combining conceptual
model and operational process as in Figure 1.Three core activities namely defining quality (QD),
measuring quality (QM) and improving quality (QI) is said by [11] to be the heart of effort to
institutionalize quality whereby it works synergistically to ensure quality care is the outcome of
the system. In addition to the core qualities, eight essential elements are required to support and
ensure sustainable implementation of the core activities over time. These eight elements is then
grouped within three categories namely the internal enabling environment, (comprising of
leadership, policy, core values, and resources), organizing for quality (comprising of structure),
and support functions (comprising of capacity building, communication and information, and
rewarding quality).
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Figure 1: The QA Institutionalization Model

With reference to polytechnics experience in addressing quality assurance initiatives, all eight
essential elements highlighted in the quality assurance framework of [11] i.e. leadership, policy,
core values, resources, structure, capacity building, communication and information, and
rewarding quality is very critical towards the success. Nevertheless throughout the process,
leadership arguably, is observed to be the most significant element because with the right traits
and characteristics of the leader, all other elements can be addressed accordingly. Leadership,
under the internal enabling environment, is said to be critical to help the organization see
where it needs to go (vision), to provide strategies for the transition from the way we work now
to the way we want to work in the future, to promote a learning environment, and to model the
desired core values that should characterize the organizational culture [11].Reference [11]
further establish that the process of institutionalization occurs from an initial state of preawareness to the culmination in a state of maturity and requires organization to undergo four
phases i.e. awareness, experiential, expansion, and consolidation as depicted in Figure 2.As early
as the awareness stage in the Process of Institutionalizing QA, [11] states that individuals,
especially key decision makers, become conscious of the need to improve quality of care and of
the possibility of doing something deliberate and systematic about it. Leadership is an essential
element during the experiential stage and the indications of organization readiness to move on
during the experiential stage include increased leadership support and a formal decision to
develop an organizational strategy for QA.
Figure 2: The Process of Institutionalizing QA

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Hence, leaders with characteristics and traits as described earlier, i.e. visionary, strategic,
promoting learning environment and with the ability to model desired core values are more
likely to be able to carry his/her organization through the various phases especially the buying
in and capacity building processes of the awareness phase.
4. LEADERSHIP FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGES QUALITY ASSURANCE
INITIATIVES
What is leadership? Is leadership and act of nature or can it be nurtured? Is leadership dynamic
dependent on the situation? Does leadership actually emerges or does it develop over time?
Many of the questions posted are still without concrete answers. Despite the continuous usage of
the term leadership, there is no one unifying clear definition of the term. Reference [12] states
thatleadership is hard to study because opportunities to observe un-retouched leadership
actions in light of the alternatives it confronted are rare and thus suggests some working
definitions of leadership as follows:
The early simplistic paradigm (leadership is good management)
The semantic description (leadership is the process of leading)
The transactional definition (leadership is a social exchange between leaders and
followers)
The situational notion (leadership is a phenomenon that precedes and facilitates
decisions and actions)
The aesthetic concept (leadership is an art or a craft)
Based on seven years of intensive development and research experience in higher education,
[13] suggests these following core dimensions of higher education leaders characteristics:
Interpretative leadership: An ability to give meaning to their staff in a very complex and
uncertain environment.
Confidence building: The capacity to offer reassurance wherever possible without being falsely
optimistic.
Providing challenge: To those who may be in demand about the role of culture change required
whist giving sufficient support.
Developing a clear intuitional narrative: Acknowledging that it will need to be adapted and
developed on a regular basis as the future picture of higher education unfolds.
Energising: Offering personal leadership that builds up energy and resilience in the institution to
counter all the forces and individuals in the university whose effect is to sap energy away
One of the critical success factors for sustaining continuous improvement in any organisation as
established by literature is leadership as stated by [14]. Reference [14] further quoted Kanji
and Tambi (2002, p. 42) as saying that leadership is central in all Total Quality Management
(TQM) implementations in higher education institutions and is said to be the most critical factor
for its success. Based on this premise and TQM-driven models, [14] established that leadership
through processes is required if excellent performance results are to be delivered as shown
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in Figure 3 and places leadership as the critical role of driver that pushes people, policies and
strategies through such that relevant processes can be carried out.
TQM gained its recognition in America at the beginning of 1980, when the pressure to produce
quality products was critical, following tight competition from Eastern countries, such as Japan,
Korea, and Taiwan, in capturing the global market [15]. Generally, the evolution of TQM
consisted of four stages namely (1) the quality inspection stage, (2) the quality control stage, (3)
the quality assurance stage, and (4) the total quality management stage. Reference [16] stated
that TQM is the integration of all organizational activities and processes in order to accomplish
continuous improvement of the quality of products or services with customer satisfaction being
the ultimate goal. In addition, [17] emphasized the leaders roles to achieve the TQM plan, as
well as to instil a TQM culture and involve people to ensure the success of the TQM program.
Figure 3: The Premise Underpinning Strategic Quality Management, TQM, and the EFQM
Excellence Model
Table 1: Characteristics of TQM Stages
Stage I
QualityIn
spection
(1910s)
Stage II
Quality
Control
(1924)
Stage III
Quality
Assurance
(1950)
Stage IV
Total Quality
Management
(1980)
CHARACTERISTICS
-Salvage
-Sorting
-Corrective
action
-Identify
sources of
nonconformanc
e
-Quality
manual
Performanc
e
data
-Self
inspection
-Product
testing
-Quality
planning
-Use of
statistics
-Paperwork
control
-Third party
approvals
-System audits
-Quality
planning
-Quality
manual
-Quality costs
-Process
control
-Failure mode
and effect
analysis
-Non
production
and effect
analysis
-Focused vision
-Continuous
improvement
-Internal
customer
-Performance
measure
-Prevention
-Company-wide
application
-Interdepartmental
barriers
-Management
leadership
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Reference [15] exhibits the characteristics of the different stages in the development of TQM as
shown in Table 1.Specifically the quality assurance stage consists of all activities conducted in
the previous stages with the addition of quality manuals, use of cost quality, process control, and
quality system audits to enhance customer satisfaction toward the product or service. The focus
of this stage was to prevent rather than to detect bad quality products or activities.
5. FOCUS OF STUDY
In ensuring the educational programs offered fulfills the requirement of all stakeholders and
that graduates are highly marketable at national and international market, the quality assurance
system of the higher education institution need to be very structured to be able to address all
issues at the input, process and output level. Towards this, the institutionalization of quality
assurances practices is critical such that every processes the institution undertakes, be it at the
input, process or output stage, is tight up to conforming to prescribed approach. In undergoing
its quality assurance initiatives, from the year 2009, all 33 polytechnics under the purview of the
DPE, MoE undergone massive restructuring of its organization and revamping of all of its
processes to fulfill the criteria and standards outlined by MQA. This massive exercise required a
large sum of financial investment in terms of the buying in process and the capacity building
process. It also required a full commitment from all levels of staffs at the DPE and the
institutions. Many critical factors were seen to be the contributing factor to the level of success
of the initiatives among which leadership is seen to be the most important factor. Hence, this
study is to understand the leadership factors that encourage the successful institutionalization
of quality assurance practices in a TVET institution.
Based on early readings, these following topics need to be delved into deeply so that a thorough
understanding is acquired:
1. TQM and TQM in education
2. Quality assurance in higher learning institutions
3. Quality assurance in TVET institutions
4. Factors that contributes to successful quality assurance initiatives
5. Theories of Leadership
6. Leadership in education
To obtain a further understanding of leadership factors that contribute to successful
institutionalization of quality assurance practices, early interviews with selected leaders in
TVET institutions will be carried out to establish initial framework of the said study.
6. CONCLUSION
Employability rate of graduates especially amongst public higher learning institutions is a topic
that is of public constant interest especially when it is tight up to governments financial
investment. Return on investment of TVET institutions as of late is questioned especially in
relation to its graduate employment rate. Hence all TVET institutions, including all polytechnics
under the purview of DPE, need to ensure that graduates are employable through ensuring the
quality of all of its educational programs. Quality assurance in education, despite it being a factor
WoCTVET 2014 | 185
that is still relatively vague, is certainly an issue that needs to be continuously addressed by all
higher education institutions, in order to fulfill publics requirements.
REFERENCES
1. NEAC, retrieved from:
http://www.neac.gov.my/publications.php?subcategory=nem%20reports
2. Tsinidou, M., Gerogiannis, V. and Fitsilis, P. (2010) Evaluation of the Factors That
Determine Quality in Higher Education: An Empirical Study, Quality Assurance in Education,
Vol. 18 No. 3: 227-244
3. Law, D. C. S. (2010) Quality Assurance in Post-Secondary Education: The Student
Experience, Quality Assurance in Education, Vol. 18 No. 4: 250-270
4. Key Reforms in RevitalisingTechnical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in
Malaysia, retrieved from:
http://www.tvec.gov.lk/HRDAsiaConf/document/presentation_day_01/key_reforms_in_re
vitalizing_TVET_Malayisa.pdf
5. What is TVET, retrieved from:
http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/tvetipedia.0.html?&tx_drwiki_pi1%5Bkeyword%5
D=TVET
6. Majumdar, S., Khambayat R. P., Tesoro-Gayondato, T. J., & Sorolla, R. M. (2009), Integrating
Quality Assurance in TVET System in Support of Qualifications Framework (Manila,
Phillipines) International Conference on Harnessing
Qualifications Framework Towards
Assurance in TVET
7. Tenth Malaysia Plan 2011 - 2015 (pg 216), retrieved from: http://www.epu.gov.my/eputheme/RMKE10/img/pdf/en/chapt5.pdf
8. Code of Practice forProgramme Accreditation, retrieved from: http://www.mqa.gov.my/
9. Polytechnics Contribution in Nurturing Professional Technicians, retrieved from:
http://www.poliku.edu.my/v3/images/doc/hebahan/swkcreate/Datuk%20Hj%20Mohlis
%20Jaafar-SwakCREATE%202013.pdf
10. Vocational Education: The Missing Link in Economic Development retrieved from:
https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/education_public_sector_vocational_e
ducation/
11. Silimperi, D. R., Franco, L. M.,Van Zanten, T. V. and Macaulay, C. (2002)A Framework for
Institutionalizing Quality Assurance, International Journal for Quality in Health Care,Volume
14, Supplement 1: 6773
12. Allio, R. J. (2013) Leaders and Leadership Many Theories, But What Advice is Reliable?,
Strategy & Leadership, Volume 41 No. 1: 4-14
13. Wooldridge, E. (2011) Leadership in Higher Education: Some Lessons From Other Sectors,
The International
14. Journal of Leadership in Public Services, Volume 7 No. 3: 245 250
WoCTVET 2014 | 186
15. Osseo-Asare, A. E.,Longbottom,D., &. Murphy, W. D.(2005),"Leadership Best Practices for

Sustaining Quality in UK Higher Education From the Perspective of the EFQM Excellence
Model", QualityAssurance in Education, Volume 13 No 2: 148 170
16. Dahlgaard, J. J., Kristensen, K., & Kanji, G. K. (1998). Fundamentals of total quality
management. UK: Chapman & Hall
17. Ross, J. E.(1995). Total Quality Management: Text, cases and readings (2nd ed.). FL: St Lucie
Press.
18. Cortada, J. W., & Woods, J. A. (1995). The McGraw-Hill encyclopedia of quality terms and
concepts. USA: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
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Transfer of Ivet Systems to Other Countries: The German Example

Gerald Thiel
DEKRA Akademie, Germany
Gerald.thiel@t-online.de
ABSTRACT
In some countries the conviction has arisen that their traditional national systems of Initial
Vocational Education and Training (IVET) are no longer sufficient for preparing individuals to
meet the requirements of the modern world of work referring to a state of the art that is
determined by global competition. An easy way to initiate necessary changes appears to be the
use of systems that seem to cause economic success. This is obviously the background of
bilateral collaboration agreements between the German government and the governments of
Greece, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Slovakia, and Spain (here called reform countries) in the IVETarea that shall help the reform countries to change their IVET systems in a way that they better
fit to the needs of the labour market. The reference model for this kind of collaboration is the
German IVET-system. However, there are many conditions for implementation which need to be
reflected with regard to a successful IVET system transfer. The article at hand will deliver
suggestions how to deal with this fact properly, after the German system of IVET and its
strengths and weaknesses have been shortly described.
Keywords: Initial VET; Dual System; Transfer of VET Systems
1. INTRODUCTION
In the majority of cases, responsibility for education in Germany is the domain of regional
governments, assigned to 16 states (Lnder). This is not true for Initial VET where federal
bodies as well as institutions of the Lnder share the power; moreover, there are some
responsibilities - in other countries belonging to public administrations - which are ceded to
private organizations working on behalf of public bodies.
The main stakeholders of collaboration within this public-private partnership are:
Players relevant for the set-up and update of occupations
The Federal Government represented by the Ministry of Economy, the Ministry of
Agriculture, and the Ministry of Education and Research (who delegates the main tasks
to the Federal Institute of Vocational Education who works on behalf of this ministry)
Associations of companies working at sectoral as well as at overarching positions
Trade unions working at sectoral level
Competent bodies, responsible for the control of IVET: Competent bodies of various
origin, mostly situated within specific economic or societal areas (as chambers,
equivalent public organizations)
WoCTVET 2014
The interplay between these stakeholders should become visible

By showing the process of setting up an occupational profile
By considering the results of this process
2. SETTING UP AN OCCUPATIONAL PROFILE1
The set-up starts with an initiative that is taken by
A sectoral association of entrepreneurs
One of the umbrella organizations of entrepreneurs
Trade unions
A competent ministry
The Federal Institute of Vocational Training and Education (Bundesinstitut fr
Berufsbildung BIBB)
There is no unique way how this initiative is specified: Starting points might be preliminary
discussion among social partners (organizations of entrepreneurs and unions) , but also the
results of a research project carried out by BIBB; and, of course, also a ministry can come up
with a directive to start the official set-up (or update) of an occupational profile. In the majority
of cases, the social partners come up with suggestions for basic values to be considered for
regulations of occupational profiles. These basic values concern the following topics:
Title of the occupation
Duration of training
Structure of training (Possible differentiation according to focuses)
Form of examination
Chronological structure
Issues of environment protection
Catalogue of minimum requirements for knowledge, skills, and competences
On the basis of these suggestions, the bearers of the initiative apply to the responsible ministry
(mostly the ministry of economy and energy) to host a meeting with all stakeholders in order to
base the set-up process on the consensus of all involved parties.
This set-up process takes place on a legal basis: the Vocational Education Act
(Bundesberufsbildungsgesetz). The act rules in a formal way the procedure to be applied; this
includes the roles of stakeholders in this process.
Among others, it is determined in this act that experts have to be nominated by the social
partners and by BIBB who will together elaborate the basic values agreed on in the session with
The following description benefits from the brochure Bundesinstitut fr Berufsbildung (Ed.) Ausbildungsordnungen
und wie sie entstehen, [1] It uses also information that the author provided in the project EQF Predict
(http://www.project-predict.eu) [2]
1
WoCTVET 2014 | 189
the competent ministry. This work leads to a draft regulation of training (Ausbildungsordnung)
and is related to the first pillar of the dual system of initial VET, training integrated in work of
private (enterprises) and public organizations (administrative bodies). This regulation is based on
federal law i.e. a decrees of the competent ministry
The second pillar of the dual system of IVET is based on legal regulations determined by the
Lnder. These regulations rule vocational education taking place at vocational schools
(Berufsschulen), supplementing training within enterprises and equivalent public organizations
by theoretical instruction referring to the occupational profile and also by dealing with subjects
of a more generic character (as German language, social studies, calculating). For this purpose,
experts nominated by the Lnder have to draft a skeleton curriculum (Rahmenlehrplan) that can
be, if necessary, be specified for every Land. This curriculum comprises as Structural elements:
- Fields of learning
- Learning content
- Learning objectives
- Suggested time allocation
All in all, it encompasses 1/3 generic instruction: social studies (German, foreign languages,
sports/religion or alternately ethics) and 2/3 specialized instruction: technology, economic
fields of learning.
Both groups of experts meet in order to harmonise their drafts. In the course of this
collaboration, also the Europass Certificate Supplement is drafted which will attached to the final
certificate, explaining achieved knowledge, skills, and competences and assigning them to the
levels of the European Qualification Framework (EQF), thereby intending to make the
qualification comparable with qualifications achieved in other countries and thus to enhance
professional mobility; the supplement has then to be translated into English and French.
After this harmonization process has been finished, the Common Committee of the Federal
Government and Lnder Governments for the Coordination of Training and Regulations and
Skeleton
Curricula
(Bund-Lnder-Koordinierungssausschuss
Ausbildungsordnungen/
Rahmenlehrplne) has to accept both drafts. Then the competent ministry issues the decree on
the training regulation and Lnder governments take over the skeleton curriculum, possibly
deriving from it a part of the land.
WoCTVET 2014 | 190
Figure 1 delivers a schematic description of the set-up process:
Hearing central organisations of

entepreneurs and trade unions
Training
Regulation
(Federal
Government)
Decree and promulgation

Decision in Federal/States Coordinating Committee
Skeleton
Curriculum
(KMK)
Decision in BIBB Central Committee

Coordination of drafts: Joint session of BMBF, KMK, BIBB,
central organisations, experts
Development of a draft
training regulation by federal
Development of a draft
skeleton curriculum by federal
government/BIBB experts
states experts
Decision to start a set-up project in Federal/States Coordinating

committee
Application discussion (initiated by sectoral organisations) : Laying down
educational policy benchmarks
Fig. 1
3. HOW THE GERMAN IVET SYSTEM WORKS
As already mentioned above, the German IVET system is based on two pillars:
-
In-company training working on the basis of federal law: 3 4 days per week
VET education within vocational schools, ruled by laws of the Lnder: 1 2 days per
week
The legal basis of this dual system is summarized by Figure 2.
Fig. 2
In order to make the system work in practice, financial resources are required and people taking
to maintain the system. How this is organized, can be seen in Figure 3:
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Fig. 3
Trainers are practitioners working within firms, as a rule not only employed in order to train
apprentices, but also contribute directly to production and/or service (mostly as heads of
departments, masters [Meister]). They carry out in-company training on the job, supplemented
by in-house workshops or laboratories to practice or learn particular skills.
Vocational school teachers (having completed an academic programme of study) teach students
within school-based training/education. As mentioned above, lessons deal partially with generic
content, partially with profession-oriented content. According to the skeleton curricula designed
within the last decades, this part of training is becoming more and more work scenario based.
This opens perspectives for a stronger linkage between training within enterprises and lessons
of vocational schools.
Chambers of commerce and industry, craft, agriculture give advice to enterprises and monitor
training. They carry out examinations, leading to certificates that are publicly recognized. This
strong position is based on the role defined by the Vocational Act where chambers are appointed
to do this on behalf of the state. In this context, it should not be forgotten that enterprises in
Germany are obliged by law to be members of chambers.
Regional institutions and Lnder ministries control vocational schools. Training is financed
partially by enterprises, partially by the Lnder (by funding of vocational schools as a part of
compulsory education).
4. MAIN FEATURES OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM OF INITIAL VET
It should not surprise that stakeholders all over the world declare that they want to make VET
productive for economic development2; if we consider the general objective of German IVET, this
does not make the difference. The distinctive feature becomes visible if we have a look at the
specification of the relationship between VET and the world of work, formulated as an individual
ability in the Vocational Act:
(3) Initial training shall, through a systematic training programme, impart the vocational skills,
knowledge and qualifications (vocational competence) necessary to engage in a form of skilled
2 This seems to be the overall ratio of VET, but this does not say anything about the practical meaning of VET all over
the world: There might be countries where VET, although defined this way, only plays a marginal role in terms of the
reasons of economic success.
WoCTVET 2014 | 192
occupational activity in a changing working world. Initial training shall also enable trainees to
acquire the necessary occupational experience.3
Key terms are in a changing world and to acquire the necessary occupational experience: It is
understood that vocational competence must include the ability to adapt ones work procedures
to changes (of state of the art and conditions of work), and that initial training should already
produce occupational experience and not only prepare for it.
Against this background it becomes understandable what the sense of the two IVET pillars is:
work-based learning, based on the regulations valid for enterprises and equivalent
organisations, is more than only to provide for a set of knowledge and skills related to the
current situation of work. It implies development of an attitude to work: The approach to
consider work tasks as to be fulfilled and to find solutions for problems that might arise, and not
only to look at work as an area where already available, mainly technically describable skills
have to be applied. This can include, of course, that one has to update knowledge and skills
according to new requirements, only driven by the insight that otherwise work cannot be
carried out properly.
In the light of these considerations, also the second pillar, vocational education carried out at
vocational schools, gets a specific function: Delivering access to more generic knowledge about
subjects of professional relevance, lessons at vocational schools can lay the foundation for
seeking , identifying, and finding practice relevant knowledge in the future. Apart from that,
lessons at vocational schools dealing with non-professional topics can provide for a broader
view on life and thereby help to strengthen the societal position of professional work.4
Set-up and maintenance of the dual IVET system is based on a significant network of
stakeholders collaboration that is not only relevant at a level where representatives negotiate in
order to achieve agreements. Cooperation of public and private stakeholders concerns the
process of setting up profiles as well as the maintenance of the system via carrying out
training and education and assessing it in the framework of examinations: Representatives of
very different organisations (as employees of public bodies, industry associations, trade unions)
have to do with each other at various levels from meetings of commissions where regulations
are drafted to common participation in examination boards at local level.
This requires a lot of resources, in terms of personnel, but, of course, also in terms of funding.
These resources are available: Public money spent by the responsible bodies, private money
delivered by the social partners, chambers, and the enterprises paying the apprentices wages,
and finally the huge number of people who have to be experts in their specific field.
This kind of network is a public-private partnership that deserves the name; it is not a structure
which has more or less a governmental character since private organisations only play the role
of consultants. Initiatives for changes normally come from the private side who remains the
driver: Public bodies provide only for the legal framework by providing regulations concerning
the content of IVET and the procedures of collaboration.
3
See [3] Part I, p. 931
WoCTVET 2014 | 193
5. STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE DUAL SYSTEM

For individuals to be trained, advantages are obvious: They are trained not only in a practiceoriented ways, but take part in real, not simulated, professional work, and although this always
means that the apprentice has to deal with the specific work needs of a company, the training
matches the requirements of a standard which means that the apprentice is not only entitled, but
indeed capable to fulfil the requirements of work places of various enterprises. At the same time,
apprentices are able to check if they have a right picture of the work they are expected to carry
out in the framework of their supposed future profession, and they are possibly able to modify
their career pathways at a very early stage.
For enterprises, IVET training delivers a cost-effective opportunity to recruit employees: Their
activities can be observed during the training period which should lead to decisions about hiring
that are based on more provable reasons than a mere interview. And if things are developing
positively, the apprentice can already be introduced into the work processes that are specific for
the enterprise and exceed those that are standard. In the best case, they can autonomously work
on tasks that have to be fulfilled anyway, and if this is accompanied by the overall monitoring of
an experienced trainer, this might even lead to better results as if this work is carried out by
somebody who has routine, but has lost the interest in work.
However, the success of the dual system of IVET is dependent on certain conditions, and at this
stage it turns out that one of the strengths of this approach the close linkage to the world of
work can also turn out to be one of its weaknesses in some situations. The willingness to offer
apprenticeships is influenced by economic factors. In times of crisis for example, enterprises
might not be interested in costly investments, including the costs for hiring future workforce.
Moreover, it can exceed the potential of an enterprise if it has to compensate for lack of general
abilities (such as the adequate command of German or the ability to do necessary maths) which
should normally be outcomes of general education, but were not achieved.
Therefore the dual system needs supplementary measures to be successful (such as preparatory
courses for those who are not yet able to take part in Initial VET and trans-organisational
training centres for organisations which cannot afford apprenticeship training in their own
firm).
6. TRANSFER OF THE DUAL SYSTEM TO OTHER COUNTRIES: POSSIBLE
OBSTACLES AND REALISIC PERPECTIVES
It is certainly not by chance that the attractiveness of the German IVET system is currently
increasing. Compared with a number of other countries, Germany is in a strong economic
position, and it is often perceived that the way in which future employees are qualified is one of
the reasons for this. This kind of argumentation is, of course, popular among policy makers since
it appears simple yet significant, and can therefore be easily communicated to potential voters. It
is therefore not surprising that bilateral agreements concerning the introduction of the dual
system of IVET were set up between the German government and the governments of Greece,
Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Slovakia, and Spain in recent years.
However, the coincidence between positive economic data and a certain way to educate future
employees does not necessarily say that German IVET is the reason for the positive economic
WoCTVET 2014 | 194
development. In light of the remarks made above, one could also claim that it is just the other
way round: Economic success is the condition for the application of the dual system. But in this
case it would appear as some kind of luxury that Germany can afford there must be reasons for
using this system that can be described in terms of economic success. The consequence of this
would be to find out how and to what extent the dual system of IVET supports the development of
the German economy:
1. The starting point of this research should be the product of IVET in Germany: vocational
competence as described in the Vocational Training Act5. This fits perfectly to all kinds
of work which require flexibility and therefore the ability to make autonomous decisions.
This is especially important for all enterprises focussing on services which require
bespoke solutions for clients. If the enterprise is large enough, it can afford training
apprentices, and if a sufficient number of this kind of enterprise is available in a country,
the dual system of IVET can contribute to economic success. In order to be capable of
organising training and paying apprenticeship wages, these enterprises should be, as a
rule, at least medium-sized (which is the case in Germany); if there is a gap between
numerous small-sized enterprises and few large enterprises, mostly coming from abroad
and able to work on the basis of their own professional standards, the introduction of
IVET according to the German model will fail, unless it is combined with an initiative of
supporting the development of medium-sized companies or creating networks of
collaboration among such enterprises.
2. It is obvious that the German IVET system is based on a network of players which cannot
be exactly duplicated in other countries. If comparable stakeholders exist in the country
where the dual system should be introduced, they most likely have a different societal
position as in Germany. So it makes no sense to only formally adopt ideas which are
known from the German IVET system, in particular the social partnership in the area of
VET. It should be considered what this implies: a consensus of all involved parties that
the requirements of education for work are basically to be considered as subjectdetermined and differences in terms of interests therefore have to play a secondary
role6. Otherwise it would make no sense to specify the roles for the social partners from
local to national level since this is only possible if a general common understanding of
IVET requirements exists; if this is not the case, the players involved would not trust
experts to make sure that things function properly.
If there is the intention to introduce an IVET system comparable to the German one, the
following factors need therefore to be taken into consideration:
What is the structure of the national economy in terms of enterprise types?
How far does a system like German IVET help to support this economy?
Which players are currently available which currently support VET?
See above
This does not mean that interest-led differences cannot appear whilst VET settings are discussed; however,
these do normally not concern the actual content of VET, but - certainly also very important, but nevertheless
accidental - issues as the duration of training measures.
6
WoCTVET 2014 | 195
Which players could support properly a system comparable to the German one in the
future?
How is it possible to get them on board as soon as possible, in order to avoid a mere
reactive behaviour from their side, and to make sure that players understand the new
way of IVET training as their system?
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
G.T. thanks to Prof. Georg Spttl, University of Bremen and University of Kuala Lumpur, who had
a look at the manuscript before submission, and to Dr. Ed Mahood, DEKRA Akademie Germany,
who extensively commented the manuscript.
REFERENCES
1. Bundesinstitut fr Berufsbildung (Ed.), (2013) Ausbildungsordnungen und wie sie
entstehen, http://www.bibb.de
2. Project EQF-adapted educational key elements in a predictable framework of change (EQF
Predict), http://www.project-predict.eu
3. Vocational Training Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz, BBiG) of 23 March 2005(Federal Law
Gazette [BGBl.],
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Leadership and the Characteristic of Different Generational Cohort

Towards Job Satisfaction
Hadijah Ahmad, Badaruddin Ibrahim*
1Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
2 Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1
dijah.ahmad@gmail.com, 2 badar@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
The challenge in 21st century has expanded as leaders need to adjust their leadership approach
to suit with the diverse workforce coordination. With such a pressing demand on skilled worker.
they were expected to deliver their task effectively neglecting that some may have difficulties.
With so many issues in turnover and early retirement, Malaysia seems to face with major
withdrawal of their talented, and experience employees in labour force. Prior to this, job
satisfaction was said as the antecedent in early retirement and turnover. In todays workforce
orientation, the workforce was composed by these four generational cohort from Baby Boomers
to generation Y. They coloured the environment in their own way. Each generational cohort have
different characteristic that represent them. It is best to understand that their distinctive
characteristic was shape by demographics trends, cultural phenomena, and many more.
Technical competency is far more common place for a gen Y and Z. This is certainly a reality of
technical deficit to gen X. With knowing about the challenges, issues and their characteristic, it is
best to help us understand how they work and lead to promote job satisfaction.
Keywords: Challenges, Leadership, Generational cohort
1. INTRODUCTION
Review of most writings mentioned trending pattern in highlighting the challenges of leadership
in 21st century orientation such as globalization, technological advancement, and generational
gap. The challenges become more complex as leaders have to adjust their leadership approach to
suit with the diverse workforce coordination. In relations with this matter, demographic profiles
in Malaysian workforce change with many from the era of 1945 to 1964 will reach their
retirement age and the movement of new generation that massively enliven the workforce
composition with most of them come from the generation x and y [1]. The shift in the generation
gap prompting leaders to revisit the philosophy, mission and their values for the relevance of
21st century perspectives[2]. In todays working scenery, the reality chart a worrying facts that
many leaving the organization. Issues such as turnover and early retirement has been widely
discussed over the years [4][5][6]. Factors such as job satisfaction, and workplace well-being are
said as antecedent towards turnover[7] [8]. Given factor such as leadership behaviours that will
drive the organization change, [9] illustrated on few researches on the exploration of leaders
effect on employees job satisfaction , where later literatures on the study is getting immediate
attention. [10] warned that one of the utmost challenges for leaderships at the entire level of
organisations is how to build the type of environments that promote, facilitate, and sustain a
positive level of employees productivity and job satisfaction.
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2. ISSUES
2.1 Job satisfaction and generational cohort
Businesses are no longer competing to get a vast number of customers, but instead they are
competing to pool knowledge worker that can run and make their organization sustains through
a years or forever. With so many issues in turnover and early retirement, Malaysia seems to face
with major withdrawal of their talented, and experience employees in labour force. In Malaysia,
turnover has started to increase in early 1991 [11]. To be precise, the numbers raise from 9.3%
in year 2009 to 10.1% in year 2010 [12]. It has been confirmed through many study in
organizational behaviour and management that job satisfaction is the primary predictor of
employees commitment and their intention to switching for another job [13] [14][15]. This was
further supported by [16] [17] stated that job satisfaction is the main contributor towards such
scenario. As founded by [18], factors such as job satisfaction have significant relationship with
employees intention-to leave the organization. On one hand, leaders support is seemed to be an
essential factor in promoting job satisfaction in an organisation. [19] supported that leader
behaviours will reflect upon organisational system and teamwork, also as a decision maker.
2.2 Challenges
One of the most pressing issues in organizational change is demographic shift and its influence
on leadership. With todays workforce transition, it presents challenges to leaders to influence
employee commitment [20]. The generation differences deals with employees motivation,
organization productivity, team work, and organizational changes [21]. If leaders could better
understand their characteristic, it could provide managers with tools to retain the best
employees. The diversity of employees background and characteristic require leaders to adjust
their style in leading. Such adjustment will in turns provide value to the organization [22]. The
workforce transition encompassed different people from different groups which designated as
baby boomers, gen X and gen Y. Each of this groups differ because of their life experiences, life
and career stages and work experiences [23]. Moreover, with differences in their characteristic,
todays leaders cannot expect loyalty exist in employees. Leaders need to be alerted that have to
implement different approach rather than stick to the old tricks like offer employees with good
pay and benefit, promotes them but burden them with task and other meticulous project [24].
Another challenge that need to be ponder is the way leaders can understand the generational
cohort. It may be complicated by life or developmental stage of the employees [25].
Apart from understanding the behavior and values, leaders need to be sensible on how each
generation perceived technology. Baby boomers who were born between 1945 and 1964 have
slow appreciation for technology while gen X who grew up during the eruption season of MTV
and video games were said as well verse with technology. On the other hand, gen Y are
technologically well informed and highly dependent on technology [24]. The challenges in
technological aspect influence the achievement of individual responsibilities at work.
Understanding the generational cohort and their characteristic could close the knowledge gap of
employees and it can strengthen leaders capabilities to motivate employees.
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3. GENERATIONAL COHORT
3.1 Definition
The terms birth cohort was first used by French sociologist Emile Littre in 1863 [26]. The
studies later expanded by Manheim in 1928 and the terms generational cohort was used since
then to summarize individual in different historical periods of time [27]. Three generational
cohort mentioned in this paper is baby boomers, gen X and gen Y. Baby boomers are those who
born from 1945 to 1964, generation X were born from 1965 to 1980 and gen Y were born after
1980 [28].
3.2 Characteristic of Generational Cohort
In todays workforce orientation, the workforce was composed by these four generational cohort
from baby boomers to generation z. They coloured the environment in their own way. In
workforce makeup, leaders are comprised from all generation. Each generational cohort have
different characteristic that represent them. It is best to understand that their distinctive
characteristic was shape by demographics trends, cultural phenomena, and a moment they born
that have turning points. It is said that Baby Boomers are much focused in their task and have
strong work ethics [29]. Besides, they are competitive, and have high loyalty towards
organization [30]. The generation X preferred to work alone and prioritize work-life balance,
and cynical and Generation Y does not concern much on their task as long as it is done and
complete, socially sensitive and technology savvy [23] [30]. Generation Y are said to be
technology savvy and have deficiencies in interpersonal skills in communication because they
were raised and born in the era of digital orientation. This deficiencies lead to limited social
interaction amongst leaders and co-workers [31]. Interestingly, each of the generation attributes
and beliefs about work was tabled in which revealed that Baby Boomers believe that hard work
is equal to long hours spend in work and they have long term commitment in organization, while
generation X demand for work life balance in their work and more flexible work schedule.
However, for the generation Y, they expect to have multiple employer and multiple career and
while at the same time they are the best when integrating technology into workplace [32]. Based
on the unique characteristic presented, each generational leaders are predicted to have different
leadership approach to geared the organization. With the multigenerational makeup on todays
workforce, it present the challenges for leaders to understand and utilized appropriate
leadership approach that later could be a tools to retain employees in organization. With respect
to this issues, challenge in gaining greater understanding of this generation require leaders to
literate the values and behavior on each distinct generation so people can act in a ways that
allow everyone to contribute effectively and efficiently [23]
3.3 Bridging the Technical Gap between Generational Cohort
Technical deficit has suffered some generation to try catch up with others. It was said that
technical competency is far more common place among our younger workforce but many have a
decided deficiency in the Low-Tech ability to communicate either verbally or in written form
[31].
Most of us work in what is now coined a multi-generational environment. The
transformational changes in technology over the past two decades created a knowledge and skill
gap between the generations. Therefore, as a leader, recognizing, accepting and managing this
WoCTVET 2014 | 199
reality accordingly is the trick. There has been much written and said about how Baby Boomers
and Gen X should manage the Generation Y workforce and also how to navigate being managed
by a Generation Y era manager. Nuance and subtlety aside it all begins with gracefully teaching
Y communication skills and learning how to communicate with them in a manner in which they
will respond positively [9]
4. CONCLUSION
Different generations have had different experiences, educational settings, and most importantly
shaped by demographic and cultural phenomena. Although every member of a generational
cohort is unique, these characteristic in general create cohort preferences about how a
generation wants to be motivated by those who lead them. Accommodating generational
preferences in areas such communicating their values and beliefs will help to promote an
environment of job satisfaction and retention. Facilitating the growth and development of
employees is an important in leadership roles. Yet in the presence of a generationally diverse
workforce, this is not an easy task. Following are summary recommendations for leaders who
are leading a multigenerational workforce and enabling that workforce to thrive and to meet
tomorrows challenges:
Seek to understand each generational cohort and accommodate generational differences
in attitudes, values, and behaviours.
Cultivate generationally sensitive styles to motivate all members in organization.
Develop the ability to be more sensible on the strength and weakness of each
generational difference especially in technology advancement.
Employ high tolerance to avoid generational conflict so as to build effective work teams
among each others.
Capitalize on generational differences, using these differences to enhance the work of the
entire team.
The changes in todays workforce should not be a reason for leaders to actively engage the
employees to achieved job satisfaction. In the changing landscape of competitive recruitment,
sustainability of organization could be achieved by retaining the best talents. Leadership
strategies that work well with diverse workforce is through understand their distinctive
characteristic and work on to motivate them.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by GIPS (Geran Insentif Penyelidik Siswazah) of Universiti Tun
Hussein Onn Malaysia.
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Leadership Capability of Team Leaders in Construction Industry:

First Phase Study
Wan Hanim Nadrah Binti Wan Muda1 & Wilfredo Herrera Libunao2
Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia,
Faculty of Education, University Technology Malaysia
wanhanim@uthm.edu.my, wilfredo@utm.my
ABSTRACT
This research was conducted to identify the important leadership capabilities for Malaysia
construction industry team leaders. Capable managers are more confident and effective in
dealing with their often complex and demanding jobs. They display higher levels of job
satisfaction, commitment and engagement. Organisations with a strong commitment to
leadership and management development find that the returns are positive and high, in terms of
organisational productivity, organisational learning, continuous improvement and quality and
customer service. This first phase study used qualitative approach. In-depth interview was
selected and purposeful sampling was employed in selecting 15 research participants involving
team leaders and Human Resource Manager. The data was analyzed using content and thematic
analyses. This study found that personal integrity, working within industry, customer focus and
quality, communication and interpersonal skill, developing and empowering people and
working as a team were needed leadership capabilities among construction industry team
leaders. The results can be used as a guide by employers and relevant agencies in
enhancing leadership capability of Malaysia construction industry team leader.
Keywords: Leadership Capabilities, Team Leaders, Construction Industry
1. INTRODUCTION
The construction industry is in a new arena of a challenging socioeconomic, cultural, political,
and business environment. In the construction industry, the building profession has played an
indispensable role that determines the performance of the industry. One of the most important
research areas receiving relatively little attention in the construction industry is leadership.
Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and
directs the organisation to make it more cohesive and coherent. Leaders carry out this process
by applying their leadership attributes, such as belief, norms, values, ethics, character,
knowledge and skills. Good leadership lies in giving attention to the rank and file. A leader
should realise that the success of an organisation comes from workers who possess specific sets
of skills and varieties of expertise.
Davis (2002) contends that leadership capability will not undergo drastic changes rather; the
organisations should expect a sharpened focus on current skills necessary to accommodate
intensified conditions in business and society. Toor and Ofori (2008) discovered the authentic
leadership in construction industry while Lyn (2007) came out with the Comparison of
Malaysian and Australian Leadership in Construction Industry. Recent reports into VET
leadership are beginning to describe the range of staff in training organisations. Some reports
focus on the primary findings of those reviews in terms of drafting a set of capabilities required
of the executive, managers, teaching staff and support staff to be able to respond to changes, as
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well as competing priorities and tensions. Callan (2005) reported that VET workforces,
especially at the leadership and supervisory levels, require an extensive range of leadership and
management capabilities, as well as professional and more generic skills, to meet the continued
challenges of change and innovation, to build strong and sustainable organisations for the future.
Mahyudin and Norafidah (2010) emphasised the importance of leadership as a generic skills in
construction industry. However, several studies outside Malaysia show that VET workforces,
especially at the managerial and supervisory level, require an extensive range of leadership and
management capabilities, as well as professional and more generic skills to meet the continued
challenges of change and innovation, and to build strong and sustainable organisations in the
future.
The perception of the leadership capabilities by VET practitioners in Malaysia has become
increasingly important owing to the rapid and immense growth of the construction industry.
The aims of this study are to find out the leadership capability required by construction industry
of their team leaders, elicit team leaders and Human Resource Manager perspectives about the
concept of leadership and leadership capability in the construction industry.
There are many opinions about the leadership. Researchers usually define leadership based on
their individual perspective and the aspect of the phenomenon of most interests them.
Differences between researcher in their conception of leadership lead to differences in the
choice of phenomena to investigate and to differences in explain the result. Some people assume
leaders as those near the top of organisations and therefore define leadership in such terms,
often emphasizing strategy and vision. Others use the term leadership to describe the more
transformational aspect of management at any level, especially the motivating of employee and
the management change (Burgoyne, et. al 2004).
Toor and Ofori (2008) noted that construction industry faces major leadership challenges such
as those relating to the workforce including lack of quality people owing to difficulty in
attracting talent, ageing workforce, dealing with issues, teamwork and communication, training
and education. Mintzberg (2004) advocates moving from the traditional managerial language of
competencies to leadership capabilities; going beyond functions to mind sets (capabilities) of
leadership. This approach suggests that while a description of what good leadership looks like is
possible; a best practice prescription common to each individual is not. It is universally believed
that most individuals can become leaders. Actual leadership has nothing to do with the mastery
of rare abilities, but rather the leadership capabilities can be expressed through continuous
learning and real life experience (Babuet.al, 2008).
Callans core capability for VET managers consists of: a) holding a corporate vision and
direction; b) focusing strategically; c) achieving outcomes; d) developing and managing
resources; e) demonstrating leadership in relation to change; f) developing interpersonal
relationships, displaying a capacity for personal development and mastery; g) demonstrating
business and entrepreneurial skills; and h) having the ability to develop and empower people
(Callan 2001).
Callan (2005) has proposed the following capabilities involve; Corporate vision and direction
(e.g. promotes and communicates a clear vision for organisation); strategic thinking and
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planning (e.g. undertakes effective strategic analysis, advocates strategic initiative that keep the
organisation ahead of its competitors); change leadership (e.g. inspires alignment of vision,
values and behaviours, fosters and support individual change agents); communication that
influence (e.g. negotiates persuasively, encourage debate); business and entrepreneurial skills
(e.g. managers risk, knows how to get deal); and advancement of the interest of TVE (e.g. able to
position the institution to respond successfully to changes to policy issues and funding).
It is universally believed that most individuals can become leaders. Actual leadership has
nothing to do with the mastery of rare abilities, but rather the leadership capability can be
expressed through continuous learning and real life experience (Babuet.al, 2008). Leadership
capability refers to essential resources, support and direction from the organisation to achieve
effective performance. It also implies that the organisations have the processes and systems in
place for a leadership process to be executed successfully. Effective leadership capability is
necessary to understand, enhance, improve and sustain the individual, team and in turn
organisational performance. The literature suggests that the measurement of leadership
capabilities can quantify the effectiveness of leadership or leadership styles through core skills,
emotional intelligence and strategic planning and execution (Teri, 2006; Babu et al., 2007).
Leadership capability is one of the most important indicators for the measurement of leadership
(Richard and Jo-Ann, 2007). New Zealand Public Service (2003) came out with a Leadership
Capability Profile. It has been updated and refreshed in 2009 and aims to outline the skills and
capabilities required to lead effectively in the State Services. It described the personal attributes
combined with leadership capabilities to enable high potential, high performing individuals to
be successful in leading and managing complex organisations.
3. METHODOLOGY
This study was pursued using qualitative research in order to gain better insights and greater
understanding of the concepts and variables being studied. In-depth interview was used in the
qualitative aspect of the research, which enabled the researcher to ask additional questions that
were not stipulated in the interview guide prepared beforehand. The strength of in-depth
interview was that the researcher could prompt and probe deeper into the given situation. In
this research, the in-depth interview was done to: a) generate locally derived concepts of
leadership skills and leadership capabilities among team leaders in Malaysian construction
industry; b) find out the respondents understanding about leadership in construction industry;
and c) enlighten the quantitative aspect of this research on the required leadership skills and
capabilities among construction industry team leaders.
3.1 Research Instrument
The use of in-depth interview in this research was anchored on two reasons: a) the in-depth
interview provided the greatest opportunity to obtain elaborated responses to questions that
cannot be answered simply; and b) the in-depth interview allowed the interviewer to see
nonverbal behaviour that may indicate how the research participants felt about the given issue.
This research, however, took note of the facts that it was nearly impossible to determine exactly
how the respondents were going to answer during the in-depth interview, thus providing a
unique adventure within each interview.
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The interview guide which was designed before the actual interview consisted of instruction for
the interview process and the questions to be asked to the respondents. Interview guide is an
integral aspect of the process of conducting qualitative research. The guide is intended to ensure
that the same general areas of information are collected from each respondent. In this research,
the interview guide was prepared in two languages; English and Malay to ensure better
understanding by the respondents and thereby deriving accurate responses. The interview
guide was designed to ensure that appropriate research questions were covered. The initial
draft was sent to two experts for review and validation to ensure that the format and contents
were in accordance with the qualitative research procedures.
3.2 Research Population and Sampling
A preliminary research was done to collect additional information about the respondents. In this
preliminary research, the researcher met with the CIDB officer and secured the data needed in
determining and locating the prospective respondents. There were two posts chosen in
managerial position and only one post in supervisory position. Construction Project Managers
and Construction Site Managers were chosen to represent the managerial position. They were
selected because those were the posts closest to construction sites, while Civil & Structural
Supervisors were chosen as representative of the supervisory position because they are the
posts with the largest number of members. The qualitative research was pursued only in
Peninsular Malaysia.
Purposeful sampling was used to select respondents among the Human Resource Department
Managers and team leaders for the in-depth interview. The primary consideration in purposive
sampling was who could provide the best information to achieve the research objectives. The 15
respondents for the in-depth interview, who were from Peninsular Malaysia, were managers of
Human Resource Department and construction team leaders.
3.3 Qualitative Data Analysis
The qualitative data interpretation process used in this research is as follows: 1) organise and
prepare data for analysis; 2) read through all data to get the idea and the overall information; 3)
begin detailed analysis with the coding process; 4) use the coding process to generate a
description of the setting or theme for analysis; 5) advance how the description and themes will
be presented in the narrative; and 6) make the interpretation of the data.
In this research, transcripts and field notes were examined to ensure that there no information
and responses from the respondents will be missed. The researcher categorized the data for
eventual analysis. Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the
form of words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs and assigning codes or labels (Strauss and
Corbin,1990). In vivo code was chosen to be the process of coding in this study. In vivo code is
the code or label words and phrases found in the transcript or text. The name of the codes or
label decided by the researcher or taken from the content. In vivo using words found in the
textual unit to code the unit itself, Saldaa, 2009). NVivo version 2 software was used for data
coding after manually using in vivo code.
NVivo facilitates management, besides shaping and making sense of information. Various kinds
of documents can be kept in one place, and they are linked together for easy access. Moreover,
one can quickly trace the progress of an idea from its earliest stages using this software. NVivos
allows the researcher to work with audio and visual material, and new tools mean deeper and
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more flexible analysis. The resulting analysis from NVivo was further analysed following the
rigours of recurring theme analysis and content analysis. Recurring theme analysis, which is one
of the most fundamental tasks in qualitative research and contents analysis, on the other hand
illustrates the range of the meanings of the phenomenon and emphasises an integrated view of
speech/texts and specific contexts.
Data interpretation was done to find meaning in the narrative data, which were based on the
common aspects and links among the data especially the identified categories and patterns.
4. FINDINGS
In this research, in-depth interview was used to obtain information about the respondents
knowledge, beliefs, and attitude towards leadership capability. This method enabled the
researcher to find out more details about the topics and issues concerned and to generate more
definite answers to the interview questions. In this chapter, the findings are reported under
several theme headings derived from the research questions. The results of the interviews were
also used as a guide to further improve the questionnaire used in the quantitative aspect of this
study.
All interview sessions were recorded. The recorded interviews were transcribed to link the
information together based on theme. The perceptions of the respondents in this research
surrounding the issue of leadership capability and the leadership concept as a whole will also be
discussed in this chapter. The discussion in this part will provide answers to the research
question on the respondents perceptions of the leadership capability needed in the construction
industry.
4.1 Concept of leadership and leadership capability
This part focuses on two aspects: a) respondents concepts of leadership and leadership
capability; and b) congruence between top level managements and team leaders perception of
leadership concept and leadership capability. The concepts presented by both Human Resource
Managers and team leaders showed their understanding about leader capability. Majority of the
respondents had the same opinion about this question that the concept of leadership is closely
related to the ability and attitude of leaders to manage the team. Most of the respondents
explained that a leadership capability is the capability of a leader in handling the project to
achieve the companys objectives. Knowledge and experience were also stated as elements
needed to be an effective leader.
Table 4.1: Summary of Concept of Leadership and Leadership Capability
Concept of leadership
Description
Themes
Respondent
Skill and
ability
HRM 1, HRM
2, HRM 3,
HRM
4,
HRM 6, HRM
8
- To be a leader, they need skills and ability.

- A leader should influence others to have
confidence in him/her in order to achieve
organisation goals.
- A leader should possess the ability to handle
any situation and know how to give direction
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TL 2, TL 3,
TL 4, TL 5
Attitude
wisely.
- Assertive, discipline, integrity, and effective
management
- Good attitude with subordinates
- Innovative leaders are needed to reach the
goals.
HRM 5, HRM
7
TL 1, TL 6,
TL 7
Concept of
capability
Ability
leadership
HRM 1
TL 1, TL 2,
TL 4, TL 5,
TL 7
Knowledge
and
experience
Attribute
and
attitude
HRM 3, HRM
6,TL3
- Ability to give order/instruction, direction,

and ability to work together.
- Leader should have experience, knowledge in

the area of work and guide the team.
- Leader must be responsible and willing to

take risks.
- Leader must show good example and be
positive.
HRM 2, HRM
4, HRM 5,
HRM 7, HRM
8
TL 6
Based on Table 4.1, we can see the similarities of their opinions on the concepts of leadership
and leadership capability. This table also shows parallel statements or responses from the
respondents. These results indicate that there was congruence between top level managements
and team leaders concept of leadership and leadership capability in construction industry. It
shows that HRM and team leaders have the same opinion about leadership and leadership
capability concepts.
4.2 Leadership characteristics
The answers provided by the interviewees are about the characteristics of team leaders in their
organisation, and the team leaders about the essential traits of a leader. The team leaders
interviewed were in consensus that their role as professionals was very important in completing
the task given by their organisation, and in addressing related team members. They regarded
this as a leadership challenge to their professionalism, where problems could be settled if their
team members knew their role in the team.
Four of HR managers had similar opinion that team leaders knowledge about work and
understanding their people will help to become effective leaders in the future. Two of them
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stated that their team leaders have good technical and leadership skills. Another two claimed
that their team leaders have strict and honest attitude; they can successfully complete the task
given to them. The HRMs recognised that the capability in leadership is an important attribute in
this new era. They preferred to give and provide their team leaders with leadership and
management training to increase team leaders skills. Ordinary team leaders cannot be effective
leaders without support from their organisations. They need leadership training and
development to enable them to face the challenges in a rapidly changing construction field.
Continuous leadership training will assist team leaders to be prepared in facing challenges
posed by globalisation in the construction industry. The researcher also asked the team leaders
about the characteristics a good leader should possess. From the findings, two of the
respondents preferred to lead their team through experience and knowledge in technical and
construction matters. Two of them were in consensus that cooperation and tolerance are
essential for a leader to develop good relationships with members of the team and to lead the
team effectively. The rest of them believed that leaders who possess leadership skills such as
good communication and decision making skills will enable them to lead their team in achieving
their organisation goals.
Generally, the respondents believed that the skills and capability in leadership that they gained
in informal sessions at the workplace would not be enough. A team leaders development
programme prepared by agencies is therefore expected to be able to help them enhance their
leadership of capability and technical knowledge required of their job. From the continuous
development programmes, the HR managers and team leaders hoped that their capability in
leading people will further improve their effectiveness as leaders. The essential characteristics
of leader in construction industry in Malaysia as perceived by respondents can be summarised
in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Summary of Essential Leadership Characteristics in Construction Industry are
Perceived by the Respondents
Leadership Characteristics
HRMs
-
Leaders need skills

and ability to complete
the project/task
Leaders should have
integrity
and
be
responsible.
Leaders should have
knowledge
in
leadership, experience
in handling project,
and technical skills.
Leaders must have a
capability to solve the
problems
arising
among employees and
client.
Leaders should be
aware of companys
Team Leaders
-
Leaders should be
strict,
disciplined,
and honest.
Leaders should be
tolerant
and
assertive, which are
the basic traits for
the leaders in the
construction
industry.
Leaders should have
decision
making
skills and should
interact effectively
with team members,
clients, and top level
management.
Leaders should have
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requirement and have

an ability to complete
the project within the
time given.
integrity, be honest
and able to make
decisions quickly.
Leaders must have
experience and must
be good in technical
knowledge.
The above findings indicated that there was congruence between top-level managements and
team leaders perception towards leadership characteristics in construction industry. They
stressed that prior experience, leadership skills and capability are the essentials characteristics
needed to be team leaders in construction industry. The similar thought between top-level
management and team leaders bring a lot of benefit to organisation. Smith and Markwick (2009)
mentioned that understanding between employer and employees can give advantages to
organisation through commitment and dedication, advocacy, discretionary effort, using talents
to the fullest and being supportive of the organisations objectives and values.
4.3 Leadership capability
During the interview sessions, seven leadership capabilities were given to the respondents and
they were asked to choose the capability required to be a good leader in the construction
industry.Six core leadership capabilities were consistently chosen by the respondents as
essential factors of leadership capability for team leaders. The summary of leadership capability
constructs selected by the interviewees is shown in Figure 4.1;
As shown in Figure 4.1, 13 respondents consider that working as a team is one of the important
capabilities to be an effective leader. They pointed out that team participation contributes to the
successful completion of any given project. Twelve respondents chose being customer-focused
and quality as equally important as working as a team. They thought that they needed to satisfy
and focus on customer demand and to establish good relationship with their customers. Ten
respondents chose developing and empowering people as one of the factors of leadership
capability. Sometimes, they train their team members by sending them to attend meetings as
representatives when they were not available. It shows that the respondents knew that by
empowering their team leaders it will enhance their confidence level thus they improve their
self-worth.
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Seven respondents selected communication and interpersonal skills as an important factor of

leadership capability. Communication is seen as the foundation in effective interaction.
Information can be shared when good communication happens. Good interpersonal skills of
leaders will help the communication to be more effective. Personal integrity was selected by 13
respondents. It refers to the good values in leaders themselves. Only two of them selected
educational leadership as required qualities. Seven respondents chose working with the
industry because, according to them, they need to know about other companies in order to
establish good working relationship with their subordinates. In addition, maintaining good
working relationship with other companies is needed in construction field especially in
obtaining the latest information about technologies in the construction industry. The rest
probably thought that educational leadership do not really contribute to the leadership
capability.
5. SUMMARY
The interviewees defined leadership as the ability to lead and influence subordinates/followers
to achieve organisation goals. Good leaders must have ability, knowledge and experiences to
manage the team. Good attitude and attribute of leaders affect the team performance in
organisation. The findings imply that the interviewees understand the concept of leadership.
Theydescribed leadership capability as leaders ability to be effective in handling the team to
complete the project/tasks successfully. Leaders in construction industry have a broad
knowledge in technical skills but have fewer non-technical skills especially in leadership. These
signify that team leaders in construction industry need more leadership training and
development programme to improve their leadership capability.
The respondents described the role of team leader in completing the task given by top-level
management as very tough. Leaders need skills and ability to complete the project and should
have integrity to lead the team. Leaders must have the right qualifications and attitude and
should enhance their capability from time to time. Knowledge of task is seen as one of the
important characteristics perceived by interviewees for team leaders to become effective in
performing their tasks.
Team leaders need additional platform to help them enhance their leadership capability. The
qualitative research participants identified six essential leadership capabilities needed in
construction industry in Malaysia, namely: personal integrity; customer-focus and quality;
working within industry; communication and interpersonal skill; developing and empowering
people; and working as a team.
REFERENCES
1. Babu, G.S., Ghosh, S.N., Gupta K.S. and Salma Ahmed (2007). Knowledge management: a
study measurement approach. Paper accepted for Second International Conference on
Management IBSA.ICON07, Ahmedabad, 2729
2. Babu, G.S., MohanaRao, T., Salma Ahmed and Gupta K.S. (2008).Relationship between
leadership capability and knowledge management: A measurement approach Journal of
information & knowledge management. (7) 2, p. 83-92
WoCTVET 2014 | 211
3. Burgoyne, J., Hirsh, W. and Williams, S. (2004). The Development of Management and
Leadership Capabilities and its Contribution to Performance: The Evidence, the Prospect
and the Research Need. Lancaster University
4. Callan, V.J. (2005).Investigating Approaches for Sustaining and Building Educational
Leadership. Consortium: Supporting Vocational Education and Training Providers In
Building Capabilities For The Future(pp. 3-20). Draft Literature Review.
5. Callan, V.J., Mitchell, J., Clayton, B. and Smith, L. (2001).Approaches for sustaining and
building management and leadership capability in VET providers. Published by NCVER
6. Davis, S.(2002). Social Entrepreneurship: Towards and Entrepreneurial Culture for Social
and Economic Development. International Board Selection Committee, Ashoka.
7. Kajornboon, A.B (2005). Using interviews as research instruments.Language Institute,
Chulalongkorn University
8. Lyn, H.P. (2007). Comparative Study of Engineering Leadership of Senior Team leaders in
Malaysia & Australia within the Construction Industry.Dissertation, Faculty of Engineering
and Surveying.
9. Mahyuddin bin ArsatdanNorrafidahbtAbdKadir (2010). Kemahiran GenerikDalam Faktor
Pemilihan Jurutera Mengikut Perspektif Industri Pembinaan, FakultiPendidikan, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia.
10. Mintzberg, H. (2004). Managers, not MBAs: A Hard Look at the Soft Practice of Managing
and Management Development. Barrett-Koehler: San Francisco.
11. Richard, TR and J-AC Byrne (2007). Building your leadership competencies A practical
process guide. In The 2007 Pfeier Annual: Consulting, pp. 243251, John Wiley & Sons.
12. Saldaa, J. (2009). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. London: Sage.
13. Smith, G.R. and Markwick, C. (2009).Employee Engagement A review of current thinking.
Institute for Employment Studies.
14. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory
procedures and techniques. London: Sage.
15. Toor, S.R. and Ofori, G. (2008). Leadership for Future Construction Industry: Agenda for
Authentic Leadership. International Journal of Project Management. 26(1), 620-630.
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Conceptual Framework for School Supervision and Teaching

Quality for Teachers Job Performance in Nigerian Secondary
Schools Education
Isa Yuguda Kotirde1, Professor Jailani Md Yonus2
Modibbo Adama University of Technology Yola Nigeria School of Technology and Science
Education,
Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1isakotirde@yahoo.com, 2Jailani@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
This academic work begins with a compact presentation of the general background to the study,
which also includes the topic of this research and of the structure of the educational system as
well as of the value given to education in Nigeria. It further interplay of the effect of supervision,
job performance/effectiveness in secondary schools education particular in Nigeria. The aim of
this study therefore, is to investigate the effectiveness of school monitory system towards
improving teaching quality in Nigerian secondary school. The theoretical part comprises a
comprehensive literature review that focuses on research conducted in the areas of academic
supervision and teachers job performance/effectiveness and the role of supervision, Principals
and teachers education with particular emphasis on school effectiveness and improvement. To
this end, it offers us an opportunity to define terms systematically and to view problems as
always being interrelated with other components of society in terms of teaching and learning.
The data was collected in this study from teachers, parents. Principals and supervisors from the
Ministry of Education and Post Primary Schools Board in Adamawa State north-eastern zone,
Abuja federal capital territory north central zone and katsina state North-Western zone of
Nigeria (N=496)(530). The data was collected from 243 teachers, 178 parents, 60 principals and
16 supervisors. Totalling 530 questionnaires distributed and 497 return successfully.
Interviews, documents and questionnaires were to be analysed using quantitative supported by
qualitative methods to strengthen the validity of the findings. The results obtained from the
data collected from teachers, supervisors, principals and parents require professional
knowledge, professional teaching skills, as well as a broad base of general knowledge to the
whole system (e.g., morality, service, cultural capital, institutional survey and discipline in the
system). Above all, in order to carry out instructional and supervision processes effectively,
teachers should be both academically and professionally trained.
Keywords: Supervision, Teaching Quality, Job Performance, Teachers, Secondary School
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter will focus to serves and discuss on the background of the study and begins a
consideration of the information concerning the study including background of the study,
statement of the problems, research objectives, research questions, conceptual framework,
hypothesis, significant of the study, scope of the study, limitation, operational definition of
terms and the summary of the whole chapter .
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1.1 Background of Problem Statement

The global concern of Education and Nigerian governments in particular has been amongst
others performance of secondary school education. According to [1], performance is defined as
the quality and quantity of knowledge, skills, techniques, positive attitude, behaviour and
philosophy that students acquire Educational inputs must undergo a teachers job performance
process, which is a crucial component of supervisions by supervisors. These processes are the
teacher-pupil interaction in class for teaching quality, the daily time-on-task with the class, the
regularity and punctuality of the principals, teachers in the school for instructional activities,
length of school day and term, days effectively available for schoolwork in a term [2],
Educational supervision personnel include supervisors, principals, teachers and support
staff.[3], Principals and teachers are important because they motivate both staff and students to
work.[4] reported research findings across the world to indicate principals are the most
powerful determinant of overall quality and effectiveness of schools. The same author said a
recent research in USA found teaching quality the most important variable in student
performance.[5]
According to [6], Education can be provided by just and body and also measuring targeting
internal condition in the free state of south [7], revealed that teachers were the key drivers of
internal school conditions for effectiveness, development and school change. The falling
standard of education in Nigeria is giving more concern. However, the supervisory strategies
adopted in secondary school system have been widely criticized for inadequacy to assists
teachers to improve their performance [8]
2.2 Statement of problem
The goal of secondary education is to develop the individuals mental capacity and character for
higher education and useful living within the society [9]. This has largely attributed to problem
in teachers competence, curriculum instruction, teaching and learning resources, funding and
institutional management. According to [10], revealed that teaching quality in education is being
affected by many problems identified as challenges to supervisors, principals and teachers
which include:
Lack of commitment to supervision by many principals;
Lack of proper monitoring and evaluation of students learning outcomes;
Inadequate training to develop teachers for professional growth and increased
Productivity; and
the conception that lack of adequate feedback to teachers affects working relationship
between principals and teachers and this has perhaps constituted an impediment to
teaching quality in secondary schools.
Lack of effective supervision by the authority concern, that there is the need for proper
supervision by the teaching personnel [11]. A consideration of the above shows that there is a
greater Challenge ahead of external supervisors, principals and teachers partly because of
existing challenges and inadequacies in their supervisory efficiencies in schools to perform and
expect good students product. Therefore, the research is to investigate the effectiveness of
school monitory system towards improving teaching quality in Nigerian secondary schools.
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2.3 Research Objectives

The study will examine educational supervision and teaching quality to Teachers job
performance. The followings research objectives are formulated to guide the researcher:1. Find out the performance of educational supervisors (ESP) to teachers job performance
(TJP)
2. Find out the performance of school principals (SP) to the effectiveness of teachers job
performance (TJP).
3. Examine the roles of parent to (P) teachers job performance
4. To identifies the different roles of Teachers in educational supervision (ES) and
teaching qualities to teachers job performance (TJP)
2.4 Research Questions
Based on the above objectives of the study, the following research questions were formulated to
guide the researcher for the data collection.
1. What is the performance of educational supervisors (ES) to teachers job performance
(TJP)?
2. What are the roles plays by the school principals (SP) on the effectiveness of teachers
job performance?
3. What are the roles of the parents on teachers job performance?
4. Is there any different between peers/Teachers in educational supervision and teaching
quality to teachers job performance?
2.5 Research Hypothesis
The following hypotheses were formulated base on the objectives and the research questions to
guide the researcher for this study are as follows:
1. There is no statistical significant different between peers in educational
and teaching quality to teachers
supervision
2. Job performance.
3. There is no statistical significant relationship between teaching qualities to teachers
job performance.
2.6 Significance of the Study
It is important to pose the question raised in relation to a researchers motivation in conducting
a particular study: Does our motivation for a given research topic or problem align with what
the professional group sees as worthy of investigation? [12], [13]. If the answer is no the
research has no value, but if the answer is yes, then the need to carry out research of this kind is
significant. Concerns have increased over the years regarding raising standards of professional
training and academic qualifications in order to improve teachers effectiveness [14] . For that
reason, the researcher hopes that the findings from this present study might encourage the
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Ministry of Education to train teachers as professionals. This is also relevant to on-the-job

training. In-service teacher development is part of a wider enterprise to adapt teachers to new
challenges and new circumstances.
Sustainably, teaching quality in an educational institution is also made possible when every
member of the institution contributes his/her quota to the efficiency of teaching quality process
[15]
All these are required to ensure a complete well-rounded education and production of quality
students and consistent improvement in secondary school system.
2.7 Scope of the Study
This study is concerned with performance and effectiveness of supervisors, principals, parents
and peers/Teachers of secondary school to their job performance in Nigeria, and also the study
specifically sought to find out the efficiency /competencies of teachers job performance to
students ages between 15 to 18 years in Nigerian secondary schools.
In Nigeria, school supervision is to conducted for the following reasons:
To supervise the implementation of school curriculum;
To help diagnose the problems and shortcomings in the implementation of the
curriculum;
To identify some of the discipline problems encountered in schools;
To monitor and to improve teaching and learning in schools; and
To provide guidance to schools on how they can improve with the of the expert
The purposes of inspection may be prompted by the following four major factors [16]
1. Agreed supervision plans and work programs at national, state, zonal, or local levels;
2. Supervisors personal initiatives;
3. Adverse reports or anonymous correspondence from the stakeholders and school
managers asking for supervisors; and
4. Follow-up supervisions from concerns indicated in the previous
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Fig 1. Conceptual Framework of School Supervision and Excellent Teaching Qualityt Teachers
Job Performance
This chapter reviews related literature concerning school supervision and teaching quality to
teachers job performance of secondary school students in Nigeria. The literature review
encompassed the theory of the study, conceptual of supervision as well as analysis of some
concepts of the study under the effective performance of educational supervisors, principals,
teachers and parents/community to teachers job performance in Nigerian secondary school.
2.1 Theory of the study
Theory has an impact on the study of supervision of teachers job performance, which was
guided by the founder of Scientific Management Movement Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)
Frederick Winslow Taylor has been credited as the originator and principal contributor to the
Scientific Management Movement, and often referred to as the father of the Scientific
Management Movement. Taylor worked in the Midvale Street Company is Pennsylvania,
U.S.A in the following capacities, a laborer, clear, machinist, foreman, chief draftsman and a chief
engineer. [17] .His various experiences at different levels of the organization enabled him to
note that there was a substantial amount of inefficiency prevalent in the performance of all task
at the operational level. This inefficiency is partly a result of the fact that worked were in charge
of both planning and performing their jobs.
Theory about improving performance was started by Frederick Taylor who advocated for
teaching quality inputs in production process. The theory that was used in this study was the
scientific management theory. Frederick Taylors scientific management theory advocated for
definition of daily tasks, use of appropriate tools and materials, pay commensurate with work
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done, and selection and training of staff that were essential for good and effective performance
[18], Good performance of secondary schools E. (2004 therefore means obtaining good teaching
quality product and good grades Odubuker[1]
2.2 The Concepts of Supervision
A supervisor is a person appointed to take care or in charge of a group of people to ensure that
work is carried out satisfactorily. He is responsible for achieving the objectives of the
organization within limits of his authority and for maintaining a good quality of person. The
person in the best position to perform these responsibilities in the secondary school system is
the principal. The following explanations show that principals play numerous roles and perform
various functions in secondary schools in the country. He works with the teachers and gives
them advice and encouragement, coordinates the various parts of the school activities in an
effective environment conducive for suitable learning. He is a protector of teachers and services
as a buffer between them and the unreasonable demands and pressures from the community. In
my opinion, all school principals should include the followings in their supervisory tasks:
Your availability to your staff will enhance motivation, self-esteem, sense of security, and
morale [15]. Principals have a positive effect on professional development when they offer a
vision of learning, support collaborative change, and discuss professional research with their
teachers. Teachers who work in a stimulating and supportive environment can reach higher
stages of professional development [16], The following "Questions for Further Reflection have
been created by NAESP to assist principals to assess the evidence of a culture of continuous
learning for adults which is tied to student learning and other school goals, Provide time for
reflection as an important part of improving practice. Invest in teacher learning. Connect
professional development to school learning goals. Provide opportunities for teachers to work,
plan, and think together. Recognize the need to continually improve principals' own
professional Practice, [17] The four types of leadership styles are identified as being most
successful in supporting teachers to be the best instructors they can be.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter will provide in details about the methodology to use in the study. The study is a
descriptive research of the survey type. It is descriptive in the sense that, it is a form of planned
collection of data from a large population for the purpose of analysing the relationships
between different variables. [18]. The research focus is to find out the
performance/effectiveness of supervisors, principals, Teachers and teaching quality to teachers
job performance in Nigerian senior secondary schools. The research design, population of the
study, research instruments use, validity and reliability of the research instruments, pilot study,
Data Collection procedure of the study and techniques of data analysis quantitative data
analysis. The last section is comprised of well- constructed data analysis techniques.
This study will employed both quantitative and supported with qualitative techniques. The
study is survey, although it relied heavily on data from interviews and questionnaires. The
source data of this research would include close-structured questionnaire for teachers, vice
principals/principals, parents/community and interviews Supervisors from ministry of
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education were respectively use. The research method use for collecting the data as a survey
method and all the related procedure are really observed.
3.2 Research Design
The research design for this study is a survey where Quantitative supported by qualitative
approaches will be used for collecting and analysing the mixed mode data as being appropriate
for the survey study. Amin, (2005) Qualitative supported by quantitative research design
method can be employed for the data collections. The researcher will use the mixed mode
method for collecting and analysing his data. Survey research according to [20] means is a
method primarily concerned with portraying the present. The blend of various disciplines than
in the study of social sciences phenomena has moved the pattern towards using more one
method or one source of data in the study [21].
3.3 Population of the Study
A target population is classified as all the members of a given group to which end the
investigation is related, whereas the accessible population is looked at in terms of those
elements in the target population within the reach of the researcher [22] The research
population for this survey study is to be drawn from three (3) geo-political zones of secondary
schools in Nigeria (target). The population comprises of principals/vice principals, supervisors,
parents and teachers from three (3) randomly selected states of the zones that is Abuja,
Adamawa and Katsina in Nigeria
1. North-Central - Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, Niger, Plateau, and Federal Capital
Territory Abuja.
2. North-Eastern - Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe state.
3. North-Western - Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto and Zamfara state.
The researcher will use two types of instruments namely; questionnaires for supervisors
principals, Teachers, Parents/community and interview guide to supervisors. The following are
the instruments that are to be used for the data collection for this study: Supervisors
Questionnaire [SQ], Principals Questionnaire [PQ], Teachers Questionnaire [TQ], and Parents
Questionnaire (PQ) and interview guide for supervisors.
3.5 Validity of the Research Instruments
Validity refers to the extent to which an instrument measures what it purports to measure [19].
To ensure validity of research instruments, the instrument is scrutiny by the supervisor, other
lecturers in the faculty and colleagues who had knowledge in research. Their comments and
recommendations are used for the improvement of the final copy of the strumpets. And the
expert observations have assisted a lots.The supervisors questionnaire consists of two items.
Section one requires background information on respondents educational qualification and
types of school and gender. While Section two contains the questions items requesting the
respondents to indicate the level of importance on each item on supervisors, Principal/vice
principal, teachers and parents on teaching quality to teachers job performance. It also employs
WoCTVET 2014 | 219
the use of scale option of agree or disagree with the statement based on 5 - point Likert - type
rating scale as follows: 1 = strongly disagree. 2 = Disagree. 3 = partially agreed. 4 = Agree. 5 =
strongly agree.
3.6 Pilot Study
The questionnaire where pilot tested to check the internal consistency as well as for the clarity
and ambiguity. Pilot test is a method employed to survey a small number of people with similar
characteristics to those of the target group. Test-retest procedure is to involve testing the same
group or person in two separate occasions.[20] .The researcher use the Pearson product
moment correlation to test the internal consistency of the instruments. The cronbachs alpha
coefficient is normally use to check the internal consistency among the items in the instruments
that are being tested [19]. Reliability of research instruments is established by piloting the
instruments in some selected secondary schools outside the target are.
3.7 Reliability
The reliability of this instrument was ascertained for this study because the instrument
adapted from Teaching and learning international survey (TALIS) and the analysis was done
using Statistical Package for the social sciences (SPSS). The questionnaires administered for
both supervisors, principals, teachers and parent through a pilot study and therefore the testretest reliability was established. This method has been described the most reliable in terms
reliability testing because the subjects might remember how they responded at the first time
[21]. The results of both teachers were presented in the Tables 1.1
Reliability Statistics
CornbrashsAlpha
.724
N of Items
30
Fig 1.2
3.8 Data Collection
There are two main sources of data collection in educational research: primary and secondary
sources. The data that will be collected for this research study through questionnaire and
interview for both sources. Here the researcher have apply and collect a written document
from the Centre for postgraduates studies to the ministry of education where the Director for
schools services satisfied with contents of the letter from the centre for postgraduates studies
who directed the researcher to go ahead and with permission issued to him with a letter to
state ministry of education and to all the states concerned for the data collections. After
collecting the permit letters stating both the participants the researcher will forwards them to
various executive secretary of post primary schools management Board (PPSMB) and to all the
concerned principals, supervisors, teachers and the parents.
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3.9 Data analysis

There is one single right way or most appropriate way to analyses quantitative or qualitative
data. Analysis implies and indeed requires a principal choice, in analysing and interpreting both
qualitative and qualitative data it is the process of systematically organizing the materials
collected, bringing meaning to them so that they tell a coherent story and writing it all up so that
others can read what one has learned.
3.9
Expected results out come
Propose the best model of good educational supervision and excellent teaching quality that will
result in excellent job performance. The main purpose of this section is to show the rigorous
rationale investigative that the effectiveness of school supervision monitory system towards
improving good teaching quality in Nigerian secondary school, effort of the researcher in
conducting this investigation and it was the researchers desire to contribute to knowledge
through a comprehensive report regarding supervisors and teacher job performance to
effectiveness of the teaching quality in Nigeria schools. This eventually led to the idea of putting
all effort and design possible which encompasses all aspects relating to the supervisors
effectiveness and teachers job performance in the study. Because as stated at the very
beginning of this research work, the success of any organization depends on the effectiveness of
educational supervisions and the administrative machinery established for its implementation.
Also, the researcher strove to put rigorous rationale into the study over the approaches and the
importance of this research work. The authors aim has always been to contribute to knowledge
and offer contributions to the discussion and development of issues surrounding the research
area.
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Implementation Framework System for Accreditation of Prior

Experiential Learning (APEL) in Higher Education Institutions in
Malaysia
1Noraini
binti Kaprawi, 2Wahid Razzaly & 3Wan Nor Syahirabinti Wan Ali
of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1norain@uthm.edu.my , 2 wahid@uthm.edu.my, 3wn_syahira@yahoo.com
1,2 Faculty
ABSTRACT
Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning (APEL) is a systematic process that involves
identification, documentation and assessment of prior experiential learning. However, in most
Asian countries, such as Indonesia, Thailand, Laos, and also Malaysia itself, APEL is practically
quite unknown in the higher education sector. Divergent understandings of what APEL actually
is, raise a number of misconceptions and distortions. The traditional way of thinking remains
prevalent; it is exemplified by the strong belief in tradition and culture of formal education, and
a distrust of non-formal and informal learning. Thus, it pose a great challenge to implement
APEL in Malaysian higher education institutions (HEIs) and there are yet many barriers that
often prevent the implementation of APEL. These barriers need to be addressed in order for
APEL to be in place in HEIs. Since APEL in HEIs in Malaysia, is rather immature (or non-existent
in some universities), therefore, this research focuses on development of implementation
framework for APEL in Malaysian HE. This research also identifies the management system,
strategies and barriers to an effective implementation of APEL in Malaysia. This quantitative
research employed questionnaires, which were later triangulated with interviews from 62
respondents comprises staff from MQA and six (6) local universities.Three (3) experts from
Unirazak, OUM and MQA were also involved in the interview. The findings of this research
indicate that the biggest barrier in implementing APEL system in Malaysia is candidates
assessment system, besides aspects of quality assurance, appraiser selection and APEL
promotions. This study also indicates some effective strategies, such as; coordinate advising
services from local and international experts, implement research studies for improvement and
the brainstorming session. The framework for APEL implementation developed is flexible,
interactive as well as user-friendly and consisted of four main phases, i.e. student
responsibilities, assessor responsibilities, exemption sub-committee and students (aproval and
decision). Finally, the researcher recommended a further Delphi study to be conducted in order
to improve the framework so that it can be used as a standard guidance for APEL
implementation in Malaysia.
Keywords: Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning , APEL Implementation Framework.
Quality assurance, Appraiser selection, APEL promotions, Assesment System
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, human capital is the most important investment for the development of a country
and core to innovation and productive high-income economy. On August 27, 2007, the National
Higher Education Strategic Plan was launched to transform the higher education sector to
WoCTVET 2014 | 224
produce world-class human capital and the development of world-class institutes of higher
learning which involved to creating a culture of lifelong learning that have aims to achieve four
goals including the recognition of lifelong learning through the Malaysian Qualification
Framework (MQF) and one of the key elements that is needed is the recognition of non-formal
learning and informal throughAccreditation of Prior Experiential Learning (APEL).Unlike in
numerous European countries (e.g. APEL in France exists since the 1930s), APEL systems in
Malaysia have not been long in existence. APEL in France has started in the 1930s and they are
being continuously improved. However, although APEL is new and not well in place and
understood in most Malaysian higher education institutions (HEI), it is becomingaccepted as a
tool for enhancing LLL. It seems that at present the questions about its legitimacy are no longer
questioned.Nevertherlessmost HEI in Malaysia are still at lost of how an APEL system should
look to be efficient, available and of sound quality. Thus, discussions are now mainly focused on
issues related to the way of its implementation and operation. The need for new developments
in this matter at the level of higher education in Malaysia is increasingly being raised. In the
context of HEI in Malaysia, technical universities like UTHM are continuously taking further
actions on APEL development to enable the mainstreaming of TEVT a reality. TEVT has been
given a priority and its landscape is fast changing, just as quickly as APEL is evolving in the
Malaysian HEIs.
2.1 Problem Statement
There are many obstacles in the APEL implementation in Malaysia and the barriers need to be
studied and solved to enable effective APEL implementation in Malaysia (Dharam Singh (2009)
and Kaprawi (2011)). According to the South Africa Quality Assurance, SAQA (2011), there are
problems in determining the most appropriate strategy for effective implementation of APEL
system in South Africa. Kaprawi (2011) also stated that certain strategies need to be studied
and identified so that the universities in Malaysia could implement APEL effectively.APEL Policy
and guidelines are still not available in some of Malaysian HEIs (Kaprawi, 2011). Hence, there is
a need todevelop anAPEL implementation framework that can be used as a guideline or
reference for a sustainable implementation of APEL in Malaysia. This is to ensure
implementation of APEL system can be implemented in a systematic and orderly manner.
Therefore, this study hasinvestigated the barriers and effective strategies for APEL
implementation and finally developed an APEL implementation framework. This study has
contributed to the development of APEL, by sharing expertise and experience and providing
insights into the procedural and interactive and flexible approaches needed for successful
implementation of APEL in the context of Malaysian HEIs.
2.2 Research Question
The research questions are as follows:
1. What are the barriers to the implementation of the Accreditation of Prior Experiential
Learning (APEL) in Malaysia?
2. How is the effective strategy for the implementation of the Accreditation of Prior
Experiential Learning (APEL) in Malaysia?
How is the implementationframework system for the Accreditation of Prior Experiential
Learning (APEL) in Malaysian Higher Education Institution?
WoCTVET 2014 | 225
2. ACCREDITATION OF PRIOR EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING (APEL)

2.1 What is Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning (APEL)
First and foremost, what is of crucial importance in the understanding of APEL is that learning
can take place anytime, anywhere, not only within the framework of formal education. With that
premise, APEL is about giving value to the learnings, skills and competencies people have
gained, whether acquired through formal or informal learning. APEL can be used by people to
gain access to qualifications where they do not meet the entry criteria on the basis of formal
qualifications alone, to gain exemptions from certain modules of qualifications and, in some
instances, to gain full awards. The generic term accreditation of prior learning (APL) refers to
the assessment and accreditation of any form of learning that has taken place in the context of
either formal or informal education or during work itself.APEL claims may involve the
presentation of evidence of learning from prior certified learning, prior experiential learning or
a combination of both. Similarly, Malaysian Qualifications Framework, MQF (2012) also defines
APEL as a systematic process that involves the identification, documentation and assessment of
prior experiential learning, such as knowledge, skills and attitudes to determine the level at
which an individual has achieved the desired learning outcomes, as access to a program of study
and/or the award of credit.While many people that are currently unemployed may not have
high levels of formal qualifications, they may have developed many skills through work and life
experience, which can also be valued and recognised.
2.2 APEL Implementation inMalaysian HEIs.
As a young developed country, Malaysia should now be leveraging on APEL in ensuring that
education and training resources are utilised effectively, particularly in a time of scarce
resources. APEL can ensure that learners only receive the education and training that they need
and avoid duplication of learning. For employers, APEL can help them to tailor training more
effectively and better match employees to tasks. More widely for Malaysia, APEL can also play a
role in the human resource upskilling to fulfill the countrys need of skilled workers, by ensuring
that the employees engage in upskilling at the most appropriate level on the National
Framework of Qualifications.
In Malaysia, APEL was started on 16 April 2012 by the Malaysian Qualification Agency (MQA).
According to the MQA (2012), Ministry of Education (MOE) has approved the establishment of
three open universities which Open University Malaysia (OUM), UniversitiTun Abdul Razak
(Unirazak) and Wawasan Open University (WOU) to adopt an open entry system for the
promotion of open learning more aggressive and effective. Given the potential for development
in open learning, the ministry approved the establishment of three more institutions; Asia eUniversity (AeU), Pusat Pendidikan Kewangan Islam Antarabangsa (INCEIF), Universiti
Antarabangsa Madinah (MEDIU) dan Curtin University of Technology Serawak. In addition,
Department of Skill Development (JPK) under the Malaysian Ministry of Human Resources also
offers a recognition program or recognition of prior achievement.
In the context of technical universities like UTHM, APEL is highly relevant in a number of
important current policy contexts, including:
WoCTVET 2014 | 226
The need to ensure the mainstreaming of TEVT the need to ensure pathway for
vocational graduates to further their studies to universities (academic);APEL could
serve as a tool to enable equivalencecheck of accreditation of prior vocational learning
to academicprogramme.
Grant access to education and training- The need to ensure relevant and flexible
education and training system that fulfills the needs of individuals and enterprises. APEL
is a means by which learners could access the education and training that they require,
and avoid duplication of learning.
The need to utilise education and training resources as efficiently as possible at a time of
huge demand
Employability While many people that are unemployed may not have high levels of
qualifications, they may have acquire knowledge and developed many skills through
extensive work, short courses, and life experience, which can also be recognised and
valued. This could help the government in reducing unemployment.
There are also many features of the existing Malaysian education system that could provide
excellent facilitationfor developing and implementing successful APEL processes and strategies.
Apart from MQA, among such features are;the learning outcomes based approach and the credit
transfer arrangements in HEIs. However, currently APEL procedures are most commonly used
to support applications for entry to HEIs in Malaysia, whereas its use to support learning is
relatively very limited and actual accreditation of prior learning is still uncommon.In those few
HEIs that are practicing APEL, its procedures are most commonly available in social science and
humanities disciplines and are substantially less available to students wishing to register for
courses based in sciences and engineering or vocationally oriented areas. Added to that, there
are also differing priorities and practices in the various HEIs which result in varying student
experience of APEL.
2.3 Barriers and Effective Strategies of APEL ImplementationSystem.
APEL in HEIs for most Asian countries like Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos and including
Malaysia, is practically unpopular yet. This could perhaps due to a number of barriers that often
prevent the effective implementation of APEL. The biggest barrier of APEL in most European
countries is the the lack of information and public awareness that leads to misconceptions and
distortions on APEL (Grazyna, et. al., 2013). A critical factor, which is often a major barrier for
the proper functioning of RPL, is the lack of inclusion of the involved parties, the lack of interest
in the procedures on the part of employers, often due to their concerns regarding the potential
demand of the workers to raise remuneration (Ranne, 2012). APEL assessment system and
ability of candidates to document ability of candidates to document is also identified as one of
the main obstacle that occurs in the implementation of APEL in Malaysia (SiewYick et.al. (2011),
Kaprawi (2011)). Other barriers identified are lack of promotions, lack of training and
incompetence of assessors and personnels, and candidate evaluation system (Bowman (2008),
Van Kleef (2007), Wihak (2006), Kalz et.al (2008)).
The understanding that learning can take place anywhere, not only within the framework of
formal educationis important to be able to properly design an APEL system which can ensure a
well-functioning quality assurance system in building confidence in APEL? One of the strategies
to the effective APEL implementation system is through consultation, brainstorming,
WoCTVET 2014 | 227
networking, cooperation and exchange of experiences between APEL experts from different
local and international institutions which can significantly contribute to the success of this
mission (DharamSignhet.al., 2011, Van Kleef (2007)). These activities could help in the review
and development of APEL guidelines, policies and procedures that are clearer and easily
understood by everyone. Strategies that have been planned by Canadian Association for Prior
Learning Assessment (CAPLA, 2007)were the continued promotion by sharing resources APEL
through workshops and conferences as well as collaboration with relevant institutions and also
execute promotion through the website, pamphlets, emails and newsletters.
2.4 Models of APEL Implementation
Currently, there are a range of framework or models used by higher education institutions.
Figure 1 show the basic framework of EVC (or APEL) used in numerous Dutch pilot projects has
three basic steps. On the other hand, Figure 2 provides an overview of the formal procedures
HEIs generally use in the United Kingdom (UK) to implement the APEL process. It assumes that
additional advice and guidance is available to students who submit an APEL claim.
Figure 1: A Basic Evcmodel (Derived from Klarus and Blokhuis (1997) and Klarus (1998))
WoCTVET 2014 | 228
Figure 2: Overview of the Main Steps in the APL Process (from UCAS, undated)
3. METHODOLOGY
These cross sectional studies has used survey method and a modified Delphi study. A key step in
using the Delphi Technique is the identification and selection of the panel, since it is the panels
opinions and judgments that determine the outcomes of the study. Individual who are
recognized as experts in the area being studied was selected for panel membership (Hsu
&Sandford, 2007). In this study Wawasan Open University, Open University, UNirazak, AeU,
UKM, UTM and Malaysian Qualification Agency (MQA) are chosen due to the fact that APEL is
implemented in their institutions. This study used purposive sampling method where 62
respondent from 6 universities and one quality agency (MQA).They are considered experts
because they are directly involved in the implementation process of APEL and they hold the
post of Dean, Head, Director, Deputy Director, Assistant Director of Senior or individuals
directly involved in implementing APEL. The researcher opted to use this method because the
respondent required is limited and only involved individuals who are actually specialize in the
implementation of APEL system only.The instruments of this study arequestionnaire, interviews
and document analysis. All the data that were collected was analyzed by using SPSS Version 17.
Interviews were conducted with the Deputy Dean (Student and Quality) College for Open
Learning Unirazak, the director of the Institute for Teaching and Learning Advancement (ITLA)
OUM and UniversitiTun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM). The interview data lends support to the
qualitative data of this study. The interviews were focussed on the key components of APEL
implementation in Malaysia in the context of the management, barriers, strategies and the
processes of APEL implementation.
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4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Barriers in the Implementation of APEL in Malaysia.
The study showed that the assessment system is relatively perceived to be the most important
barrier to the APEL implementation, followed by assessor, Lack of APEL promotion and
Quality Assurance (Figure 4.1). This findings agrees withWihak (2006) and Kalz et.al (2008)
who found thatAPEL candidate evaluation system is one of the key issues that often occur in the
APEL implementation.Similarly, the task of determining the appropriate assessment model for a
candidate is a difficult task and it isnot only major obstacle that occurs in the APEL
implementation but also a major challenge for institutions.(SiewYick, et.al (2011), Dharam
Singh et.al (2011)).
Table 4.1: Mean scores forImportance Level of Barriers in the APEL Implementation
No.
Items (Factors of Barriers)
Mean Score
Std. Dev
Interpretation
(Level of
Importance)
Assessment System
4.36
0.3294
Important
Quality Assurance
3.88
0.3948
Important
Assessor
4.16
0.4626
Important
APEL Promotion
4.05
0.3529
Important
Table 4.2: Items that Constitute to the Four Main Barriers

Assessment System
Quality Assurance
Assessor
APEL Promotion
determining the
most appropriate
assessment method
to assess
candidates
selecting
appropriate model
of assessment
documentating
candidates skills
Identifying areas
suitable
field/program for
candidates
Determining
appropriateness of
credit exemption
Training/workshops
are not conducted to staff
involved in APEL
assessment system is
not reviewed periodically
Programs offered do
not provide added value
to the candidates
Development of
policies and guidelines
are not appropriate
according
Lack of assessor
inappropriate
/incompetent
assessors
Assessors are only
experts in the
academic field, but
not in the field of
skills
Determination of
the appropriate
assessment
criteria for
prospective APEL
No/lack of
Training /
retraining
APEL program
promotion methods
that are not widely
available
Lack of Public
awareness of the
importance of APEL
Lack of
Dissemination of
information about
the APEL
Non existence of
unit to promote the
establishment of
APEL
Lack of Exposure
to staff to promote
to the field of candidates

Management
implementation of APEL
Unsystematic
WoCTVET 2014 | 230
for candidates
organizing,
APEL effectively
planning,
targeting,
monitoring
and
implementation
This study also indicates the items (Figure 4.2) that is constituted in each barriers identified in
this study. Kaprawi (2011) also noted that the guidelines and policies that have been developed
in some HEIs are very general, without focusing on the areas/field that offer APEL.Thus, HEIs in
Malaysia need to come up with clear standards and qualifications frameworks, and welldeveloped methods of evaluation, which are outcome based.Van Kleef (2007) also stated that
inappropriate assessment in evaluating the candidates are caused by assessor who does not
have sufficient experience.
This study showed that public awareness contributes the most hurdle to the promotional
aspects (mean = 4.48). The study also found that lack of staff exposure to promote APEL
effectively, lack of dissemination of information and non existence of unit to promote APEL is
also a barrier. This shortfalls lead to a lot of misconceptions and distortions of understandings
of what APEL actually is. Many perceived that procedures of APEL as complex and timeconsuming and are uncertain with the outcomes. That is why some academics are still skeptical
towards APEL and are still questioning on the quality of education associated to the partial
recognition of learning outcomes.The researcher believed that as the introduction of APEL in
Malaysia is just recently (in 2011),extensive awareness and promotions could promote social
acceptance and trust of this new service of APEL. Aligned to the findings, Kalz et.al, (2008), also
highlighted that a personnel or a unit that is responsible for promotion programs to be widely
available, is needed for this heavy task to be effectively carried out.
WoCTVET 2014 | 231
4.2 Effective Strategies for the APEL Implementation in Malaysia

The study found that only MQA and 3 Universities that have a unit/department that have an
organizational structure in place for APEL management. The organizational structure consists of
directors, deputy directors, program managers, marketing managers, financial manager, office
and program administrators as well as having a management advisory committee at the
institution. However, for other universities like UKM and UTM, although the organizational
structure for APEL management is not well in place, they do have APEL personnel like program
manager, financial manager and program administratorand marketing manager.
This study also identified that among the most effective strategies for APEL implementation is
inviting APEL assessment experts from within and outside the country to advise the APEL
assessors as shown in Table 4.3. Dharam Singh et.al (2011) also agreed that APEL assessment
experts from within and outside the country should be invited to provide advice to the APEL
assessors to strengthen the assessment system.
Table 4.3: Level of Strategy Effectiveness for APEL Implementation
No.
Items
Mean
Score
Std.
Dev
Interpreta
tion
Inviting APEL assessment experts from within and outside

the country to provide advice to the assessors APEL
4.71
0.531
Very
Effective
Implement continuous improvement plans. (the study of

improvising and brainstorming sessions with APEL staff)
4.69
0.584
Very
Effective
Updating resources such as APEL guidelines, APEL

policies, and procedures and rates APEL program.
4.68
0.505
Very
Effective
Consultation
4.65
0.546
Very
Effective
Promote APEL program by doing collaboration with

relevant institutions
4.63
0.520
Very
Effective
To provide opportunities for agencies that have a strong

association / accredited centers / non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) related to the APEL coordinator to
facilitate the process of information dissemination APEL
4.60
0.586
Very
Effective
Participating ministers / politicians that influence to

promote APEL
4.10
0.694
Effective
Provide a clear guideline to APEL candidates
3.95
0.612
Effective
Appoint advisers who can provide accurate and clear

advice for APEL candidates
3.92
0.609
Effective
10
Provide training / retraining to assessor / evaluator for

APEL
3.79
0.484
Effective
WoCTVET 2014 | 232
In addition, the study also indicates that the performance improvement studies and
brainstorming sessions is among the very effective strategy. The Canadian Association for Prior
Learning Assessment, CAPLA (2007) has been conducting brainstorming exercise to identify the
strategies and ideas for improvements in the system of APEL.Kaprawi (2011) also stressed that
one of the strategies that can be taken to the APEL system effective implementation is to
provide consultation by APEL experts from abroad.
4.3 Sustainable APEL Implementation Framework
For most managers and assessors, the APEL processes that they were using were often seen to
be the major barrier to its effective implementation. Among them is the bureaucratic processes
and the quality of assessment. Since the take up of APEL in Malaysian HEIs is still considered
low, HEIs and providers need to come up with a new approach to make APEL a more userfriendly assessment pathway and much easier to understand and cope with. The process need
to bestructured to minimize time and cost to candidates and institutions.In the past, candidates,
having been given written information about the evidence needed to have their learning or
skills recognised, have gone away and collected evidence, which they then combined into a
portfolio. To prove their portfolio met the evidence requirements, candidates themselves often
mapped their portfolio against the learning outcomes of the programme. With not much
guidance and advice, this process could demotivate candidates.
Thus, this study has come up with amore sustainable and learner-friendly APEL implementation
framework which is based on benchmarkings of several HEIs APEL model (globally and locally)
as well as using the inputs from practitioners of APEL (through modified delphi study). This
improvised framework (refer to Figure 4.3) gives a more streamlined approach to APEL
processes such that it could reduce the previous heavy reliance on paper-based evidence and
gives more options to candidates in gathering their evidence that better match with the learning
outcomes.
The new sustainable APEL framework has 4 main stages; Student Responsibility, Assessor
Responsibility, Sub-Committee Exemption and Students (Approval).
This framework addresses the phase before the formal APEL process (i.ePhase 2) by providing
greater clarification on the objectives of APEL.In this phase, guidance and counseling can play
an important role. Thus, as seen in stage 1(Figure 4.3), advice and guidance are available to help
candidates identify their potential for APEL by reviewing the unit content and learning
objectives of the program intended.
Detailed guidance and advice will be provided by APEL specialist in the gathering of documents
for portfolios evidence by mapping out evidence against aims and objectives of unit/s. More
detailed advice will be provided prior submitting all the documents needed for APEL
application. This interactive and flexible approach of APEL process is provided across all the 4
stages and even if the candidate fails to get approval of APEL, advice and guidance are also still
available for the candidate to decide in which unit/s to enroll to further develop themselves and
be able for future application.
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Pre-entry
publicity
material
Initial guidance and advice from APEL

specialist Gathers documents for
evidence portfolio. Maps evidence
against aims and objectives of unit/s.
Guidance and counselling Applicant enquiry Student reviews

unit content and learning objectives
and identifies potential for APEL
Prepares for APEL application
Interactive Process between candidates and

APEL personnel- Students could negotiate and
discuss on APEL potentials
AP(C)L
Applicant obtains the appropriate credit

from recognize certificate (e.g:
Polytechnic-blanket credit exemptions
for certain university)
Detailed advice/guidance given to the

student by the APEL Co-ordinator
APEL
STAGE 1 - STUDENT RESPONSIBILITIES
Submit application for entering into

system and coordinating assessment
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Advises students of next steps to be taken
Evidence does not

meets learning objectives
Assesses evidence
Assessment
undertaken by the nominated academic
assessor and moderate by another
member of academic staff.
Either/Or
Evidence meets learning objectives
Student to enrol
into units
Student to: 1)Provide additional documentation

AND/OR 2)Sit supplementary interview AND/OR
3)Sit test
Learning
objectives
still not met
Recommends to award credit
Learning
objectives met
STAGE 2 - APEL ASSESSOR RESPONSIBILITIES

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
APEL Co-ordinator processess

documentation and present assessment
outcomes to the Apel Panel for
approval
STAGE 3 - EXEMPTIONS FROM SUB-COMMITTEE
Exemptions sub-committee of faculty

academic committee considers and
decides on recommendation
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
APEL Not Approved
Advises student of decision

APEL Approved
Records decision/guidance & advice for student on

decision to enrol into unit/s, guidance and counselling
are also provided for further development
Records credit for exempted unit/s
STAGE 4 - STUDENTS (APROVAL & DECISION)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
END
Figure 3: A Sustainable Framework of APEL Implementation For Malaysian HEIs

As being indicated in the framework, information, guidance and feedback will be available right
from the start until the decision of approval in Stage 4. Advice and guidance will also be given
throughout the whole processes and it is provided by either the APEL specialist or APEL
coordinators or both according to the needs. Through the interactive process of advice and
guidance between the candidates and APEL personnel, this would build more confidence
particularly for those who have limited experience or for matured candidates who have left
formal learning system quite sometime ago. These group of candidates need additional support
and assistance especially to such processes of evidence gathering for a portfolio that is tedious,
alien and isolating to them. Therefore, this structured interactive process of engagement
approach could be personalized to meet the needs of candidates.
WoCTVET 2014 | 234
5. CONCLUSION
The provision of APEL in Malaysia is still patchy and not consistently accessible across all
universities or HEIs. The overall picture of APEL in Malaysia is also characterized by the fact
that there are still many HEIs with little or no APEL activity yet. There are large barriers across
all the HEIs that need to be address, partly in relation to lack of public awareness, and partly
due to lack of APEL implementation system effectiveness which includes issues of promotion,
assessor, quality assurance and assessment methods. While some experience and practice of
APEL has been developed to a certain extent in the Malaysian university, a co-ordinated
approach is required. This new sustainable framework developed through this study will be
able to support a sustainable, student-friendly and professional practice of APEL by offering a
flexible and coherent system of HE which provides individuals, particularly those who are
working with relevant learning opportunities which enable them to demonstrate their skills and
knowledge. At the same time, it could provide a basis for a more integrated, national APEL
policy and could serve as a guideline to realize a sustainable lifelong learning with a more
structured and effective processes in Malaysia. Undoubtedly, achieving results requires action
from a range of stakeholders across the education and training sector, including providers
which includes HEIs, Ministry of Education Malaysia, professionals councellors and guidance,
APEL practitioners, adult education organisations and qualifications bodies.
APEL practice varies across different universities and more work and initiatives are to be done
to ensure that APEL provision is more uniform across all universities. MQA should coordinate
this effort to come up with a more practical, clear regulations, guidance and advice through
research and sharing of expertise from various HEIs locally and internationally.HEIs should
established APEL policy and guidelines and develop the APEL quality assurance which is
integrated in the universitys Quality management system (QMS). University need to start
planning on integrating APEL into its curriculum development of pedagogy. APEL can have
significant upfront costs but these can be recouped over time through more effective delivery of
education and training. Overall, there is still plenty of room for improvement in the APEL
management in most Malaysian universities.
REFERENCES
1. Bowman, K. Recognition of Prior Learning in the Vocational Education and Training Sector.
2008. Dicapaipada 1 Disember 2011
Darihttp://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_Se
archValue_0=ED480316&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED480316 .
Tidakditerbitkan.
2. Canadian Association for Prior Learning Assessment (CAPLA)(2007).Advancing awareness,
acceptance and quality practice of PLAR Strategic Plan.Dicapaipada 15 April
2012darihttp://capla.ca/stratPlan.php.
3. Department of Education and Training (2008), Recognition of Prior Learning: An
assessment resource for VET practitioners [2nd ed.], Perth, Australia.
WoCTVET 2014 | 235
4. Dharam Singh, H.K. et al (2009). Initial Experience in Implementation of Open Entry and
Recognition of Prior Learning in OU Malaysia.Open University Malaysia.Dicapaipada 4 April
2011 darihttp://eprints.oum.edu.my/201/1/Initial_experience.pdf
5. Dharam Singh, H.K. et al (2009). Initial Experience in Implementation of Open Entry and
Recognition of Prior Learning in OU Malaysia.Open University Malaysia.Dicapaipada 4 April
2011 darihttp://eprints.oum.edu.my/201/1/Initial_experience.pdf
6. Grayna, P.S, Beata, J., Marina, S., Jamie, B., Pascal, L., Marcel, P., Nina, V.M., Vanja, I. (2013),
Recognition of Prior Learning in Higher Education - Challenges of Designing the System,
Institute for the Development of Education, Preradovieva 33 / I, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia,
www.iro.hr
7. Kalz, M. et al.A model for new linkages for prior learning assessment.Educational Technology
Expertise Centre. 2008. 25(4): 233-243. Dicapaipada 1 April 2012
darihttp://dspace.ou.nl/bitstream/1820/1679/8/4_kalz_etal_cwis08_final3.pdf
8. Kaprawi, N. (2011). Leveraging Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning (APEL) for
Human Capital Development .SyarahanPerdana 2011 UTHM. Edisipertama.Penerbit UTHM.
9. Kerangka Kelayakan Malaysia, MQA (2012).Garis Panduan Amalan Baik: Pengakreditan
Pembelajaran berasaskan Pengalaman Terdahulu. Dicapai pada 1 Mei 2012 dari
http://www.mqa.gov.my/portal2012/garispanduan/APEL/GGP%20APEL%20(Malay%20
Version).pdf
10. Kleef, J.V (2010), Quality In Prior Learning Assessment And Recognition : A Background
Paper, Canadian Institute for Recognizing Learning. Dicapaipada 4 November 2011
darihttp://www.cirl.org/whats_new/Final_Final_Denmark_ paper_ Nov2010.pdf
11. Malaysian Qualification Agency (2012).APEL Handbook for Learners.Dicapaipada 2 Mei
2012 darihttp://www.mqa.gov.my/portal2012/garispanduan/APEL/
APEL%20HANDBOOK%20FOR%20LEARNERS%20(English%20Version).pdf
12. PejabatKualitidanPengurusanStrategik UTHM (2011).PerancanganStrategik UTHM
2011/2012.Tidakditerbitkan.
13. Siew Yick, L.K et.al (2011). MyAPEL : Towards Recognition of Prior Learning at Open
University Malaysia (OUM). International Life Long Learning Conference. November 2011.
Diakses pada 1 Mei 2012 dari
http://iclll2011.oum.edu.my/extfiles/pdf/myAPEL%20Towards%20Recognition%20of%20Prior%2
0Learning%20at%20Open%20University%20Malaysia.pdf
14. South African Quality Assurance (SAQA) (2011).Developing Approaches to The Assessment
Of Prior Learning. Dicapaipada 12 Disember 2011 darihttp://www.saqa.org.za/focus/rplassessment.pdf
15. Wihak, C. (2006). State of The Field Review: Prior Learning Assessment And Recognition
(Plar). Dicapai pada 1 Mei 2012 dari http://www.cclcca.ca/pdfs/StateOfField/PLARfinalreportMarch26E.pdf .
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TRACK 3
INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
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Engaging Vocational College Students Through Blended Learning:

Improving Class Attendance and Participation
Muhamad Azhar Stapa @ Mustapa*, Mohamad Ibrahim &Amri Yusof.
Faculty of Art, Computing & Creative Industry
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Malaysia.
stapaazhar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Perfection is difficult to achieve if one is teaching knowledge skills to the students in Vocational
College (VC) for their time courses using the conventional learning methods currently practiced.
Knowledge growth in the educational process in the VC education system is rapid and it
demands constant curriculum redefining and implementation of new methods for efficient
learning. Blended learning combines two methods for e-learning and also face-to-face classroom
or outside of class. Previously, the students had undertaken a traditional face-to-face classroom
delivery for a module on teaching and learning. Attendance for lectures was poor and interaction
between the lecturer and students was limited. Using the collaboration concept of the sharing is
caring which is the potential a student can achieve given the guidance of a teacher and the
collaboration of others, the module focused the learning sessions on scenarios where students
worked in groups to achieve an answer to the problems within the scenarios. The core of the
module is an e-learning package on mentorship in vocational learning which is named VocLearning. Built around this is a series of face-to-face group work sessions, short lectures, web
application and an online reflective discussion using web 2.0 technologies. Web 2.0 has
gradually become a must-have necessity in teaching and learning due to its ability in sharing,
interaction, and collaboration among students in their daily lives. With the right content, this
technology can be a suitable choice for enhancing the skills and a motivation tool for vocational
students. Some of the applications that were utilized in web 2.0 have been explored but in
vocational field not much research has been done.
Keywords: Blended learning; Web 2.0; Vocational;
1. INTRODUCTION
Rising student attendance and absence prevention have always been parts of concern for
teachers, as well as, society members, and parents. Students who are not in school cannot learn,
and frequently drop out. Attendance problems and truancy are usually signs to dropping out of
school. Students with attendance problems are likely to develop negative social behaviors and
personal practices not acceptable in the skills world.
Vocational Education is a practice-oriented approach to education and emphasis on what to do
in the workplace as a result of either learning to meet the requirements of the career or
improving student performance on the skill level to be possessed. Students must follow the
lessons and skills test based on the standards set by a field of work.
The role of the Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) should be considered as a medium
that can be combined with elements of e-learning in educational technology and gives a better
impression on the students, Vocational College (VC) and also in terms of careers. Phenomenon at
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work today different from the past. It is characterized byglobal competition, cultural diversity,
new technology, and new management processes that require employees to have a
thinkingproblem solving and critical communication skills and high level of workmanship,
according to the study done by Jamaliah, Rohana and Aede Hatib [1].
This study aims to investigate the use of e-learning using Web 2.0 technology based applications
in terms of the improving class attendance and participation among vocational students and
teachers in VC under the management of the Ministry of Education (MOE). The training program
for vocational students has been greatly changed by the passage of time in the curriculum and
teaching methods in the classroom. Career excellence vocational education will be achieved
through work-based learning oriented training programs allows the content knowledge and
skills that are available to students are constantly being adjusted to conform the new
requirements in the industry, business and society[2,3].
Generation of students now have been exposed to the technology of the internet and smart
phones since early teenager, this statement is supported by V. Gialamas, K. Nikolopoulou, and G.
Koutromanos[4] which holds most of the students have experience using the internet before
they enter the educational institution [4]. A study by Sandars dan Murray [5] showed that
students prefer to use technologies that they are used to, such as mobile, social media and blogs
to interact and get all information. Valtonen and friends [6]suggest if teachers have their own
environment to negotiate the learning needs of students, and how it is supposed to connect with
students, and what form should the communication between students, and the learning
environment that teachers need to take, then teachers need to make full use of existing facilities.
The study by Crie[7] emphasis that blogs are: highly motivating to students, excellent opportunities
for students to read and write, effective forums for collaboration and discussion, powerful tools to
enable the learning or mentoring to occur [7].In the past 5 years social media, especially many
applications such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Google+ and Wikipedia, have come to dominate
the ways in which digital technology is now used around the world [8].
One of the strongest effects of the technology in that study was its ability to promote class
discussion among students. This method is more effective communicative learning should be
sought and practiced in VC so it is more relevant to the improving class attendance and needs of
the students and teachers present. The study conducted by Mohamad Amin Embi [9]has listed
40 types of Web 2.0 applications suitable for use in the teaching and learning (T&L). This
application can help teachers and students in the face of changing patterns of learning in the
new millennium. E-learning strategies are still not explored extensively in the system of vocational
education for the learning process.
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Vocational course indicate that students enjoy the class a great deal, yet attendance is low. Its a
problem familiar to many vocational teachers. Moreover, when students were in attendance
many were inattentive, either dozing or otherwise occupied for at least part of the class period.
The methods of using information technology in vocational education have sought to prevent
students behind in their learning. The findings by Azhar [10]in line with the study by Hamdan
dan Nor Hidayah [11], the study also found that teachers felt that students with focus, effort, and
weak in terms of school attendance. From this point the researchers see a better way of learning
than ever to be applied to solve problems that occur in VC.
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To address the problem, the MOE has provided Vocational Transformation Plan to strengthen
training for skilled students. The implementation process of education transformation requires
new approaches and strategies that the students are able to own and master the skills needed in
the 21st century.
Therefore this study is an ideal platform to be exposed to vocational students in VC on teaching and
learning new uses Voc-Learning applications based on blended learning model.
3. ADVANTAGES OF BLENDED LEARNING
The research for this article is based on the model has been proven as blended learning. Utku
Ksea (2010) have done research on blended learning model supported by popular Web 2.0
technologies and using it in a Mathematics course at a high school in Afyonkarahisar [12]. Their
academic achievements also be improved with blended learning and this activity mostly good
for the student. Fig. 2 shows the model of blended learning, its combination two types of
learning, first face to facelearning and second is e-learning. In this paper, e-learning can be are
social media platform and face to face will as a classroom or workshop.
Blended
Learning
Fig. 1 A Diagram of the Blended Learning Formed with Face to Face Educationa E-Learning
[12].
Ginns and Ellis [13] studied the relationship between online and face-to-face teaching and
learning. The study consisted of 127 veterinarian science students. The students were in year
three and four of a five year undergraduate degree. Of the 127 students, 66 were in their fourth
year and 61 were in their third year.They found that students learning outcomes were better
when there is student interaction, a favorable workload, a quality of online teaching, and
resources.They also found that students outcomes are more favorable when instructors clarify
the value of student posting and interactions as well as seek to understand their students
perceptions in the online part of a blended learning course[13]. For a blended learning course to
be successful, the students must be motivated to engage in online activities as well as be made to
understand that they are acknowledged and heard [14].
Blended learning is a new way of education depends on the use of information technology in the
form of online active learning strategies that improve teaching and learning strategies based. In
general, blended learning has several features in face to face learning and e-learning makes it a
new approach to creating educational programs that can take into account individual differences
between students and bring different learning methods.The studies were carried out
byIbrahimand Demirkol [15]have found students who have gone through the learning process in
a suitable environment according to blended learning was more successful after the study
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compared the learning techniques practiced earlier. Looking at this situation, it can be said that
learning adapted to the environmental conditions and the technology has become more effective
than traditional learning throughout the research process.
A study by Mckenzie, Perini, Rohlf, Toukhsati, Conduit and Sanson [16]showed a reduction in
time-to-face classes, impact on the organization to improve time efficiency of the learning
session. Perceptions of students from the class will be presented by an open comment on the
web learning. Teachers and students can enhance the experience in the classroom in person to
address the inconsistency between teachers and teachers' approaches to different learning
content and synchronize content between class sessions and online learning [16].
Fig.2 Facebook Screen Example

Fig. 2 shows online learning sessions make use the Facebook application. The learning sessions
can occur anywhere and at any time depending on student interest to promote student
engagement with school, reduce dropout behavior, and increase school completion.
The issue of costs should be taken into account for each particular technology when integrating
information technology into teaching and learning [17]. Blended learning has the potential to
revolutionize the education system of quality and cost. Redesign of the basic model of vocational
education needs to be done. VC productive learning systems provide more opportunities for
teachers to deepen their skills more efficiently. VC can leverage information technology to create
a student-teacher ratio in VC balanced. Use blended learning model gives teachers more time to
focus on learning activities that engage students and improve their own skills [18].
4. PROPOSED BLENDED LEARNING MODEL FOR VOCATIONAL COLLEGE
Rotation models by Heather Staker and Horn, M.,[19] reviewer of choice based on several factors
that exist in the learning system and suitable to be used for vocational courses in Malaysia (ref.
Fig. 3) [19]. In general, learning is a process of acquisition of knowledge, skills and behaviours,
and attitudes and beliefs on students. According to Woolfolk [20], learning is a process in which
experience causes changes in knowledge and behavior remain. Learning is a lifelong process and
it happens regardless of place and time. Constructivist learning theory or belief structure is a
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theory built on the assumption that knowledge is constructed by students as a result of the
learning experiences through which he had [21].
Fig.3
Rotation Model for VC
Constructivist learning theory is a theory of learning that is very dominant in the education
system. Students interpret new knowledge with the help of existing knowledge that has control.
Understanding of constructivist theory explains that students are not like empty containers
waiting to be filled with learning materials. However, students are active individuals who are
always looking for the meaning of what he experienced (Alessi & Trollip [22];Driscoll [21]).
Therefore, the constructivist view of knowledge cannot be transferred, but the students are
linked with the process of building knowledge based on what he experienced. The study by
Mayer [23], constructivist learning happens in an environment of learning with technology
when students are involved in cognitive processes that encompasses a selection of images and
sound, sort images and sound to visual and verbal model with existing knowledge.
Collaborative online is a matter of the hot topics in the world of education today. Collaborative
learning has a lot of terms today with the new technologies in education. According Gzde Girgin
[24],conducted a collaborative activity in the classroom using Web 2.0 to the students have
created their own websites can not only provide an opportunity for students to express
themselves, but also help them to move forward in the process of self-confidence. Students will
not only become the creator of the website, but they also will have a role in providing
meaningful feedback with how to assess and respond to their peers. Therefore, the students will
be in the process of T&L roundabout. They should be involved in the task and pay attention to
what other people are doing at the same time. For Munkhchimeg dan Sanjaasuren [25] through
the study revealed that learning management systems can be made more efficient if it is
enhanced by collaborative learning tool more recent.
Self-learning is a distinctive alternative approach to take into account the aspect of individual
differences, interests and abilities of students in the learning process [26]. Learning styles not
only highlight elements of cognitive processing style and think man, but also involves how
perceptions do and organize information. At present, many researchers studying the unique
characteristics of an individual's learning in order to generate an alternative to repair practices
to further enhance learning and academic achievement. Many students are aware of the learning
WoCTVET 2014 | 242
styles that are appropriate to be applied in the learning process. If learning styles are practiced
directly it will help the students to strategize effective in their learning process.
5. VOC-LEARNING APPLICATION
Voc-Learning has integrated constructivism theory and evaluation theory into content of
development and learning material to produce a material that meets the requirements of
vocational students. Design and development of an application is a very important element in
creating effective learning materials. All effective learning materials will be produced if the
fundamental of learning theory is taken into account during the design of these materials.
Web 2.0 has gradually become a must-have necessity in teaching and learning due to its ability
in sharing, interaction, and collaboration among students in their daily lives. With the right
content, this technology can be a suitable choice for enhancing the skills and a motivation tool
for improving class attendance and participation vocational students. Fig. 4, 5, 6 and 7 it view
face of Voc-Learning applications and develop using Web 2.0 technologies.
Fig.4
Main Page Voc-Learning Application.
Fig.5
Main Page Voc-Learning in Facebook
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Fig.6
Main Page Voc-Learning in Twitter
Fig.7
Main Page Voc-Learning in Google+

6. DISCUSSION
This paper has described about learning in different ways of old classroom to improving class
attendance and participation. When teenagers play online multiplayer games, or when they
share and remix web content, they collaborate to reach a common objective. The technology of
Web 2.0 or social media is fundamentally interactive and collaborative. As a result, Web 2.0 can
foster team-work skills. Moreover, collaborative skills are essential to living in the digital world
and to dealing with the ever-complex problems faced by students. Schools should prepare
students for collaborative team-work and there are many ways to do so.
7. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
The study of e-learning typically focuses on the factors of achievement, attitude, knowledge base,
socio-economic status and so on. This study is important to be implemented because these
factors are important factors associated with the achievement of vocational students in a
particular field of study skills to be acceptable as the practice of their craft. This study also
provides a new innovation in teaching and learning process that involves the transfer of
knowledge from teacher to student; it is not only theoretical but also the practical form of
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training or hands-on based. The information presented can be used as a guide and reference in
improving the quality of education, especially in vocational education.
The usefulness of web 2.0 technology and blended learning model will study also, for example
the usefulness and the good practice of using Web apps, Facebook and Twitter. These findings
will influence how educators, student and their parents will engage in a participatory process of
learning and teaching. As a result, this change will map the future direction of learning in the
vocational college.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Sincere appreciation and thank you captured to the Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE) which
gives me the opportunity and space to pursue my PhD as well as providing scholarships to me.
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2. T. Hyland, Lifelong Learning and Vocational Education and Training: Values , Social
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3. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, Pelan Strategik Transformasi Pendidikan Vokasional,
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4. V. Gialamas, K. Nikolopoulou, and G. Koutromanos, Student teachers perceptions about
the impact of internet usage on their learning and jobs, Comput. Educ., vol. 62, pp. 17,
2013.
5. C. Sandars, John;Murray, Reflective learning for the next generation, in Wired for
Learning:an educators guide to web 2.0, 1st ed., I. L. C. Terry T. Kidd, Ed. USA: Information
Age Publishing, 2009, pp. 153168.
6. T. Valtonen, S. Hacklin, P. Dillon, M. Vesisenaho, J. Kukkonen, and A. Hietanen, Computers
& Education Perspectives on personal learning environments held by vocational students,
Comput. Educ., vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 732739, 2012.
7. M. Crie, Using Blogs to Integrate Technology in the Classroom, in Teaching Today,.
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill Publishing House, 2006.
8. T. J. Ellis and M. S. Cohen, Forums and Wikis and Blogs , Oh My: Building a Foundation for
Social Computing in Education, pp. 45, 2009.
9. M. A. Embi, Web 2.0 Tools in Education Series 40 must-know web 2.0 edutools: A Quick Guide.
Bangi, Malaysia: Centre for Academic Advancement, UKM, 2013, p. 521.
10. M. A. Azhar, Pelaksanaan Kurikulum Aliran Vokasional Bagi Mata Pelajaran Aplikasi
Elektrik dan Elektronik Di Sekolah Menengah Vokasional, Tesis Sarjana yang tidak
diterbitkan:Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 2011.
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11. Hamdan & Nor Hidayah Abdul Rahim, Kesediaan Pelajar Tingkatan Empat Mempelajari
Mata Pelajaran Pengajian Kejuruteraan Awam, J. Teknol., no. 48(E), p. 99, 2008.
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13. P. Ginns and R. Ellis, Quality in blended learning: Exploring the relationships between online and face-to-face teaching and learning, Internet High. Educ., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 5364,
Jan. 2007.
14. C. Shivetts, E-Learning and Blended Learning: The Importance of the Learner: A Research
Literature Review, Int. Jl. E-Learning, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 331337, 2011.
15. Y. K. Ibrahim and M. Demirkol, Effect Of Blended Learning Environment Model On High
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Development of Augmented Reality for

Dementia Disease ( Dard )
Nan Md. Sahar 1,a,E.M.N.E.MatNasir 2,b & A.H.Zainudin 3,c
1,2,3Faculty of Electrical and ElectronicEngineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia,
nan@uthm.edu.my, emdnasri@gmail.com & ge1200027@siswa.uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Statistics patient dementia in Malaysia shown that, age play and important role that lead a
person to become a memory lost or also know as Dementia patient. Dementia illness is a
condition where the patient lost the ability to recall memory 100%. Depending on level of
dementia, this illness may cause the patient inability to remember their families or even worst
they cannot develop new memory for the long-term life. Thus, many researchers have tried to
develop a new alternative to cure this illness unfortunately they are still no one specific
treatment to cure this illness. So, in this research a new alternative treatment is proposed to be
develop by utilizing Augmented Reality (AR) with Artificial intelligence engine. This is not meant
to cure, but to enhance dementia patient quality of life. The AR system generates a virtual object
in the real world using marked AR system to project 3D image in the patient view or LCD
display. A hybrid of case based reasoning and fuzzy will classifying what to be display based on
that particular patient requirement. This is based in the patient life style. Extending the previous
treatment of using mobile phone to make a note to remind the patient about their daily life ,
remove the two dimensional image limitation. Based on the survey distribute out of 50 person
90% will prefer 3D image compare to 2D image. It is expected that this research will decrease
the memory lost between 10% to 20%. Preliminary data shows that alpha wave brain will
increase to about 2 Hz compare the previous brain wave. The patient will able to have a good
quality of life, which might able to make a new memory for a long-term life.
Keywords: Dementia, Augmented Reality, Brain Wave
1. INTRODUCTION
Augmented reality (AR) have high research interest. A lot of scientists and commercial field has
realized AR as a new technology to improve the existing solutions and to unlock new
applications that were not possible without AR. Besides gaming and entertainment community,
other industrial engineering, medical and engineering field realized the potential of AR to be in
medical field. Among the example are preoperative diagnoses, intraoperative navigation and
postoperative control[1].
Augmented reality (AR) also being used the image guided therapy (IGT) and becomes
considerable research interest for the medical community. Approaches include head-mounted
display (HMD) such as simple beam splitters, sophisticated retinal scanning devices,
semitransparent mirror, and modified medical instruments as ophtalmoscope, endoscope and
operating microscopes. The easiest way to implement an AR solution for IGT is to use standard
HMD and display monocular or stereoscopic graphics registered to the operating side[2].
This project is involved to the augmented reality application whose element augmented by
computer-generated sensory input such as sound, video, graphics or GPS data. Augmented
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reality (AR) is related to general concept called mediated reality in which the view of reality is
modified by a computer.
2. MOTIVATION, OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF WORKS
Dementia is a non-specific syndrome in which affected the areas of brain function and affected
memory, language, problem solving and attention. Dementia, unlike Alzheimers, is not a disease
itself. Dementia appears the higher mental functions of the patient are involved initially.
Eventually, in the later stages, the person may not know what day of the week, month or year it
is, he or she may not know where he is and might not be able to identify the people around him.
From that situation the person might have the first symptoms that are memory loss. Besides
that, there are several symptoms might happen beside memory loss. The symptoms are
moodiness and have a difficulties to communicate effectively. Unfortunately, there is no cure for
the dementia disease until now, but there is medication and various forms of therapy design to
help manage symptoms and improve patients quality of life. The treatment that we use
nowadays actually by giving a medicine or drug to slow down the dementia progress. Beside
that, music also one of the alternative treatment for this disease. So, through this problem, this
project is exist to be one of the treatment to cure dementia disease.
The objectives of this project are to investigate the relationship on augmented reality method in
improving dementia quality of life. By design the systems utilizing augmented reality technology
for assist the patient in improve their quality of life, we can measure the the efficiency of the
system to dementia patients.
The scopes of this project are using a combination Microsoft Visual Basic 2010 and Open CV to
design AR system. After that, implementing of camera and image display to the system. Then,
evaluating the system towards dementia patients memory using electroencephalogram (EEG).
3. RELATED WORKS
This paper presents a set of Augmented Reality (AR) based interaction techniques for spatial
analysis of medical datasets. Computer-aided medical planning tools such as our Virtual Liver
Surgery Planning System require precise and intuitive interaction for the quantitative inspection
of anatomical and pathological structures. They argue that AR is a superior tool compared to
desktop 2D or 3D visualization for performing such analysis, because it allows true direct
manipulation of 3D virtual objects in space, while rendering the medical data in the familiar
context of the users own body[3].
Nowadays medical imaging can be used to generate highly accurate 3D images of the interior of
patients bodies. 3D medical data must be presented in a compact way in order not to
overwhelm or distract doctors who often work under strict time constraints. Augmented Reality
(AR) lets doctors to optimize actual procedures. Surgical decisions usually depend on the extent
of the disease. The accurate volume measurement is complicated in most cases. For instance
,surgeons can use AR technology to analyze the disease and determine its extent in three
dimensional space so diagnosis can be faster and more precise[4].
In Australia, about 88% of stroke survivors live at home with disabilities affecting their daily life
activities and quality of their lives. Therefore, there is a need to improve their lost functions and
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promote their lives via rehabilitation process. One way to improve the stroke rehabilitation
process is through human interactive system, which can be achieved by augmented reality
technology. This development draws from the work currently being pursued in the gaming
industry to make the augmented reality technology more accessible to the medical industry for
the improvement of stroke rehabilitation. In this paper, two augmented reality games: Pong
Game and Goal Keeper Game were developed. These games have been designed for
rehabilitation with consideration to human interactive systems and have features such as onscreen feedbacks and high immersive value to keep stroke victims motivated in the
rehabilitation process. The developed games were aimed to replace boring and repetitive
traditional rehabilitation exercises. This paper details the success of implementing augmented
reality into the rehabilitation process, which will in turn contribute to society by minimizing the
number of people living at home with stroke related disabilities and the requirement for direct
supervision from therapist[5].
This paper presents an approach to use a semi transparent display as a kind of window into a
patient in the context of medical Augmented Reality (AR) applications. Besides the presentation
of the non-off-the-shelf display, the tracking aspects of such an application are in focus of the
work presented. In order to allow augmentations of real objects by virtual ones on the display,
the user (i.e. physician), the display, the object (i.e. patient) and optional instruments have to be
tracked. If required, a tracking system consisting of more than one subsystem, e.g. optical
tracking combined with electromagnetic tracking, is used to satisfy all the needs of such a
medical application[6].
Vision-based tracking of tissue is a key component to enable augmented reality during a surgical
operation. Conventional tracking techniques in computer vision review on identifying strong
edge features or distinctive textures in a well-lit environment; however endoscopic tissue
images do not have strong edge features, are poorly lit and exhibit a high degree of specular
reflection. Therefore, prior work in achieving densely populated 3-D features for describing
tissue surface profiles require complex image processing techniques and have been limited in
providing stable, long-term tracking or real-time processing. In this paper, they present an
integrated framework for accurately tracking tissue in surgical stereo-cameras at real-time
speeds. The combination of the STAR feature detector and binary robust independent
telementary features to acquire salient features that can be persistently tracked at high frame
rates. The features are then used to acquire a densely-populated map of the deformations of
tissue surface in 3-D. We evaluate the method against popular feature real algorithms in in vivo
animal study video sequences, and they also apply the proposed method to human partial
nephrectomy video sequences. They extend the salient feature framework to support region
tracking in order to maintain the spatial correspondence of a tracked region of tissue or a
medical image registration to the surrounding tissue. In vitro tissue studies show registration
accuracies of 1.33.3 mm using a rigid-body transformation method[7].
In the field of computer aided surgery, augmented reality (AR) technology has been successfully
used for enhancing accuracy of surgery and making surgeons convenient by visually assisting
them in performing a number of complicated and time-consuming medical operations. However,
there are still medical operations that do not receive the benefit of AR technology. As a
representative one, surgeons still use an ink pen when they mark surgical targets for scheduling
an operation. The ink pen is inconvenient because the mark drawn by the foreign matter is not
easily modified or deleted. And the ink pen is also unlikely to be sanitary. In this paper, we
propose an interactive user interface based on direct-projected augmented reality (Direct
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AR)technology for handling all these problems with the ink pen and its validity is shown in
experimental results[8].
From the previous work, there are two types of technique that use in augmented reality to detect
the object. The first technique is marked technique and the second technique is mark less
technique. For this project, the marked technique is use to detect the object. Cameras is use as
the eyes to capture the object image that been tagged. The tag of each object will be difference
due to make the patient easier to use the device. The tag will be represent by bar code. The 3D
image will be appeared based on the tagged had been label. Only 5 important thing for dementia
patient will be use to test the device. Lastly, EEG will be use to evaluate the improvement of the
patient brain.
4. METHODOLOGY
4.1 Hardware Development
For this project, the robot AR system is built and designed to prove that the system can work
properly and also it can be used for treatment method. Microsoft Visual Basic 2010 is the brain
for this AR system. Figure 2 shows the block diagram for the AR system. GUI will activate the
programme that is installed in Open CV. There 3D model will appear in LCD display.
Figure 4.1
From Figure 4.1, the image will be detected by the camera. The processor will extract the data of
the image. Based on command store in the Open CV the 3d model will appear in GUI build in the
software. The 3D model and detail will appear based on the image that been marker from the
coding. Figure 4.2 shows that how the flow for this project.
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Figure 4.2
4.2 Software Development

4.2.1
Microsoft Visual Basic 2010
Microsoft Visual Basic 2010 usually used to implement the Graphical User Interface ( GUI) and it
is use high level programming language. In this project, the purpose of using Microsoft Visual
Basic 2010 is to interface with Open CV to display the information through webcam. The gui in
this project consist of two part which is combination of data panel and the login panel. Using the
login panel it will secure and choose the data in the system that we want. Initially, the user needs
to use the right combination of username and password to access the panel system. After the
panel system appears, the system will find the available webcam that connect with the system. If
the webcam is not available, the interface will not responding towards the application. This
application will turn of when the system is shut down. During interfacing, the user can interact
with the animation that appears through the webcam.
4.2.2
Open CV
Open CV usually aimed at real-time computer vision and used to interface with Microsoft Visual
Basic 2010 to make the augmented reality system. In this project, the system used Open CV to
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detect the object using the marker technique. After the system detect the object, the system will
choose the right animation and will be display through the webcam. Case Based Reasoning(
CBR) and fuzzy method will be apply in this software to choose the right animation to display in
the screen projector.
4.2.3
System Communication
This camera will extract image data and converts the data it received and feeds it to Open CV
software so that the AR functions and operates its part which is to allow the user to the desired
operation he wants. Figure 4.3 shows the connection between hardware and software. It shows
the connection for the whole system.
Figure 4.3
5. RESULT, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Preliminary Result

This case study will function properly in all circumstances. It also can provide benefits to the
dementia patient. Thus, the dementia patient will have better life. Other than that this study can
be the alternative to make a treatment for the amnesia patient.
percentage
graph memory level vs

month
100
0
normal
1
dementia
month
Figure 5.1
The hypothesis in Figure 5.1 indicates that the normal memory will be almost the similar in the
seven month which is around 80% to 95%. The dementia patient shows that the percentage of
memory is low which 30% to 60%. This is occurred due to difficulty to retain the memory loss to
the damage of the brain.
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6. CONCLUSION
This study is meant for dementia disease by using augmented reality as its method. The AR can
be monitored by patient directly using computer. The AR uses camera as its eyes to mark the
image that will occur. Thus, patient can get a 3D image from their computer. Lastly, AR will
obtain its objective which is to investigate about AR toward dementia patients, to develop and
design AR system for dementia patients and to evaluate the system device for dementia patients.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks to Dr. Nan MdSahar for guide me to produce this paper.
REFERENCES
1. C. Bichlmeier, S. M. Heining, M. Feuerstein, and N. Navab, The virtual mirror: a new
interaction paradigm for augmented reality environments, IEEE transactions on medical
imaging, vol. 28, no. 9, pp. 1498510, Sep. 2009.
2. M. Figl, C. Ede, J. Hummel, F. Wanschitz, R. Ewers, H. Bergmann, and W. Birkfellner, A fully
automated calibration method for an optical see-through head-mounted operating
microscope with variable zoom and focus., IEEE transactions on medical imaging, vol. 24,
no. 11, pp. 14929, Nov. 2005.
3. B. Reitinger, P. Werlberger, a. Bornik, R. Beichel, and D. Schmalstieg, Spatial measurements
for medical augmented reality, Fourth IEEE and ACM International Symposium on Mixed
and Augmented Reality (ISMAR05), vol. m, pp. 208209, 2005.
4. D. Balazs and E. Attila, Volumetric Medical Intervention Aiding Augmented Reality Device,
2006 2nd International Conference on Information & Communication Technologies, vol. 1, pp.
10911096, 2006.
5. A. Dinevan, Y. M. Aung, and A. Al-Jumaily, Human computer interactive system for fast
recovery based stroke rehabilitation, 2011 11th International Conference on Hybrid
Intelligent Systems (HIS), pp. 647652, Dec. 2011.
6. B. Schwald, H. Seibert, and T. Weller, A flexible tracking concept applied to medical
scenarios using an AR window, Proceedings. International Symposium on Mixed and
Augmented Reality, pp. 261262, 2002.
7. M. Yip, D. Lowe, S. Salcudean, R. Rohling, and C. Nguan, Tissue Tracking and Registration
for Image-Guided Surgery., IEEE transactions on medical imaging, vol. 31, no. 11, pp. 2169
2182, Aug. 2012.
8. B.-K. Seo, M.-H. Lee, H. Park, J.-I. Park, and Y. Soo Kim, Direct-Projected AR Based
Interactive User Interface for Medical Surgery, 17th International Conference on Artificial
Reality and Telexistence (ICAT 2007), pp. 105112, Nov. 2007.
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Serious Games A New Perspective on Workbased Learning

Daniela Ahrens
University of Bremen
dahrens@uni-bremen.de
ABSTRACT
Since the foundation of the Serious Games Initiative of David Rejeski and Ben Sawyer in 2002
games from the genre of Serious Gaming have attracted increasingly special attention. Besides, it
concerns (computer) games which do not serve excluding the entertainment, but contain such
compelling elements. They serve primarily the mediation of information and education. In the
area of vocational education and continuing education Serious Games are suited in particular
when it is a matter of providing technical and standardized or difficult and complicated learning
contents. By combining playful elements and requirements of the work process Serious Games
promote the learning and achievement motivation. Furthermore, the interaction with the game
generates procedural knowledge. How Serious Games can be done as an innovative way for
workplace learning, is illustrated in the article on the basis of the first intermediate results of an
empirical project on handling of heavy goods at the port.
Keywords: Workbased Learning, ICT, Game-Based Learning
1. INTRODUCTION
Meanwhile digital media supported learning processes are a matter of course. Simultaneously
we consider a growing interest in workplace learning. The relocation of learning into the real
corporate work process is increasingly dominating the shaping of processes in the companies on
the one hand as well as vocational educational research on the other hand. The reasons for this
development are the direct usability of learning outcomes in the work process, the relevance of
problem-oriented learning for skilled workers as well as semiskilled workers and the long-term
value of acquired experience knowledge for the occupational practice[8]. The contribution
discusses the question how game-based surroundings are able to promote workplace learning.
Serious Games are not a new idea. Military officers as well as aeronautical research have been
using war games or dangerous situations in order to train strategic skills for a long time.
Meanwhile, the technological development permits the development of game-oriented
applications with high quality and low costs. Digital game-based technologies are initiating the
field to redefine what is meant by learning and instruction in the twenty-first century. The
working definition of Serious Games says, that such games do not have entertainment or fun as
primary purpose but rather than an educational purpose. This does not mean that serious games
should not be entertaining. Playing the game triggers learning processes. Besides, the
entertainment value of the game is not excluded, but is used rather as means for the learning
process. Recent research have identified that game-based learning is a viable way to help
learners to construct knowledge from ambiguity, trial and error, and to assimilate new
knowledge [1]. Games refer to structured play which is voluntary, intrinsically motivating, and
involves active cognitive engagement. Game-based learning enables learners to undertake such
tasks and experience situations which would otherwise be impossible and/or undesirable for
cost, time, logistical and safety reasons. A game differs from a simulation in such a way that it is
intrinsically motivating and involves competition. Games and their associated obstacles also
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create a positive kind of stress, called eustress, which is actually good for the player, providing
him with a sense of motivation and desire to succeed. The motivation can be promoted by
interesting game scenarios which are contextualized through work-based tasks and processes.
The current work of harbor skilled workers is marked by dealing with complex technologies,
requiring cooperation and practical acquisition of process understanding as well as social
competences, the readiness for lifelong learning and working in changing work tasks and
environments. The initial assumption is that game-based learning environments are suited in a
special way to impart abstract theoretical knowledge as well as action-oriented knowledge.
Game-based learning environments support the learning of abstract knowledge to promote the
learning performance.
In our knowledge society, the acquisition of systematic theoretical knowledge is undoubtedly
gaining importance. Schn emphasized the role of action in shaping the content of tacit
knowledge. He observed that when actions lead to unexpected action outcomes, reflection on
assumptions that gave rise to the action is prompted, which augments tacit knowledge. He
distinguished between the reflection-in-action, which occurs on the spot, and reflection-onaction, which occurs retrospectively [6]. According to [3] Serious Games enable experience plus
reflection equals learning. Therefore, it will be necessary, to consider reflection possibilities as
crucial didactical aspect designing Serious Games.
The challenge is to design a Serious Game for the particular work processes in the harbor as
learning context. Just the maritime economy registers an increase in complexity, mechanization
and interface management. The requirements profile of the professional forces for harbor
logistics has changed and extended. The research project work process oriented competence
development for the harbor of the future (http://www.arkoh.de) focusses on two work
processes: Firstly, the loading of offshore wind energy components. Secondly container-related
activities like loading, storing and movement (stuffing and stripping) of containers and also the
securing of load. Especially when loading and transshipping heavy equipment in ports e.g.: for
the offshore industry experience-based knowledge plays an important role. The employees must
have a sense of forces and weights. They have to be able to handle with ground conveyor, reach
stacker as well as straddle carriers. The transport of components for offshore wind turbines is
one of the special challenges of heavy load transporters.
2. SERIOUS GAMING AS AN INNOVATIVE WAY FOR WORKPLACE LEARNING
Research results have pointed out that there are at least six key properties for Serious Games to
promote learning processes [7]:
An underlying rule system and a game goal to which the player is emotionally attached,
Experiences that offer good learning opportunities,
A match between affordance and effectively,
Modeling to make learning from experience more general and abstract,
Encouragement to players to enact their own unique trajectory through the game,
Easy and user-friendly interface.
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To underline is that the challenge in the game should not have trivial tasks. Instead the game
challenge should match the players skill level. Furthermore, the game has to provide a tutorial
or online help that enables players (learners) skill development while playing the game.
It can be said that enterprises have four essential requirements on the use of Serious Games:
A Serious Game should show the enterprise reality of his own as near as possible
regarding organization, product and processes.
A Serious Game shall work with real corporate data to show the reality as approximately
real as possible.
Strong requirements on Serious Games security arises regarding unauthorized access.
Serious Games have to be easily adapted.
It is important in this connection that Serious Games are slightly adaptable, so that they can be
adapted on the one hand very smoothly on the situation by the enterprise and, on the other
hand, the development expenses remain within the scope. Hence, it becomes more and more
important to develop actual and efficient methods which bundle up the different competences of
Serious Game developers (professional expert, educational experts and IT developers) and
support with the help of a structured action. The aim is to sustain individuals capacities for
effective, productive and enduring working lives. This includes being able to respond to the
particular yet changing requirements of work and workplaces, and successfully to negotiate
transitions from one workplace settings to others [2]. In our research project we focus on the
question how game-based learning can enhance workplace learning especially for semi- or
unskilled workers. In particular the ports work is made by semiskilled people. Usually the
employees pass a course of several weeks to learn the basics about health and safety measures,
load protection, lashing and cargo handling. Nevertheless, there remains a gap between the
knowledge and the skills needed at work and the knowledge provided by formal courses. Since
the share is high of semi-skilled workers with regard to handling of heavy goods at the port,
companies are interested in training concepts which motivate the workers as well as fostering
the competency development. The challenges they face should match their developed skills so
that they can experience attainable challenges, but with some uncertainty of outcomes [4].The
learning process refers to the acquisition of knowledge and skills as well as to the participation
in communities of practice.
3. APPROACH AND COMPETENCIES
The project considers the notion of work process oriented competences as a basic factor. It is
based on the assumption that a reflected coping with work processes due to the commitment of
the individual in his or her work situation initializes the development of work process oriented
competencies. This conception of competency includes experience-based know-how on the one
hand. On the other hand, it is evident that the necessary skilled-analytical abilities in the sense of
knowing how and why something worksare objects of this expertise [5]. Furthermore, the
project assumes that Serious Games have the potential to facilitate various types of skill
development. The target group is made up of semiskilled and skilled workers
For example, raising the carrier structures from the ship must just happen in a straight line, the
ropes have to stand in the right corner, and unequivocal view signs of the stevedore to the crane
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operator are essential. Bridge crane operators are responsible in a harbor for the container
envelope between ship and quay. They take charge, send or load and unload ships and trucks
with the assigned containers. In her mostly high mechanized job in the floating cabin under the
gantry they have to deal with more than thousand-tons-arrangements precision work. The
containers are placed from a distance from up to 40 meters with an exactness of few
centimeters. Furthermore, lightweight and extremely long blades have to be transported like a
raw egg and expectant generator gondolas with high weights.
In order to identify the structure of the learning of harbor skilled worker, for example stevedore,
thorough analyses were carried out dockside to find out details of complex problem-solving
situations and synchronization-processes. In the following two characteristic work processes
which are suitable for Serious Gaming are briefly introduced.
3.1 Toolbox-Meeting
The need of learning processes arises by the fact that the employees are responsible not only for
single performances, but her work tasks are rather a component of a complicated process chain.
Furthermore, in our analyses we identified the following influencing factors which require
learning processes:
Application Of New Technologies
High Claims To The Industrial Safety
Need Of Synchronization And Teamwork
For clarifying the different tasks and responsibilities as well as the claims to the industrial
safety, each loading and transshipping of heavy equipment starts with a so-called toolboxmeeting. Tool-box meetings, also called crew talks or tailgate meetings, are short meetings of
the involved companies to discuss issues that primarily focus on safety topics, task sharing and
responsibilities. A tool-box talk is a short talk, normally delivered at the workplace. It is informal
and it is held before beginning the loading process of components for wind turbines, for
example. The tool-box meeting is suited for following reasons as learning surrounding in the
context of Serious Gaming. Firstly, in a game-based learning surrounding the different roles and
respective perspectives can be taken. A deeper problem understanding is generated by taking
over the different point of views. Hence, secondly, a game-based toolbox-meeting promotes a
deeper insight and comprehension in the process chain. A common problem understanding is
thereby promoted and the process orientation is strengthened. Thirdly, it promotes the
communication between the different status groups and the teamwork within the workgroup.
The latter is important because the composition of the team changes in many cases and the field
of safety is becoming a competitive parameter. In this context Serious Games offer multilevel
learning situations as well as the simulation of problems and critical situations. To experiment
with different identities means that the player can change the perspectives and can take over, for
example, the role and identity of a foreman or layer leader.
3.2 High & Heavy
The second work process refers to the transport planning and its realization in the high &heavy
area such as seaport cargo handling. In this context, the game-based learning process deals with
loading and securing reliably and precisely in accordance with the shipping companies, stowage
and lashing provisions. This contains the catching up of all approvals, the device application as
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well as the transport packaging. The high & heavy area is suited for the following reasons as a
learning surrounding in the context of Serious Gaming. Firstly, the game-based learning
surrounding enables the learner to deal with complexity, group decision making, and decision
making under conditions of time pressure without fearing negative consequences. Secondly, the
learner improves his skills in priorizing and planning the flow of material, in particular the need
of large equipment as well as joint planning and problem solving.
The overriding purpose in using serious games lies in the improvement of the task Performance,
including sub-categories such as speed and fluency under varying environmental conditions, as
well as awareness and understanding, involving understanding of colleagues, contexts and
situations.
3.3 Outlook
Primarily, the secret of a good digital game-based learning process is not its 3D graphics but its
underlying architecture where each level dances around the outer limits of the players
competences. A special value in the context of Serious Gaming is its action-oriented approach
and the manifold ways of contextualization. Serious Games offer authentic situations, so that the
lessons learned can be well transferred on the real working process. In particular, in work
contexts with a high demand for occupational safety, serious games offer opportunities for
learning. The learning potential at the workplace can be used for self-guided learning and for
competency development. Thus, the application in the context of occupations and the
sustainability of different game-based learning options will remain in the center of interest for
future research and project work.
REFERENCES
1. Adcock, A. (2008): Making digital game-based learning working: An instructional
designers perspective.Library Media Connection 26(5), pp. 5657.
2. Billet, S., Harteis, C. and Etelpelto (Eds.) (2008) Emerging Perspectives of Workplace
Learning. Rotterdam:Sense Publisher.
3. Dewey, J. (1938) Logic: The Theory of Inquiry. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
4. Eseryel, D., Law, D., Ifenthaler, D., Ge, X. and Miller, R. (2014) An Investigation of the
Interrelationships between Motivation, Engagement, and Complex Problem Solving in
Game-based Learning, Educational Technology & Society, 17 (1), pp. 42-53.
5. Neuweg, G. H. (2004). Expertise and implicit knowledge the importance of the theory of
cognition and knowledge by Michael Polanyi (3rd ed.). Mnster: Waxmann Publishing
Company
6. Schoen, D. A. (1983) The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic
Books, Inc.
7. Shute, V., J. and Ke, F. (2012) Games, Learning, and Assessment, in Assessment in GameBased Learning, Foundations, Innovations, and Perspectives, Ifenthaler, D. et al. (Ed.), New
York: Springer Science, pp. 43-58.
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8. Spoettl, G., Schulte, S. and Grantz, T. (2012)Workplace oriented Learning with Digital Media
Consequences for Competency Development. Education Review, A 9, pp. 760-775.
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED537175.pdf
Last
accessed
5.August2014.
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The Fourth Order Runge-Kutta Spreadsheet Calculator using VBA

Programing for Ordinary Differential Equations
Kim Gaik Tay
tay@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Motivated by the previous literature works of spreadsheet solutions of ordinary differential
equations (ODE) and a system of ODEs using fourth-order Runge-Kutta (RK4) Method, we have
built a spreadsheet calculator for solving ordinary differential equations (ODEs) numerically by
using RK4 method and VBA programming. In this spreadsheet calculator, the ODE to be solved
will be inputted as the function f(x,y) by the users naturally via programming syntax or
mathematical form instead of using Excel command. Similarly, if the exact solution is available,
users can input its exact function so that its absolute errors will be calculated. Using one
customized written function in VBA programming, the function f(x,y) and exact function are
later evaluated in Excel. To evaluate the ODE for the interval [x0, xn] with a step size h and an
initial condition y0, users will only be required to input x0, xn, h, and y0 in the spreadsheet
calculator. Next, users can select the desired number of accuracy for computation and lastly click
the APPLY button. The full solution of the ordinary differential equations will be calculated
automatically using RK4 method. This spreadsheet calculator is user-friendly especially for
users who are not familiar with Excel. We hope that it can be used as a marking scheme for
educators and students who require its full solutions. Moreover, it reduces calculation time and
is hoped to improve students learning ability.
Keywords: Excel Spreadsheet, Ordinary Differential Equations Spreadsheet Calculator, Eulers
Method
1. INTRODUCTION
The computing approaches, which are developed for solving ordinary differential equations
(ODEs), can be roughly divided into the exact solution method and the numerical method. Since
the use of the exact solution method is limited to the linear ODEs, the application of the
numerical method is seen to be practical in solving engineering problems. This is because the
exact solution of the nonlinear ODEs is difficult to analyse and its existence might be questioned.
The application of the numerical method is able to approximate the solution of the ODEs,
particularly for the nonlinear ODEs. As such, it is necessary to develop a tool in order to solve the
ODEs easily.
Additionally, a series of papers working on solving numerical problems in classrooms and for
examination purpose using spreadsheets has been discussed. See examples [1-13]. Among these
works, the topics focused are systems of nonlinear and linear equations, approximation of
interpolation, computing of eigenvalues, numerical differentiation, ordinary differential
equations (ODEs) and the Laplace equation. Notice that the spreadsheet calculator has been
developed for the numerical differentiations [8-10], while the rest of the topics remain in the
usual spreadsheet environment without Visual Basic Application (VBA) programming. In our
definition, a spreadsheet calculator is a calculation tool that is designed in the spreadsheet
environment based on VBA programming. This spreadsheet calculator would be a user-friendly
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package, which is easy to use without having to type any commands in the spreadsheet cells.
Furthermore, users only need to provide the required information at the initial stage.
Consequently, the complete solution will be calculated automatically. Thus, the aim of this paper
is to develop a spreadsheet calculator which applies RK4 computation procedure in solving
ODEs. This spreadsheet calculator is therefore known as the RK4 spreadsheet calculator.
2. RK4 METHOD FOR ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Consider a general form of the first-order ordinary differential equation given below:
dy
f ( x, y )
dx
(1)
with the initial value y( x0 ) y0 for the interval x0 x xn . Here, x is the independent variable,
y is the dependent variable, n is the number of point values, and f is the function of the
derivation. The aim is to determine the unknown function y ( x) whose derivative satisfies (1)
and the corresponding initial values. In doing so, let us discretize the interval x0 x xn to be
x0 , x1 x0 h, x2 x0 2h, ..., xn x0 nh
(2)
where h is the fixed step size. With the initial condition y( x0 ) y0 , the unknown function
y1 , y2 , y3
yi 1 yi
yn can be solved by using the RK4 method as defined by
k1 2k2 2k3 k4
, i 0,1,
6
(3)
where
k
h
k2 hf xi , yi 1 ,
2
2
k1 hf ( xi , yi ),
k4 hf xi h, yi k3 .
k
h
k3 hf xi , yi 2 ,
2
2
NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
For illustration, consider the RC-circuit shown in Figure 1.
sin100t V
R=5
C= 0.1 F
Fig. 1: RC-circuit
The governing first order ordinary differential equation is given by
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di i
E '(t )
dt C
(4)
where R is the resistance (ohms), C is the capacitance (farads), i is the current (ampere), and
E (t ) is the voltage (volts).
Given E (t ) sin(100t ) volts, R 5 ohms, C 0.1 farads and at the initial time t 0 the initial
current is i = 0. We want to solve the differential equation (4), which is the RC-circuit ODE, for
the time interval 0 t 0.05 seconds with the time step size t 0.01 seconds using the RK4
method. If the exact solution is given by
10
500
10 2t
cos100t
sin100t
e ,
2501
2501
2501
(5)
the absolute errors are later calculated at each iteration.

The computation procedure of the RK4 method is summarized as given in Section 3.1
2.1 RK4 solution method
Step 1: Rewrite the ODE in (4) by substituting the given values that is,
di 100cos100t
i
20cos100t 2i f (t , i)
dt
5
5(0.1)
(6)
Step 2: By using the RK4 method, formulate (6) into the form of (3), we get
ik 1 ik
k1 2k2 2k3 k4
6
where
k1 0.01(20cos100t 2i),
0.01 k1
k2 0.01 20cos100 t
2 i ,
2
2
0.01 k2
k3 0.01 20cos100 t
2 i ,
2
2
k4 0.01 20cos100 t 0.01 2 i k3 .

with h t 0.01 and i 0 when t 0
Step 3: Apply the RK4 spreadsheet calculator, which is discussed in the next section, to obtain
the numerical solution.
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3. THE RK4 SPREADSHEET CALCULATOR

In this section, the use of the RK4 spreadsheet calculator is discussed. Figure 2 illustrates the
template and the usage of the RK4 spreadsheet calculator. Firstly, users enter the independent
and dependent variables into the cells C4 and D4 respectively. Secondly, the initial values for
both of the mentioned variables are entered into the cells C6 and D6 respectively, whereas the
ending value of the independent variable is entered into the cell C8. Thirdly, the step size h is
entered into the cell D8. Fourthly, the ODE given by (6) is entered into the cell E6 naturally via
programming syntax or mathematical form instead of using Excel command. Fifth, the exact
solution of the ODE, which is given by (5), is entered into the cell H6.
Users can select the desired accuracy upon the number of decimal places, which range from one
to nine decimal places from the drop down menu in cell H11. Finally, click the APPLY button in
cell D10, which is associated with the VBA programming for the computation of the RK4 method.
Then, the numerical solution of the ODE, which is shown in red colour cells in Figure 2, is
calculated automatically based on the desired accuracy.
Fig. 2: The RK4 Spreadsheet Calculator for Solving Odes

4. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a spreadsheet calculator, which applies the RK4 method for solving the ODEs, was
developed by employing VBA programming. This spreadsheet calculator is very user-friendly
since users only need to enter relevant information to compute the full solution of the ODEs
which will then be displayed. We hope this spreadsheet calculator will serve as a tool for
educators and students who need the full solution of the ODEs using the RK4 method.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is fully supported by UTHM multidisciplinary research grant MDR vote 1109.
REFERENCES
1. Tay, K. G., Kek, S. L. and Abdul-Kahar, R. (2009) Solving Non-Linear Systems by Newtons
Method Using Spreadsheet Excel, Proceeding of the 3rd International Conference on Science
and Mathematics Education (CoSMED 2009). pp. 452-456.
2. Kek, S. L. and Tay, K. G. (2008) Solver for System of Linear Equations, Proceeding of the
National Symposium on Application of Science Mathematics 2008 (SKASM 2008). pp. 605615.
3. Kek, S. L. and Tay, K. G. (2009) Design of Spreadsheet Solver for Polynomial Interpolation,
National Seminar on Science and Technology 2009 (PKPST 2009). pp. 69-73.
4. Tay, K. G., Kek, S. L. and Abdul-Kahar, R. (2010) Langrange Interpolating Polynomial
Solver Using Spreadsheet Excel, Proceeding of the National Symposium on Application of
Science Mathematics 2010 (SKASM 2010) and 18th Mathematical Science National
Symposium (SKSM 2010). pp. 331-337.
5. Tay, K. G., Kek, S. L., and Abdul-Kahar, R. (2014) A Bivariate Approximation Spreadsheet
Calculator by Lagrange Interpolation. Spreadsheets in Education (eJSiE). Vol. 7(1), pp. 1-8.
6. Tay, K. G and Kek, S. L. (2008) Approximating The Dominant Eigenvalue Using Power
Method Through Spreedsheet Excel, Proceeding of the National Symposium on Application
of Science Mathematics 2008 (SKASM 2008). 599-604.
7. Tay, K. G.and Kek, S. L. (2009) Approximating the Smallest Eigenvalue Using Inverse
Method Through Spreadsheet Excel, Proceeding of the 17th National Symposium on
Mathematical Science (SKSM 2009). 653-658.
8. Tay, K. G., Kek, S. L. and Abdul-Kahar, R. , Azlan, M.A. & Lee, M.F. (2013) A Richardsons
Extrapolation Spreadsheet Calculator for Numerical Differentiation, Spreadsheets in
Education (eJSiE). Vol. 6(2), pp. 1-5.
9. Tay, K. G., Kek, S. L. and Abdul-Kahar, R. (2013) Numerical Differentiation Spreadsheet
Calculator, Proceedings of the National Symposium on Application of Science Mathematics
2008 (SKASM 2013). Pg. 111-120.
10. Tay, K. G., Kek, S. L. and Abdul-Kahar, R. (2014) Improved Richardsons Extrapolation
Spreadsheet Calculator for Numerical Differentiation," AIP Conference Proceedings. Vol.
1605, pp.740-743.
11. Tay, K. G.and Kek, S. L. (2009). Fourth Order Runge-Kutta Method Using Spreadsheet
Excel, Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Research and Education in
Mathematics (ICREM4). Pp.666-672.
12. Tay, K. G., Kek, S. L. and Abdul-Kahar, R. (2012) A Spreadsheet Solution of a System of
Ordinary Differential Equations Using the Fourth-Order Runge-Kutta Method, Spreadsheets
in Education (eJSiE). Vol. 5(2), pp. 1-10.
13. Tay, K. G., Kek, S. L. and Abdul-Kahar, R.
(2009)
Solutions of Laplaces Eq
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The Indicators of Instructional Design for E-learning in Indonesian

Vocational High Schools
M. BruriTriyono
Faculty of Engineering Yogyakarta State University
bruritriyono@yah4oo.co.id & m_bruritriyono@uny.ac.id
ABSTRACT
Teaching a subject in Vocational High School (VHS) needs specific strategy wich is part of
instructional design. Recently the VHSs use computer base in instructional to deliver theory and
practice subject. The computer will help teachers to make media as a part of instruction and
using a system of instruction, which is usually called as e learning in instruction. Teachers need
skill for operating and planning e learning as an instructional media. To make easier to deliver
some subjects, the instructional design for e learning should be well-prepared by teacher. This
means that the teacher is required to know the model of instructional design which is suitable
for e learning for VHS and what are the indicators that are needed in implementing instructional
design for e learning.
Study exploration and references collection were used to find the model of instructional design
for e learning. Focus group discussion (FGD) was used to define the good model for
instructional design in e learning including to find the indicators which cover the model. In this
case 5 experts from 5 universities and 5 experts from the profession of information and
communication technologies (ICTs) were involved. Further, the respondents that consist of 20
teachers and 165 students were used to define the good indicators in each aspect.
The study founds the draft model of instructional design for e learning in VHS. The model has
four aspects, including: 1) needs analysis, 2) selection and order of competence, 3) instructional
development and 4) learning evaluation. The four aspects have five indicators in each.
Keywords: Indicators, Instructional Design, E Learning For VHS (Vocational High School)
1. INTRODUCTION
Vocational education in Indonesia is an education that promotes mastery of skills in certain
skills that graduates are prepared to work in jobs. The closeness between the learning materials
being taught with the knowledge needed in the workplace is something that must be realized in
the timeframe in vocational education. Number of vocational high school (VHS) in Indonesia
reached 11738 with details 3037 publics and 8701 private [12]. The condition number of VHS
students rose 200.000 every year and this time amounted to 4.3 million, while the target in 2019
to reach 5.5 millionstudents [13].
When you look at the extent and geographical condition of Indonesia, then in terms of the
implementation of education, especially VHS need to design appropriate learning standards VHS
graduates can be achieved. On the other hand the rapid development of technology in the
workplace must be accommodated by preparing teaching materials appropriate for the right
target, and determine the learning strategy that allows students to obtain a complete learning
experience.
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Submission of conventional learning that rely on the transfer of knowledge in the classroom and
teacher-centered learning already is not possib.le where the learning outcomes wants to
appropriate use of technology in the world of work. Speed and ease as well as present
information as teaching materials can be obtained easily if the learning using computer-aided
media. Computer-aided multi-media rich changes obtained only by using internet service.
Through learning program that is loaded on the e-learning package is very possible that the
interaction of information very quickly as required. In addition, learning materials in e-learning
have easily repeated nature, searched and stored so that the high and low groups of students can
be accommodated his needs.
Based on the results of preliminary observations on the use of the Internet for learning in
several VHS, general internet network conditions for learning is still lacking, especially in the use
of e-learning. Almost all users of e-learning in VHS have not been equipped with instructional
design. E-learning instructional design appropriate to the vocational teaching materials will
facilitate the management of e-learning itself so that the role of the teacher as a facilitator can be
more focused to develop innovative learning according to the learning goals. Another problem
associated with the use of e-learning is the ownership of the web, web updates, the amount of
bandwidth, and student interest in the use of computers for learning is still less attention.
Though this condition is an important thing that must be optimized both performance and
presence that e-learning can take place properly and easily. To improve and facilitate the use of
the Internet for learning, instructional design requires a model of e-learning that can be used for
various subjects in vocational subjects. Through research on instructional design models in e
learning VHS will produce guidelines on how to plan instructional by utilizing e-learning. Making
setting up guidelines that facilitate teacher to prepare instructional design e-learning require the
determination of the criteria and their indicators. The criteria and indicators will be used as
guidelines for the implementation of e learning in VHS.
2. USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Various aspects of information services are highly dependent on the utilization of information
technology (IT). Support these technologies affect the rapid development of Information
Technology (IT), especially the Internet for learning in education. In education, the use of IT is
realized in a system called Electronic Learning (E-learning). Development of E-Learning aims to
support education, so schools can provide better information to citizens during the school
directly concerned inside and outside the school through the Internet. Other educational
services that can be implemented by means of the internet are to provide online course
materials and course materials can be accessed by anyone who is in need.
Information and Communication Technology has a broad sense covering all matters relating to
the communication of information, the use as a tool, manipulation and processing of information
[7]. In addition, the presence of information and communication systems is one component that
cannot be separated from the activity in the world of education. Some of the components
required running the operations of education, among others; students, facilities and
infrastructure, organizational structures, processes, educators, and operating costs. Product
information from a communication system and information is used to determine the constraints
and success of an activity, which is in line with [7]. Communication and information systems
consist of components supporting educational institutions to provide the information needed by
decision-makers when educational activities. In addition, the utilization of the Internet in the
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field of education, especially for learning cannot be separated from some of the constraints that
are difficult to avoid and become a consideration in its development. Some of these constraints
are;
The process of education requires a long time. A person is required to participate in
education from elementary school through college.
In education it applies the principle of irreversibly.
The challenges we face in the future tend to develop increasingly complex, characterized
by the rapid development of science and technology as a result of globalization
increasingly open.
The term of information technology in education has known as educational information.
Reference [11:29] state that education is the application of information technology that is used
for the communication of digital information in learning and education. The facts demonstrate
that the utilization of information technology in education cannot be separated from the
development of digital technology. Speed the development of digital technology should be
followed by the user mastery in this case educators to understand and use various systems and
software created to facilitate interaction in learning and instruction. In the other hand, using ITbased process-oriented modern work organization are moving competences and responsibilities
directly to the production and service levels [15:78]. That condition needs reshaping
qualification requirements of personal that has skill in the capability of using digital media.
3. CRITERIA MODEL OFDESIGNINSTRUCTIONALIN E-LEARNING
Applying e learning as a learning model requires an understanding of selecting and determining
the appropriate instructional design. To be in accordance with the choice and determination of
learning objectives, we need a criterion. Criteria are the boundaries of an activity or system that
can serve as guidelines and allow users to determine the extent to which the activity has been
achieved. E-learning instructional design criteria cannot be separated from the development
model of instructional that is commonly used.
1.1 Model development Dick and Carey in instructional design
Development of learning according to Dick and Careyis a systematic approach in designing,
producing, evaluating, and using a complete learning system, including all the appropriate
components and a management scheme for use to all this[1:56].The development model of
learning with instructional design approach for the system in education is described by Dick and
Careyas the following diagram.
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Fig 1. The Model of the Instructional Development Design According To Dick and Carrey [14]
From the model of Dick and Carey's instructional development, can be taken several information
used to develop criteria for instructional design models of e-learning VHS. Some aspects are
taken into consideration is to identify entry behavior, conduct instructional analysis and write
performance objective, develop instructional strategy, develop and select instructional material,
develop formative and summative evaluation.
1.2 Model Development of Leshin, Pollock, and Reigeluth
Development of learning design in accordance with the vocational education in general practice
leads to learning, while learning to be able to use instructional design theories used in the public
schools. The approach was attempted based on the latest information on observations and
interviews with experts in the field of vocational education and instructional media, industry
experts in the fields of expertise of both manufacturing and services. According to [9] there are
seven activities in the instructional design of the system. Of the seven sub-activity, can be further
grouped into four activities, namely; needs analysis, selection and sequence of the lesson
content, lesson development, and instructional evaluation. Each activity will discuss the subactivities implemented in stages in accordance with Figure 3.
Step 3
Analyze &
Sequence Task
Step 1
Analyze
Problem
Step 2
Analyze
Domains
Step 5
Specify Learning
Events & Activities
Step 4
Analyze & Sequence
Supporting Conent
Step 7
Evaluate
Instruction
Step 6
Perform Interactive
Message Design
Fig.2: The Model Is Based on the Concept of Learning Design by Leshin, Pollock, Reigeluth
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1.3 Model Design Development of Multimedia Products

Models of interactive multimedia product development incase of the development of a model
includes process design, production, evaluation, and implementation and maintenance [10:38].
Fig.3. Models Development of a Multimedia Product Design, Rob Phillips
1.4 Model Development Proposed by W. Lee and Owens

Other multimedia product development model proposed by [8:161] includes five stages:
analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.
Fig.4. Model Development of Multimedia Products According W.Lee& Owens

1.5 Model design and Development InstructionalTrollip and Alesi
This study design has three aspects, standards, ongoing evaluation, and project management.
The contents of these three aspects are namely sub-aspects of planning, design, and
development [2:410]. Indicators including all three sub-aspects, among others; identification of
student characteristics, determine the obstacles that may occur, the cost of implementation,
product documents learning, competence after learning, the development of product ideas,
preparation of models or products, testing, revision, dissemination.
1.6 Model development instructional design e-learning in VHS
Based on the study of various models of the instructional design as well as consideration;
The nature of the subject in more vocational skills taught in the workshop and laboratory
practice
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Technological developments in the IT industry that utilizes

Availability of teaching materials on the Internet
Utilization of simulation shows various job skills in the monitor computer
It can define that appropriate instructional design model to develop instructional with elearning in VHS is a combination of design model Trolip and Leslin J Polock. Forms development
of instructional design can be seen in Figure 5.
Needs
Analysis
Selection
and Order of
Competence
Instructional
Development
Instructional
Evaluation
Fig.5. Criteria Model Developed Combination of Design Model Trolipand Leslin

Data and result research as an information e-learning in VHS could be found trough research
include studies Research & Development (R & D) carried out to assess and develop e-learning
models in VHS. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) held to discuss the draft ofinstructional design
and revise the draft. Data collection methods of this study are the discussion interviews,
questionnaire filling, and answering the instrument. The FGD participants are 5 experts
instructional media from universities, and 5 expert information and communication technology
from practitioners. During the discussion, the experts were given the draft of instructional
design and instruments, then asked to discuss, while the researcher becomes the moderator. The
participants in this forum (FGD) including graduate students from Vocational Technology
Education concentration study on ICT will define indicators in each sub-aspect. Resulting
indicators are closer to the needs of each key aspect in the design model of instructional e
learning in VHS. Sum of indicators in each sub aspect is belong to key aspect has more than five
indicators. There are 20 teachers and 165 studentsVHS that involved to determine the priority
order of five indicators in each sub-aspect.
4. RESEARCH RESULTS
Plan a variety of learning requires consideration of both internal and external review. Planning
requires a concept that can be followed and implemented according to its purpose. The concept
is to be developed as a reference refers to one of the models of learning design approach for the
vocational education. One of the approaches to learning in vocational suitability in particular
about the use of e learning is the concept of Leshin, Pollock, and Reigeluth.
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Needs
Analysis
Selection and
order of
competency
Instructional
Development
Instructional
Evaluation
Expertiz
e Field
Competenc
es Analysis
Instructio
nal
Strategy
Instructi
onal
Perform
ance
Student
s
Conditio
n
To Define
Competency
Indicator
Teaching
Material
FormativeS
ummative
Fig.6.Model development for the instructional design of e-learning in VHS

Based on the four key aspects of instructional design models developed in e-learning, can be
determined sub-aspects needed to meet the criteria of the fourth key aspect, so it looks
completeness. Complete instructional design criteria require indicators that can facilitate
implementation in the field or used. Below the result of determining indicators in each key
aspect refer to the Figure 6.
Table 1.Key Aspects of Needs Analysis
No
Expertise Field Indicator
No
The need comes from industrial field

The development of ICT
Curriculum
School facilities
Prospects of ICT learning
Students
Condition
Indicator
Students
Background
(Economy, Social, Culture)
Infrastructure
ICT
availability at home
Ease of internet access
Basic skills using ICT
Interest in learning using
ICT
Table 2.Key Aspects of Selection and Order of Competence

No
1
2
3
4
5
Competency Analysis Indicator

Competence skill
Standard competency
Base Competence
Standard national graduation
Learning Objective
No
1
2
3
4
5
Determining Competence Indicator

Be able to identify a problem or symptom
Can define a process
Knowledge of the content of competence
Be able to use equipment
Conformance with indicators of competence
Table 3.Key Aspects of Instructional Development

No
1
2
3
4
5
Indicators of Instructional Strategies

Adequate infrastructure
Access to intranet / internet in the learning environment
Learning model in accordance with the characteristics of
students
Applying interactive learning
No
1
2
3
Indicators of Instructional Materials

The material is easily accessible
The material is easily updated / up to date
Relevant to the learning objectives
The design of the interaction between students,

teachers, and learning materials
Available material from the internet are

downloaded each time
Available in the hand book and a glossary of
e-learning
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Table 4.Key Aspects of Instructional Evaluation

No
1
2
No
1
2
Instructional Performance Indicators

The use of time according to plan learning programs
Develop competence in accordance with the demands of
the industrial world
Deliver materials in accordance with the time in the
Planning Learning Program (PLP)
Doing discipline in all areas of competency skills
Responsibility in the learning process
3
4
Indicators of Formative Summative

Midterms meet to MCC
Remedial those who have to meet the
standards of MCC
Implement final exams to assess the ability
of learners in general
MCC refers to the achievement of
competence
Task structured and unstructured task
independently of each BC
5. DISCUSSION
In the key aspect of Needs Analysis shows that the sub-aspect Expertise Field requires school
facilities. Through good school facilities and complete produce good learning relevant to their
expertise. Facilities must be in accordance with the scope of his areas of expertise, including the
availability of e-learning support facilities operational. An indicator of ICT development is
secondary to the facility. E-learning may not work properly if the ICT developments relating to
the use of computers and the internet network is not supported or not available.
The need for expertise related to the needs of learners are two different interests but form the
basis of teaching and learning activities, the interest in learning ICT is a major requirement.
Interest according to the theory of learning is one of the intrinsic variables necessary for the
success of learners. No matter how good instructional design suggestions availability even if the
infrastructure is complete lack of interest the students are not even interested in the teaching
and learning process will not succeed.
The main aspects of the Selection and Order of Competence indicators show that the primary
purpose of learning is the basis for analyzing the competence areas of expertise to use e-learning
as an instructional media. Through clear objectives and measurable learning will allow students
to know and master the skills taught competency areas. When linked with competence indicator,
the indicator of be able to use the equipment is the most important indicator. Competence in
vocational education mostly always associated with the realm of physical skills. Physical skills
related to the use of the equipment. How to use the equipment properly is a key measure in
evaluating performance, it does show that the learning objectives should be spelled out in the
performance assessment.
Interests, access intranet / internet as the main thing that is needed in the main aspects of the
instructional development is closely associated with the use of e-learning in instructional. Ease
of access will facilitate the planning of instructional strategies that suit learners conditions and
competencies required to master. The primary key of e- learning is learning with intranet /
internet is sufficient good quality and network capacity. Any sophisticated software and
hardware available will not work for e-learning instructional if they are not available over the
internet.
Instructional materials as a supplement to e-learning must be selected that can improve the
interactive activities of educators and learners. Instructional materials that are information
without involving activity learners will be boring and less attractive. Interactivity teaching
materials and easy to update in accordance with the level of technological development will be
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easily absorbed by learners. Rapid changes in the virtual world of information will also be
absorbed by the fast learners when given instructional materials give learners opportunities to
respond and direct activity. Indicators are reflected in this key aspect is the interactive learning
that is supported by the ease of learners to access the internet without any limitation of space
and time.
Instructional performance evaluation aims to keep learning e learning design direction in
accordance with the purpose of learning. All activities are planned in the learning design must be
accounted for and executed with discipline. Moreover, in this evaluation the information needed
school linkages with industry / services. As for the evaluation formative / summative main
indicator of the most overlooked is carrying out remedial actions for students who do not meet
the standards of MCC.
6. CONCLUSIONS
1. Design appropriate instructional with vocational e-learning is a model of instructional
design that has four main aspects, namely aspects of needs analysis, selection and order
of competence, learning development, and evaluation of learning.
2. Indicators related to sub instructional design aspects are determined by the order in the
interests of the results of exploration, observation, focus group discussion and testing to
determine the indicators that are most needed.
3. The indicators have been identified as the basis for developing design guidelines
vocational instructional in e-learning that will be implemented in the second year of this
research series.
REFERENCES
1. AECT. (1977). The Definition Of Educational Technology. Washington D.C. Association for
Educational Communication and Technology.
2. Alessi, Stephen M. & Trollip, Stanley R. (2001). Multimedia for Learning, methods and
development (3rd Ed.). Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon
3. Borg, Walter. R. & Gall, M., D. (1983). Educational Research: An Introduction (4th ed.). New
York & London: Logman.
4. Criswell, E. L. (1989). The Design Of Computer-Based Instruction. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Compani.
5. Dick, W. & Carey, L. (1990). The Systematic Design Of Instruction (3rd ed.). Glecview,
Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company.
6. Heinich, R. (et al.), (1996). Instructional Media And Technologies For Learning (5td ed.).
Englewood cliffs, NJ: A Simon & Schuster Company.
7. Kementerian Negara Riset dan Teknologi. 2006. Penelitian Pengembangan dan Penerapan
IPTEK Bidang Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi Tahun 2005-2025. Jakarta:
Kementerian Negara Riset dan Teknologi.
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8. Lee, W.W. & Owen, D.L. (2004). Multimedia-Based Instructional Design. San Fransisco:
Pfeiffer.
9. Leshin, Cynthia BJ Pollock, CM Reigeluth. (1992) Instructional design strategies and tactics.
Englewood cliffs, NJ:Educational Technology Publications, Inc
10. Philips, Rob. 1997. The Developers Handbook to Interactive Multimedia (Practcal Guide
for Educational Aplication) London: Kogan Page
11. Richard Andrews and Caroline Haythornthwaite. 2007. The SAGE Handbook of E Learning
Reseach. London: Sage
12. http://datapokok.ditpsmk.net/ : August 29, 2014
13. http://acdpindonesia.wordpress.com/2014/08/25/lulusan-smk-ready-bersaing/
14. http://www.umich.edu/~ed626/Dick_Carey/dc.html
15. BMBF. 2013. Report on Vocational Education and Training 2013: Bonn Germanyhttp://www.bmbf.de
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Imperatives and the Challenges to Effective Integration of ICTs in

Nigerian TVET Institutions toward
Instructional Delivery
Bashir Abubakar 1*, Mohamad Hisyam Mohd. Hashim2
Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1Bashirabubakar1976@gmail.com2mhisyam@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
As we move further into the 21st century in any developing countries students must be
developed as lifelong learners to ensure that the country remains competitive and moves
towards more value-added industries that produce knowledge-intensive products. Students
need to learn how to seek out new information, and also show initiative to meet up with the
challenges of the fast-changing world, newer approaches to working and learning are in very
high demand more than ever before this is because the world of work is more complex, It is
evident that for the aforementioned to be achieved the successful deployment of Information
and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in to TVET program should be given priority. Despite
the availability of studies on ICT in TVET, there is are quite few or no studies on the integration
of ICT in Nigerian TVET institutions, therefore this paper attempted to highlight the imperatives
and some challenges that hinders the successful ICTs integration in to Nigerian TVET
institutions. This paper further explores Nigerias ICT in education policies, implementation
efforts, as well as effort being made toward ICT integration in to TVET programme, accordingly
this paper reviewed the related existing literature on ICT in TVET programme, opinion papers,
conceptual papers, Nigerian ICT policies among others, and these were extracted to form this
paper as an addition to the existing literature. It was concluded that Vocational and Technical
education and training alone does not eradicate poverty or provide jobs, therefore It was
recommended that the identified challenges must be tackle and urges full deployment of ICT in
TVET institutions. Keywords: ICT, TVET Institution, Imperative, Integration
Keywords: ICT, TVET Institution, Imperative, Integration
1. INTRODUCTION
It is evident that we live in an era of rapid technological changes and challenges which
modernizes every aspect of individual lives, be it intellectual or social, these profound changes
and challenges are invaded in the economies of developing countries. These economic changes
impact on the skills required by the labour market, consequently these changes have been
creating additional new demands for more adaptable multi-skilled and creative labour.
Therefore students need to learn how to seek out new information, acquire new skills to meet up
with the challenges of the rapid-changing world in which Nigeria as a developing nation is not in
exception to these new demands. Thus if we are to prepare our TVET graduates to live and work
in this second part of the 21st century, Hence the urgent needs to device new ways of teaching
and learning using new technologies in Technical and vocational education training has become
necessary. However according to (Bello et al, 2013) as a result of the full deployment of ICT in
TVE training, students acquire flexible employability skills that will qualify them fit into the ever
changing labour market without serious difficulties. Indeed the recent developments in
technology, changing demand for new skill sets in the labour market have necessitated a need
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for a new teaching and learning paradigm (Aliyu, M. B. 2012). Hence the need for this research to
explore the imperatives and the existing challenges of ICT integration in Nigeria TVET
institutions toward instructional delivery as an addition to the existing literature.
2. TVET INSTITUTION AND ICT INTEGRATION IN NIGERIAN
There are five types of TVET institutions in Nigeria outside the universities which are the prevocational and vocational schools at post-primary level; and technical colleges, polytechnics and
technical teacher education colleges at the post-secondary level. Blessing, F. A. Olabiyi, S. (2011).
He further stated that the apprenticeship system had long trained youth in smiting, weaving,
pottery, wood-carving, farming, basketry and a multiplicity of other local handicrafts, prior to
independence. It is evident that in all of Sub-Saharan Africa, formal TVET programs are school
based. Considering the Nigerian Yaba College of Technology which was established in 1932,
However National Policy on Education (2004) clearly stated the aim of technical and Vocational
education is to provide trained manpower in applied science, technology and commerce, to
provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for commercial and economic
development, among others. Indeed Nigeria students enter the vocational education track at the
end of lower or junior secondary school, which corresponds to 9 12 years, the school-based
technical and vocational education is between three and six years, all In the attempt to expose
young individuals to pre- employment skills Atchoarena, D. Delluc, A, (2002).
Similarly According to Nigerias Federal core curriculum, the objectives of basic technology are:
to provide pre-vocational orientation for further training in technology, provide basic
technological literacy for everyday living and stimulate creativity. The introduction of modern
information and communication technologies (ICT) to TVET delivery is an important tool for
enhancing quality in TVET and for developing life-long learning opportunities. This is because
the skills of the workforce can be continually upgraded through a life-long learning approach,
this also means that learners who have had limited access to training in the past can have a
second chance to build on their skills and competencies (MOE, 2008). In an effort to fully deploy
ICT in TVET Flexible Skills Development (FSD) in Africa was established in May 2010 aimed at
achieving the following goal.
1. Policy development, strategic and capacity planning
2. organizational development including quality improvement
3. ICT infrastructure management
4. Course design and delivery through educational media and ICT
Therefore FSD Work with 10 partner institutions in 6 countries including Nigeria. Indeed TVET
Institutes and polytechnics involved in FSD are focusing on a range of institutional development
activities to establish an effective flexible and blended approach to TVET programme provision
in their own local and national context. Their activities among others include staff development
in the use of educational media and ICT for teaching and learning.
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3. TRENDS OF ICT INTEGRATION IN NIGERIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.

In preparation for the integration of ICT in schools, Nigeria developed the National Policy for
Information in 2001 with a vision to make Nigeria IT capable country in Africa by the year 2005,
National Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA) was established in 2001 and
assigned the responsibility of implementing the policy (Federal Ministry of Science &
Technology, 2001). The adoption of the national policy is a critical step towards incorporating
ICT application in to education sector, and then every sector of the nations life Kwache, p. Z.
(2007). Among other emphasis by the policy are: to empower youths with ICT skills, to prepare
them for competitiveness in a global environment, integrate ICT into the mainstream of
education and training, which is clearly geared toward TVET institution. Similarly in September
2001 School Net Nigeria was launched with the intention to equip all Nigerian secondary schools
with communication technologies. SchoolNet enhance education by Implementing, supporting,
and coordinating ICT development projects in education, Providing and supporting lower cost
and Internet for schools, among others Mwiyeria, E. Verma, A. (2011). In 2002 a new project
Computers-in-Schools was introduced with the major objective to develop computer and
technological literacy through the introduction of computers in secondary schools. Accordingly
(NPE 2004) also emphasized the use of ICTs at all levels of Nigerian education in which TVET
institution are inclusive. The policy statements are:
1. All states, teachers resource centers, university institutes of education, and other
professional bodies in education shall belong to the network of ICT (section II, subsection 102(a) p.53).
2. Government shall provide facilities and necessary infrastructure for the promotion of
ICT and its use as learning tools at all levels of education (section II, subsection 102(d)
p.53).
3. Virtual library project, aimed at the rejuvenation of the Nigerian schools through
provision of easy access to current books, journals and other information sources using
digital technology was also included.
However these policy objectives were yet to be realized. Moreover Research findings by Yusuf
(2005a) on barriers to ICT application in higher levels of education clearly revealed the
following.
1. Lack of teachers confidence and teachers computer anxiety.
2. Lack of pedagogical training.
3. Lack of skills training.
4. Lack of access to resources due to lack of hardware, poor organization, of resources,
poor quality hardware, inappropriate software, unreliability of electricity among others.
As a result of the pressing need to have a standardized and coordinated development and
deployment of ICT in education, multisectoral approach was adopted in the development of a
new policy, in 2010 involving the Federal Ministry of Education and its parastatals, States
ministries of Education, IT professional bodies, the private sector and nonGovernmental
Organization, The policy defines a broad vision for ICT integration (FME, 2010a). The policy
objectives of ICT in Education among others are:
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1. To facilitate the teaching and learning processes.

2. To promote problemsolving, critical thinking and innovative skills.
3. To promote lifelong learning.
4. To enhance the various teaching and learning strategies required to meet the needs of
the population.
5. To foster research and development.
6. To support effective and efficient education administration.
7. To enhance universal access to information.
Accordingly in an effort to achieve successful integration of ICTs in secondary schools
September 2006 witnessed the launch of the one laptop- per-child (OLPC) initiative which was
in collaboration with the Nigeria government which has resulted in the provision of 100-dollar
laptop for the e-secondary school project in Nigeria. However in an effort to successfully
integrate ICT in Nigerian Teacher Development, Olakulehin (2007) identifies four broad
approaches from research literature. The skills of teachers flow from emerging to applying to
infusing to transforming stages of ICT integration. As teachers move through each stage, they
develop increasing capability to use ICT as a natural part of the everyday life of the system. The
figure below shows the various stages whereby the skills of teachers flow through.
Emerging
Applying
Ability to use
ICT at basic
level
Infusing Transforming
Ability to
make
general
and
specific
uses of
ICT
Ability to
make
dynamic
and
complex
use of ICT
Ability to
experiment
and
innovate
with ICT
Figure 1: A Continuum of ICT Integration Approaches in Teacher Development

Source: Olakulehin 2007.
4. IMPERATIVES FOR EFFECTIVE INTEGRATION OF ICTS IN NIGERIAN TVET
INSTITUTIONS
It is important to note that TVET is not only about knowing how to do things but also
understanding why things are done in a particular way (Afeti, G. 2013). According to Malgwi, A.
P. Mbah, C. O, (2012) TVET is the factory for production of needed Technologist, craftsmen and
technicians to turn the nations economy around. Moreover, TVET is one of the field of study that
requires full deployment of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), especially in
the present era where the world of work is rapidly changing its requirement for workers from
skill based to an ICT capable (Aliyu, M.B. 2012).
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Similarly according to JONATHAN, O.C. NGOZI, A. (2011) If ICT should properly be utilized in
TVET programmes; it will definitely improve the quality of education and training in several
ways which includes enabling the acquisition of basic skills, increasing learners motivation and
engagement, and also enhancing teacher training. However the approaches to working and
learning are in very high demand more than ever before which is as a result of the complexity of
the present world of work that necessitate the institutions to infuse their student with
functional lifelong learning skills in order to meet up with the challenges of the twenty-first
century Idris, A. (2010). Indeed according to (Saud, et-al, 2011). The expansion and
reinforcement of TVET can be achieved by Effective integration of ICTs in to TVET through
enhancing, networking and knowledge sharing opportunities which will in turn offer students
individualize learning even after school hours. Similarly Jaji, M. (2012) the introduction of new
forms of ICTs in to TVET, it enhances and strengthen quality of teaching and learning by
enabling participatory pedagogies and also improving the quality of educational delivery. ICTs in
TVET programs can promote equal opportunities to a greater number of people of all ages
women and girls, persons with disabilities as well as those in rural and remote areas. However
these aforementioned imperatives are further summarized in the figure 2 below.
Fig 2: Imperatives of effective ICT integration in TVET institutions

5. CHALLENGES THAT HINDERS SUCCESSFUL INTEGRATION OF ICT IN
NIGERIAN TVET INSTITUTIONS.
Considering the huge and immense contribution of TVET institutions as factory for production of
needed Technologist, craftsmen and skilled artisan who are required to turn the nations
economy around, However due to the factors affecting successful integration of information and
communication technologies (ICT) in to TVET programmes, Nigerian TVET sector fall below
expectation. According to Adeosun, O. (2010) ICT integration are lacking- human resource
development in terms of skilled teachers to use ICT in teaching and learning processes, as well
as ICT infrastructures. Similarly technical challenges for most institutions to successfully
integrate ICT into learning and teaching in particular, is the high cost of internet bandwidth and
WoCTVET 2014 | 279
it is clear that institutions do not have the technical ICT expertise to produce articulated
strategies for the on-going development of their ICT infrastructure. Richardson, A. M. (2012).
The factors affecting Nigerian Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs) toward ICT
integration in Nigeria which is also part of TVET, include lack of infrastructural facilities,
corruption, cost of implementation, lack of funds, lack of awareness, lack of skills and training,
cultural factors, lack of government policies that support ICT adoption in SMEs, electricity
constraints among others Apulu, I. Latham, A (2009) these aforementioned challenges are
further summarized in figure 3 below. Accordingly, the most common problems associated with
the effective integration of ICT in general educational system in Nigeria are: Lack of qualified ICT
personnel, Cost of equipment, Managements attitudes, Inconsistent electric power supply, Noninclusion of ICT programmes in teachers training curricula (Yusuf, 2005a). However all the
challenges outline above can be tackled in no time if priority is given to TVET sector. Hence the
need for adequate budgetary allocation to ICT in TVET by the government, as such TVET require
additional commitment from management of TVET institutions and stakeholders, policy makers,
curriculum implementers considering the fact that the fast changing world of work never awaits
anybody.
Fig 3: Challenges to successful ICT integration in TVET

6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
It is evident that with the effective integration of ICT in TVET institution, confidence will be
builds in its graduates to depends on their skills and abilities to be able to face the challenges
of this second part of the 21st century, However is obvious that Vocational Technical
education and training alone does not eradicate poverty or provide jobs. But rather Good
government policies fix both. Hence the need for the governments to create an economic
environment that upholds the growth of enterprises and generally arouses the economy.
Thereby additional labour-market demands for technical and vocational training will emerge,
hence new job opportunities are created, thereby more people get employed, and prevalence
of poverty reduces. Indeed to achieve the aforementioned on a sustainable basis, the identified
WoCTVET 2014 | 280
challenges must be tackle and the TVET system must be labour-market relevant, equitable,
efficient, and of high quality.
REFERENCES
1. Adenikinju, 2005, Akpan O, 2007; Ihua, 2009 all in Apulu,I. Latham,A (2009) Information
and Communication Technology Adoption: Challenges for Nigerian SMEs TMC Academic
Journal, 4(2):64-80
2. Adeosu, O. (2010) Quality Basic Education Imperative for Use of ICT CICE Hiroshima
University, Journal of International Education Department of Arts and Social Sciences
Development in Nigeria: Cooperation in Education, Vol.13 No.2 pp.193- 211
3. Aliyu, M. B. (2012) Integrating e-Learning in Technical and Vocational Education: A
Technical Review International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social
Sciences May, Vol. 2, No. 5
4. UNION, 2007 Strategy to Revitalize Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) in Africa Addis Ababa, ETHIOPIA www. africa-union.org
5. Atchoarena, D. Delluc,A. (2002): Revisiting technical and vocational education in SubSahara Africa. IIEP-UNESCO, Paris.
6. Afeti, G. (2013) Technical and Vocational Education and Training for Industrialization,
African research and resource forum (ARRF).
7. Blessing F. Adeoye and Oladiran S. Olabiyi (2011) Basic Technology Textbooks in Nigerian
Secondary Schools: A Quality and Content Analysis CICE Hiroshima University, Journal of
International Cooperation in Education,University of Lagos, Nigeria Vol.14 No.2 pp.153168
8. Bello, H.,Shu'aibu, B., Saud, M. S., Buntat, Y. (2013) ICT Skills for Technical and Vocational
Education Graduates Employability World Applied Sciences Journal 23 (2): 204-207
9. Federal Ministry of Education (2010a) National Policy on Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) in Education, Abuja, MFE
10. Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC
11. Federal Ministry of Science & Technology, (2001). National Policy for Information
Technology http://www.nitda.gov/docs/policy/ngitpolicy.pdf
12. Idris, A. (2010) a strategy for delivering skills training to the door step of Nigerians
National Board for Technical Education (NBTE)
13. JONATHAN,O. C NGOZI,A. ( 2011) effective utilization of information and communication
14. Kwache, P.Z. (2007). The Imperative of Information and Communication technology for
teachers in Nigeria Higher Education, MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching,
3(4), pp39539
15. Malgwi, A. P. Mbah, C. O, (2012) Entrepreneurial prospects in the metal working industry:
A challenge to technical Teacher education in Nigeria. Nigerian journal of Technology
Teacher education Vol. 3 No 1 pp 37-43.
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16. Ministry of education (2008) National Technical & Vocational Education and Training
Strategy
17. Mwiyeria, E. Verma, A. (2011) ICT Competency Framework for Teachers in Nigeria Teacher
18. Development for the 21st Century (TDev21) Pilot A National Commission for Colleges of
Education Nigeria, World Bank and GESCI Initiative
19. Olakulehin, F. K. (2007). Information and communication technologies in teacher training
and professional development in Nigeria, Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education,
8(1) pp 133142
20. Richardson, A. M. (2012) Flexible Skills Development Harnessing appropriate technology to
improve the relevance and responsiveness of TVET lifelong Technical and vocational skills
development for sustainable socioeconomic growth in Africa Association for the
Development of Education in Africa (ADEA)
21. Saud, M. S., Shu'aibu, B., Yahaya, N., Yasin, M. A. (2011). Effective integration of information
and communication technologies (ICTs) in technical and vocational education and training
(TVE) toward knowledge management in the changing world of work. African Journal of
Business Management 5(16): 6668-6673.
22. UNESCO, (2005). Information and Communication Technology in Schools. A Hand Book for
Teachers.
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Analysing the Nigerian national policy for information technology. International Education
Journal, No 6 vol 3 pp 316-32
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ICT Integrations in TVET: is it up to Expectations?

Zurina Yasak1 andMaizam Alias2
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 zurina.yasak@gmail.com, 2 maizam@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
In todays world where information and communication technology is playing a major role in
peoples daily lives, how a student learns is dependent on how the student reacts to the
sophisticated system offered by these technologies. Thus, it is not surprising that online learning
is accepted as an important tool in the general education sector. However its adoption in
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is yet to reach the equivalence of the
general education sector. With the availability of state of the art online learning technology,
there is greater opportunity for acquiring the technology that can support TVET practices. The
aim of this paper is to discuss the trend of ICT integration in teaching and learning in TVET
based on a systematic review of ICT integration in post-secondary TVET. The focus is mainly on
the what and how aspects of ICT integration in TVET. The literature reviewed indicates that
while ICT integration can be aimed at the learning goals in the three domains, the affective,
cognitive and psychomotor domain; its effectiveness is more noted where learning goals are of
the cognitive domains. More effective integration is also indicated where the blended mode is
adopted as compared to the fully ICT mediated mode. Lessons learnt in light of these findings
are discussed for future ICT integration in TVET.
Keywords: ICT Integration in TVET, Online Learning, Instructional Design
1. INTRODUCTION
TVET has evolved from providing well-trained basic operators to providing professional
knowledge workers as suggested by[1];The primary goal of skills training is to provide youth
with practical techniques and skills based on professional knowledge rather than manufacture
well-trained basic operators(p.47).With this aim in mind the demarcation between education
and training or learning and training has become blurred as it should be. Thus within a training
program there are now elements of learning and education and future training programs must
integrate cognitive learning needs - that used to be less emphasized - in addition to the much
emphasized psychomotor training needs. However, demands for hands on skills training is still a
hallmark for TVET.
Reliance on instructors who have occupational skills in addition to theoretical professional
knowledge is high in TVETalthough less so in the general education sector. Having good
facilities, effective administration and willing trainees by themselves cannot achieve a good
TVET program without the skilled instructors to deliver the training. Thus providing skilled
instructors becomes the overriding concern where training program in TVET is concerned.
However, providingadequate number of instructorswho possess the appropriate occupational
skills and professional knowledge for specific area of skills training is not easy as most skilled
professionalsprefer to work in industriesrather than in the education sector. Replacing skilled
instructors is definitely not an option but supporting instructors role with technology couldbe a
WoCTVET 2014
potential solution that can to be looked into. With the availability ofadvanced online learning
technology, high hopes are in place that some of the issues related to lack of skilled instructors
could now be resolved.
Indeed, teaching and learning has been identified as one of the twelve potential areas for ICT
applications in TVET [2] (pg. 14). The paper has also recommended the specific subject matter
content where ICT support has been adopted in general education and its mode of
implementation (full or blended). However, the outcomes of the implementations of ICT in
teaching and learning practices in TVET are yet to be fully explored. Furthermore, ICT
integration requires high investment (installations, maintenance, and technical support and
teacher trainings in specific pedagogy) [3]. Therefore, before we can plan for an effective
integration of ICT on a large scale in TVET, we need to have a good idea of how effective ICT
integration in TVET has been to date and what can be done to improve the current situation.
ICT can be targeted for applications in at least four areas where one of it is for classroom
utilization [4]. However, according to the [3], there is not much empirical evidence on the
effectiveness of ICT for targeted learning outcomes. In their 2013 report on the key issues
related to ICT in education, they report that ICT is mostly used as tools for presentation rather
than the often cited promotion of 21st century skills. Thus, it is of interest to actually see if the
use of ICT in TVET is any different since this report. The relatively limited information on the
current use of ICTs in TVET is making this review more relevant as even publications by
UNESCO are focusing on ICT applications in general education rather than in TVET[5].
In the background note of the [4] one of the key discussion topics is on ICTs in the classroom:
how can ICTs be used to improve learning outcomes? Under this topic several pertinent
questions were raised that continue to be relevant till today. Based on their questions, three
questions were adapted and reproduced here to guide this review:1. How do teachers incorporate ICTs in their teaching? Specifically, what ICT applications
were used? Are they specifically designed or readily available in the market? How were
the ICT applications designed and were HCI and learning theories taken into
considerations in the design of the ICT applications?
2. Does the use of ICTs help to improve the quality of teaching and learning outcomes?
Specifically, what learning domains are being improved (cognitive, affective or
psychomotor domain?) and what is less improved?
3. What can be done to improve the effectiveness of ICT integrations? (i.e. more educational
resources & content, international input, more communications between teachers and
learners, empowering learners & enabling independent study, information sharing etc.)
2. SCOPE
For the purpose of this paper, the term ICT refers to the technology that facilitate users
inaccessing, gathering, manipulating and presenting or communicating informationwhile online
learning refers to learning experience via networking technology. This definition is in line with
that of [6]. Based on these definitions, ICT is mandatory for online learning to be implemented
but ICT integration does not necessarily mean that online learning is actually being
implemented. As to the definition of effectiveness,efforts on online learning or ICT integration in
teaching and learning can be considered to be effective and successful if online learning can be
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provided without sacrificing students performance [7]. At the same time, it can be considered to
be cost-effective if studentscourse outcomes from the online mode (or ICT mediated mode) are
the same as the face-to-face mode [7]. For this paper however, costs-effectiveness of the ICT
integrations in the reviewed studies was not evaluated as many of these studies do not actually
report the cost effectiveness of the ICT integrations and neither do they indicate man hours or
developmental and maintenance cost of systems and application that can be used as measures of
cost-effectiveness.
3. METHODOLOGY
A systematic review was undertaken where 20research publications assessing the effectiveness
of ICT applications in TVET classrooms over the recent yearsfrom 2003 to 2014 were reviewed.
This period is deemed appropriate for the review purpose as publications on e-learning in TVET
has only started to emerge in greater numbers from around 2003[2] (pg 112).The limited
number of publications being reviewed is due to the selection criteria where only studies using
the experimental design method was included in the review. Only publications reporting
experimental design study is taken into account in accordance with the recommendations by
[2]that emphasizes the importance of using experimentation and experience study in assessing
the true value (or effect) of learning technologies (pg 124).
In this review, to answer the first research question, how ICT were used were classified into
mode and learning target. For mode of applications, it was divided into three namely, a) fully
mediated (as in distance learning), b) blended (partially) c) supplementary. Mode is of concern
as a meta-analyses study by the US Department of Education on ICT in education indicate that
mode of instruction does not seem to matter so much [7] while intuition indicates otherwise for
TVET applications. At the same time we were also interested in knowing the type of applications
that were being used, (customized/ available in the market) and the design foundations of these
applications (do they take into account human computer interactions (HCI) and learning
theories/instructional sign theories?
For the target of learning, analysis results was divided into three domains 1) knowledge
(cognitive), 2) attitude(affective) and 3) skills (psychomotor) as defined by [8],[9] and[10].
Further sub-classifications were made of these goals, i.e. supporting goals or main learning
goals. For example, an affective learning outcome can play a supporting goal for a main learning
goal in a psychomotor or cognitive domain or the affective outcome can be the ultimate goal in
itself. Similarly, for the mode of ICT integration, further subdivisions were made for greater
understanding.
To answer the second research question, the learning outcomes of the reported interventions
are identified and discussed. Lastly to answer the third research question, suggestions on
improvements were made based on lessons learnt from the success and failures.
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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Results of the analysis are presented according to the sequence of the research questions.
4.1 How Do Teachers Incorporate ICTs in Their Teaching and What Kind of ICT Applications
Do They Use?
The distribution of research that target specific learning domains when ICT were incorporated is
shown in Figure 1. Details of papers reviewed are shown in Table 1 (in Appendix 1). All of the
20 research publications reviewed were found to be integrating ICT in the teaching and learning
for the cognitive learning goal where ICT integration was aimed at improving subject specific
knowledge and understandings. Typical examples are found in the following publications [11]
[14].
Half of these studies were also focusing on both the cognitive and psychomotor learning goals
i.e., skills specific in the discipline of study [15][22]. Less than 50% of the research reviewed
(43% to be exact) was focusing on both the cognitive and affective learning goals such as those
in the following publications [14], [23][25]. The lower focus on the affective learning goals is
highly surprising as improvement in affective attributes is one of the strengths of
ICT.Furthermore, studies indicate that affects should always be monitored hand in hand with
cognitive or psychomotor teaching and learning practices as affects is highly effective in
promoting and sustaining learning efforts [26]. Lastly, only 24% of the studies reviewed were
focusing on all three domains using e-learning [1], [27][30].
Cognitive + Affective
+ Psychomotor
Cognitive +
Psychomotor
13
Cognitive + Affective
Psychomotor
13
Affective
Cognitive
20
0
10
20
30
Frequency
Figure 4 Distribution of Studies according to Target Learning Outcomes (cognitive, affective and
psychomotor)
With regard to mode, 57% of the studies reviewed indicate that teaching and learning using ICT
was in the fully mediated mode. In these studiesby [1], [11], [12], [15], [18], [20], [21], [24], [28],
[29], the aim was to test if full ICT integration can improve concept learning. In the rest of the
studies, i.e., in [13], [14], [16], [17], [19], [23], [25], [27], [29], the aim was to gain benefits from
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ICT integration in teaching and learning process through partial integration of ICT. One of the
papers reviewed reported the use of ICT on special needs learners. In this case ICT was utilized
to develop skills for overcoming learning difficulties [27].
Where skills training was a primary goal of ICT integration, the courses involved were diverse
such as computer aided drawing (CAD) [1]; footwear design [19], web development [17],
networking [28], plumbing [15], non-destructive testing[20], heat transfer [18] which are all
courses in engineering program. There is also ICT integration for skills development in sports
sciencesuch as the anterior/posterior stability course [21] and motor skill assessment for
physical education and kinesiology teachers[22].
Regarding the type of applications, 5% were readily available applications and 95% were
customized. Only[17] used WebCT (now brought by Blackboard) as the delivery platform.
WebCT is one of the biggest subscriptions of e-learning systems in campus life. WebCT provide
most all features requiredin e-learning[31]. In spite of that, user may not be able to put certain
files which are not supported by the system and to display their material according to their
needs because of the inflexible system.For customized applications,the instructional design
theories do not appear to be considered or simply not being reported.In fact, only one study
mentionsthe theoretical underpinning of their applications i.e., a study by [22] who states that
they use behavioral learning principles in their computer based instruction module.
Out of 20 papers reviewed, only [12], [15], [18] integrate e-learning with virtual experience such
as virtual laboratory while in the other 14 studies (67 %), skills development and performance
were always practiced in a face-to-face mode. Four papers reviewed (14%) were adopting ICT
integration without e-learning due to infrastructure issues. The summary of papers reviewed
according to mode and aim of study can be referred back to Table 1 (Appendix 1).
Design wise, customized design seems to be the norm but learning theories do not appear to be
routinely incorporated into the e-learning or the ICT-based learning applications. Only [22]
study mention what learning theories had been adopted into the design. Most of the papers
(95%) do not seem to be much concern about learning theories in their design. These finding is
similar to[32] where they found only 16% of the papers that they reviewed actually mention
about applying learning theories into their ICT applications design. However, this does not mean
that educators in TVET have ignored the role of learning theories in their design. They may have
used their personal learning theories to develop their system or applications which can be
largely based on their experience as learners or instructors.
4.2 Does The Use of ICTs Help to Improve the Quality of Teaching and Learning Outcomes?
To answer the second research question on effect on ICT integration on learning outcome, the
effect of the reported interventions will be discussed. Discussion will be divided into three types
of decisions on the outcomes of ICT integrations;superior and effective, effective and poorly
effective. Superior effective is when, the outcomes for the ICT group surpassed the comparison
group that do not used ICT; effective is when the ICT group performs equally as the comparison
group that do not use ICT and poorly effective is when the ICT group performs worse than the
comparison group that do not use ICT.
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4.2.1
Superior Effective Outcome
Superior effective outcomes were found in studies that focusing on the learning for the cognitive
and psychomotor domain. In one study, [12] compare the spatial visualization skills of first year
engineering students who learned with and without using handheld touch screen devices. They
found that students in the group with the handheld devices show greater improvement in
average spatial visualization score compared to students without devices.In a previous study by
[18], the lack of virtual laboratory using handheld touch screen devices that delays the video
transfer dataforces them to abandon video element in their applications. However, they still find
superior outcome for the ICT group.
For the learning of the psychomotor domain, a study by [16]found that students who undergo
video-based instruction in block-laying and concreting course have significantly greater
practical skill competence compared to a non ICT group. Similarly, [28] also foundgreater
improvement in skill acquisition towards computer networking courses after ICT mediated
training. [28]suggested that collaboration between peers during the learning session contribute
to the significant finding. Finding from[17] also support the conclusion that ICT integration
enhances participants learning outcomes and satisfaction in collaborative activities with their
instructor and peers.
ICT integrations have also found to be useful in training trainers. [22] study show successful
outcome when pre-service teachers in kinesiology performed better on assessing a motor skill
after using Motor Skill Assessment Program (MSAP) training. MSAP training is a version of
computer-based instruction (CBI) designed based on behavior learning theory equip for adult
learner.
4.2.2
Effective Outcomes
Some studies fail to provide evidence for superiority of online learning or ICT mediated learning
over traditional learning. For example, in [1] the researchers found that there is no
significantdifference between students who learned architectural drawings and designsusingthe
traditional teaching method and students using a multimedia courseware with respect to
professional cognition or skill operation cognition. This indicates that the ICT mediated learning
is as effective in promoting cognition development if not better than the traditional method as suggested by [7]. Thus either method can be used with success depending on the
situations.Interestingly, the ICT group reported greater feeling of satisfaction compared to the
traditional group.This indicates that while ICT mediated learning may not be superior to
traditional learning for cognitive development, ICT mediated learning is superior where learning
of the affective domain is concerned. Improvement in affects can be a motivating factor for self
regulating and self directed learning [1], [23][25], [27].
In another study by [11]on high school TVE students, they found that ICT mediated learning was
equally effective as the traditional method. They found that there was nodifference in students
achievement in knowledge on electronics(cognitive domain) between students who learn using
the interactive educational training software and students who underwentlaboratory work and
lessons in thetraditional way. This study involved aFoundations of Information Technology
course for TVE high school program. Again, this is an example of e-learning for cognitive
development rather than on procedural skills or psychomotor skills training that is often the
trademark of TVET. The outcome indicates that ICT mediated learning is equally effective as
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traditional method of learning for cognitive development purposesbutthe study does not
however indicate that the ICT mediated mode is less or more cost-effective.
Due to its superiority in meeting the affective learning needs, ICT integration into teaching and
learning has been especially indicated where special needs education is concerned. In one study
on TVET students with special needs, the effect of an e-learning environment that was
specifically designed (the SEVERI) to cater to students with a range of physical,
communicational, emotional and cognitive disabilities, which cause learning difficulties in
reading, writing and perceiving skills was evaluated [27]. To cater to the students needs, the
interfaces were designed in larger fonts and clearer format. The findings indicate that most
students show higher motivation, learning skills and achieve greater performance in the
specified assessment. Additional benefits were obtained where teachers work in planning and
organizing teaching and learning sessions became more efficient. The finding indicates that the
special learners in TVET may benefit with the integration of ICT into their learning.
4.2.3
Poorly Effective Outcomes
Although, previous studies indicate positive learning outcomes when the aim of ICT
incorporationis to improve cognitive learning, where skills development is the target, ICT
mediated/e-learning seems to be unhelpful according to the studies reviewed. Among the
thirteen studies that attempt to improve skills[1], [15][22], [27][30], only 31% of the study
actually shows superiority of ICT mediated learning i.e., the study by[12], [16], [17], [22].
In theother studies the mode was fully mediated in some [11], [12], [15], [18], [20], [21], [24]
and blended in others [1], [13], [14], [16], [17], [23], [25], [27]. Other than [12], [16], [17], [22],
ICT integration produce poorer skills compared to traditional method of learning. For example,
in the studyby [21], ICT integration in the form of e-leaning (fully mediated) seems to make
learning worse rather than better, a phenomenon that requires further research to understand
its root cause. [21]attempted to teach the Lachmans test as anterior and posterior stability
course in the sport science programvia the computer-based interactive multimedia program.
The finding indicates that the computer group has psychomotor skill that is significantly worse
than students who were taught via traditional laboratory instruction. This study is an example of
skills training attempt via e-learning. In another study by [23]on English for specific purpose
(ESP) in semi-conductor technology course also show the same result. Similar to the previous
studies, [23] study indicate that adult learner are more satisfied with face-to-face instruction
without courseware even though in distance learning mode.
Over all, the studies seem to indicate that existing ICT mediated or e-learning initiatives is not
effective for developing occupational hands-on skills but quite effective at developing cognitive
and meeting affective learning needs. It also appears that blended mode seems to be better at
improving skills. These factors are highly related to the design aspect of the initiatives.
CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING ICT MEDIATED-LEARNING IN TVET AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the review, designfactors designing the appropriate learning environments that meet
the requirements of the target users - have been identified as key factors in promoting success of
ICT integration namely consideration of target group,consideration of the learning domain and
tools/materials design. The following suggestions that are classified into four categories; target
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group, target learning domain, mode of deliveryand tool/material design are presented to
promote ICT integrations at the classroom level so as to encourage more knowledge sharing and
creations.
4.3 Deciding on the Target Group
Design of ICT should carefully consider the target group in addition to the learning objectives as
introducing ICT into a classroom need special planning to ensure its successful
implementation.Although, it seemsso simple to simply take an available application and
introduce it in the classroom, an inappropriate application may fail for the wrong target group.
For example, most applications are in English and thus a significant target group could be is
English language learner or English speaking learners. A group that does not speak English will
not learn much from English medium applications.
This review indicates that, many learners groups may benefit such as those from the medical,
engineering, science and art disciplines as the courses can be deliveredfrom distant or in house.
Special learners also seem to be a good target group for ICT integrated learning. Advanced ICT
applications on the other hand can give benefit to special learners either physically or mentally.
For example, voice recognition applications are helpful to a visually impaired learner while
pastel colorscan be used to reduce eye strain, headaches due to heavy reading.However, adult
learners seem to favor face to face learning more than ICT mediated learning. Thus, choosing the
target learner is important in ensuring success of ICT mediated learning. What target learners
prefer counts not what administrator or educators prefer.
4.4 Deciding on the Target Learning Domain
Although benefit on cognitive development or psychomotor development is not consistent
depending on mode, course, specific type of ICT, group of learner and time spending, but benefit
on affectivedomain is always consistent. Through all papers review show consistency in
satisfaction in learning[1], [12][14], [23], [33], enjoyment in lab session [14] and management
in teaching and learning become smoothly [24], [27], [34]. Thus, the feel good factor can be
further explored to support learning of the other domains.
Compared to the psychomotor domain, ICT integration seems to be more successful for the
cognitive. However, this finding could be simply due to the quality of the technology being used
in these studies that limits the capability of applications. More high-end technology such as
those used for pilot and surgeon training may produce better outcomes for psychomotor skills
development. Nonetheless in such cases, we have to really consider the cost-effectiveness of the
integrations.
Overall, it can be said that ICT integrations is highly supportive of the affective learning needs
which should be exploited further to facilitate cognitive and psychomotor skills development so
that ICT integration can really be beneficial for TVET.
4.5 Deciding on Integration Mode
ICT integration in teaching and learning session, either blended or full mediation, is not really
critical asindicated by this review although blended mode seems to dominate many
implementations. All modes,be it fully blended, partially blended or supplementary seems to
have its benefits and weaknesses depending on the combination of goals of integration
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(knowledge or skills) and design of implementations. This is supported by the finding from the
US Department of Education on ICT indicate that blended or purely online are not superior from
one other [7]. What seems to be important is that ICT is being used effectively meets the needs
of learners and objectives - in teaching and learning session with synchronous and
asynchronous activities and participations from all sides, instructors and students. Thus, rather
than being overly anxious to have a fully mediated mode or blended mode, use the mode that is
feasible, encourage active participations of all concerns and meet the learning needs of students.
4.6 Tool/Material Design
Irrespective of the type of applications, customized or market available; human-computer
interaction (HCI) considerations and instructional design (ID) should guide the design of the
applications to get the desired learning outcomes. HCI and ID knowledge must be carefully
incorporatedin addition to theknowledge gained form learning theories, principles to achieve
the overriding goals of technology integrations in the classroom. Thus, designing ICT
applications and integrations is dependent on innovativeness of TVET teachers while
innovativeness is closely related to ICT competence and pedagogical competence [35].
Innovative teachers are commonly associatedwith whohas adesireto innovate
inteachingandlearningsession. Success of e-learning is dependent on how user interacts with the
system. Interaction may increase with anappropriate design of the system. Thus, e-learning or
ICT integration should embrace information design, interaction design and interface or
presentation design [36].
5. CONCLUSION
This limited systematic review attempts to seek better knowledge on the status of ICT
applications in the classroom in TVET. The limited study indicates that ICT is indeed being
integrated in the TVET classrooms across disciplines as well as for diverse learners. Spectrum of
applications include fully mediated, partially mediated and supplementary while the target
learning outcomes were mostly cognitive in nature with very limited efforts at psychomotor
skills development. In most cases, affective learning needs seems to be of concern to educators
as they should be.ICT integrations in general has been shown to be relatively moreeffective for
promoting learning of the cognitive domain and meeting the affective learning needs of learners
but less so for promoting psychomotorskills development. Customized and market available
applications seem to be equally favored by implementers. Highly obvious though, most
applications do not seem to have clear instructional design principles influencing their designs.
Thus in general, we have high expectations that are yet to be realized. Future concerns on ICT
integration efforts should focus more on selecting the appropriate multimedia framework,
guiding learning theories and instructional design, ICT tools for teaching and learning in TVET to
ensure effective integration of ICT becomes a reality.
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TRACK 4
ASSESSMENT AND
EVALUATION
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Assessment Issue on Work-Based Learning (WBL) Programme for

Diploma Students in Malaysia: A Case Study.
Wazli Watisin1*, Mohamad Hisyam Mohd. Hashim2
Faculty of Technique and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 loq_wazli@yahoo.com.my, 2 mhisyam@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Work-based learning (WBL) is a learning method which requires students to acquire both
theoretical and practical knowledge for a year in the industry related to their field of study.
Hence, the employers are not only responsible for teaching, but are also responsible for
assessing the students in the different industries. However, there is a problem of an inconsistent
assessment process, in which it requires both the employers and the lecturers to evaluate the
students. This issue arises because different employers use different assessment or evaluation
methods. Hence, there is inconsistency in assessing the students. In addressing this
inconsistency, this study aims to explore the existing problems in the use of assessment method
in WBL implementation by conducting a case study that employs qualitative research. The data
were obtained from interview, observation and document analysis. The study was conducted in
Kolej Komuniti Bukit Beruang and two industries involved with WBL in Melaka. The snowball
technique was adopted in the research sampling, in which the later participants are suggested
by earlier participants. In addition, the researcher becomes the main instrument in this study,
and a computer software program named Nvivo is used to assist in data analysis. The findings
show that the lecturers in Kolej Komuniti and the teaching staff members in industries did not
have a good collaboration in agreeing on a standard assessment process for the WBL students
Keywords: Assessment Process; Kolej Komuniti; Work-Based Learning (Wbl).
1. INTRODUCTION
The WBL programme is still considered a new learning method in Malaysia, compared with
developed countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom. In the United States, the
WBL system has been implemented since hundred years ago. However, in Malaysia, the WBL
programme has only started in early 2007 [1]. The Politeknik and Kolej Komuniti have become
the pioneers for this programme. In February 2007, a total of eleven Kolej Komuniti have
implemented the WBL programme. However, in June 2010, the WBL programme was shifted to
be implemented in Politeknik, due to several problems encountered in Kolej Komuniti. One of
the problems was the assessment method for WBL students in different industries. Therefore,
the programme was transferred to Politeknik as one of the transformation processes of national
education, which focuses on technical education and vocational field. According to Malaysias
Education Minister, Tan Sri Muhiydin Yassin [2], technical education and vocational skills are
important to be enhanced to meet the countrys need for skilled manpower to achieve the status
of a developed nation. Due to this importance, the previous failure of WBL implementation in
Community College serves as an example and reference point for further analysis and study. The
purpose is to identify the weaknesses of the WBL implementation and lessons that can be drawn
for future implementation.
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WBL is a learning method which gives a lot of experience to the students and provides them with
opportunities to participate in the real-life working environment in the different industries. On
the other hand, Seagraves et al. [3] classifies WBL as learning which connects job sector
requirement, learning work, learning at the workplace and learning through work. David
Johnson [4] describes WBL as learning through work with employer supervision.
These definitions of WBL by Seagraves et al. [3] and David Johnson [4] prove that the WBL
system is a learning method which aims to provide students with hands-on experience of
working in the different industries. This learning process involves students working under
supervision and being evaluated by employers. The assessment from the employers is
meaningful to the students participating in the WBL programme. This is because it involves WBL
graduate quality. For example, the low assessment marks of certain criteria will cause WBL
graduate quality to be questioned.
In addition, Wazli [5] claims that WBL actually is a learning method that can produce students
with high workability value if learning process is carried out using the right procedures. Wazli
[5] also explained WBL as a learning method which needs high level of commitment and
involvement of several parties; for example, educational institutions, the government and
industry players. These statements show the benefits of WBL for producing high quality
graduates. Thus, the WBL programme implementation in Malaysia is studied, especially to find
solutions to the crisis which occurred in the WBL programme.
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study was carried out for a year and six months in Kolej Komuniti Bukit Beruang, Malacca
and two private companies were involved in this WBL collaboration. This study involved a
researcher as a major instrument, which has been proven by several qualitative researchers; for
example, [6;7;8;9;10]. These researchers agreed that the researcher is the major instrument in
data collection and data analysis for qualitative research. This is because the researcher is fully
involved to obtain the data and analyses them to ensure the research aims are met. Moreover,
the participants are chosen among individuals who are directly involved in the WBL programme.
There were six participants involved in this study. These participants consist of two lecturers,
two employers and two WBL students. Three qualitative data collection methods were used in
this study, namely interview, observation and document analysis.
3.1 Interview Method
The qualitative data collection methods used in this study were interview, observation and
document analysis. The interview method was the main data collection instrument, in line with
the study of Merriam [7] that mentions interview is a major method of data collection in
qualitative research to obtain descriptive data. Meanwhile, Cohen and Manion [11] claim that
interview is an important data collection method in social studies. In addition, Bogdan and
Biklen [12] state that the interview method is the best among other data collection methods for
qualitative research. In this study, interview has been chosen as the first stage of qualitative data
collection method.
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Thereafter, the researcher used unstructured interview in this study. Unstructured interview
refers to the interview method in which the researcher depends on response from participants
according to the current situation. Besides that, tape recorder was used by the researcher to
record the interview sessions. A note book was also used to record the interview notes
immediately after the interview sessions were completed. According to Patton [10], a qualitative
researcher can record a lot of interview notes once the interview session is completed. This is
important to ensure the information obtained during the interview session is recorded
accurately as the researcher notes it down in writing. Moreover, the researcher transcribed the
data obtained from the tape recorder into verbatim. Thereafter, the data was analysed by using a
computer software program called NVivo, which employs content analysis technique.
3.2 Observation Method
Observation was chosen as the second stage of qualitative data collection method. Before
conducting the observation, the researcher made several lists of subject matter to be observed
and determined the approaches used to record the observation. This is based on the suggestion
by Bogdan and Biklen [12] that the researcher sets out the subject matter to be observed and the
approach used to record the observation.
In this study, two approaches were chosen to record the observation of assessment problem
among WBL students; they are note writing and picture recording. This is in line with [6;7;8]
who share the same opinion that observation approaches to record the observation depend on
the researchers creativity; it could be using audiovisual recording, picture recording, note
writing, or using all of them together. The researcher used only note writing and picture
recording. The audiovisual recording was not used because it might disturb the naturalistic
atmosphere in the different industries. This is important to avoid interference from occurring
during the observation. This is because in qualitative research, data collection should be
conducted in a naturalistic atmosphere. In this study, the observation is geared towards WBL
assessment of the students. Apart from that, the researcher observed the WBL assessment
results among the employers in different industries. It aims to investigate the consistency of
employers assessment of the WBL students. Consequently, the observation was carried out
twice in a month to ensure teaching and learning process ran smoothly in a naturalistic
atmosphere.
3.3 Document Analysis
The third stage in qualitative data collection method was document analysis. The researcher
analysed the data obtained immediately after the data collection was completed. Some analyses
were carried out simultaneously with data collection; according to Bogdan and Biklen [12] and
Merriam [7], data analysis can be done simultaneously with data collection. Furthermore,
according to Othman Lebar [6], almost all of the qualitative studies involve transcription work
for interview data, picture capturing, video recording and audio recording. In this study, the
researcher analysed the supporting documents obtained during the interview and observation
in Kolej Komuniti and industries.
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4. DATA ANALYSIS
The qualitative data analysis began with the transcription of the data obtained from the recorder
into verbatim. Thereafter, the data were arranged according to the subject or matter being
studied. Merriam [7] suggests the researcher perform data isolation on data obtained, in which
the irrelevant data can be separated. These data were arranged according to themes, and were
divided into several categories and sub-categories; this step was carried out with the help of a
computer software program known as Nvivo. Participants were assigned nicknames by the
researcher to maintain participants confidentiality. This is supported by Max Travers [8] who
highlighted the confidentiality of the participants as a key concern in qualitative research. Hence,
the researcher coded several data in every type of data. According to Othman Lebar [6], the
codification process enables the researcher to identify the data type, data source and number of
the pages, in which the data are obtained; for example in transcription page. The researcher
used alphabetical abbreviation codes to identify the participants. This method is part of the code
of ethics in qualitative research to ensure the confidentiality of the participants was kept.
Furthermore, after the analysis was done, some issues were identified. The data obtained were
separated according to themes. In this stage, the researcher conducted data isolation process by
using NVIVO. After the isolation process, the codification was done, and the data were analysed
formally.
5. FINDINGS
The findings show that the assessment process involved two methods, namely monitoring and
formal evaluation, which were conducted by of the lecturers in Kolej Komuniti Bukit Beruang
and teaching staff members in industries. Monitoring method aims to ensure teaching and
learning process ran smoothly. It was done twice in a month. This is important to ensure the
lecturer and the teaching staff members in the industry discuss the WBL programme with the
students. Moreover, the problems that arose in the WBL programme were discussed to find their
solutions. Besides that, the students were also evaluated on a regular basis by the lecturer and
the teaching staff members based on their assignments.
According to the findings, a formal assessment process was carried out using the following three
methods: 1) written test from lecturers, 2) written test from the teaching staff members or
employers in industries, and 3) joint assessment between lecturers and the teaching staff
members or employers in the case of practical assessment. These evaluation methods will
determine the students results for their work in the industry. According to Abdul Rahim et al.
(2007), the written tests and practical assessment in WBL in Kolej Komuniti need to be
evaluated by the lecturers and the teaching staff members or employers.
Therefore, the assessment process requires cooperation between lecturers and the teaching staff
members. This needs to be highlighted as the findings show that the critical problem faced in the
WBL implementation is concerned with the assessment process; the lecturers and the teaching
staff members failed to cooperate with each other, as shown in Fig. 1. This is because both
parties have different work schedules and it is difficult to complete the assessment together. The
findings show that this problem resulted in the lecturers absence in the industry. Moreover, the
employers have to prepare written tests for the students. This task is a burden on the employers,
which can negatively affect the assessment process. As a result, the employer may not be
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interested in the WBL programme, which led to the failure of the WBL programme in Kolej
Komuniti.
6. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
The assessment of WBL programmes among the students has been evaluated in two evaluation
stages: first, the current assessment in institutions; and second, during students working period
in the industry. The findings reveal no critical problem in the first stage of evaluation. However,
there are critical problems in the assessment process in the second stage of evaluation. The
findings show that the lecturers in Kolej Komuniti and the teaching staff members or employers
in industries are not cooperating with each other to make the WBL programmes a success. In
other words, the failure of the WBL programme is because a win-win situation was not created
from the beginning by both parties. Therefore, there was no incentive or advantage offered to
Kolej Komuniti or other educational institutions, while the industry was not prepared to do
work for free. In fact, the employers in the industries were not satisfied with the WBL
programme because they had to accept any instructions from the Kolej Komuniti in an unofficial
manner. Moreover, the instructions were usually given by the coordinators of Kolej Komuniti,
and the instructions kept changing. This phenomenon led to the failure of the WBL programme
as employers in industries lost confidence and were not willing to cooperate. In fact, the WBL
students were not recognised by the employers in industries.
In a nutshell, the real problem exists in assessment process of the WBL programme for the
students due to poor cooperation between the lecturers in Kolej Komuniti and the employers in
industries. This situation led to the failure of the WBL programme implementation in Kolej
Komuniti. Although the WBL programme has been terminated in Kolej Komuniti due to various
problems faced in its implementation, the study on the factors which led to failure of the WBL
programme is important for future reference. The WBL programme was implemented in
Politeknik in 2010. It is hoped that the mistakes made in the previous WBL programme
implemention in Kolej Komuniti will not be repeated in Politeknik. Hence, a study on the twoway relationship or cooperation between the lecturers in Kolej Komuniti and the employers in
industries can be a topic for future research. This is because the two-way relationship of both
parties is important to ensure the WBL programme is successfully implemented in educational
institutions.
Fig 1. WBL Assessment Process towards Students in Kolej Komuniti.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is under scholarship of the University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia and the authors
would like to thank the relevant parties that have directly or indirectly contributed to the
success of this study. Furthermore, the authors wish to express their gratitude to the anonymous
referees for their helpful comments and numerous suggestions to improve the paper.
REFERENCES
1. Abdul Rahim, Mohamad Asri dan Anuar (2007), community college education through
collaborative Engagement and partnerships with industries-work based learning project.
Paper work. 2007.
2. Muhyiddin Yassin (2012).Transformasi Pendidikan Teknik dan Vokasional. Berita Harian, 7
Januari 2012.
3. Seagraves, L., Osbourne, M., Neal, P., Dockrell, R., Hartshorn, C., & Boyd, A. (1996). Learning
in smaller companies. Final Report, Educational Policy and Development, Stirling, UK.
4. David Johnson (Nov 2001). Innovation in Education and Teaching International. ProQuest
Education Journals.
5. Wazli Watisin (2011). Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran Berasaskan Kerja di Kolej Komuniti Bukit
Beruang Melaka. Tesis Master: UTHM
6. Othman Lebar (2006). Penyelidikan Kualitatif: Pengenalan Kepada Teori dan Method.
Tanjung Malim: UPSI
7. Merriam, S.B. (2001). Qualitative Research and case Study Application in Education:
Revised and Expanded from Case Study Research in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
8. Max Travers (2001). Qualitative Research Through Case Studies. Sage Publication : London.
Thousand Oaks . New Dehli.
9. David Silverman, (1997). Qualitative Research: Theory, Method and Practice. London,
Thousand Oaks and New Delhi : Sage.
10. Patton, Q.M. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. (2nd.ed). Thousand
Oaks, Calif: Sage.
11. Cohen, L., & Manion, L. (1989). Research Method in Education. (3rd.ed). London: Routledge.
12. Bogdan, R.C., dan Biklen, S.K. (1998). Qualitative Research in Education: An Introductory to
theory and method. (3rd.ed). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
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Assessment For Learning: Practice in TVET

Marina Ibrahim Mukhtar1, Jamil Ahmad2.
1Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) 2Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)
1 marina@uthm.edu.my*, 2 jamil3191@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Assessment for learning (AFL) is important in education and it is one aspect of the process in
competency assessment. The implementation of the Competency Based Assessment (CBA) in
vocational schools requires teachers to practice assessment for learning. The purpose of the
study was to investigate the practice of assessment for learning (AFL) among vocational
teachers and to identify the factors that led to such practice. This paper presents the findings
obtained from 554 teachers in 20 Vocational schools found in Peninsular Malaysia and describes
the experiences of students who used portfolios to promote AFL. The data were generated using
questionnaire and interviews. The study revealed that a majority of vocational teachers did
practice AFL. Besides, the teachers also shared all the challenges faced during the
implementation of the AFL. Multiple regression analysis of the data showed that among the four
factors listed, the influence of attitude was a significant predictor for this practice. Furthermore,
focus must be directed towards the attitudes among the teachers as far as the practice of the
assessment is concerned, so that the required shift that is needed to produce excellent human
capital is sustained.
Keywords: Assessment for learning, TVET, Competency Based Assessment, Portfolio
1. INTRODUCTION
The Malaysian Ministry of Education has introduced a method of assessment called the
Competency Based Education (CBE) by using a Modular System. Since vocational education has
been introduced in Malaysia, linear assessments have been carried out to evaluate the
achievements of students and since 2006, the students who choose to embark on vocational
education in secondary schools have been evaluated based on CBE and the curriculum is
designed with a Modular System [1]. Table 1 shows the differences between conventional
assessment and competency-based assessment.
The modular approach in this sense requires a competency-based assessment. Competency
assessment is an accepted evaluation method that suits the present learning theories [2]. One of
the tools of competency assessment is portfolios. Portfolios have been used for evidence
gathering and assessment in other parts of the world since the introduction of Competency
Based Assessment (CBA). A portfolio approach to evidence collection involves the collection of a
variety of evidence of competence into a structured format for assessment. Evidence is collected
by the learner (usually into a file), indexed, and mapped to the performance criteria, ranging in
statements, critical evidence, and underpinning knowledge of the qualification [3].
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Table 1: The Differences between Conventional Assessment & CBA

Conventional Assessment
Competency-Based Assessment
(1986-2005)
(2006 until now)
Comprehensive/overall assessment
Assessment based on each unit of the module of

the subject
Using Portfolio
Norm-referenced test
Criteria on-referenced test
System Centred
Student Centred
Non-flexible
Flexible
Assessment of Learning (to assess the Assessment For Learning (to assess students
students at the end of the lesson)
continuously to enhance learning)
SPMV
SPM and Modular Certificate
SPMV - Graded
SPM - Graded
Modular Certificate - Competent /
Not Competent
Source: Technical & Vocational Curriculum Development Department (2007), and Examination
Board, Malaysian Ministry of Education (2008)
2. ASSESSMENT PRACTICE IN TVET
Assessment usually has more than one purpose and many interested parties. Assessment
provides information that can help improve students learning and help teachers in teaching. [4]
defines the role of assessment in a similar way, but with an emphasis on students reaching their
potential: The role of classroom assessment is to improve students learning and teachers
teaching in order to ensure that students reach their individual potential (p. 136). Teachers,
therefore, generally understand that assessment is integral to teaching. It has been believed that
assessment is linked to the teacher-student relationship and occurs within this relationship.
The vocational education and training have experienced a change in the emphasis from
curriculum content to outcomes or competencies. There is a general agreement that at a
minimum, competency assessment should clearly define the purpose of the assessment; use
appropriate methods to gather evidence of competence; interpret the evidence against the
competency standards; make a judgment to infer competence; and record and report the
outcomes of the assessment to key stakeholders [5]. Within each step in this assessment and
reporting process, evidence is a crucial element. The central importance of evidence is portrayed
in the following flow chart (Figure 1).
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Figure 1: The assessment and Reporting Process: The Importance of Evidence.

The flow chart illustrates the central position that evidence has within the assessment and
reporting process. The purpose of the assessment and the stakeholders identified in the
reporting requirements will define the type of evidence that needs to be collected, which, in turn,
influences how assessors use and interpret the information to make judgment.
2.1 The assessment for learning concept
AFL can be broadly defined as practices that emphasize more formative dimensions of
assessment, tighter connections between learning outcomes and teaching activities, greater
student involvement in self-assessment, increasing student independence and enhanced teacher
responsibility for ensuring all students learn. Furthermore, AFL also involves the process of
seeking and interpreting evidence for use by students and their teachers to decide where the students
are in their learning, where they need to go and how best to get there[6,7].
Assessment for learning helps teachers to identify students level of achievement. Teachers
would be able to evaluate students immediately as students demonstrate their knowledge and
skills during the assessment process. According to [6], assessment for learning provides
teachers with the opportunity to evaluate how well the students have learnt and how effective
were the teaching methods. As such, teachers should possess as much knowledge as possible,
especially pertaining to the concept and the implementation policy. According to [8], teachers
should be able to integrate assessment and teaching to make the teaching process more
interesting and to enhance the students learning outcome. A teacher who is knowledgeable
about the assessment would internalize a belief in the system. They would subsequently display
positive attitude and would be willing to implement the concept.
Besides, assessment for Learning is the process to give students the opportunity learnt and
inform the students of their progress to empower them to take the necessary action to
improve their performance. Teachers need to create and provide opportunities for all
students in which students can progress at their own pace and perform strengthening
activities where necessary. In recent findings revealed, it has been noted that AFL
strategies should be implemented in a way that quality feedback given to students based
on the ability of individual students to refer to the standard criteria rather than student
achievement. Hence, AFL strategies should be implemented in such a way that quality feedback
is provided to learners based on, for example, an interim assessment decision, which will help to
challenge the more able learner to reach new levels of achievement and, in doing so, reach their
full potential. The individuality of feedback, by its very nature, has the facility to support weaker
learners and challenge more able learners [9].
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3. METHODOLOGY
The samples of the study were based on the random selection of teachers who were directly
involved in CBA. A total of 554 Vocational teachers from 20 Vocational schools in Peninsular
Malaysia was chosen as the samples for this study. Descriptive and inferential data were
analysed using SPSS Version 20.0. Meanwhile, the data retrieved from interviews were managed
using ATLAS t.i.
4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The total number of respondents (Teachers) was 554. There were 334 male respondents
(60.3%) and 220 of them were female (39.7%). The total number of Malay vocational teachers
was 523 (94.4%), Chinese 11 (2%), Indian 2 (0.4%), and others 18 (3.2%). The respondents
were between 26 and 55 years old. The focus group participants involved 20 students (Form 5)
from a vocational school.
4.1 Teachers practice Assessment for Learning (AFL)
The descriptive results are shown in Table 2. Overall, the vocational teachers practiced AFL through
the assessment process through the implementation of CBA. The teachers used mastery learning,
conducted training and learning with reference to students abilities, considered students prior
learning to support learning progress, and provided opportunities for students to use equipment to
complete their tasks.
The implementation of CBA is very concerned about the continued assessment of the individual
student. The teacher assessed the students during the teaching and learning process. The teachers
conducted assessments when the students were ready to be assessed and focused on individual
assessment (mean = 4.13). There were two types of evidence: evident product, and evident process.
During CBA, the teachers identified and collected various evidence that was relevant to the criteria
(mean = 4.14), got the evidence processed by observing, and kept the evidence product for scoring.
The teachers also had evidence process, while the students performed tasks and evidence product as
the students completed their assignments.
The teachers also allowed the students who were competent in a module to perform the next task, and
as for the students who were incompetent, they repeated the activities until they achieved competency
(mean = 4:20). The teachers also constantly provided feedback on the students achievement during
the learning process (mean = 4:31). This good practice needs to be highlighted by the teacher in the
assessment process because it can improve the quality of student learning during the learning process.
Table 2: Descriptive Analysis (Assessment Process)
No
9.1
9.2
9.3
Item
Teachers
have been using mastery-learning
approach.
conduct training by referring to the
students abilities through individual
activity.
conduct learning by referring to
students abilities through individual
activity.
Mean
SD
3.78
0.87
6
0.78
5
3.97
3.97
0.76
3
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9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
conduct learning by referring to

students abilities through group
activity.
consider students prior learning to
support learning progress.
provide opportunities for students to
use equipment to complete task.
have
been
using
formative
assessment approach to improve
students learning.
conduct assessments of cognitive
achievement in early learning.
conduct assessment of psychomotor
conduct assessments of affective
conduct assessments based on the
contents of a module.
conduct
continuous
assessment
throughout the learning process of a
module.
conduct assessments when students are
ready to be assessed.
conduct assessments that focus on
individual assessments.
collect various evidence that is
relevant to criteria.
demonstrate the standard criteria that
must be achieved by students.
3.98
0.79
6
4.05
0.69
9
0.71
3
0.70
9
allow students who have been

competent to continue to the next task.
collect various evident that can reflect
students performance.
allow incompetent students to repeat
until they achieve competency..
provide effective feedback on
assessment decisions so that learners
know how to improve.
4.16
4.20
4.10
3.90
3.88
3.92
4.22
4.17
4.13
4.21
4.14
4.12
4.17
4.20
4.31
0.86
3
0.88
4
0.79
8
0.67
0
0.75
4
0.80
4
0.75
5
0.74
0
0.71
5
0.83
5
0.77
4
0.80
3
0.74
8
The result showed that the teachers practiced AFL effectively with the interpretation of a high mean
(mean = 3.7 to 4.31) during the implementation of CBA in the secondary vocational schools.
Besides, the current findings are consistent with [10], as the teachers and the administrators
claimed that the Competency Assessment among the vocational teachers (Agriculture) had been
effectively implemented, as required by the curriculum. Furthermore, the results from the
interview with the teachers and the administrators found that the assessments had been
performed very well by the students and they were able to assess the level of students
competency, especially the students who participated in the implementation of practical work
during the teaching and learning process.
4.2 Factors that iInfluenced the Practice of Assessment for Learning (AFL)
Stepwise regression analysis was used to identify the influences of knowledge, skill, training, and
attitudes to AFL practice. Table 2 shows that attitude contributed 23.1% (Beta = 0.398, t = 9675,
sig = 0.000, and R2 = 0231), while infrastructure contributed 3.5% (Beta = 0.178, t = 4611, sig =
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0.000, and R2 = 0.266), and teachers knowledge contributed 0.7% (Beta = 0.089, t = 2.151, sig =
0.032, and R2 = 0273).
The results indicated that the dimensions of the influence of attitude, infrastructure, and
teachers' knowledge had been significant variance predictors for AFL. This illustrates that the
most significant factor had been the teachers attitude that influenced AFL.
Table 2: Multiple Regression Analysis
Variables
Attitude
infrastructure
Knowledge
Constant
0.063
0.197
0.008
1.310
Std.
Error
0.007
0.043
0.004
0.208
Beta
Sig.
R2
(%)
0.398
0.178
0.089
9.675
4.611
2.151
6.312
0.000
0.000
0.032
0.000
0.231
0.266
0.273
23.1
3.5
0.7
Hence, the results from this study indicated that in general, the teachers' attitudes influenced the
practice of AFL. In addition, [4] suggested that teachers attitude and willingness to implement
School Based Assessment (SBA) are unpredictable despite having the necessary beliefs. A lot of
time and effort would be required in order to see positive changes in teachers attitude and
willingness to implement holistic assessment. The findings are consistent with [11] as the
Pearson Correlation showed that there is a relationship between interest and attitudes towards
mathematics teaching experience for Year One. This study was carried out to identify that
aspects of teachers readiness, interest, attitude, and mastery of knowledge and skills in implementing
the Primary School Curriculum Standard (KSSR).
4.3 Students Experience using Portfolios to Promote AFL
On the other hand, the students commented that the use of portfolio in their learning had been
consistently positive. They liked the fact that portfolio let them know their strengths and
weaknesses. In fact, the most commonly cited advantage of portfolios was to help students get
involved in the evaluation of their own learning.
From the focus group interview, based on students experience, the majority of the students
positively enjoyed keeping portfolio, felt motivated to learn, and felt more independent. The students
also noted that with portfolio works, they had better relationship with their teachers and friends.
They also realised their responsibility for their own learning and they contributed actively in
their learning. They liked the fact that the portfolio let them know the direction when they
were able to assess themselves with their own works, they were able to follow their academic
growth, and they were able to accurately explain their strengths and weaknesses. However, there
was a similar point of view as most of the students mentioned that it took too much of their time to
prepare the portfolio.
Some students admitted that it took too much time to prepare the portfolio. They expressed,
Sometimes I felt that I needed more time to prepare the materials and the contents for the
portfolio. Shortly, they expressed that the use of portfolio was prominent in learning, but it was
time consuming. Hence, due to time constraint, honestly, they shared their work with each other.
This is the weakest part of the student assessment process. Students also indirectly mentioned that
the use of portfolio during assessment process could provide some advantages to promote AFL:
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1.6.1
Checking their Work
Not surprisingly, the students reported doing a lot of informal self-assessment in compiling the
portfolio:
I realised my responsibilities for my own learning because I was able to self-assess my own
work. More surprisingly, the students claimed that they would act on their informal selfassessment by revising: If I assess in that way, I can find my own weaknesses and if I dont do
that well, I will try and correct it. Its like getting another chance. In other words, portfolio
preparation procedures helped students to attain a level whereby they can easily assess their
own progress of learning.
1.6.2
Better, and Fairer Grades
On top of that, the students claimed that portfolio made you do better. One of the students said,
It was our own fault if we didnt get good grades because the teachers have already told us what
they wanted to see. The students also agreed that portfolio represented a fair grade: When I
receive a grade, it tells exactly what I need or what I lack in.
Another strategy used by the researcher to encourage students reflection by enquiring the
feedback or comments related to the given grades led the students to talk about their work and
their potential to earn higher grades. Some of them suggested withholding the grades altogether
until they have read the comments [12].
According to [13] on the impact of feedback, feedback has the potential to provide a significant
effect on students learning achievement. However, this potential is strongly related to the
quality of the feedback and, unsurprisingly, [13] note that the most improvement in student
learning takes place when students got information feedback about a task and how to do it
more effectively, and this is clearly related to the learning goals (p.84).
In contrast, the impact of feedback on learning achievement is low when feedback is focused on
praise, rewards, and punishment. Besides, [12] also assert that feedback is more effective
when it addresses achievable goals and when it does not carry high threats to self-esteem
(p.86).
1.6.3
Improve in Quality of Work
One of the students felt that having portfolio offered him an opportunity to make sure that they
had more quality work to turn in: I think my project has improved a lot better when the
teachers tell me that I have to improve the quality of my product. Most surprisingly, the student
felt that they received instant feedback from their teachers and friends to correct their mistakes:
When preparing portfolio, I had the chance to correct and improve my work with my teachers
and my friends. That showed that the students attributed the improvement in their work to
knowing what was counted as high quality for assignments or projects.
[14] Further distinguishes these related terms about feedback in Peer Assessment (PA),
whereby members of a class grade the work or performance of their peers using relevant
criteria, as students engage in reective criticism of the work or performance of other students
using previously identied criteria, and supply feedback to them. PA also promotes students to
learn with and from each other, normally within the same class or cohort (pp. 23).
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The advantages from the PA promote students to develop high levels of responsibility and to
focus on learning itself. PA also provides the learners a context where they can observe the role
of their teachers and understand the nature of assessment [15,16].
1.6.4
The Biggest Challenge to Implement AFL
During the implementation of competency assessment, most of the teachers complained of

problems related to students attendance, lack of training, time constraint, heavy workload, and the
poor facilities of workshop. The teachers expressed that, "The presence of students-Students who
do not attend school will complicate the process of learning and assessment". "There is a systematic &
'paper work', for example, assessment forms should be filled & the assessment process becomes
ineffective if students often play truant, and they had to complete the teacher assessment module
within a very short time."
[17] point towards the excessive workload issue. In addition, many teachers who are currently
teaching Agricultural ILS in schools nationwide are non-agriculture option teachers. [18], who
looked into the teachers practices in conducting SBA in a number of subjects, including ESL
teachers at the lower secondary level, revealed similar findings.
Despite many recommendations on issues related to excessive workload and non-option
teachers, they are long overdue and are unresolved. It may be contributed by adverse emotions
caused by heavy workload, especially as teachers are also required to perform clerical tasks,
such as processing students marks, storing evidence and products, and producing certifications.
5. CONCLUSION
Assessment is seen positively as a support of student learning, and in assisting the students to
bridge the gap between their current achievement and their expected goal. AFL recognizes the
influence that assessment has on motivation and self-esteem of students, and provides them
with constructive feedback. Besides, AFL encourages active involvement of students in their
learning and it depends on the teachers diagnostic skills to make it work.
This practice is indeed important to the Vocational Education Transformation (VET) Program,
which supports the national economic transformation agenda in churning out skilled and
trained manpower. Actions should be taken to provide a new assessment that emphasizes on
mastering knowledge, building intellectual capital, nurturing a culture of progressive attitude,
and encouraging the practice of high virtues, ethics, and moral values.
In this context, AFL had been found to be capable of evaluating students cognitive (intellectual),
affective (emotional and mental), and psychomotor (physical) abilities, in line with the
requirements of the National Education Philosophy. The students are no longer evaluated at the
end of the year or at the end of a lesson. Instead, they are evaluated throughout the learning
process. AFL practices in TVET contribute strongly to giving pupils a framework that empowers
them to take charge of their learning, emphasizing that everyone has the potential to succeed,
and encourage pupils to accept responsibility for their own development.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper was sponsored by the Centre of Excellence for Technical and Vocational Education
(ACTIVE), Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
(UTHM).
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Students Psychosocial Perception of Automobile Technology

Learning Environment and Attitudinal Outcomes in North-Eastern
Tertiary Institutions of Nigeria
Ismaila Y. Shehu1*, Joseph D. Enemali1, Muhammad H. Muhammad1 , Mohd Safarin Nordin2
1Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria 2Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
1ismailys2003@yahoo.com, 2josephenema68@gmail.com, 3mmhamisu308@yahoo.com,
4safarin.utm.@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Students perception of their learning environment is a crucial factor in improving quality of
learning. Several researches revealed students perception of the learning environment has a
significant impact on the students academic performance and attitude. This study investigated
relationships between students perceptions of automobile technology learning environments
and their attitude towards automobile technology in north-eastern tertiary institutions of
Nigeria. The research design of the study was a correlational survey design and the sample
comprised 474 students offering automobile technology as a course in the institutions. The data
were collected using ATLEI and ATAQ and these were analyzed using descriptive statistics,
simple correlation, multiple correlation and regression analysis. The findings revealed that the
automobile technology learning environments remain traditional and students anxietydominated the learning environment in the north-eastern tertiary institutions of Nigeria. It was
recommended that lecturers in the institutions of learning should be sensitized on the
importance of students perception of learning environment and enhanced student-student and
student-lecturer relationships in their institutions.
Keywords: Perception; Psychosocial; Learning Environment; Attitude, Automobile Technology
1. INTRODUCTION
The concern of governments and educational stakeholders in Nigeria and other developing
countries is on improving the quality of education that geared towards meaningful development
of the economy [1]. There have been a lot of debates among researchers and educators and
efforts by the past and the present governments on factors affecting quality of education in
Nigeria. A growing number of evidence suggested that amongst a host of factors that seriously
influences the quality of education include the nature of the existing learning environment in the
tertiary institutions of Nigeria. According to [2] good quality learning environment is considered
to be the heart of meaningful teaching and learning that should be provided in any institution of
learning. In addition [3] stated that the results of studies conducted for the past 30 years
provided strong evidence that the quality of classroom environment in schools is significant of
student learning even when a comprehensive set of other factors were held constant. Thus, the
quality of learning environment and the way it is being perceived by the students has a
significant impact on the students performance and attitude. It is unfortunate to observe that
the quality of education being offered to many automobile technology education students in the
tertiary institutions of Nigeria is better imagined than said as most students are not learning the
courses of any value from personal or employment prospective.
Although, there have been a number of studies [4-8] that investigated the association between
learning environment and students performance, attitude and changes on how to improve the
WoCTVET 2014
qualities of the learning environment in Australia, Asia, USA and many developed countries.
Most of these investigations suggested that students psycho-social perceptions of the classroom
environments are among the important determinants or predictors of academic performances
and attitudes in schools. These studies involved mainly students in science, mathematics and
computer sciences. It can be observed that very little researches in the area of vocational and
technical education and perhaps almost none has been conducted in the area of automobile
technology in the tertiary institutions in Nigeria [9-11]. It is against this backdrop that this study
aimed to investigate students perception of the learning environment as it affects their attitude
in automobile technology in north-eastern Nigeria tertiary institutions.
1.1 Objectives of the Study
The main purpose of this study was to determine students psychosocial perceptions of their
actual automobile technology learning environments in tertiary institutions of Nigeria.
Specifically, the study seeks to achieve the following objectives:
1. To determine students perceptions of their actual automobile technology learning
environments in north-eastern tertiary institutions of Nigeria.
2. To determine students attitude towards automobile technology course in north-eastern
tertiary institutions of Nigeria.
3. To determine the association between students perceptions of their actual automobile
technology learning environments and their attitude towards automobile technology
course in north-eastern tertiary institutions of Nigeria.
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A key to the advancement of learning environment studies could be rooted in the work of Lewin
in 1936 and Murray in 1938 and their followers (such as Pace and Stern) on the relationship of
an individual and the environment [12], [13]. Lewin was of the belief that all behaviours and
experience are functions of the person and his/her environment. His formula B=f (P, E) indicates
that a person's behaviour reflects the environment and the person within the environment. The
work of Lewin was followed by Murray in 1938, who proposed a need-press model which allows
the analogous representation of person and environment in common terms [14]. Personal needs
refer to motivational personality characteristics representing tendencies to move in the
direction of certain goals, while environmental press provides an external situational
counterpart which supports or frustrate the expression of internalized personality needs. Stern,
Stein, Bloom and Pace and Stern and Genn in [15] extended Lewin's work to develop a needpress theory in which persons are conceptualized in terms of their psychological needs and the
environment in terms of its press. Needs are considered to be the important determinants of
behavior within the individual. According to Murray, 'the press of an object is what it can do to
the subject - the power it has to affect the well-being of the subject in one way or another'. Pace
suggested that an environment's crucial aspects are its overall atmosphere or characteristics,
the kinds of things that are rewarded, encouraged, emphasized, the style of life which is valued
in the community and is most visibly expressed and felt. Within this theory, needs and press
interact to produce and guide behaviour. In a school, an individual student or teacher has
particular needs and the school's press either satisfies or frustrates these needs. Stern extended
need-press theory to develop a theory in which the degree of person-environment congruence is
WoCTVET 2014 | 313
related to student outcomes. This theory has been the basis for person-environment fit studies
in which the congruence between actual and preferred environments is assessed and related to
student outcomes [16]. Automobile technology like many other disciplines experiences a very
high level of technological development and challenges which demand that industries and
training institutions must cope with the ongoing innovative and technological changes that
require it to continually upgrade their existing skills and knowledge of its participants [17]. As
such the role of tertiary institutions in the development of human resources for research and
maintenance of existing systems cannot be overemphasized. Particularly the understanding of
principles of mechatronics and use of diagnostic equipment or computers can make them up-todate in the global transport technology [18].
3. METHODOLOGY
The research design of the study was a survey design. The sample for data collection comprised
474 students offering Automobile Technology as a course obtained through simple random
sampling technique. The instruments used for data collection were actual Automobile
Technology Learning Environment Inventories (ATLEI) and Automobile Technology Attitude
Questionnaire (ATAQ). The Cronbachs alpha reliability of the instruments scales ranged from
0.60 to 0.92. Also the discriminant validity of the instruments ranged from 0.31 to 0.73. The data
was collected through administration of the questionnaires. Data collected from the study was
analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation), simple correlation, and
multiple correlation and regression analysis.
4. RESULT
4.1 Students Perceptions of Actual Automobile Technology Learning Environments in
Table 1 shows students perceptions of the actual automobile technology learning environment
in the tertiary institutions of Nigeria for all the eleven scales of the ATLEI. Two way unit of
analysis of results were carried out; individual and class units, to show the students perceptions
of the learning environments. An average item mean scores ranging from 2.86 to 3.49 and
standard deviation ranging from 0.23 to 1.04 indicated that practices which include lecturer
support, differentiation, material environment and computer usage scales usually take place
from-time-to-time in the automobile technology learning environments. Mean rating scores
ranging from 3.50 to 3.99 with standard deviation ranging from 0.21 to 0.85 as practices that
often take place in the learning environment and these include students cohesiveness, task
orientation, investigation, and cooperation scales.
Therefore, this implies that the automobile technology students perceived their classroom
environment as more social and traditional in nature in the north-eastern Nigeria tertiary
institutions.
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Table 1: Students Perception of Actual Automobile Technology Learning Environments in

ATLE Scales
No.
of
Items
5
Unit
of
Analysis
Average
Item SD
Individual
Class
Average
Item
Mean
3.76
3.81
Lecturer Support
(LS)
Individual
Class
3.49
3.43
0.80
0.23
Involvement
(INVT)
Individual
Class
3.50
3.47
0.73
0.22
Task Orientation
(TO)
Investigation
(INVGTN)
Cooperation
(COOP)
Equity (EQT)
Differentiation
(DIFF)
Material
Environment
(ME
Integration
(INTEGN)
Individual
Class
Individual
Class
Individual
Class
Individual
Class
Individual
Class
Individual
Class
3.88
3.99
3.54
3.50
3.71
3.73
3.71
3.80
3.21
3.05
3.33
3.17
0.73
0.29
0.70
0.21
0.77
0.28
0.78
0.37
0.91
0.43
0.88
0.59
Individual
Class
3.61
3.69
0.90
0.36
Computer Usage
(CU)
13
Individual
Class
3.01
2.86
1.04
0.45
Students
cohesiveness
(SC)
*P<0.05 **P<0.01
8
7
8
0.78
0.35
N= 474 automobile technology students in 17 classes of tertiary institutions in
Nigeria
4.2 Students Attitude towards Automobile Technology Course in Tertiary Institutions of
Nigeria
Table 2 shows students attitude towards automobile technology in tertiary institutions of
Nigeria. As shown in the table, the average mean ratings ranged from 3.46 to 4.03 and standard
deviations ranged from 0.22 to 0.96 The result indicated that the students are in agreement with
the scales enjoyment, usefulness of automobile as a career and usefulness of automobile as a
course but uncertain with the scale of anxiety. Therefore, these results revealed that despite
their being anxious the students have a positive attitude towards automobile technology course
in north-eastern Nigeria tertiary institutions.
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Table 2: Students Attitude towards Automobile Technology Course in Automobile Technology

Learning Environments
Scale
Anxiety
No.
of
Items
5
Enjoyment
Usefulness
of
Automobile as a
Career
Usefulness
of
Automobile as a
Course
3
9
Unit
of
Analysis
Average
Item SD
Individual
Class
Individual
Class
Individual
Class
Average
Item
Mean
3.46
3.36
3.71
3.72
3.91
4.03
Individual
Class
3.78
3.84
0.76
0.31
0 .75
0.22
0.75
0.23
0.96
0.51
N= 474 automobile technology students in 17 classes of tertiary institutions in Nigeria

4.3 Association Between Students Perceptions of Actual Automobile Technology Learning
Environments and their Attitude Towards Automobile Technology Course in Tertiary
Institutions of Nigeria
Tables 3 and 4 showed the simple correlation (r) and multiple correlations revealed that at both
the two unit of analysis an association existed between the scale of anxiety of the ATAQ and the
scales of student cohesiveness, lecturer support, involvement, cooperation, differentiation,
material environment and computer usage of the ATLEI. Also a significant association existed
between the scale of enjoyment of the ATAQ and the scales of involvement, investigation and
equity. But, there is no significant association between the scale of usefulness of automobile
technology as a career/prospect and as a course of the ATAQ and the scales of the ATLEI.
Also the result as shown in Table 3 and 4 revealed that students cohesiveness, lecturer support,
task orientation, investigation, cooperation and differentiation contributed in predicting the
extent of anxiety, enjoyment and automobile technology as a career/prospect. In individual unit
of analysis, a multiple regression of 3%, 3%, 5%, and 4%, and in class unit of analysis a multiple
regression of 97%, 59%, 65% and 49% respectively of the variance in students attitude towards
automobile technology scales were attributable to the students perception of the actual
automobile technology learning environment.
These suggest that with an exception of anxiety scale, there is no significant relationship
between students perceptions of their actual automobile technology learning environments and
their attitudes towards automobile technology in north-eastern Nigeria tertiary institutions.
Table 3: Association Between Students Perceptions of their Actual Automobile Technology
Learning Environments and Attitude Towards Automobile Technology Course
ATLE
Scales
SC
Unit
of
Analysis
Individual
Class
Anxiety
r
-0.00
0.04
0.65** 0.67**
Enjoyment
r
0.06
0.12*
0.42
0.32
LS
Individual
Class
-0.02
0.52*
-0.03
0.20
-0.05
-0.49*
-0.07
0.14
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INVT
Individual
Class
-0.04
0.77*
-0.15
-0.34
-0.01
0.52*
-0.09
0.81
TO
Individual
Class
-0.04
0.03
-0.06
0.80*
-0.04
0.38
-0.12
-0.32
INVGTN
Individual
Class
-0.01
0.39
0.02
0.69**
0.00
0.57*
0.01
0.39
COOP
Individual
Class
-0.04
0.54*
0.13
0.66**
0.07
0.40
0.19*
-0.46
EQT
Individual
Class
-0.04
0.16
-0.05
-0.29
-0.03
0.48*
-0.07
-0.03
DIFF
Individual
Class
0.06
0.60*
0.08
0.31*
0.05
-0.30
0.06
-0.17
ME
Individual
Class
0.07
0.62**
0.08
0.39
0.03
-0.14
0.02
-0.31
INTEGN
Individual
Class
-0.00
0.44
-0.03
0.07
0.00
0.28
-0.01
0.40
CU
Individual
Class
Individual
Class
0.07
0.55
0.18
0.99*
0.04
0.09
0.03
0.97*
0.03
0.04
0.18
0.77
0.01
-0.19*
0.03
0.59
Multiple
Correl.
(R)
*P<0.05 **P<0.01
Nigeria
5. DISCUSSION
The finding of the study revealed that the students were not satisfied with the level of their
lecturer support, differentiation, material environment and computer usage in their automobile
technology classroom environment. Among the factors affecting students attitudinal outcomes
in schools include teacher-student relationship, lecturers attitude and their competencies and
the nature of the learning environment. This study agrees with that of [19-21]that the dearth of
facilities and equipment as well as their inadequacy are among several factors that militates
against the effectiveness of technological courses in Nigerian educational institutions. A possible
explanation for this finding could be that many teachers are still unable to integrate computer
usage into their teaching and learning processes, the methods of instructions remain paperbased [22]. Most of these institutions are not adequately equipped with computers in their
classrooms regardless of using it for teaching purposes
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Table 4: Association between Students Perceptions of their Actual Automobile Technology

Learning Environments and Attitude towards Automobile Technology Course
ATLE
Scales
Unit
of
Analysis
Career/Prospect
SC
Individual
Class
0.03
0.22
B
0.12*
0.40
Auto
as
a
Course
r
B
0.03
0.10
-0.17
-0.39
LS
Individual
Class
-0.07
0.03
-0.08
-0.35
-0.03
0.01
-0.05
0.58
INVT
Individual
Class
-0.07
0.10
-0.10
-0.47
-0.01
0.13
-0.04
0.61
TO
Individual
Class
-0.05
0.18
-0.03
0.14
-0.06
-0.07
-0.11
-0.45
INVGTN
Individual
Class
-0.08
0.10
-0.06
0.28
-0.02
0.03
-0.01
-0.40
COOP
Individual
Class
-0.04
0.27
0.13
0.34
0.02
0.04
0.09
-0.46
EQT
Individual
Class
-0.08
0.27
-0.07
0.50
-0.06
0.01
-0.10
0.35
DIFF
Individual
Class
0.04
-0.30
0.11
-0.95
0.03
0.26
0.05
-0.33
ME
Individual
Class
0.07
-0.14
-0.10
-0.12
0.04
0.06
0.04
-0.48
INTEGN
Individual
Class
-0.04
0.28
-0.01
-0.11
0.03
0.32
0.06
1.03
CU
Individual
Class
Individual
Class
0.07
0.04
0.21
0.81
0.10
1.13
0.05
0.65
0.04
0.14
0.16
0.70
0.00
-0.37
0.04
0.49
Multiple
Correl.
(R)
*P<0.05 **P<0.01
Nigeria
Moreover, the findings revealed that despite their anxiousness, the students have a positive
attitude towards automobile technology course in tertiary institutions of Nigeria. This supported
the findings of [5] who stated that students experience a feeling of anxiety, their attitude
towards the course they were offering is positive. The result implies that the students valued
and appreciated automobile technology as important course in tertiary institutions of Nigeria.
The bivariate associations between each scales of the ATAQ (anxiety, enjoyment,
career/prospect and attitudes towards automobile as a course) and each of the ATLEI scales
revealed that a significant association existed between the scale of anxiety and the scales of
student cohesiveness, lecturer support, involvement, cooperation, differentiation, material
environment, and computer usage. However, there was a significant association between the
WoCTVET 2014 | 318
scale of enjoyment and the scales of involvement, investigation and equity. As such with an
exception of task orientation and integration the students anxiety in learning automobile
technology course is influenced by their perception of the learning environment Anxiety as a
feeling of tension can cause one to forget and loose self-confidence, incapable of doing activities
and classes that has to do with various courses which may result to intellectual problems, [23],
[24].
6.
CONCLUSION
This study revealed that, traditional nature of the learning environment is among the factors
affecting quality of education in Nigerian tertiary institutions. Similarly, the learning
environment is characterised to be more social and the major factor affecting students attitude
towards automobile technology was anxiety. Students perception of the actual automobile
technology learning environment does not contribute in improving students attitude towards
course in Nigeria tertiary institutions. These, in turn affect students academic performance and
their attitude in Nigerian tertiary institutions.
7. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The lecturers should be sensitized on the importance of enhanced students perceptions
in the tertiary institutions of Nigeria. Adequate time needs to be provided for interaction
and discussion of ideas among the students.
2. Computers and other ICT facilities should be provided into the automobile technology
classrooms of the tertiary institutions.
3. The existing actual automobile technology workshops should be made to capture some
of the operations and activities needed by the immediate labor-market within the
location of the tertiary institutions in Nigeria.
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Architectural Evaluation of Thermal Comfort: Sick Building

Syndrome Symptoms in Engineering Education Laboratories
Noor Dina Md Amin1*, Zainal Abidin Akasah2, Wahid Razzaly3
1, 3 Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
2 Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 dina@uthm.edu.my*, zainal59@uthm.edu.my, wahid@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Providing comfortable and healthy learning environment in tertiary institutions is beneficial to
teaching and learning process. However, uncomfortable and unhealthy indoor conditions may
increase the risk of sick building syndrome (SBS) symptoms, discomfort and illness among
building occupants. This study was conducted to investigate architectural, thermal conditions
and SBS symptoms in three air-conditioned engineering education laboratories (EEL) located at
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), using objective and subjective measurements.
Building-related factors (space layout and adequacy, seating, furniture layout, surfaces color,
windows, architecture aesthetic value and window/ opening) of the lab were evaluated and
rated as good in terms of overall quality (Mean=2.16, SD= 0.63). The objective measurement was
conducted for thermal variables; mean radiant temperature (MRT), relative humidity, and air
velocity. Results show that MRT were not within recommended range (minimum 17.80C in EEL3
and maximum 22.420C in EEL1). Subjective measurement with questionnaire surveys was
distributed to 71 undergraduate and postgraduate students. Investigation was made with a
particular focus at SBS symptoms and thermal sensation votes. Results show that, most students
in each lab have experienced all the SBS symptoms (less than 20%), with dry skin received the
highest percentage (40.85%), followed by runny nose (31%), dry eyes (29.58%), block/ stuffy
nose (28.17%), tiredness (26.76%) and flu-like (21.13%). Based on thermal sensation votes,
results show that unacceptable thermal conditions among the respondents in all laboratories
(MRT: Mean=-1.53, SD=0.92 in EEL1, Mean=-2.44, SD=0.71 in EEL2, and Mean= -2.68, SD=0.57).
Based on the results, centralized air conditioned in engineering education laboratories should be
designed adequately. Without a proper functioning control system, it is impossible to sustain a
comfortable indoor environment for student occupants.
Keywords: Architectural Features, Engineering Education Laboratories, Sick Building Syndrome,
Thermal Comfort
1. INTRODUCTION
The World of Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes that indoor environmental conditions
influence health and well-being of building occupants. These are true since poor indoor
environmental conditions affects occupants satisfaction and comfort perception [1]. Several
studies in commercial and residential have been conducted to better understand these issues.
Moreover, increasing concern over the quality of the indoor environment as the standard of
livings improves in society, while failure to provide satisfactory condition has resulted in
discomfort and illness [2], [3]. Discomfort and illness among building occupants is commonly
discussed in terms of sick building syndrome (SBS). SBS appear due to the association of time
spent in building however no specific illness or cause can be identified.
WoCTVET 2014
In the built learning environment, scholars provide evidence that thermal conditions influence
students behavior [4] attitudes [5], preferences and comfort [6], personality development [7],
learning [8] and performance such as reading, calculating, understanding and typing [9]. Recent
study of thermal comfort also associated with motivation and performance [10]. In addition,
high quality of facilities supports learning activity [11][15].
According to American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE), Standard 55, thermal comfort is defined as a state of mind which expresses
satisfaction with the thermal environment [16]. The most effective way to determine comfort is
through a combination of indoor environment variables and response from building occupants
[17]. Hence, why do we need to evaluate the architectural thermal comfort in laboratory setting?
Most of indoor environmental studies not only focused at residential [18][20], health care [21],
and office buildings [22] but also classrooms both in secondary and tertiary institutions [23],
[24] as well as lecture theater [2], [9]. However, little is known on how students evaluate their
comfort perception in laboratory setting [25]. Moreover, laboratory in higher education
institutions envisages a real workplace setting for engineering education students, where this
place is usually exposed to thermal environments, machines and equipments vibration, and
chemical problems [26]. Better design for future engineering education laboratories can be
improved if indoor environment issues (SBS symptoms and thermal discomfort are examples to
name here) can be tackled earlier.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Procedures
The study was conducted in three new engineering education laboratories (EEL) in Universiti
Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), characterized by a warm and humid climate. The outdoor
weather conditions during the measurements period were observed since it contributed to the
indoor conditions of the selected labs. AutoCAD lab (EEL1), Electronic lab (EEL2), located in new
building of the Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education (FPTV), while Highway, Traffic and
Transportation Engineering lab (EEL3) located in the new complex building of the Faculty of
Civil and Environmental Engineering (FKAAS). Learning activity in the labs ranges from low,
medium and high physical activities. These labs are designed to assist student for research,
experimentation, teaching and learning activities. Architectural features such as rooms
dimension, surface reflectance factor, lighting system and window were identified from
architectural drawings that obtained from the Development and Property Administration Office,
UTHM and labs inventory during the measurements.
2.2 Objective Measurement
Objective measurement of thermal parameters was confined to mean radian temperature
(MRT), relative humidity (RH), air velocity/ movement (AV). All measurements were conducted
within two month according to the labs schedule from November to December 2012, within 3
hours of each lab sessions. The schedules of data gathering were obtained from respective
faculties (FPTV and FKAAS). Three labs were selected as below:
EEL1 - AutoCAD lab with 15 student occupants, light physical activity and centralized
air-conditioning system
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EEL2 - Electronic lab with 34 student occupants, medium physical activity and
centralized air-conditioning system
EEL3 - Traffic and Highway Engineering lab with 22 students occupants, high physical
activity and centralized air-conditioning system
Fig 1. Location of Thermal Comfort Stations in occupied zone, EEL1

For indoor conditions, the occupied and unoccupied zones, and measurement points for thermal
variables were identified, while physical measurements for mean radian temperature (TR),
relative humidity (RH) and air velocity (AV), were recorded using Thermal comfort station
Babuc A. The stations were located at 1.1 m from floor level at two measurement points of the
most occupied zones (Fig. 1). InfoGAP software was used to analyze the indoor environmental
data including clothing characteristics and metabolic heat production, while Thermal
Environment Measurement Report was also generated by the same software for all respective
laboratories. ASHRAE Standard 55 was referred in relation to the metabolic rate for different
kind of activities [16] .
2.3 Subjective Measurement
Subjective measurement was conducted through questionnaire survey. The samples were
undergraduate and postgraduate students at FPTV and FKAAS, UTHM. Three sections were
developed in the survey: (1) demographic data, (2) architectural evaluation, and (3) thermal
sensation scales (TSS). Section 2 and 3 were related to subjective measurements of thermal
variables. Survey activities were administered an hour before the lab sessions end in order to
enable respondents to adapt to the indoor lab environment.
In Section 1 of the questionnaire, students were asked for their gender, age, educational level,
clothing wear, and symptoms of illness. Four age groups were provided, namely 20-29, 30-39,
40-49 and 50 years old and above. Two degree types were asked, namely undergraduate (e.g.
Bachelor degree/ Diploma) and post-graduate (e.g. advanced diploma, Master). Clothing
selection were given for respondent, which represents how adaptation to the indoor conditions.
Occupants were asked if they have experienced discomfort symptoms or also known as SBS
symptoms (e.g. dry and watering eyes, eye strain, block or stuffy nose, dry or irritated throat, flulike symptom, breathing difficulty, headaches, tiredness etc).
In Section 2, architectural evaluation of the physical conditions of the lab, namely space layout,
adequacy of space, seating layout, surface color, aesthetic value and window were included with
5-point scale: 1-very good, 2-good, 3-adequate, 4-fair, 5-poor. These represented building
variables that influence students satisfaction with architectural space features. In Section 3, the
evaluations of thermal, visual and acoustical sensations were based on a 7-point scale for each
question. For thermal evaluation, scale indicated very cold (-3), cold (-2), slightly cool (-1),
WoCTVET 2014 | 324
neutral (0), slightly warm (1), warm (2), hot (3) for AT, scale indicated very dry (-3), dry (-2),
slightly dry (-1), neutral (0), slightly humid (1), moderately humid (2), humid (3) for RH, scale
indicated very still (-3), moderately still (-2), slightly still (-1), neutral (0), slightly draughty (1),
moderately draughty (2), very draughty (3) for AV. The seven points thermal sensation scale
were then divided into three interval (-3, -2), (+2, +3) and (-1, +1). The first and second interval
shows unacceptable microclimate condition, while votes of -1, 0 and +1 describe acceptable
thermal environment.
Table 1: Measured parameters in three engineering education laboratories compares with ASHRAE and WHO.
(air temperature (AT), relative humidity (RH) and Air Velocity (AV)
Parameter
tr (0C)
RH (%)
AV (ms-1)
EEL1
min
max
21.46
22.42
68.0
71.1
0.0
0.17
EEL2
min
max
17.8
20.7
55.7
60.9
0.0
0.15
EEL3
min
max
18.5
21.4
69.3
78.3
0.05
0.49
ASHRAE
min
max
22.5
26.0
50.0
0.25
WHO
min
max
24.0
28.0
-
NAE
min
-
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Objective measurement
Table 1 shows the environmental conditions (number of measuring points =2) for EEL1, EEL2
and EEL3. The mean radian temperature (MRT) in EEL1 was between 21.460C-22.420C with
relative humidity (RH) reading was between 68% - 71.1%, and surrounding air velocity of 0.00.17ms-1. For EEL2, where the same criteria but with occupants conducting medium physical
activity, the minimum mean radian temperature was recorded at 17.80C, while the maximum
temperature was 20.70C. The relative humidity (RH) percentage of the lab was between 55.7% 60.9%, with air speed of 0.0-0.15ms-1. From the same table, it can be seen that the mean radian
temperature in EEL3 was range between 18.50C 21.40C, with relative humidity (RH) data
measured between 69.3% - 78.3%, air velocity was minimum at 0.05ms-1 and maximum at
0.49ms-1. It should be noted that students were involved with high physical activity in EEL3.
For air-conditioned buildings, the ASHRAE Standards 55 [16] recommended range between
22.50C-260C while the WHOs between 240C-280C [1]. In this study, the MRT were no within the
suggested range. It should be noted that in tropical countries like Malaysia, the outdoor air is
commonly very hot and humid throughout the year (maximum 31.50C of temperature and
maximum 90% of RH with respect to Batu Pahat meteorology station) [27]. The National
Environment Agency (NEA) of Singapore on the other hand suggested the maximum humidity
levels at 70%. In respect to this study, the mean relative humidity was recorded higher in EEL3
(78.3%), which was beyond the maximum limit of NEA. The mean air velocity seemed to be
almost consistent in EEL1 and EEL2, while was peaked at 0.49ms-1 in EEL3.
3.2 Subjective measurement
3.2.1
SBS symptoms
A total of 71 questionnaire surveys were distributed to undergraduate and postgraduate

students in three engineering education laboratories. Fig. 2 illustrates the SBS symptoms
experienced by all participants of this study. Descriptive analysis was conducted to investigate
WoCTVET 2014 | 325
max
70.0
-
sick building syndrome (SBS) symptoms. Results shows that dry skin received the highest
percentage (40.85%), followed by runny nose (30.99%), dry eyes (29.58%), block/ stuffy nose
(28.17%) and tiredness (26.76%). The largest percentage was recorded for dry skin (68.2%)
followed by runny nose (50%) and block/ stuffy nose (45.5%) in EEL3 where high physical
activity involved. Noticeably, the lowest percentage, range from 0 - 20% was recorded for
breathing difficulties in all EELs. Generally, SBS symptoms were found in all EELs in relation to
respiratory system, particularly in EEL3. However, it was not appropriate to claim the symptoms
were experienced by the occupants because of single factor.
EEL1
EEL2
EEL3
No of respondents
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Fig 2: Distribution on Subjective Response of SBS Symptoms Experienced by Student Occupants

in All Eels
The SBS symptoms may occur due to the use of air conditioning system, where the conditions of
indoor air movement and relative humidity in air conditioned space may expose student
occupants to dust, mold, chemicals and contaminants. The mechanism of SBS remained not well
understood because of its complex relationship between thermal parameters and other multifactors such as air quality, individual factors (age, gender and working position), and previous as
well as current health conditions. However, recent study emphasized that symptoms and
complaints for different aspects related to thermal comfort, including light, noise and indoor air
quality are good example to indicate SBS symptoms. It should be noted that incorrect response
from occupants will increase the complexity of SBS problem.
3.2.2
Evaluation of architectural features
Architectural features considered for overall quality rating in all EELs were the space layout,
seating and furniture layout, surfaces (wall, floor and ceiling) color, aesthetic value and window
design. Students were asked about their perception on the quality of architectural features in
EEL1 using 5-points rating scale; (1) very good, (2) good, (3) adequate, (4) fair and (5) poor.
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Mean of total quality

rating
2.4
2.29
2.3
2.2
2.1
2.07
2.12
EEL1
EEL2
2
1.9
EEL3
Fig 3: Mean of Total Quality Rating For Each Eels with Different Level of Physical Activity
Descriptive analysis was conducted to investigate quality rating of architectural features in all
EELs. Results show that the mean quality rating in all EELs were below than 3.00 (adequate).
The mean of total quality rating for EEL1, EEL2 and EEL3 were M = 2.07 (SD = 0.36), M = 2.12
(SD = 0.78) and M = 2.29 (SD = 0.48) respectively (Fig. 3). Obviously, the mean score was highest
in EEL3followed by EEL2 and EEL1. It can be interpreted that the overall quality of architectural
features in all EELs was rated range between good and adequate by all students. Fig.3 shows
the distribution of overall quality rating in three EELs.
Similarly, the mean of quality rating for each architectural feature in all EELs were less than 3.00
(adequate). Table 2 shows that the highest mean score, 2.33, were recorded in EEL1 for
furniture layout and window opening with a standard deviation .72 and .62 respectively. In
EEL2, highest mean score, 2.32, were recorded for furniture layout with a standard deviation
1.0. The lowest mean score was ceiling color (M= 1.94, SD= .92). The highest mean scores, 2.45
and 2.32, were recorded in EEL5 for aesthetic value and wall color with a standard deviation .67
and .89 respectively.
Table 2: Summary of mean of quality rating and standard deviation for architectural features in
three EELs
5-point rating scale:
Interpretation: [1] VG - very good, [3]
Adequate [5] poor
EELs
EEL1
EEL2
EEL3
n
15
34
22
Space layout
1.93 (0.59)
2.06 (0.92)
2.18 (0.59)
Space adequacy
2.07 (0.46)
2.21 (0.98)
2.27 (0.70)
Seating layout
2.20 (0.56)
2.21 (0.91)
2.14 (0.77)
Furniture layout
2.33 (0.72)
2.32 (1.00)
2.23 (0.87)
Wall colour
1.87 (0.54)
2.00 (0.92)
2.32 (0.89)
Ceiling colour
1.80 (0.55)
1.94 (0.92)
2.05 (0.79)
Floor colour
1.87 (0.52)
2.00 (0.89)
2.23 (0.69)
Aesthetic value
2.20 (0.56)
2.26 (0.71)
2.45 (0.67)
Window/ opening 2.33 (0.62)
2.09 (0.75)
2.77 (0.75)
All architectural/ space features were < 3.00, indicating very
good to good scales
Mean (M) of
Quality Rating
It can be concluded that the results showed in Table 2 were possibly influenced by the fact that
all EELs were new buildings at UTHM main campus with new building materials and
equipments, which might influence students judgment in the quality of EELs architectural
features.
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3.2.3
Evaluation of thermal comfort
The subjective measurement of thermal comfort using thermal sensation scale was conducted
on different days and times. Firstly, 15 survey forms were distributed in EEL1 on 21st of
November 2012 from 11.30am to 2.30pm, with the observed outdoor weather condition was
partly cloudy. Secondly, in EEL2, survey forms were administered to 34 respondents on 5th of
December 2012 from 11.20am to 2.20pm with the observed outdoor weather condition was
mostly cloudy. Finally, subjective measurement was conducted on 12th of November 2012 from
2p.m to 5pm in EEL3, involved 22 students with the observed outdoor weather condition was
mostly cloudy. Table 2 below shows mean and standard deviation of subjective measurement for
thermal sensation votes in all EELs
Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of Thermal Sensation Votes In Three EELs
Mean (M)
EEL1
EEL2
EEL3
MRT
-1.53 (0.92)
-2.44 (0.71)
-2.68 (0.57)
RH
-0.27 (1.10)
-0.91(1.4)
-0.64 (1.56)
AV
n
0.00 (1.30
15
-0.41 (0.82)
34
0.23 (1.44)
22
The mean of mean radiant temperature sensation vote for three labs were -1.53 (SD = 0.92) and
-2.44 (SD = 0.1) and -2.68 (SD = 0.57) respectively. The subjective judgment on the seven points
thermal sensation were divided into three interval (-3, -2), (+2, +3) and (-1, +1). According to the
Fangers theory, the microclimate is not acceptable in the first and in the second of these
intervals, while votes of -1, 0 and +1 describe acceptable thermal environment. Results shows
that mean of mean radiant temperature was not acceptable for all EELs (Table 3).
No of respondents' vote
20
EEL1
EEL2
-2
EEL3
15
10
5
0
-3
-1
temperature sensation scale
Fig 4: Temperature Sensation Votes in Three EELs

On the other hand, according to the ASHRAE Standard 55, an acceptable environment should
have 80% of occupants voted for the interval (-1, 0, 1). However, results (Fig. 4) were obviously
skewed towards the left for temperature in all EELs. It can be noticed that students expressed a
vote within the interval (-3, -2) for temperature, where this represented 66.7% of the total
(n=15) students in EEL1, 94.0% of the total (n= 34) students in EEL2 and 95.4% of the total
(n=22) students in EEL3. Based on these results, in can be interpreted that all EELs were not in
acceptable thermal conditions although all EELs were facilitated with (centralized) air
conditioning system. Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 illustrate the subjective votes for temperature and relative
humidity in EEL1, EEL2 and EEL3 respectively.
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EEL1
20
EEL2
EEL3
15
10
5
0
-3
-2
-1
relative humidity (RH) sensation scale
Fig 5: RH sensation votes in three EELs
Based on the Fig. 5, the mean of RH sensation votes of EEL1 was higher, at -0.27 (SD =1. 1) than
of EEL3, at -0.64 (SD = 1.56) and peaked at -0.91 in EEL2 (SD = 1.4) (Table 2). Fig. 5 shows that
most of the students expressed votes -1, 0 and +1 in EEL1 (73.4 %) and EEL3 (45.4%)
respectively, while majority of the vote was within -3, -2 in EEL2 (44.1%). It should be noted
that higher humidity directly affects the amount of allergens in the indoor and encourage the
growth of dust mite and fungus colonies, which finally can be associated with SBS symptoms
such as headache, mucosal symptoms (eyes, throat, nose) and skin symptoms (dry skin on face,
hand, scalp) [28]
EEL1
30
EEL2
EEL3
20
10
0
-3
-2
-1
air velocity (AV) sensation scale
Fig 6: AV sensation votes in three EELs

In relation to subjective respond of air velocity (AV), the mean of AV for EEL1 was exactly at 0.0
(neutral sensation, SD = 1.3), while AV for EEL2 and EEL3 were at -0.41 (SD = 0.82) and 0.23
(SD=1.44) respectively. Fig. 6 shows that most of the respondents votes were within the range
of (-1, 0, +1). It can be interpreted that the sensation vote for AV was within acceptable condition
in all EELs.
4.
CONCLUSION
This study has investigated the architectural indoor condition including sick building syndrome
(SBS) symptoms and important variables of thermal: temperature, relative humidity and air
velocity, in three engineering education laboratories (EEL). The selected academic setting was
under real working condition for engineering education students.
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Results of objective measurement show that lower temperatures were found in all EELs, which
was not within recommended range neither by ASHRAE nor WHO. The thermal condition was
hence considered unacceptable. The finding from subjective measurement reaffirmed that the
student occupants were not in thermal acceptable condition. Based on the results, centralized
air conditioned in engineering education laboratories should adequately be designed. The study
recommends controlling and adjusting the laboratories temperature is necessary to meet the
comfort temperature in order to support learning activities. Without a proper functioning
control system, it is impossible to sustain a comfortable indoor environment for student
occupants [29].
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is sponsored by the Centre of Excellent for Technical and Vocational Education
(ACTiVE), UTHM. The support from the Deans, supervisors, academic and technical staffs from
faculties involved in this evaluation is highly appreciated.
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Effectiveness of Learning Transfer in National Dual Training

System (NDTS)
Azmi bin Ahmad1, Wan Mohd Rashid bin Wan Ahmad2, Michael Gessler & Georg Spttle3
1Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skill Training (CIAST) Shah Alam, Selangor Malaysia,
2Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Johor, Malaysia, 3Institut Teknik und Bildung
(ITB), Universitt Bremen, Germany
1azmi@ciast.gov.my
ABSTRACT
Rapid development of technology has force Malaysia to change its skills training landscape to
meet the dire need for the skilled workforce of today industries. Obviously, this wind of change
evident is the shifting from competency-based training also known as National Occupational
Skills Standard (NOSS) based system to National Dual Training System (NDTS). The aim of this
study was to ascertain on whether the effectiveness of learning transfer did occurred in the
automotive mechatronics of NDTS programme. The research focus area is the Mechatronics
Automotive course. A longitudinal study method was employed as the research methodology.
The participants of this research were the trainees of NDTS Mechatronics Automotive course.
The study utilized the self-administered questionnaire. Measuring 16 factors of the Learning
Transfer System Inventory (LTSI) plus 3 factors derived from literature review and expert group
discussion enable researcher to determine the model or framework of the learning transfer
phenomena. The findings suggest that the three most influential dimensions towards the
effectiveness of learning transfer in NDTS were revealed as the Course Content, Training
Delivery and Working Tasks. Result indicated that the effectiveness of learning transfer in NDTS
had occurred by the overall accuracy of 79.2%. Therefore, the emerging effectiveness of learning
transfer of NDTS in Malaysia is proposed.
Keywords: Effectiveness; Learning Transfer;Framework
1.
INTRODUCTION
Higher education and skills training institutes has been under severe critics to improve the
quality of their graduates. Much training has been deemed too theoretical with the knowledge
and skills learned not being transferable to the workplace. This was due to what being taught at
skills training institution curriculum does not match as per what being practiced in industry. In
the other hands, the existing curriculum cannot sustained the phenomenon of the steadily
increasing complexity at the industry workplace and the accelerated pace of technological
change. Thus, skills training institutions have no other choice but to embark on programmes to
improve their educational and training knowledge creation process, which include the delivery
aspects of it (Loose & Juri 2008). Hence, National Dual Training System (NDTS) programme is
being introduced to contend with the said issues and challenges.
WoCTVET 2014
2. RESEARCH PURPOSE
The aim of this study is to ascertain the effectiveness of learning transfer of National Dual
Training programme (NDTS). The need to set up a model or framework for NDTS learning
transfer containing the most influential dimensions that affect within it is in dire needs. Thus,
the subjects under study were the trainees of the NDTS automotive mechatronics course.
The literature has used various terms besides learning transfer, such as transfer and training
transfer, to conceptualize the same meaning. Thus, terms learning transfer and training
transfer, are perceived as interchangeable (Khasawneh 2006, p. 183; Khasawneh 2004, p. 8;
Chen 2003, p. 47; Leberman 1999, p. 5). Learning transfer also defined as the generalization of
the skills acquired during the training phase to the work environment and the maintenance of
these acquired skills over time (Nikandrou et al. 2009; Baldwin & Ford, 1998; Elangovan &
Karakowsky, 1999; Leberman 1999). In this study researcher have used the term Learning
Transfer, because Learning Transfer best represents the desired outcome which is transfer of
learning to actual job performance. Specifically, Holton (2000); Broad & Newstrom (1992)
define it as: research undertaken in a variety of settings which identified a large number of
factors that affect the learning transfer back to the workplace. According to Intergovernmental
Studies Program Primer (2006, p.1) the word transfer comes from two Latin terms, trans (over
or across) and ferre (carry). In general terms learning transfer occurs when prior-learned
knowledge, skills and attitudes affect the way in which new knowledge, skills and attitudes are
learned and performed. Transfer is deemed to be positive if acquisition and performance are
facilitated, and negative if they are impeded following an identified period of learning related to
an individuals place of work, transfer is the process of applying knowledge, skills and attitudes
acquired during a training programme to the work place. Their successful application leads to an
improvement in job performance and has a lasting effect. The concept of learning transfer is
concentrated around transfer and travel which are interrelated. Hence, knowledge and skills
have to travel to a new context so that transfer occurred. Learning transfer is a key concept in
education and learning theory because most formal education aspires to transfer. In many
respect, the concept of learning transfer is vital to educational philosophy because it denotes the
degree to which behaviour can be repeated in a new situation (Nielsen 2009). Usually the
context of learning e.g. classroom, exercise books, test, and simple streamline tasks differs
markedly from the ultimate contexts of application of on the job. Consequently, the outcome of
skills training and education is not achieved unless transfer occurs. Learning transfer is all the
more important that it cannot be taken for granted. Abundant evidence shows that very often
the hoped-for transfer from learning experiences does not occur. Thus, the prospects and
conditions of learning transfer are crucial educational issues (Intergovernmental Studies
Program Primer, 2006; Perkins & Salomon, 1992).
4. METHODOLOGY
The instrumentation relied on a questionnaire to generate quantitative data for analysis.
Participants were asked voluntarily to complete the LTSI at two different time phases; during
and after the NDTS programme (during training & during employment). The construct-validated
WoCTVET 2014 | 334
instrument (Holton et al. 2000), consists of a pool of 89 items designed to measure 16 factors
affecting learning transfer. Scales developed to measure these 16 constructs yielded
exceptionally clean loadings interpretable factors. It is also said to be one of the robust transfer
system assessment instrument ever developed (Ruona et al, 2000 p.222). Furthermore,
Khasawneh (2004), Chen (2003); Yamnill and McLean (2002) have validated it in their research
studies in Jordan, Chinese Taiwan; and Thailand respectively.
4.1 Population and Sample
The total population of first cohort that undergoing the NDTS programme are 55 trainees.
Meanwhile, the population of trainers involved in NDTS implementation are 31 peoples. Based
on the simplified sample size decisions table (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970, as cited in Sekaran 2003
p.293) the recommended target sample size of the questionnaire survey should be at least of 48
trainees. In addition, the sampling design for the trainees was a double sampling method where
the same sample is studied twice, thus offers more detailed information on the effectiveness of
learning transfer from learning environment to the workplace.
4.2 Data collection and Analysis
Data collection was in term of longitudinal-study surveys approach that is during the training
and after the training (approximately 3 months after completion of NDTS/during employment).
The primary data was gathered directly from the survey subject. Meanwhile, for the secondary
data the researcher gathered it from the literature study, journal articles, books, reports etc.
Then, the data collected was analyzed by appropriate test from Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS).
5. RESULTS
5.1 The Dimensions of Learning Transfer.
The initial findings of the study revealed that exploring the effectiveness of learning transfer in
NDTS context has focused on the existing literatures to underpin all the relevant factors
regarding the effectiveness of learning transfer shown in Figure 1 below.
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Figure 1: Relevant Factors of Learning Transfer

Since the Identical Elements Theory suggests the necessary degree of similarity between
components of the training programmes and the work environment that facilitate learning,
retention and transfer. Several themes emerged from the data analysis of perceived learning
transfer in NDTS programme. These themes are organised in term of dimensions that revolved
around trainee characteristics, course content, training delivery and working tasks. Therefore,
dimension criteria emerged from vast literature reviews which the researcher had identified is
grouped according to categories and themes as depicted in Table 1, Figure 2 and 3.
Table 1: Independent variable categories and factors
No
Independent
Variable
Categories
(Dimension)
Trainee
characteristic
s
Course
content
Factors (Items No.)
Learners Readiness (Q1, Q9, Q10,

Q13)
Motivation to Transfer Learning
(Q2, Q3 , Q4 ,Q5)
Performance Efficacy (Q82, Q83,
Q84, Q85)
Performance-Outcomes
Expectations (Q64, Q67, Q68, Q70,
Q72)
Curriculum Design (Q90, Q91,
Q92, Q93, Q94, Q95, Q96)
Transfer Design (Q52, Q53, Q54,
Q55)
Perceived Content Validity (Q47,
Q48, Q49, Q58)
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Training
delivery
Working
tasks
Instructional Delivery (Q97, Q98,

Q99, Q100, Q101, Q102)
Learning Process (Q103, Q104,
Q105, Q106, Q107)
Personal Capacity for Transfer
(Q11, Q12, Q19, Q20, Q25, Q26,
Q27)
Transfer
Effort-Performance
Expectations (Q65, Q66, Q69, Q71)
Opportunity to Use Learning (Q56,
Q60, Q61, Q63)
Feedback/Performance Coaching
(Q79, Q86, Q87, Q89)
Supervisor/Manager
Support
(Q32, Q33, Q37, Q39, Q40,Q 43)
Supervisor/Manager
Sanctions
(Q38, Q44, Q45)
Peer Support (Q28, Q29, Q30, Q31)
Resistance/Openness to Change
(Q73, Q74, Q75, Q76, Q77, Q78)
Personal Outcomes-Positive (Q6,
Q7, Q8, Q15, Q16,Q17, Q18, Q22)
Personal
Outcomes-Negative
(Q14, Q 21, Q23, Q24)
Figure 2: The Emerged Dimension Criteria
WoCTVET 2014 | 337
Figure 3: The Four Main Themes Of Learning Transfer

5.2 Multiple Regression Analysis
Multiple regression analysis between dependent variable (Effectiveness of learning transfer in
NDTS) and independent variables (Trainee Characteristics, Course Content, Training Delivery
and Working Tasks) is done to produce the most parsimonious explanation of the changes in the
Dependent Variable (DV) based on two or more predictors (Kerr, Hall & Kozub, 2003). Using
multiple regression method enable the researcher to predict the causal relationship model
between dependent variable and independent variables. The statistical tool of multiple
regressions also enables researcher to identify those independent variables (IV) having
simultaneously associated with the dependent variable (DV), and to estimate the separate and
distinct influence of each variable on the Dependent Variable (DV). Thus, this effort is meant at
identifying the important variables that can further explain the magnitude of correlation
between the dependent variables (DV) which is the Effectiveness of Learning Transfer During
and After NDTS training with the respective of the Independent Variables (IV) that comprises of
Trainee Characteristics, Course Content, Training Delivery and Working Tasks.
Furthermore, the stepwise method was used to identify the best predictive variables (IV) groups
that were correlated to the Effectiveness of Learning Transfer during and after NDTS training
(DV). The reason of using the stepwise method was to expel the independent variables that are
not significant. In addition, the stepwise method used is to gain the best regression model by
choosing the significant predictive variables that could help at improving the right regression
model. Therefore, the multiple regression results between the Independent Variable (IV) or
commonly known as predictive variables and the Dependent Variables (DV) were shown in
Table 1, 2 and 3.
WoCTVET 2014 | 338
Table 1: Regression Result Using Stepwise Method

Model Summary
Model
1
2
3
R
R Square
.546a
.298
b
.645
.416
.676c
.457
Adjusted
R Square
.291
.403
.439
Std. Error of
the Estimate
.423
.388
.377
a. Predictors: (Constant), Working_Tasks

b. Predictors: (Constant), Working_Tasks, Course_
Contents
c. Predictors: (Constant), Working_Tasks, Course_
Contents, Training_Deliv ery
In order to formulate a relationship model between dependent variable/criterion variable

(Effectiveness of Learning Transfer in NDTS training) and the independents variables
(predictive variables), a stepwise method was deployed. Therefore, based on the stepwise
method result, there were three (3) out of four (4) predictive variables contained in the
recommended regression equation. Those variables were Working Tasks, Course Content and
Training Delivery. Whereby, Trainee Characteristics variable had been excluded from the final
estimated model equations (please refer to Table 1). From Table 2, it was found that the
coefficient value (constant) is 2.600.
Table 2: The Regression Model Coefficients
Coefficientsa
Model
1
(Constant)
Working_Tasks
2
(Constant)
Working_Tasks
Course_Contents
3
(Constant)
Working_Tasks
Course_Contents
Training_Delivery
Unstandardized
Coeff icients
B
Std. Error
4.169
.424
-.706
.112
3.127
.458
-.857
.108
.391
.091
2.600
.487
-.957
.112
.266
.100
.361
.137
Standardized
Coeff icients
Beta
-.546
-.663
.362
-.741
.246
.257
t
9.827
-6.324
6.826
-7.916
4.316
5.339
-8.575
2.667
2.635
Sig.
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.009
.010
a. Dependent Varia ble: Ef f ectiveness of Learning Transf er During & Af ter
The general multiple regression equation between the Independent Variable (IV) or commonly
known as predictive variables and the Dependent Variables (DV) is describe as follows.
Y = + b1x1 + b2 x2 + b3x3 + b4x4
Where;
Y represents the Effectiveness of Learning Transfer;
represents the value of a constant;
WoCTVET 2014 | 339
bn represents the coefficient of predictive variables;

x1 represents the value for Working tasks;
x2 represents the value for Course content;
x3 represents the value for Training delivery;
x4 represents the value for Trainee characteristics
Therefore, the suggested multiple regression equation model number 3 (extracted from Table 2)
can be declared as:
Y = 2.600 + ( 0.957) x1 + (0.266) x2 + (0.361) x3
Table 3: The F-Statistic and Significant Value
ANOVAd
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
2
Regression
Residual
Total
3
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
7.163
16.837
24.000
9.973
14.027
24.000
10.957
13.043
24.000
df
1
94
95
2
93
95
3
92
95
Mean Square
7.163
.179
F
39.994
Sig.
.000a
4.986
.151
33.059
.000b
3.652
.142
25.763
.000c
a. Predictors: (Constant), Working_Tasks

b. Predictors: (Constant), Working_Tasks, Course_Contents
c. Predictors: (Constant), Working_Tasks, Course_Contents, Training_Deliv ery
d. Dependent Variable: Ef f ectiv eness of Learning Transf er During & After
Furthermore, the regression result derived from stepwise method (Table 1 & 3) can be extracted
and described by Model 3 as (R2 = 0.457, Adj. R2 = 0.439, F (3, 92) =25.763, *p<0.05). Thus, it was
found that only three (3) predictive variables had reached the significance level when predicting
the effectiveness of learning transfer namely, Working Tasks, Course Content and Training
Delivery. The Adjusted R Square value of 0.439 showed that the factors of Working Tasks, Course
Content and Training Delivery which are the predictive variables and this explained that the
43.9% variance having effect on the criterion variable (or DV) that is the Effectiveness of
Learning Transfer in NDTS. In other words, 56.1% variance in the criterion variable that cannot
be predicted maybe were due to other variables (others factors) which were not included in this
study. In other words, this suggests 0.439 (43.9%) of the variance in DV is shared by the
predictor variables; therefore 0.561 (56.1%) is not shared. However, the relationship between
DV and IV which were stronger with R = 0.676 and R2 = 0.457 (from Table 1), meaning about 46
% of variation in Effectiveness of Learning Transfer in NDTS is explained by the Independent
Variables.
Finally, the values of Standardised Coefficient Beta from Table 2 were -0.741 for the Working
Tasks, 0.246 for the Course Content and 0.257 for the Training Delivery factor respectively. This
information indicates that any changes of 1.0 Standard Deviation in the factors of Working
Tasks, Course Content and Training Delivery will affect the changes in the Effectiveness of
Learning Transfer factor by -0.741, 0.246 and 0.257 of standard deviation respectively.
WoCTVET 2014 | 340
5.3 Binary Logistic Regression Test

In order to ascertain the best linear regression equation, thus there is a need for binary logistic
regression test to assist researcher in making decision involving choosing a limited alternative
such as having only two options either Yes or No (Zakaria & Md. Som, 2001, p. 116). This
means that the dependent variable can only represent two values that is 1 is for Yes
(Effectiveness of Learning transfer phenomena has occurred) and 2 represent No
(Effectiveness of Learning Transfer phenomena has not occurred). Therefore, the result of this
Binary Logistic Regression is discussed as follows:
Table 4: Result of the binary logistic regression (During & After)
Classification Tablea
Observ ed
Step 1 Eff ectiv eness of Learning During
Transf er During & Af ter After
Ov erall Percentage
Predicted
Eff ectiv eness of
Learning Transf er
During & Af ter
Percentage
During
After
Correct
40
8
83.3
12
36
75.0
79.2
a. The cut v alue is .500
Result of Table 4 above revealed that the Effectiveness of Learning Transfer in NDTS automotive
mechatronics did occurred for during and after NDTS. The accuracy level of prediction during
NDTS training is 83.3% stating that Effectiveness of Learning Transfer has been predicted to
have occurred. Whereas, 75.0 % accuracy level of trainees respondents claimed that the
Effectiveness of Learning Transfer has been predicted to have occurred for after NDTS training.
Interestingly, there was tendency of a reduction in percentage of the effectiveness of the
learning transfer from during NDTS as compared to after NDTS. Nevertheless, in totality, the
predicted overall accuracy percentage of the Effectiveness of Learning Transfer for NDTS
automotive mechatronics course to have occurred is at 79.2% which is considered quite high.
Table 5: Result of the binary logistic regression
Variables in the Equation
Step
a
1
Course_Contents
Training_Delivery
Working_Tasks
Constant
B
2.059
2.779
-7.517
9.175
S.E.
.820
1.136
1.577
4.348
Wald
6.302
5.983
22.715
4.453
df
1
1
1
1
Sig.
Exp(B)
.012
7.835
.014
16.101
.000
.001
.035 9651.940
a. Variable (s) entered on step 1: Course_Contents, Training_Deliv ery , Working_Tasks.
Therefore, the ultimate Binary Logistic Regression equation can be re-written as follows:
Y = 9.175 + ( 7.517) (Working Tasks) + (2.059) (Course Content) + (2.779) (Training Delivery)
Referring to the result of Table 5, all the three constants of the predictive variables namely the
Working Tasks, Course Content and Training Delivery were found to be very significance
variables at 5% significance level (p<0.05). However, the negative sign for the Working Tasks
constant was found to be contradicted with the initial assumption of its relationship on the
effectiveness of learning transfer. This means that the higher the value of the Working Tasks in
WoCTVET 2014 | 341
the equation will result in the decrease of the trainees perception toward the Effectiveness of
Learning Transfer event to happen. Interestingly, it was found that, the rest of the constant sign
indicated that their signs were in-line with the initial relationship estimation that there is a
positive association between the effectiveness of learning transfer.
5.4 The Learning Transfer Framework
Explicitly, learning transfer can be viewed as a subconscious process within NDTS skills training
framework where trainees are continuously restructuring their old knowledge on the basis of
new experience and developing new connections between training venue and workplace. It is
very beneficial to read that the accuracy of the framework as derived from Table 4 is 79.2% and
were influenced by 15 factors that had been categorised into 3 significant dimensions as shown
in Figure 4.
Course Content
Curriculum Design
Training Delivery
Instructional Design
Transfer Design
Learning Process
Perceived Content Validity
Personal capacity for

Transfer
TRAINING
ENVIRONMENT
Opportunity to use
Learning
Transfer EffortPerformance
Expectations
WORKPLACE
Supervisor Feedback
& Performance
Coaching
Supervisor &
Manager Support
Workgroup
Support
Positive Personal
Rewards
Openness to
Change
Negative Personal
Rewards
Supervisor &
Manager
Opposition
Working Tasks
Figure 4: The Proposed Framework for Learning Transfer.

Conclusively, within this framework that includes training environment and workplace
situation, the process of learning transfer involves the appropriate selection of knowledge, skills
and attitude (KSA) to enable trainees deal with new situation that is workplace. This is
considered as iterative process, requiring the forward reaching. Apparently, forward reaching is
in the sense of looking to see the flow of learning transfer from source (NDTS training
environment) to targeted future workplace.
6. CONCLUSION
Technical education and skills training play a crucial role in developing the human capital
required to transform Malaysia into fully developed nation in year 2020. Realising this
importance, the Malaysian government has taken various measures to attract youth
participation and increasing industries involvement in skills training. Above all, NDTS does not
only prepare trainees for real world of work but more importantly, tailored to the dynamic need
of the industries by ensuring learning transfer to take place in every skills training programme
implemented. In overall, it was found that the three most important dimensions for the
WoCTVET 2014 | 342
effectiveness of learning transfer in NDTS event happened depends on Course Content, Training
Delivery and Working Tasks. Interestingly, all (100 %) first cohort of NDTS trainees (56
graduates) were all being employed by their respective companies under study. Hence, finding
of this study seems to suggest that, NDTS training has act as a very successful pre-employment
preparation programmes. In other words, the effectiveness of learning transfer in NDTS
programme in Malaysia has lead to greater employment and employability prospects of the
trainees or graduates. This mean that the acceptance of the three main companies under study
towards the NDTS graduates were very overwhelming. Therefore, one can speculate that the
provision of NDTS has recognised on the supreme role of the workplace as a very crucial
learning environment becomes apparent.
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7. Khasawneh, S.A. (2006). Construct Validation of an Arabic version of the learning transfer
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New Zealand case study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Victoria University, New
Zealand.
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Pendidikan. Jilid 27:99-108.
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GmbH, Frankfurt am Main. p. 91-103.
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12. Nielsen, K. (2009). A collaborative perspective on learning transfer. Journal of Workplace

Learning. 21(1):58-70.
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skill from a problem-based learning. Journal of Research in Education, 35(2), 303-308.
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Arizona contribution to International Encyclopedia of Education, Second Edition, Oxford,
England
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learner utility reactions and predicted learning transfer among trainees. International
Journal of Training and Development. 6(4):218-228.
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Published by UTM, Johor, Malaysia.
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Validity and Reliability Learning Transfer Item Using Rasch

Measurement Model
Ruhizan Mohd. Yasin1, Faizal Amin Nur Yunus1,2*, Ridzwan Che Rus3, Azmi Ahmad4, andMohd
Bekri Rahim2
1Faculty of Education, The National University of Malaysia, Selangor
2Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Tun Hussein Onn University, Johor
3Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Sultan Idris Education University, Perak
4Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skill Training (CIAST) Shah Alam
1 ruhizanmy@gmail.com,2faizaly@uthm.edu.my*,3ridzwan_99@yahoo.com.my
,4azmi@ciast.gov.my, 2bekri@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to produce an empirical evidence of validity and reliability of the item
using a survey questionnaire of learning transfer. Rasch model approach with aided by Winsteps
software Version 3.69.1.11 was used to examine the functional items from the reliability and
separation of item and respondent, polarity and items fit measuring constructs and standardized
residual correlation value. The questionnaire was distributed to 40 trainees from various
disciplines at the Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skill Training (CIAST) Shah Alam. The final
analysis found that a total of 16 items were eliminated and revealed 81 items that are suitable to
measure the five constructs of learning transfer.
Keywords-Learning Transfer; Validity; Reliability; Rasch Measurement Model
1. INTRODUCTION
Rasch measurement model has proven that learning transfer questionnaire has a level of validity
and reliability then be used to develop a model of learning transfer. This is because the use of
Rasch measurement model is a solution to the issue of validity as Rasch measurement model
provides useful statistics and offers a tremendous opportunity to probe the validity [6].In
addition, the application of Rasch measurement model in a study will be able to facilitate and
produce a more efficient, reliable and valid measurement while increasing convenience to user
[1].A study to identify the validity and reliability of the instrument is very important for
maintaining the accuracy of the questionnaire [2].This is necessary to determine the
questionnaire to measure what is to be measured consistently and accurately. According to
Howard and Henry [9]. consistency means that when the same item is tested several time on the
same subject at different time interval, the score result given are approximately the same. In
conclusion, the reliability is likely to provide a consistent validity.
The purpose of this study is to identify the items of learning transfer constructs for skills
training based on NOSS system. This study was performed to produce empirical evidence of the
validity and reliability of learning transfer questionnaire using Rasch measurement model. This
is because through the Rasch measurement model, it can test the consistency of interpretation of
constructs, the reliability of the items and the respondent and the accuracy of the test. Besides
that, review the appropriateness of the scale of measurement was also emphasized in the
framework of Rasch measurement model. However, for this study, the objective is to; i) test the
reliability and item separation index and the respondent; ii) detecting polarity items that
WoCTVET 2014
measure the constructs; iii) to test the item fit of the instrument items and iv) determine the
item depends on the correlation of the standardized residuals for the items on the transfer of
learning.
2. METHODOLOGY
This study employs a survey by distributing questionnaires developed as a result of qualitative
findings by adapting some transfer models such as Model Baldwin & Ford [5], the conceptual
framework of Holton et al [8]and learning space factors by Illeris [10]and Oblinger et al. [16].
The questionnaire consists of 97 items five-point likert scale that measures five major constructs
of trainee characteristics, training design, work environment, and learning transfer.
Questionnaires were distributed to 40 trainees Malaysian Skills Certificate program of the
Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skill Training (CIAST) Shah Alam. The number of
respondents in the study was adequate because according to Cooper and Schindler [7],the
number of respondents who suitable to the pilot study is between 25 to 100 people. Whereas
Johanson and Brooks [11] suggest the minimum number of 30 people for a pilot study in which
the aim is to study early or development scale. Data were analyzed with the aid of software
Winsteps Version 3.69.1.11.
3. FINDINGS
Through Rasch measurement model approach, the researchers perform examination the item
functional in terms of (i) item reliability and separation of the respondents; (ii) detecting
polarity items that measure the constructs based on the PTMEA CORR; (iii) items fit measuring
constructs and (iv) determine the item depends on the correlation of the standardized residuals.
3.1 Reliability and Separation Items
Based on Rasch measurement model approach, the acceptable reliability Cronbach's Alpha () is
between 0.71-0.99 where it is at the best level (71% - 99%) [6].The findings of the pilot study
found that the reliability obtained based on the Cronbach Alpha () is 0.96. So this value shows
instruments used are in very good condition and effectively with a high level of consistency thus
can be used in the actual research.
Analysis also performed on the instrument as a whole, namely the reliability and the separation
of the item and the respondent. Table 1.1 shows the reliability and separation items where the
reliability of the items was 0.74, while the separation of items is 1.68 when rounded off is equal
to 2.0. Based on the reliability of the items, the value of 0.74 indicates are in good condition and
acceptable [6]. While the separation of the item is 1.68 if rounded off is equal to 2.0 and this
value can still be used because it shows that the entire item is divided into 2 levels of
measurement. According to Linacre [13],the separation index is better when the value is more
than the value of 2.0.
While the reliability of the respondents is 0.94 and the separation of the respondents is
4:13.This shows that the respondents are very high reliability and very good. This is because
Bond and Fox [6]. Describes the reliability of more than 0.8 is good and stronger acceptable.
While the separation of the respondents showed a good separation of the item difficulty level
appropriate to the Linacre [13], which describes the separation of more than 2.0 is a good value.
WoCTVET 2014 | 346
Table 1.1: Reliability and Separation Item and Responden for the Entire Construct Instruments:
Pilot Study
Item
Responden
Separation
1.68
4.13
Reliability
0.74
0.94
3.2 Polarity Item by PTMEA CORR Value

Examination of the Point MeasureCorrelation (CORR PTMEA) to detect polarity items intended
to test the extent to which the construction of constructs to achieve its goal. If the value
contained in the PTMEA CORR is the positive (+), it shows the item measure the constructs to be
measured[6]. Other hand if value is negative (-), the item is not developed to measure the
constructs to be measured. Thus it need to be improved or dropped because the item is not lead
to the question (not focus) or difficult to answer by the respondent. Based on Table 1.2, there are
four items that have a negative value in the PTMEA CORR of PK64, PK65, PK66, and PK67. The
rest PTMEA CORR. are positive which indicates that the items measuring the constructs to be
measured[6]. Whereas the negative PTMEA CORR. indicates item should repaired or removed.
Thusfour items were dropped from the entire 89 item questionnaire.
The rest of PTMEA CORR. is positive despite the lowest positive value of the item PK68 (0.01)
and PK63 (0.02).This value should be considered as probable items tend to be difficult be
answered by the respondent[3]. Thus purification items should be done. However, based on
these findings show that positive items moving in one direction with construct and able to
measure constructs and does not conflict with the constructs being measured. If the PTMEA
CORR. is high, then the item is able to distinguish between respondents capability.
Table 1.2: A Part of Point Measure Correlation Value
Entry
Number
67
65
66
64
61
38
52
27
32
75
31
73
57
49
62
6
28
Point
Measure
Corr.
-.27
-.16
-.06
-.01
.27
.29
.33
.36
.43
.43
.45
.49
.19
.20
.25
.27
.28
Item
Entry
Number
PK67
PK65
PK66
PK64
PK61
RB38
PK52
RB27
RB32
RP75
RB31
RP73
PK57
PK49
PK62
CP6
RB28
68
63
26
53
27
58
18
55
70
50
74
69
59
56
37
51
11
Point
Measure
Corr.
.01
.02
.07
.19
.27
.29
.34
.40
.43
.45
.46
.35
.41
.43
.45
.47
.33
Item
PK68
PK63
RB26
PK53
RB25
PK58
CP18
PK55
PK70
PK50
RP74
PK69
PK59
PK56
RB37
PK51
CP11
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3.3 Item Fit Measure Constructs

Items fit is measuring the constructs that can be seen through the infit and outfit Mean
Square(MNSQ). According to Bond and Fox [6],the outfit and infit MNSQ should be in the range
of 0.6 to 1.4 to ensure the items are suitable for measuring the constructs.But the outfit index
MNSQ noteworthy in advance compared infit MNSQ for determining congruity of items that
measure a construct or latent variable[12]. If the infit or outfit MNSQ value more than 1.4 logit,
then it gives meaning confusing item. If the MNSQ value is less than 0.6 logit, it shows that the
item is too easily anticipated by the respondents[14]. Beside that the outfit and infit ZSTD value
should also be within -2 to +2[6]. But if the outfit and infit MNSQ be accepted, the ZSTD index can
be ignored [14].
Therefore, if this condition is not met, then the item can be considered to be removed or having
purified. Table 1.3 below shows the misfit oder featuring 14 items having the largest MNSQ and
6 items of value resulting from the smallest MNSQ item analysis statistics: misfit oder. Based on
Table 1.3, found at least 20 items that are not in the specified range and it should be purified or
dropped.Items that exceed the value of 1:40 in column outfit MNSQ isCP6(1.51), RB26(1.86),
RB27(1.46), RB28(1.75), RB38(1.72), PK49(2.42), PK58(2.11), PK62(1.51), PK63(2.81),
PK64(2.67), PK65(3.57), PK66(2.52), PK67(2.65), and PK68(1.65). Whereas a value less than 0.6
are itemCP1(0.50), CP4(0.53), RB34(0.54), RB35(0.50), RB44(0.52), and PK60(0.53). Thus from
this diagnosis, there were 15 items dropped while 5 items having purified by looking at the
needs of researchers and expertise.
Table 1.3: Item Fit Based on MNSQ Value
Entry
Number
65
63
64
67
66
49
58
26
28
38
68
6
62
27
34
4
60
44
1
35
Infit
MNSQ
3.28
2.49
2.36
2.47
2.16
1.80
1.88
1.68
1.62
1.66
1.48
1.33
1.24
1.37
.51
.54
.50
.52
.48
.47
ZSTD
6.8
4.9
4.7
5.2
4.2
2.8
3.1
2.6
2.3
2.4
1.8
1.5
1.0
1.5
-2.4
-2.3
-2.5
-2.4
-2.6
-2.7
Outfit
MNSQ
3.57
2.81
2.67
2.65
2.52
2.42
2.11
1.86
1.75
1.72
1.65
1.51
1.51
1.46
.54
.53
.53
.53
.50
.50
ZSTD
7.2
5.6
5.4
5.5
5.0
4.5
3.8
3.1
2.8
2.6
2.5
2.1
1.9
1.9
-2.3
-2.4
-2.4
-2.4
-2.6
-2.6
Items
PK65
PK63
PK64
PK67
PK66
PK49
PK58
RB26
RB28
RB38
PK68
CP6
PK62
RB27
RB34
CP4
PK60
RB44
CP1
RB35
3.4 Measurement Standardized Residual Correlations Value

The measurement of the correlation of the standardized residuals are able to detect local
dependencewhether items are dependent or not with other items. Local dependence may occur
if there is a high positive correlation values. According to Linacre [15],if the correlation of the
WoCTVET 2014 | 348
two items above 0.7, it indicates that the items are inter-dependent and singular. Thus Linacre
[15]suggest that only one item is selected to be used in the measurement. So to produce a goodquality instruments, an item should be dropped.Retention items refers to the MNSQ value,
where a value close to 1.00 will be retained[15].
Based on Table 1.4 below, there are 10 pairs of items that have a high correlation likecorrelation
value of 0.85 betweenitem PK64 with PK66, and item PK64 with PK65, on correlation value 0.82
between PK65 with PK67, on correlation value 0.79 between PK65 with PK66, on correlation
value 0.75 between PK66 with PK67, on correlation value 0.74 between RP84 with RP85 and
RP82 with RP84, on correlation value 0.72 between PK64 with PK67, on correlation value0.70
between PK63 with PK65 and on correlation value 0.69 between RB25 with RB26. This means
that these items have the same measurement meaning or incorporate other dimensions of
shared. Therefore, these items need to be addressed and have dropped one of the items for each
pair of items involved.
Table 1.4: Standardized Residual Correlation Largest item
Correlation
Entry Number
MNSQ Outfit
Result
Entry Number
MNSQ Outfit
Result
.85
.85
.82
.79
.75
.74
.74
.72
.70
.69
PK64
PK64
PK65
PK65
PK66
RP4
RP82
PK64
PK63
RB25
2.67
2.67
3.57
3.57
2.52
0.90
1.05
2.67
2.81
1.26
remove
remove
remove
remove
remove
remove
retained
remove
remove
retained
PK66
PK65
PK67
PK66
PK67
RP85
RP84
PK67
PK65
RB26
2.52
3.57
2.65
2.52
2.65
1.01
0.90
2.65
3.57
1.86
remove
remove
remove
remove
remove
retained
remove
remove
remove
remove
If referred to MNSQ value such items are involved, then the item should be removed onlyRB26,
PK63, PK64, PK65, PK66, PK67, and RP84. Selection of items to be removed should also be
aligned with the items removed based on negative PT MEASURE CORR. value as discussed on the
previous analysis. Yet MNSQ value closest to 1:00 has been retained which are item RB25, RP82,
and RP85.
4. DISCUSSION
After data analysis, revision of each item is done by following the standard index and the
conditions that must be followed to achieve the standards of validity and reliability of the
instrument based on the Rasch measurement model. The removal and the purification items
done by referring and consider the views and expert evaluation.
Based on the results obtained, there are 16 items that do not meet the requirements analysis
and should be removed.Whereas8 items having purified appropriate to the context and
significance of the study. Overall summary related items in the questionnaire are shown in Table
1.5 below.
WoCTVET 2014 | 349
Table 1.5: Summary of Items Dropped and Retained

Construct
Retained
Item
B. Trainee
characteristic
(CP)
B2, B3, B4,

B5, B7, B8,
B9,
B10,
B11,B12,
B13,
B14,
B15,
B16,
B17,
B18,
B19,B20.
B21,
B22,
B23,
C24,
C25,
C29,
C30,
C31,
C32,
C33,
C34, , C36,
C37,
C39,
C40,
C41,
C42,
C43,
C45,
C46,
C47, C48
D50,
D51,
D52,
D53,
D54,
D55,
D56,D57,
D58,
D59,
D61,D62,
D68,
D69,
D70,
D71,
D72,
E73,
E74,
E75,
E76,
E77,
E78,
E79,
E80,
E81,
E82,
E83, E85
F86,F87,
F88,
F89,
F90,
F91,
F92,
F93,
F94,
F95,
F96, F97
C. Training
Design (RB)
D.
Work
Environment
(PK)
E. Learning
Spaces (RP)
F. Learning
Transfer
(PP)
TOTAL
Total
Items
Retaine
d
21
81
Item
Droppe
d
B1, B6
Total
Item
Droppe
d
2
19
C26,
C27,
C28,
C35,
C38,
C44
17
D49,
D60,
D63,
D64,
D65,
D66,
D67
12
E84.
12
None
16
Based on this research, it can be concluded that the validity and reliability are very important
aspect to consider in developing a new instrument for a study. Overall from this analysis found
16 items were dropped are questionable items on validity and reliability.
By using the reliability items and respondent test indicate that the set of questionnaires is valid
and reliable to measure learning transfer. Thus, there is no mismatch of items and respondent
(over 50% fit) found during the process of data analysis. This is because the advantages of using
Rasch model measurement is the ability to identify the fitness of items and respondents.
According to Bond and Fox [6]this method can identify the difficulty level of items and the ability
of the respondents. Then the problematic questionnaire itemscan be improved or removed to
WoCTVET 2014 | 350
ensure that it measure the constructs-constructs. Thus the result obtained related to the
construct reliability and validity of this questionnaire is acceptable to answer the research
question.
5. CONCLUSION
Thus based on the examination of the validity and reliability of these instruments, these
instruments indicate the quality of the fit to be used by trainees. The implications of this analysis
help researchers in developing learning transfer model for skills training based on NOSS system
and learning in the workplace. This is the first step in ensuring transfer of learning can take
place effectively thus helping all parties involved in producing highly skilled workers.
REFERENCES
1. Abdul Aziz, A., Arshad, A., Zakaria & N, Masodi, S. (2007). Appraisal of Course Learning
Outcomes Using Rasch Model: A Case Study in Information Technology Education.
International Journal of Systems Applications, Engineering and Development,Vol. 1.(4).
2. Ariffin, S. R., Omar, B., Isa, A., & Sharif, S. (2010). Validity and reliability multiple intelligent
item using rasch measurement model. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 9,
pp.729-733.
3. Azman Hasan (2011). Kesahan Dan Kebolehpercayaan Item Penilaian Pembimbing Dalam
Pembelajaran Berasaskan Kerja (PBK) Menggunakan Model Pengukuran Rasch. USM,
Psychometrics Centre, MIMOS & Malaysian Examination Syndicate, MOE.
4. Azmi Ahmad, Wan Mohd Rashid Wan Ahmad, Zakaria Kasa, Gessler, M., & Spo ttll, G.
(2010).Effectiveness of learning transfer in the National Dual Training System (NDTS) in
Malaysia. Paper presented at the Persidangan Kebangsaan Pendidikan Kejuruteraan dan
Keusahawanan 2010, Kota Bahru, Kelantan.
5. Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J.K. (1988). Transfer of Training: A Review and Direction for Future
Research. Personnel Psychology, Vol. 41(1), pp. 63-105.
6. Bond, Trevor G, & Fox, Christine M. (2007). Applying the Rasch Model: Fundamental
Measurement in the Human Sciences.
7. Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2011). Business research methods (11th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
8. Holton, E. F., Bates, R. A. & Ruona, W. E. A. (2000). Development of a Generalized Learning
Transfer System Inventory. Human Resource Development QuarterlyVol. 11(4).pp.333-360.
9. Howard, W. & Henry, I.B. Test Validity. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Publishers.
10. Illeris, K. (2004). Adult Education and Adult Learning. Roskilde University Press.
11. Johanson, G.A., & Brooks, G.P. (2010). Initial scale development: sample size for pilot
studies. Educational And Psychological Measurement, Vol.70(3), pp. 394-400.
12. Kashfi Mohd Jailani (2011). Manual Pengenalan Pengukuran Rasch & Winstep. Pengukuran
dan Penilaian dalam Pendidikan. Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
WoCTVET 2014 | 351
13. Linacre, J. M. (2005). Test validity, and Rasch measurement: Construct, content, etc. Rasch
measurement transactions.
14. Linacre, J. M. . (2007). A users guide to WINDTEPS Rasch-model computer programs.
Chicago, Illinois: MESA Press.
15. Linacre, J.M. (2010). Users guide to Winsteps Ministep Rasch-Model Computer
Programs.Avialable at: http://www.winsteps.com/winman/ (Accessed 15 March 2011).
16. Oblinger, D. G., Lomas, C. & Educause. (2006). Student Practices and Their Impact on
Learning Spaces.
WoCTVET 2014 | 352
Dimension of Learning Styles And Students Academic Achievement

Norasyikin Omar1,Mimi Mohaffyza Mohamad2, AiniNazura Paimin3, Yee Mei Heong4 and 5Tee Tze
Kiong
1,2,3,4Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, UniversitiTun Hussein Onn Malaysia
5Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Sultan Idris Education University
1syikinomar84@gmail.com,2mimi@uthm.edu.my, 3nazura@uthm.edu.my,
4mhyee@uthm.edu.my, 5tktee@fptv.upsi.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Individual learning styles are varying according to the tendency of each individual. An
appropriate learning style will help students to achieve good academic record in any concept on
a subject they learned. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the relationship between
student achievement and learning style for technical and non technical subject. A total of 288
students of Diploma in Electrical Engineering in Malacca have been involved in the study. Felder
& Silverman model is used as the basis for this study and Solomon Felder Learning Style Index is
a research instrument. Result showed that electrical engineering students have an active type of
learning style for the first dimension, the sensing of the second dimension, visual for the third
dimension, and sequence for the fourth dimension. The result point out, there is no significant
relationship between the dimensions of learning styles and academic achievement in the subject
of Electrical Technology and there is no significant relationship between academic achievement
of the subject Polibriged and patterns except for the second dimension. In conclusion, learning
style is not the main factors to enhance students achievement, but it can be used to identify the
tendency of learning styles possessed by students.
Keywords: Learning Styles, Academic Achievement, Technical and Non-Technical
1. INTRODUCTION
Students learning is influenced by a few factors. The basic issues of student learning as explored
from group of researchers [1] including home background, learning environment, and
government policies [2]. Another research indicates that family background factors determined
academic performance [1] and [3] Azizi claimed that learning styles influenced a students
academic performance. Francis and Segun[4] concluded that the school environment and
teacher-related factors
were the dominant factors influencing achievements, especially if the student was highly selfmotivated. Learners must observe and experience the required cognitive processes to learn
them and know how, where, and when to use them.. Proponents of learning styles maintain that
adapting classroom teaching methods to suit students preferred styles of learning improves the
educative process [5]. However, opponents of learning style theories maintain that little
empirical evidence is to support this proposition learning styles involved strategies that
students tend to apply to a given teaching situation. Each individual can fit different styles that
can result in students adopting attitudes and behaviors that are repeated in different situations.
There are various filed of education has been selected by students to further their study.
Technical and vocational education (TVE) nowadays is one of student choices to start their
WoCTVET 2014
carrier path. Polytechnic is one of the technical institutions which issupply of human capital that
meets the needs of the industry. The curriculum structure in polytechnics most in technical
fields due to the monopoly of the major programs in polytechnic education is in engineering.
Technical based subjects categorized as academic subjects. According toother research [6],
based on technical subjects evaluated through several phases of evaluation including continuous
assessment in the form of a written test covering theory, quizzes and group discussions as well
as practical and academic subjects categorized as technical as assessed through examination.
Non-academic subjects based on the technical curriculum also assessed through examinations
overall assessment involves several phases including continuous assessment which includes
practical, quizzes, written tests, presentations, tutorials and problem-based learning [7].
Therefore, this study also conducted to identify relationship between these factors. A slightly
different approach in this study is the relationship between learning styles and achievement of
technical subjects and nontechnical subjects based on Felder Silverman Learning Style Model
(FLSM).
Low performance in academic achievement especially technical subject and non-technical
subjects can be a major cause of student dropout in working sector in the future. The
relationship between two subjects will equip students ready to face any challenges in their
career. This study applied Felder Silverman Learning Styles Model to see the pattern of learning
styles for students in electrical engineering at the polytechnic and to investigate the relationship
between model elements Felder and academic achievement of selected technical subjects of
Technology in Electrical and non-technical subjects;Polibridged 1. The conceptual framework as
illustrated in Figure 1.
FLSM
Dimensions
Processing
Perception
Input
Active, Reflective
Sensing , Intuitive
Verbal, Visual
Understanding
Students
Achievement
(Electrical
Engineering)
-technical &
non-technical
subject
(Polibridged)
Understanding
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

The objectives of this study are:
1. To know patterns of student learning styles polytechnic engineering diploma.
2. To identify the relationship between Felder Silverman learning style and academic
achievement of students in technical subjects at polytechnics.
3. To identify the relationship between Felder Silverman learning style and academic
achievement of students in non-technical subjects at the polytechnic.
WoCTVET 2014 | 354
2. RESEARCH METHODS
This study applied quantitative research which the researcher decided what to study; ask
specific, narrow questions; collect quantifiable data from participants; analyzes these numbers
using statistic and conduct the inquiry in unbiased, objective manner [8]. The Index of Learning
Style proposed by Felder Solomon [9] and questionnaires developed by researcher were used in
this study. Reliability of the instruments was made through pilot studies.
The population consisted of students of Diploma in Electrical Engineering at the Polytechnic in
Melaka.. The process of selecting a number of subjects from a population to serve as respondents
categorized as sampling study [10].The sample consisted of semester 2 Diploma in Electrical
Engineering in Electrical Technology subject and Polibriged (non-technical) who have been
seated the examination of the subject for the session 2013/2014. There are 288 students
involved in this study.
This study used Index of Learning Styles (ILS) by Felder and Solomon [9][11].ILS consist 44
questions represent four dimension of learning styles by Felder and Silverman. To measure
students achievement, the examination results were used as data in this study. The results
obtained by the examination unit polytechnic. Table 1 shows the division of each question (..).
3. RESULT
i.
Patterns of student learning styles polytechnic engineering diploma?
Table 1 shows the ILS represent each items of learning styles. The item group based on what
learner prefer to choose when process the information in their learning based on FSLSM.
Table 1: Index of Learning Styles
Learning
Style
Active
Reflective
Sensing
Intuitive
Visual
Verbal
Sequential
Global
Item Group
Questions
Trying something out

Social oriented
Think about material
Impersonal oriented
1,17,25,29
5,9,13,21,33,37,41
1,4,17,25,29
9,13,21,33,37,
41
2,30,34
6,10,14,18,26,38
22,42
2,14,22,26,30,34
6.10.18,38
42
3,7,11,15,19,23,
27,31,35,39,43
3,7,15,19,27,35
3,7,11,23,31,39
43
Existing ways
Concrete material
Careful with details
New ways
Abstract material
Not careful with detail
Pictures
Spoken words
Written words
Difficulty with visual
style
Detail oriented
Sequential progress
From parts to the
whole
Overall picture
Non-sequential
progress
Relations/connections
4,28,40
20,24,32,36,44
8,12,16
4,8,12,16,28,40
24,32
20,36,44
WoCTVET 2014 | 355
90
80
Respondents (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41
active
80 23 79 80 51 66 61 73 60 69 74
reflective 20 77 22 20 49 34 39 27 40 31 26
Respondents (%)
Figure 2: Processing Dimension

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42
Sensing 41 68 30 44 80 48 34 58 61 56 63
Intutive 59 32 71 56 21 52 66 42 39 44 37
Respondents (%)
Figure 3: Perception Dimension

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
7 11 15 19 23 27 31 35 39 43
Visual 87 77 80 59 80 62 65 69 67 83 76
Verbal 13 23 21 41 21 38 35 31 33 17 24
Figure 4: Input Dimension
WoCTVET 2014 | 356
Respondents(%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
Sequential 41 39 48 76 66 68 39 55 68 73 62
Global
59 62 52 24 34 32 61 45 32 27 39
Figure 5: Understanding Dimension

ii.
Relationship between Felder Silverman learning style and academic achievement of

students in technical subject at polytechnics.
Table 2: Correlation between Learning Styles and Technical Subject
Pearson
Correlation
Learning Styles
Active
Reflective
0.040
Sensing
Intuitive
-0.047
Visual
Verbal
0.003
Sequential
Global
-0.068
0.495
0.428
0.961
0.252
288
288
288
288
*correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
iii.
Relationship between Felder Silverman learning style and academic achievement of

students in non-technical subjects at the polytechnic
Table 3: Correlation between Learning Styles and Non-Technical Subject
Pearson
Correlation
Learning Styles
Active
Reflective
-0.030
Sensing
Intuitive
0.193
Visual
Verbal
0.066
Sequential
Global
0.041
0.616
0.001
0.264
0.488
288
288
288
288
*correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
WoCTVET 2014 | 357
4. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION

Research shows the combination of active, sensing, visual and sequential are learning styles that
electrical engineering students prefer to learn. This finding supported by other researchers
[11].The visual styles is the most preferences among engineering students and they like to learn
with graphic, chart and discussion each others to more understand and memorize what they had
learned.
From the analysis of the four dimensions of the Felder-Silverman learning model Learning Style
of active and reflective, sensing and intuitive, visual and verbal, and global with academic
achievement of students in technical subjects in Electrical Technology (ET101), the relationship
between learning styles academic achievement for the subject ET101 than significant level
selected, and this shows that there is no significant relationship between students' learning
styles Diploma in Electrical Engineering with a student's academic achievement for technical
subjects. This study proved that learning styles practiced by engineering students in the
polytechnic does not affect the academic achievement of engineering students in the polytechnic.
The analysis of the four dimensions of the Felder-Silverman learning model Learning Style of
sensing and intuitive, visual-verbal and sequential-global with academic achievement of
students in non-technical subjects Polibriged (AR101).Active-reflective dimension, visual-verbal
and global structured-show no significant relationship with achievement of the subject AR101
except for the relationship between learning styles and intuitive sensitivity that shows the
relationship to be significant. Soft skills are divided into seven elements and elements that have
been selected for implementation at the Institute of Higher Education (IHE) is the
communication skills, critical thinking and problem solving skills, teamwork skills, learning and
information management, entrepreneurial skills, professional ethics and moral and leadership
skills [12].
As conclusion, this study was conducted to identify either students learning styles could affect
students academic achievement and the quality of TVE graduate to fulfill job requirement. This
study also will identify balanced generation of soft skills and academic achievement.
Investigating students learning styles will assist teachers, lecturer and educators to plan their
teaching delivery match with students characteristic.
REFERENCES
1. Muhammad A.Yinusa and Akanle O.Basil (2008).Socio Economic Factors Influencing
Students Academic Performance in Nigeria. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences 5 (4): pp
319-323
2. Martins Fabumi, Peter Brai-Abu and Isaiah Adeyinka Adenji (2007). Class Factors as
Determinants of Secondary School Students Academic Performance in Oyo State. Journal of
Social Science.,14(30 : pp 243-247
3. Azizi Hj. Yahaya, Yusof Boon, Shahrin Hashim, Wan Zuraidah Wan Hamid (2003).
KajianHubungan
Gaya
Pembelajaran
Dengan
Pencapaian
Akademik
PelajarTingkatanEmpat Sekolah Menengah Teknik Negeri Sembilan. (KertaskerjaNegeri
Sembilan. (Paper presented in Seminar Memperkasakan Sistem Pendidikan, 19-21 Oktober
2003
WoCTVET 2014 | 358
4. Francis, A.A and Segun, M.O (2008). Student, Teacher and School Environment Factor as
Determinations of Achievement in Senior Secondary School Chemistry in Oyo State
Nigeria.The Journal Of International Social ResearchVolume 1/2 Winter. pp13-34
5. Felder, R. M (1993). Reaching the second tier- Learning and Teaching Styles in College
Science Education. Journal of College Science Teaching. 23 (5), pp 286-290
6. Ismail, N.W. & Haron, A. (2012). Students handbook session 2012/2013 Politeknik
Seberang
Perai.
Retreived
on
December
7,
2013
http://www.psp.edu.my/pspweb/images/buletin/student%20handbook%20jk
7. Mohd Ghazali, S.N. & Azmi, N. (2011). Politeknik Muadzam Shah lesson plan, code
course AR101 Polibriged. Retreived on December 7, 2013;
and
8. http://www.scribd.com/doc/131963423/77017709-Rp-Ar101-Polibriged-r1
9. Creswell, J.W (2005). Educational Research: Planning,
10. Conducting and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 2nd Edition. Pearson
Merrill Prentice Hall
11. Felder, R.M and Soloman B.A (1997), Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire. Retrieved 31
July 2010 from http:www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html
12. Chua, Y.P. (2006). Kaedah dan Statistik Penyelidikan, Asas Kaedah Penyelidikan. Kuala
Lumpur : Mc Graw-Hill.
13. Mohamad, M.M., Yee, M.H., Muhmad, H.N., and Tee, T.K.. (2014) Disparity of Learning Styles
and Cognitive Abilities in Vocational Education.
14. International Journal of Social, Human Science and Engineering, Vol 8, No 1; 2014 (page 69).pISSN2010-376x, eISSN2010-3778
15. Hussin, H., Zakaria, A. .& Salleh, M.S. (2008).Memperkasakan Mahasiswa Kejuruteraan
Menerusi Penerapan Kemahiran Insaniah (Soft Skills). Kelantan : Uitm.
WoCTVET 2014 | 359
Improvement of Students Teachers Competence

Through Retooling Learning Organization in Business & Industry
(Study on Mechanical Student Teacherss at FTVE UPI)
Masriam Bukit*) , Ashari Johar**), and Iwa Kuntadi***)
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.
masriambukit@yahoo.com & agus_setiawan@upi.edu
ABSTRACT
TVET has proven to be essential in promoting economic growth and the socio-economic
development through knowledge based workers who are competence, adaptive, and innovative.
To be able to achieve knowledge based workers each country requires to develop its TVET
capacity continously. TVET teachers are increasingly involved in the shaping of TVET capacity,
both the system and the processes according to the needs of society and economy. Preparing the
competent teachers or instructors for TVET system presents a complex set of problems and
opportunities that have been only partially solved and not given maximum learning advantage,
particularly with respect to the learning opportunity through the real work or industry. This
study aims to determine the form of the organization of learning in the business or industry that
covers all aspects of planning, implementation and evaluation, as well as determination to
policies related to the partnership between FTV and the business or industry. This study used a
descriptive research method. The result was conluded that lecturers had not yet performed
effective monitoring and promoted intensive learning through collaboration with industry
mentors in order to determine students' performance in improving the competence areas of
expertise. Aspects of tools and facilities to support the effectiveness of learning facilities in the
idustry learning processes had not also been supported. To form the organization of learning in
the business or industry should be based on production needs, so that the work experience
obtained while students performing learning in the industry could add values to the
improvement of student teachers expertise in the field of mechanical engineering education.
Keywords: Competent, Learning Organization, Business And Industry
1. BACKGROUND
The quality of competent graduates is largely determined by the quality of the learning process.
The learning process encapsulated by the demands of the curriculum will produce quality
graduates who are competent. Competence of graduates into successful learning benchmarks for
the implementation of the curriculum.
Institute of Teacher Education-Faculty of Technology and Vocational Education (LPTKs-PTKs)
have a role in producing professional educators in the field of vocational technology education.
LPTK - PTK must have a reliable identity to anticipate the turbulence of growing needs of the
community. In implementing their roles, LPTKs-PTK should have promoted cooperation with all
the stakeholders of LPTKs-PTK, Business and Industry and other communities as well.
The Ongoing collaboration is as a center for interactions between the world of business or
industry and higher education. Then, the open mindedness of the business or industry is
necessary, so that the world of education and business cooperationcooperates well with each
WoCTVET 2014
other.Through the comprehensive cooperation program between the stakeholders and LPTKs TOD, it is expected that the quality of LPTKs - TOD graduates can be improved and professional
teachers can be realized by itself .
Mechanical Engineering study program as part of LPTKs - PTK in its role has been producing
graduates, prospective teachers, of engineering education who are professional, so the lecturers
of mechanical engineering are required to keep abreast of the demands of the field. It is intended
for them to improvise engineering education and innovation in the lecture and adapt to the
conditions of the development of science and technology. Lecturers in mechanical engineering
education are required to have professional competence as mandated by teachers and lecturers
law no. 14/2005 article 45 that faculty must have academic qualifications, competence,
teaching certificate, physical and spiritual health, and meet the other qualifications required by
the higher education as unit in charge, and have the ability to achieve national education goals ".
The professional lecturer impact, will contribute directly to the quality of teaching/lecturing, so
that the quality of graduates is no longer an expectation, but a reality of a curricular goals. But
until now in terms of student competency areas of expertise that approximately 48 % of
students is in the category of need of adjustment or adaptation to the new technologies, for
learning in campus can not be supported because of limited facilities. Besides, the low
adjustment of the faculty Staffs in renewable the technology mastery has led to the
incomprehence of the material substances that finally affects the quality of the course.
Some steps must be done so the development of quality human resources and the quality of
teacher training institutions as producers of engineering education graduates has not been
decreased. Deepening and development of both students and faculty competence must be
sustainable, given that the competence forms as the basis of professionalism. It is impossible to
have professional prospective teachers in the field of mechanical engineering without having to
adaptively superior applicative and predictive competence.Another fact is that the contribution
of business and industry in the development of vocational education is still low. This is caused
by the absence of LPTKs-PTKs partnership patterns with business or industry, and also
community organizations. Meanwhile, education cannot stand alone and apart from its
association with the world of business and industry, as well as from the process of education,
educators and their students. To anticipate the further gap that occurs between the demands
and the actual facts, analytic - progressive collaborative steps should be done. One step is in
the form of a study of learning in the world of business and industry in the form of collaboration
between mechanical engineering study programs with business or industry as an effort to
improve the competence of students as prospective teacher of mechanical engineering
education.
2. PROBLEM FORMULATION
In-depth review of the implementation of learning in the business or industry for the
implementation of the curriculum of mechanical engineering education department is needed to
improve the organization of the learning process in order to obtain the expected results. Certain
models and approaches need to be optimally designed and developed so that the results can be
used as a foundation both conceptually and operationally. Based on the exposure of the
problems the author intends to study the fundamental problem of "how can learning in the
business or industry improve the expertise competence of prospective student teachers in
Mechanical Engineering Education?.
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The purpose of this research is:
a. Getting data on the form of progress implementation of learning in the business or
industry, in these following aspects: planning, implementation and evaluation.
b. Obtaining data on the policies related to partnerships shaped between LPTKs - PTK with
business or industry, which include:
1. The establishment of a system that regulates synergistic partnerships with business and
industry to increase the relevance of graduates with the needs of business and industry.
2. The optimization of the funds utilization of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) for the
field of education.
3. The establishment of a system that regulates synergistic partnerships with community
organizations such as the implementation of LPTKs - PTK with professional
organizations such as the preparation of professional certification programs.
4. The establishment of a partnership mechanism between the Directorate of Higher
Education and LPTKs-TOD with businesses to develop quality education and training.
5. The encouragement of learning in the business or private industry to build educational
institutions and training specifically related to the human resources needs.
6. 6) The utilization of the potential that exists in the community, business and industry to
improve the quality of vocational education.
4. RESEARCH METHODS
This study used a descriptive research approach. This relates to the general purpose of research
that is to gain an overview of the condition that is really going on. Based on the research
objectives in this study, the method used in this research was descriptive research method
The location was the place where the research was carried out. The study was conducted at the
Department of Mechanical Engineering Education, Faculty of Technology and Vocational
Education, Indonesia University of Education. The subjects were students who had been
carrying out learning in the business and industrial world (industry practice)
5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Discussion of the results of this study was intended to provide an overview, clarity and
understanding of the results obtained in this study. Discussion of the results of the study was
based on survey data exposure.
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1. Forms of learning progress implementation in the business or industry covered aspects of

planning, implementation and evaluation
a. Planning Learning in the Business or Industry
The planning stage is the initial stage in a program, and it is also including in the business or
industry learning programs. The success of a program is preceded by good planning. In business
or industry learning programs, Steps are begun with the planning objectives of the program,
then the preparation program, dissemination and debriefing, as well as placement.
Based on the results of data processing research it was found that PPDU / DI planning lied in the
purpose of PPDU/DI for students to meet the competencies, through applying competence that
can foster work ethic, while the industry was a CSR program and service activities in the field of
education.
Judging from the elements involved in the activities of PPDU/DI, there are 3 (three) elements
involved namely: Faculty or Department, Students and the World of Business and Industry
(Dunia Usaha=DU or Dunia Industri=DI). Synchronization of the purpose of those three elements
is very necessary; in order to PPDU/DI goals could be clearly and firmly formulated, and agreed
upon by the educational institutions and DUor DI. The clarity formulation of the goals of
PPDU/DI will also provide the clarity on the program and its implementation.
In arranging the program it was found that: 1) The Committee was not known to all students. 2)
Analysis of competence achievement of learning outcomes in the course diPPDU / DI was
unclear. 3) Not all the students had a suitable place that was in accordance with the expertise
competencies of their department. 4) The PPDU/DI had not been fully cooperative with the
majors. 5) Students found their own place for PPDU/DI programs. 6) The time and length of
PPDU/DI program implementation was unclear.
Based on the presentation of the research findings was on the lack of analysis of competency
achievement of learning outcomes, this will give the effect of goal attainment of PPDU/DI can not
be optimally carried out, since one of the PPDU/DI goals was the fulfillment of competence, as it
was revealed in the DIT . PSMK (2008:3) "for the sake of the fulfillment of competencies, then it
was performed an analysis of the overall competence based learning facilities needed ". Because
it did not accomplish the analysis of learning outcomes, resulting in the possibility of
competencies that should be obtained by the students during participatin in the PPDU/DI
programs was not available; it could also be due to the place of PPDU/DI that was still
inappropriate.
The incompatibility of PPDU/DI place would affect the specific competencies acquired by the
students; it is in accordance with the principles of vocational education (proposed by Charles
Prosser) in one of the principles of learning that learning will be "efficient if the environment in
which students are trained is a replica environmentwhere the students later work". In addition,
one learning model that supports the implementation of the PPDU/DI is work based learning
(WBL) where it was stated that the model of work-based learning according to the Ministry of
Education (2003:11) in Komalasari (2011:80) has been suggested that
"Work-based learning is a strategy that allows students to use of learning in the workplace
context studying school -based learning materials and how those materials are used back in the
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workplace or the like and various activities combined with the subject matter for the benefit of
students"
This means that the mapping of the world of work should be done in order to conform to the
suitability of PPDU/DI places for students
b. Implementation of Learning in the Business or Industry
The process of the implementation of PPDU/DI includes student submission to the DU/DI,
monitoring, provisioning and supervising. The students came to the PPDU/DI place without
official submission and without being escorted by the supervisor. The monitoring of PPDU/ DI
made when implementing the practice. Monitoring was conducted three (3) times during the
PPDU/DI activity and made only by the industry; the Faculty/Department never came to do the
monitoring. Initial debriefing, not all students were given a briefing by the industry before
implementing direct practice. Not all students got the direct supervision from both departments
as well as industry. And during the practice of PPDU/DI programs not all students claimed to be
guided by mentors from the industry. Industry gave a briefing on safety, theory of industrial
field, SOP (Standard Operating Procedure) and the rules that should be abided by the whole
staffs in the company. The process was done by a guidance counselor for three (3) students. The
supervisor tasks were directing, informing and teachingvarious things happening in the
industrial works.
Based on the findings during the implementation process, the deficiencies in the process
implementation of PPDU/DI was monitoring from the faculty, so there was no record in
controlling the students increase in competence, in addition to the lack of monitoring, it was led
also to the communication between faculty and the industry that become unwell established.
Ideally the monitoring was carried out and used as a means of checking the competency
mastered by students during the PPDU/ DI. In the provisioning and monitoring stages were
carried out only by the industry.
Implementation of Work. Work implementation during the PPDU/DI program covers work
preparation, work processes and work attitude. 1) Preparation of work; Not entirely students
conducted work preparation such as arriving early and doing preparatory work such as
preparing the work equipment, cleaning and preparing work place and workpiece. 2) The
working process; Not all students did the work in accordance with the steps set out by the
company work and also accordance to their competency. 3) Work attitude; not entirely students
carried out the provisions that apply in any job.
The implementation of jobs that did not allow all students to do what had been determined by
the competence of corporate so the attainment was not optimal. To optimize the implementation
of work practicum in the industry (prakerin), both faculty and DU/DI should start
collaboratively to formulate the preparation, implementation and evaluation as well. PPDU/DI is
a form that combines the provision of education in a systematic and synchronous education
programs within the faculties or departments with the mastery of competencies acquired in the
PPDU/ DI. In practice, however, the communication is not actually established properly so the
achievement of competencies as required could not be optimally obtained. The absence or lack
of synchronization of learning was because the PPDU/DI planning was separately formulated
and did not involve the industry in managing PPDU/DI prigrams.
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c. Evaluation of Learning in the Business or Industry

Not all of the students could complete the work on time according to the conditions set by the
industry. The increased job competence had not been felt yet by the student after the student
participated in the PPDU/DI programs. However, when observed from the results of students
works in accordance with the time period that has been specified were quite very good in terms
of quality. At the end of the program students work reports were submitted to the industry. The
assessment was conducted on each job done by the student and also at the end of practicum
programs, but also it had not been effectively implemented.
Assessment is an attempt to interpret measurement results by comparing them with certain
agreed benchmark, while certification is a process of recognition of one's expertise and
competence in performing specific tasks through a process of work skills testing system, which
refers to the applicable standards and recognized expertise conformed by the work place or
employment (Department of Education, 1997) . In the PPDU/DI implementation, the assessment
carried out on each fulfilled and expected job performance can be proved by the PPDU/DI
certificate given by the industry. But this time after the PPDU/DI implementation, there was no
special evaluation to test the ability of the student after the program. This was unfortunate
because (1) the ideally increased ability of the students after doing the program can not be very
well scaled, and (2) feedback for the implementation of the next PPDU/DI period were not also
available.
d. Lecturer Task Implementation
Most of the lecturers carried out the task of students supervision in the industry learning were
still not yet innovative, done through the following routines: 1) conducting a briefing only in
campus before the students implementing the industry learning programs, 2) delegating
students to the industry, and 3) guiding the writing of the report, 4) implementing the process of
seminar of the results of the students learnning in the industry. These duties have not seen any
renewal or innovation related to the implementation of learning in order to improve the
competence areas of productive expertise.
Lecturers have not yet facilitated intensive monitoring processes in order to have understanding
to the whole performances of the students in the industry so as to improve students
competence in their field or expertise. The faculty lecturers did not also collaborate with the
industry mentors to perform sampling tests sampling when some of the students carried out
their works in the industry.
e. Related Stakeholders Participation and Support
Forms of participation and real support from industry (stakeholders) associated with the
learning in the business or industry has largely shown significant supports, by providing
facilities and opportunities, as well as guidance to the learning in the business or industry.
Moreover, the learning in the business and industry has also provided opportunities for the
implementation of the competency test and expertise certification as well. However, the further
expectation has been largely lied in the partnership collaboration between LPTKs-PTKs and the
worlds of business and industry so as to create the most relevant and innovative learning for
both capacities in all stages of learning or education, beginning from planning and developing
curriculum, learning implementation, evaluation, as well as the of the graduate recruitment
efforts in both parties or institutions.
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f. Supports of Learning Tool and Facilities

The availability of learning tools as main facility in learning in the business or industry is highly
adequate. Learning tools and facilities support the effectiveness of the learning process. Machine
tools and other workpieces have generally supported to the fulfillment of quality standards to
produce the products.
2. Policy Partnership between LPTKs - PTKs and DU/DI
Based on the interview related to the system that regulates the industry partnerships to
improve the relevance of graduates with the needs of DU/DI had got a variety of responses from
the industry, there were those who have a system that did not exist also had a partnership
system. For systems that had a partnership, the application of the system such as coaching
seminars held by both parties (DU/DI and colleges). However, from the results of the interview,
for the system of partnerships, DU/DI has not yet established partnerships with LPTKs-PTKs but
with universities outside LPTKs-PTKs such as ITB, ubuntu, Unpas and some vocational schools.
The Optimizing of the utilization of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) funds for the field of
education has been utilized for procurements of training, prakerin, research and observation.
But for most companies which are state-owned enterprises, the CSR fund is constrained by its
procedures. There is no intention for the preparation of professional certification programs with
LPTK, because the professional certification program was more devoted and dedicated to the
employees of the company.
To establish cooperation or partnership for the development of quality education and training
within Higher Education levels, LPTK and Industry, then there should be clear MOU to tighten
the collaboration, so the maximum synchronization among those three institutions could be
ochieved. As for the industry plans to build specialized education and training related to the
needs of human resources were not still exist, but it has become a discourse for the future,
because there must be regeneration, then, such trainings were still required.
6. CONCLUSION
In general, it can be concluded that the prospective teacher education have run the machine
learning techniques in business and industry, hereinafter called the industrial world. But there is
still a gap that separates the industry based learning in the curriculum demands of vocational
teacher candidates, in the implementation of learning in the industry. Many things affect
learning in industry, research result above shows that the learning effectivity in the industry is
strongly influenced by the readiness of the engineering courses and the readiness of the industry
as well as the coordination between the engineering courses and the industry.
Although the implementation of policies and programs of the business or industry, including
policies relating to partnerships between vocational teacher education institutions and industry,
and in particular, for the development of vocational education, both management have been on
the right track, but this study shows that the industry is still hard and serious learning that
require full attention, careful maintenance, as well as the strong commitment from the whole
stakeholders within engineering education department within the faculty and industry.
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Furthermore, this study shows that the management of learning in the industry, especially
covering the planning, implementation, and evaluation of learning is not sufficient to require a
serious revamping. Regarding the planning of learning, this study showed a weakness in the
planning of mechanical engineering education department, lack of readiness on the part of
industry, as well as poor coordination between industry and the mechanical engineering
education department.
Weaknesses in aspects of planning in the department of mechanical engineering education were
the lack of briefing in the industry learning program so it is not in accordance with the demands
of prospective vocational teachers. There does not appear that there is adequate coordination
with the industry related to the type and level of skill that needs to be given to the students. The
situation is getting worse because more students are given the freedom to find their own place
for their industry learning practice. This reflects that the study program is not intended to
control the mechanical engineering students specific works in the department of mechanical
engineering industry. It means that there is still lack of control in competence needed to be
studied by students in the industry learning.
In terms of the implementation of learning, this study concludes that the mechanical engineering
department rarely does the monitoring, so the weaknesses or other negative case could not be
immediately repaired, so types of tasks and their procedural processes in the industry practices
were still not appropriate. It is very difficult for the department of mechanical engineering to
determine whether the student learning participated in the industry has been in syncronous
with the demands of the competence of a candidate for vocational teachers.
In connection to the evaluation of learning, both parties and the department of industrial
machinery almost never do the assessment practices in the industry. Nevertheless, the students
thought that learning in the industry at least had experienced on how to work in the industry.
They had studied the work culture though not industrial vocational competence. From this study
indicated that learning practices in the industry that took place during the study, were more
likely oriented to formal academic eligibility of students and not to increase the competence of
students.
In connection to the partnership between the department of mechanical engineering and the
industry, this study shows that the department of mechanical engineering is not maximal in
increasing partnerships with industry. On the other hand, the industry's lack of opportunity to
understand the needs of learning in industry for vocational teacher candidates is still also lack.
The department of mechanical engineering students can not take advantage of their presences to
the industry to attend the learning practices for improving partnerships with industry.
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TRACK 5
CURRICULUM AND
INSTRUCTION
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Vickers Test Simulation to Improve Metacognitive Skills

Ahmed Hadi Shubber1, 2, Amirmudin Binudin1, Asnul Bin Minghat1
1Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai 81310. Johor Bahru (MALAYSIA)
2Foundation of Technical Education Iraq
ahmed.shuber@gmail.com,p-amir@utm.my, asnul@utm.my
ABSTRACT
Improving the metacognitive skills via celebrated Vickers Test Simulation (VTS) is an
outstanding issue in science and engineering education. The quest for achieving accurate model
in designing educational curricula and methods for solving engineering problems
metacognitively is ever-growing.Enhancing the problem solving efficiency through planning,
analyses, design and implementation mediated by metacognition is a challenging task. We
designed, developed and evaluated engineering simulation using VTS to identify the
effectiveness of metacognitive skills on mechanical engineering students (metallurgy) of Iraq as
test sample. The influences of VTS on metacognitive acquisition skills through self-planning, selfmonitoring, self-modification and self-evaluation are determined. The performance of the
proposed model is simulated via Microsoft studio 2010 and the data are analyzed by SPSS. The
validity and reliability of the test questions are determined from the values of Answer time,
Coefficients of Reliability, Discrimination, Difficulty and Correlation. The calculated value of T is
found to be 7.822 for self-planning, 7.864 for self-monitoring with significance ~0.01. Results
reveal that VTS has considerable impact on metacognitive skills acquisition.Our systematic
methodmay constitute a basis for students and learners in solving analytical and technical
problems in a competent manner to enhance their metacognitive skills.
Keywords: VTS, Simulation, Metacognitive Skills, Acquisition, Metallurgy.
1. INTRODUCTION
Lately, simulation-based training is emerged as one of the most popular modes of instruction for
teaching complex tasks. These systems are not only more cost-effective but allow the training to
occur in a safeand realistic fashion. However, the effectiveness of such systems remainunclear as
far as training outcomes is concerned[1], [2].Much of the current research on the effectiveness of
simulation-based trainingprimarily focuses on the systems as a whole, rather than the specific
individual features[3]. Thus, simulation-based training development efforts must identify
effective guidance and support strategies to optimize training outcomes[1], [3], [4]. Our interest
is to explore thoseinnovative approaches in which computer simulation can enhance quality of
education by covering other learning phases and helps students to acquire metacognitive as well
as domain independent learning skills.
Metacognitive skills development assistsstudents to be self-regulated learners[5], where they
acquire a responsibility upon their own learning progress and adopt learning strategies to
pursue the demand of duty. Metacognitive skill playsapivotal role on several cognitive activities
including comprehension, communication, attention, memory and problem solving[6].Several
researchers believe that the ineffective implementation of various strategies can cause learning
failure. Truly, this skill plays a critical role towards successful learning [7].Veenmanemphasized
the inevitable acquirement of metacognitive skills and its practical relevance in problem solving
WoCTVET 2014
scenario.His approach allows students to acquire and access metacognitive skills in a

computerized environment[8]. Pennequin et.al asserted that, metacognition is prerequisite in
articulation, understanding, reading, writing, knowledge acquisition, retention and rational
judgment. It is also affirmed that, the proficiency level of a populations problem solving skills is
majorly determined by the systematic home and school training where the increased number
and quality of childrens metacognitive knowledge and monitoring skills play paramount role[9].
We aim to identify the characteristics of simulation design fulfilling the requirement of
engineering learning, design, develop and evaluate the VTS, and determine the influences of VTS
on metacognitive skills.
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The lack of analytical skills and problem-solving inability of Iraqi technical institutes students
are acknowledged by the Ministry of Higher Education and Science of Iraq in the National
Development Plan of 2010-2014 and United Nations Human Settlements.The scarcity of modern
laboratories and the exploitation of traditional methods are found to be the reason for such
deficiencies[10][12]. According to Al-Mosawi, metallurgy is one of the hardest lessonstaught to
mechanical engineering students where many of them often fail in the first attempt and the
successrate over the last five years is the lowest (20%). Teachers delivery
significantlyimpactsstudents information absorption because most theoriesare difficult and the
learning lessons are not directly linked to the examination[13]. In the present research, three
mainaspects of such failure are explored in the context of Mechanical Department students in
Technical Institutes of Iraq. Firstly, learnersinability to apply the knowledge of metallurgy in
spite of their sufficient theoretical background is recognized.Secondly, their difficulties in
understanding the functions of machines in metallurgylaboratory are identified.Finally, the
reasons for the lack ofpractical and technical problems solving skills of these graduates are
determined.
The investigation majorly focused, (a)to address the challenges associated in acquiring and
using information and knowledge,(b) to concentrate on problems related to the modalities or
methods of searching and using VTS in problem solving scenarios and (c) to tackle the
difficulties connected with incompetent implementation of analytical ideas during problem
analysis and comprehension.
3. STUDYQUESTION
a.
What is the impactof VTS on metacognitive skills (self-planning and self-monitoring)?
4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

1. The study is subjected to second-grade students of Mechanical Department in Babylon
Technical Institute of Iraq in the academic year 2014.
2. The research is limited to their metacognitive skills development for metallurgys
laboratory lesson.
3. The lectures are only confined to the computer laboratory.
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5. METHODOLOGY
5.1 Study Design and VTS Development
A pretest-posttest experimental design is used on total 75male students in the age groupof 20 to
24 years.They are divided into two groups in which the experimental one consists of 38 students
and 37are in the control group. These students are deliberately chosen for the case study due to
their suffering and failure in learning the subject. The experiment is conducted for 6 hours in
two weeks duration,where all students began their lessons at 9:30 am on Monday (control
group) and Wednesday (experimental group). Lack of potential in solving problems inside or
outside the laboratory is found to be related with their traditional methods based limited
knowledge. Students with age anomalies and who failed in the previous years in equivalent
lessons are excluded from participation.
5.2 Before starting the experiment, the methods of pilot survey are used to enhance the
reliability and validity of the study instrument. Also after that, the method of T-test is
used to assess the impact of simulation in the development of metacognitive
skills.VTSObjectives
The identification of goals for the construction of lesson is considered as the important standard
to determine their contents, nature, activities and exercises accompanying the methods.
Furthermore, themodes of using particular teaching methods and the goals for lessons are
categorized into general and special one.General goal primarily focuses to develop the
metacognitive skills including self-planning and self-monitoring in the metallurgy
lesson.Conversely, the aims ofspecial goals areto administer students to the following objectives:
1. To identify when, where and how to use Vickers Hardness Test (VHT).
2. To identify the parts and components of VHT.
3. To identify sequence of steps involved for VHT.
4. To identify advantages and disadvantages of VHT.
5. To aware of safety measures for machines usage.
6. To measure Vickers Hardness correctly.
5.3 Preparation of Simulation
The simulation process is developed and evaluated for VTS models in the metallurgy lesson as
described hereunder.
5.3.1
Simulation Development Process
The development processes of VTS are illustrated in Fig. 1 [14], [15]. The computer language
Microsoft Studio 2010 is used to design and develop the VTS model. A performance evaluation of
the proposed model is carried out to identify their strengths and weaknesses through pilot test.
A group of experts with mechanical engineering background with their method of teaching are
chosen to conduct such tests. VTS development involves the underlined steps:
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Fig.1: Block diagram for the simulation development processes.

1. Identification of general and special goal of the model.
2. Use of metals group such as stainless steel, mild steel, steel, brass and aluminum in
conducting the real test.
3. Manufacturing specimens from these metals by machines turning and milling, wire
cutting and polishing suitable for the apparatus specified in the research.
4. Conducting the test on real apparatus. In addition to the registration of the real data and
results during the test, capturing pictures of each step, movement and reading of
apparatus are also considered.
5. Modification and calibration of pictures for the measurements are performed with the
real equipment and specimen using a set of computer programs such as Photoshop and
other image processors.
6. Designing a computer program using Microsoft Studio 2010 to simulate the model and
conversion of data and images to the software codes. Devising the computer interfaces
representing the real test steps.
7. Acquiring data from the program alike a real machine when running the simulation or
executing the program.
The user is responsible for checking the statement true or false with the possibility of re-trying it
several times, data collection and storage in specific places to beaudited.
5.3.2
Simulation Design
VTS design is performed using the following stages:

A. Design of Screen1 as depicted in Fig. 2-ais comprised of the following options:
1. ABOUT VICKERS TEST: Review the information related to Vickers test.
2. ABOUT SIMULATION: Review the information relating how to use the simulation?
3. TEST STEPS: Review the information related to the test step.
4. SIMULATION TEST: Move to the next screen to use simulation for Vickers test.
5. EXIT: End of program.
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B. Design of Screen2 as shown in Fig. 2-b includes the following options:

1. Aluminum Al: Use Aluminum specimen and next screen.
2. Steel: Use Steel specimen and move to the next screen.
3. Brass: Use Brass specimen and move to the next screen.
4. S-Steel: Use S-Steel specimen and move to the next screen.
6. Back: Back to the previous screen.
C. Design of Screen3 as illustrated in Fig. 2-c contains the following choices:
1. Keys (1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 50): To choose load (Kgf) 1 or 5 or etc.
2. RESET: Reset and clear all data before start test.
3. Image: To explain the Vickers test machine.
4. On image table elevating handle for up or down by Click.
5. On image start key: To start load apply button and begin test.
6. Timer: Explain test time (15s).
7. SHOW AND MEASURE SAMPLE: Move to the next screen to watch and measure the
specimen under a microscope.
D. Design of Screen4 as displayed in Fig. 2-d encloses the following options:
1. Image: To explain specimen under a microscope.
2. On image one can draw lines to the length of the diagonals (d1& d2) by drag-and-drop
mouse.
3. A set of labels give length of the diagonals mm (d1), length of the diagonals mm (d2),
average length of the diagonals (mm) and square length of the diagonals (mm 2) during to
diagonal measurement.
4. Clear All: Delete all data and start again.
5. Information Text: Contains Vickers test equation.
6. Input Text1: To Input the load value (P).
7. Input Text2: To Input square length of diagonals.
8. Key (=): To show the value of Vickers Hardness.
9. VHN Text: Contains Vickers Hardness value.
10. Label: To check whether the result is true or false.
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a: Screen 1
b: Screen 2
c: Screen 3
d: Screen 4
Fig.1: (a-d) Schematic diagram displaying the design of screens for simulating Vickers test
machine.
5.3.3
Assessment Methods
In the end of any academic or intellectual exercise, students are subjected to various
examinations to determine the level of their understanding about the subject matter. These
evaluations or feedbacks acting as indicator often reveal the extent at which the goals specified
for each lesson are achieved. The first category of assessment determines the level of acquired
knowledge in terms of the general and specific goals of the lesson. The second kindverifies the
validity of various techniques such as test, examination, quizzes, assignments, group and
individual project. Meanwhile, the final category deals with the control of the consistency of the
acquired knowledge with proof of utilization in a problem solving exercise. We used multiple
choices to evaluate the following:
1. The simulation that is designed for the suggested apparatus (VTS).
2. The test questions of the pretest and post-test.
5.3.3.1 Content validity-to confirm and get consensus from experts

This approach is employed to evaluate the simulation design which in turn increases the
reliability and validity of the study instrument in identifying the presence of possible
deficiencies during actual implementation[16], [17]. Furthermore, interview responses from six
specialists in mechanics are combined to modify the formulation of paragraphs, number and
contents fitting the general and specific objectives of the study. The scientific accuracy, linguistic,
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coverage of the vocabulary curriculum and the suitability of simulation for mechanical
engineering students is meticulously considered. The opinions and views of specialists are
considered in modifying, deleting and adding some paragraphs to VTS ..
5.3.3.2 Instrument of Study
Following Shen, Erskine and Gama [18][20],total 20 questions are prepared to evaluate two
metacognitive skills.The test questions onexperimental sample comprised of 32 students are
applied to ensure the test validity and reliability. The real time of test, Internal Consistency
Validity, Discrimination Coefficient, Difficulty Coefficient and Test Reliability are determined as
listed in Table 1. The confidence of the validity and reliability of the test questions are clearly
evidenced.
Table 1.
Result of Validity and Reliability Before Real Test.
validity and reliability items

Answer Time
Discrimination Coefficient
Difficulty Coefficient
Internal Consistency Validity(Pearson)
Reliability Coefficient (Kuder- Richardson)
Value or range
20 min
0.556 - 0.778
0.25 - 0.6875
0.478 - 0.646
0.868
Mean
20 min
0.667
0.4688
-

A quantitative approach is used to examine the impacts of VTS on metacognitive skills.The posttest andthe hypotheses used to address the research questions are related to the effects and
measure of VTS in developing metacognitive skills (self-planning and self-monitoring). They are
defined as,
1. H0 = No statistically significant differences in the (self-planning and self-monitoring)
skills at 0.05 level of significance between the control and experimental group on posttest.
2. H1 = Statistically significant differences in the (self-planning and self-monitoring) skills
at 0.05 level of significance between the control and experimental group on post-test.
Table 2.
Independent Samples Test for Metacognitive Skills.
Selfplanni
ng
Selfmonit
oring
Groups
Experimental
group
3
8
3
7
3
8
3
7
Control group
Experimental
group
Control group
Mea
n
Sig.
(2taile)
7.822
0.000
7.864
0.000
38.90
27.59
39.18
27.56
Table 2 clearly reveals that the calculated value of "T" is greater than the critical value from"T
Table" for self-planning and self-evaluation skills in post-test (function is at the level of
significance 0.01). This indicates the presence of statistically significant differences between
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experimental group and the control group which allows one to reject the null hypothesis (H0)
and accept the alternative hypothesis (H1). The achieved differences are found to be in favor of
the experimental group.
7. CONCLUSIONS
The impacts of VTSinattaining metacognitive skills through self-planning and self-monitoring
are reported. The effectiveness of metacognitive skills is identified and determined via VTS for
mechanical engineering students in metallurgy lesson of Iraq technical institute as test sample.
VTS is found to enhance students problem solving efficiency and enable in achieving
metacognitive skills. The performance of the developed model is observed to be quite robust.
The validity and reliability of the test questions are determined usingdifferent coefficients such
asreliability, discrimination, difficulty and correlation.Simulation results exhibit that the T
values for self-planning and self-monitoring skills for post-test are greater than the value of Ttable. Our hypotheses supported by the data indicate that students are capable of understanding
metallurgy texts more effectively after the introduction of metacognitive skills acquisition
process. It is established that the simulation and metacognition skills are fundamental tools that
enable learners to take control of their own cognition, emotion and motivation. VTS approach
allows students to solve ill-structured problems in any academic environment, particularly in
engineering education. Furthermore, students depending on themselves in learning, problemsolving and awareness may use simulation to acquirehigh level of understanding and become
productive learner. Simulation strongly influences the metacognitive skills andresults an
increase in the susceptibility of students overall academic achievements. It is demonstrated that
VTS can constitute a basis for learners promising capabilities. The notable improvement in
metacognitive skills mediated via VTS implies that the institutions of higher learning may take
initiative in introducing metacognition as a compulsory course for students across all disciplines
especially in science, engineering, education and medicine. The excellent features of the results
suggest that training in metallurgical engineering domain can considerably be enhanced through
the introduction of meticulously executed steps including the generation of metacognitive tasks
for promoting students reading-comprehension ability. This study may contribute towards the
development of practical theories in offering instructive models about conditions leading to the
successful process of cognition and learning.
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Efficiency Comparison of Example-Problem-Based Learning and

Teacher-Centered Learning in the Teaching of Circuit Theory
Noor Hisham Jalani1, Lai Chee Sern2
1,2Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 jnhisham@gmail.com, 2 lcsern@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Two students can achieve the same performance in the test, but with different levels of mental
effort in learning phase. Thus, the combination of mental effort and performance can determine
the efficiency of learning where high efficiency is associated with high performance with low
mental effort, while low performance with high mental effort in learning is considered to be of
low efficiency. A true experimental study with pre-test post-test design was conducted to
investigate the effect of Example-Problem-Based Learning (EPBL) in Circuit Theory teaching and
learning on Malaysian first year vocational diploma-level students performance and mental
effort as well as the efficiency. The experiment was carried out for eight weeks with 38 students.
The EPBL was used in the experimental group, while the existing teaching method based on
Teacher-Centered Learning (TCL) is maintained for the control group. The students have
completed the Circuit Theory Performance Test and the 9-Point Mental Effort Rating Scale. The
findings of the study indicated that EPBL enhanced students test performance with less mental
effort invested during the learning phase and hence increased 2-dimensional instructional
efficiency index in learning of Circuit Theory.
Keywords: Example-Problem-Based Learning; Test Performance; Mental Effort; Learning Efficiency
1. INTRODUCTION
Most of the studies based on Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) do not actually measure the cognitive
load [1]. An argument in support of this claim is two students can achieve the same performance
in the test, but with different levels of mental effort in learning phase [1]. For example, if a
student is able to demonstrate method A similar to the learning outcomes of students using the
method B, but method A requires less mental effort during learning, it is more student friendly
by adopting method A in a class [2].
Simple learning method requires little mental effort; on the other hand, complex learning
method requires more mental effort [3]. The combination of mental effort and performance can
determine the learning efficiency index. High efficiency is high performance with low mental
effort, while low performance with high mental effort in learning is considered to be of low
efficiency [4]. Thus, the mental effort should be taken into account as a guide in designing
effective learning methods. One of the common teaching methods in learning theoretical
knowledge is a Teacher-Centered Learning (TCL).
In TCL method, the activities in class are centered towards the teacher. Teaching methods
commonly practiced is lecture-practice-test [5], in which the instructor introduces problems to
the students through lectures, followed by problem-solving exercises that must be completed
either in class or at home. This learning method requires lecturers play an active role [6] in
presenting and explaining the material to be learned through lectures and reference notes.
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However, TCL focuses less on development of schema; therefore learning becomes ineffective
[7]. Development of schema is very important because the schema is a knowledge structure in
long-term memory that allows students to identify problems and determine the most
appropriate measures to solve a problem [8, 9]. In addition, TCL is usually practiced without
referring to the concept of cognitive load [10]. In general, cognitive load can be categorized into
three types, namely, intrinsic cognitive load (caused by the complexity of learning contents),
extraneous cognitive load (caused by poor instructional design and activities) and germane
cognitive load (caused by instructional events that enhance learning) [11].
Commonly, TCL involves many extraneous activities (e.g., requiring learners to search out
unfamiliar information for solving a problem) which are not directly related to learning [10].
Those extraneous activities might induce an extraneous cognitive load which may deteriorate
learning. This situation becomes even more problematic if it involves a number of interacting
elements at the same time, for instance, problem solving for Circuit Theory. Circuit Theory is one
of the most common difficult theoretical knowledge [12]. This domain consists of combinations
of mathematical formulas and electrical theories, which causes difficulty in comprehending and
lead to increased intrinsic cognitive load [13], especially among novice students who have no
prior knowledge of the domain. The complexity of the content (intrinsic nature) causes novice
students to use weak strategies such as means-ends-analysis in problem solving [14].
According to the CLT [8], means-ends-analysis involves a lot of interaction between students
and information. This situation will result in too many elements to be processed by the novice
students at a time. Interaction with many pieces of information, in which several of them are
irrelevant, leads to high extraneous cognitive load; hence, it takes a high mental effort on the
cognitive system [14, 15]. Therefore, revealing the problem-solving exercise to novice students
before they are given the relevant knowledge is likely to cause them to suffer from saturation in
cognitive load. High extraneous cognitive load results in the lack of cognitive resources, and this
is the reason why the beneficial cognitive activities cannot be implemented [13]. Since
extraneous cognitive load has negative effects on learning, it should be avoided.
Guidance must be provided to novice students, especially during the early phase of learning [1,
16]. Example-Based Learning (EBL) has been proposed to be used at the initial learning stage
because it is believed that learning with examples might reduce extraneous cognitive load
during learning [17]. EBL is a model of problem solving that consists of three components:
statement of the problem, solution steps and the final solution to the problem [18]. Through
EBL, students study the worked examples and understand each step of the solution. However,
worked example alone did not improve student performance. The combination of worked
example, with a self-explanatory prompt seems to produce a difference in performance, problem
solving skill, and self-efficacy [19]. The main advantages of EBL are that it prevents students
from finding irrelevant processing methods of information; it helps them to concentrate by
studying the problem-solving steps provided and it supports them in building problem-solving
schema in the long-term memory. The positive learning result is known as the worked-example
effect [20,21], which allows novice students to develop stronger cognitive representation and
appropriate problem-solving schema gradually [13] until they reach the expert level.
However, in the case where students have attained the expert level, EBL may no longer be
appropriate because the positive effects of EBL will be lost when students have sufficient
knowledge and skills in a specific domain [22]. Increase in expertise among students will result
in lower intrinsic load imposed on the problems to be solved; this leaves more space for the
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processing of cognitive information related to the problem. Expert students may be familiar with
the information given in the worked examples and are not motivated to have a better
understanding of the information; this results in a passive learning process. Thus, expert
students no longer need guidance as provided by EBL because the information is considered
redundant [23]. As a result, EBL not only has no positive effect on learning, it also can be
detrimental to expert students [24]. In short, at the early stages of knowledge acquisition, novice
students should benefit more from EBL. After they have gained sufficient knowledge from
studying the worked examples, the positive effect of worked example will disappear. At this
stage, learning through problem-solving should be applied since students have already been
equipped with profound domain knowledge. From the perspective of CLT, problem solving
which imposes a higher cognitive load is more effective and efficient for students learning
collaboratively [25]. The limited processing capacity of an individual student can be expended
by learning in collaboration with other students. As a result, the freed-up cognitive capacity of
group members can be consequently be devoted to activities that foster learning [25].
Theoretically speaking, combining worked example (individual self-exlpananation prompt) and
problem solving (are collaboratively discussed with group members) might be an effective
learning strategy that guides learners to go through several stages of cognitive development:
starting from a novice stage and advancing to an expert stage. This new approach is termed
Example-Problem-Based Learning (EPBL). To date, there is not much empirical evidence to
support the claim that EPBL is beneficial in terms of efficiency compared to TCL approach.
2. METHODS
2.1 Participants
The participants of this study were 38 students from the DEM1313 Circuit Theory courses at the
Advanced Technology Training Centre (ADTEC) in Malaysia. The experimental sample consisted
of 5 (13.2%) females and 33 (86.8%) males. The average age of the participants was 20.82 years
(SD = 0.87). The participants were randomly assigned to one of the two treatment conditions:
(a) EPBL as an experimental group (n = 19), and (b) TCL as a control group (n = 19). All the
participants were not exposed to some form of instruction on Circuit Theory before participating
in this study. Based on a pre-test administered one week prior to the learning phase, prior
knowledge concerning Circuit Theory related topics was found to be approximately equal for all
participants.
2.2 Design
This study employed a true experimental research design using pre-test and post-test.
Participants (R) were randomly assigned into the experimental group (E1) and control group
(E2). In the first week of the experiment, the pre-test (Oa1) was conducted. The treatment phase
began in the second week for the ninth week of the experiment. Both groups were given a
treatment with two different learning methods, namely the Example-Problem-Based Learning
(XEPBL) and Teacher-Centered Learning (XTCL). At the end of each learning session, the investment
of mental effort (b1) allocated to the learning process was measured. Finally, the post-test (Oa2)
was given in the tenth week experiment. The experimental pre-test post-test with a control
group design as presented in Table 1.
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Table 1: True Experimental Design

Group
Pre-Test
Treatment
PostTest
E1
Oa1
XEPBL, b1
Oa2
E2
Oa1
XTCL, b1
Oa2
2.3 Pencil-Paper Materials

A set of pencil-paper materials consisting of a demographic questionnaire, a pre-test, an EPBL
material, and a performance test was administered to the participants.
Demographic questionnaire: The questionnaire collected basic demographic data (age, gender,
and ethnicity). It also asked the participants, whether they had ever learned about circuit theory
before.
Learning material: The material of EPBL process consisted of the main concept; worked-example
and problem-solving are presented in Figure 1. The explanations will be generated in a written
form instead of a verbal form. This is because in a classroom setting, generating verbal
explanations might prove disturbing and distracting for other students [26].
Performance test: The performance test is divided into two parts: (a) the first part contained 20
multiple-choice questions relating to the physical meaning of electrical current, voltage, and,
resistance, and elementary properties of electrical circuits. The participants could select from
four response choices for each question; and (b) the second part contained 10 complex
problems; more specifically, five problems were designed to measure near-transfer and five
problems to assess the far-transfer learning.
Mental effort rating: The Pass mental effort rating [27] was used to measure cognitive load by
recording the perceived mental effort expended in solving a problem in learning session. It was a 9point symmetrical Likert scale measurement on which subject rates their mental effort used in
performing a particular learning task, ranging from (1) very low mental effort to (9) very high
mental effort. This scale is widely used in educational research [27, 28, 29].
2.4 Instruction
Experimental group: Each cycle of the EPBL process involves three stages of learning (refer to
Figure 1): (a) firstly, students is giving a brief / short lecture to provide basic knowledge of the
principles and concepts for each sub-topic from a facilitator; (b) then, to understand how to
apply the principles of the domain, students receive a complete printed form worked-example
with solution steps and final answer. Individual students are required to study and understand
each of the steps of self-explanatory; (c) finally, students are given the problem-solving exercise
to improve the speed and accuracy of problem solving. Students should solve the problem
collaboratively to discuss with group members. Then, the groups took turns in presenting their
solution proposals. The facilitators provide immediate feedback to each group.
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Example:
Parallel circuit is a circuit containing multiload with more than one path for current flow
from the voltage source through loads and
return to the source.
I
I2
I1
Main
Concept
R1
R2
I3
R3
The total value of resistance, RT for a parallel

circuit is as follows:
1
1
1
1
RT R1 R2 R3
Example:
You have a stock of each of the resistors:
220, 330 and 560. If all resistors are
connected in parallel, determine the total
value of the resistor.
Solution steps:
Step 1 - draw and label the circuit with
resistors in parallel order.
220
Worked
Example
330
560
Step 2 - identify the appropriate formula: total

resistance for parallel circuit is
1
1
1
1
RT R1 R2 R3
Step 3 - enter the value of each resistance to
the formula in the resistance of the parallel
circuit.
1
1
1
1
RT 220 330 560

RT 107
Problem
Solving
Final Answer:
The total value of the resistance connected in
parallel is 107.
Example:
You have a stock of each of the resistors:
470, 560 and 680. If all resistors are
connected in parallel, determine the total
value of the resistor.
Show your solution with an appropriate
circuit.
Figure 1: The Example of EPBL Process

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Control group: The procedures for the control group (TCL) were retained according to the
existing setting: (a) firstly, students are introduced with the domain knowledge consisted of
basic concepts, facts, and definitions on Circuit Theory; (b) then, students worked on the to-besolved problems which required them to apply the knowledge they attained from the lectures;
(c) finally, the final answer provided as a practice feedback. The lectures were conducted weekly
(all together 8 weeks) for two hours in the classroom, in parallel with the time frame of the
experimental group.
2.5 Performance Test
In this study, the performance test consisted of two parts: (a) conceptual knowledge test
(principles and concepts knowledge); and, (b) procedural knowledge test (near-transfer and fartransfer). The performance test scores were cumulative scores of conceptual knowledge test and
procedural knowledge test. The conceptual knowledge test was comprised of 20 multiple-choice
questions based on topics of serial, parallel, serial-parallel circuit, Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's
Voltage Law, and Kirchhoff's Current Laws, that to be answered within thirty minutes. The
overall total score of the conceptual knowledge test was 20. The reliability index using KunderRichardson 20 (KR-20) coefficient was 0.54. An example of topic knowledge acquisition item as
describe on Figure 2.
If a connection follows the above method, determine

the voltage of these bulb
A.
Voltage for bulb X, Y and Z are equal at 1.5 volt.
B.
Voltage for bulb X is 1.5 volt, while bulb Y and Z

are 0 volt.
C.
The value of voltage in bulb Z is bigger than the

voltage in bulb X.
D.
The value of voltage in bulb X is bigger than the

voltage in both bulbs Y and Z.
Figure 2: Conceptual Knowledge Item

Task
Example
Near-Transfer
You have a stock of each of the resistors: 120, 120 and 180. If all resistors are
connected in parallel, determine the total value of the resistor.
A technician has a stock of the following colour-coded resistors: four 68, five 82, two
120, three 180, two 330, and one each of 470, 560, 680, and 820. A circuit
being designed needs a 37 resistance. Find the combination of resistors, using the
least possible number of components that will satisfy the design requirement.
Far-Transfer
Figure 3: Procedural knowledge item
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The procedural knowledge test was comprised of 10 open-ended questions. Specifically, 5 items
for near-transfer (ability of students to apply content knowledge and concepts learnt to the
same work situation); and 5 items for far-transfer (ability of students to apply content
knowledge and concepts learnt even if the work environment is not same as learning sessions).
For a near-transfer correct solution, three points were awarded. Partial marks were given for a
partial correct solution (between 0 and 3 points). For a far-transfer correct solution, five points
were awarded. Partial marks were given for a partial correct solution (between 0 and 5 points).
We obtained sufficient reliability (Cronbachs Alpha) for the transfer scales: 0.74, which is
acceptable for the purpose of research [31]. An example of a procedural test item (near- and fartransfer) is described in Figure 3.
Figure 1:
The example of EPBL process
If a connection follows the above method, determine

the voltage of these bulb
A.
Voltage for bulb X, Y and Z are equal at 1.5

volt.
B.
Voltage for bulb X is 1.5 volt, while bulb Y

and Z are 0 volt.
C.
The value of voltage in bulb Z is bigger than

the voltage in bulb X.
D.
The value of voltage in bulb X is bigger than

the voltage in both bulbs Y and Z.
Figure 2: Conceptual knowledge item
Task
NearTransfer
FarTransfer
Example
You have a stock of each of the
resistors: 120, 120 and 180. If all
resistors are connected in parallel,
determine the total value of the resistor.
A technician has a stock of the
following colour-coded resistors: four
68, five 82, two 120, three 180,
two 330, and one each of 470,
560, 680, and 820. A circuit being
designed needs a 37 resistance. Find
the combination of resistors, using the
least possible number of components
that will satisfy the design requirement.
Figure 3: Procedural Knowledge Item

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2.6 9-Point Mental Effort Rating Scale

Mental effort reflects the actual cognitive load, that is, the cognitive capacity allocated by the
individual to meet the requirements of the task [27]. At the end of each learning session,
students were required to indicate the amount of mental effort expended for that particular
question by responding to the 9-point symmetrical scale. With regard to the reliability of the
mental-effort rating scale, the present study had obtained sufficient reliability (Cronbachs
Alpha) of 0.79.
2.7 Learning Efficiency
Learning efficiency can be determined based on the ratio of test performance and mental effort
invested [2]. Score of test performance and mental effort invested during the learning phase
standardized by calculating revenue minus raw data (r) with the mean value (M) and divided by
the standard deviation (SD) of raw data as shown in Equation 1.
rM
SD
(1)
Then, the learning efficiency (E) was assessed based on the average standard score (z-score) test
performance (zP) achieved by students and mental effort during the learning task (zR) [28] as
Equation 2. Note that square root 2 in this formula comes from the general formula for the
calculation of distance from a point, p(x, y), to a line, ax+by+c=0 (refer to Table 2 for z-score and
efficiency calculation).
zP zR
(2)
The sign of the learning efficiency (E) is dependent on (zP) and (zR), according to the following
rules: If (zP-zR) > 0, then (E) is positive; if (zP-zR) < 0, then (E) is negative; and if (zP=zR), then (E) is
zero. Subsequently, graphics are used to display the information on a 2-dimensional (2-D)
Cartesian axis, with the (zR) in the x-axis and the (zP) on the y-axis. This method is depicted in
Figure 4.
3. RESULTS
This section presents the results for the prior knowledge (pre-test performance), mental effort
investment during learning phase and achievement (post-test performance). The effect size was
determined according to d Cohen [32].
3.1 Pre-Test Phase
The pre-test was employed in order to assess students prior knowledge of Circuit Theory, the
pre-test was administrated to all participants one week prior to learning phase. The
participants average score was 25.66 (SD = 4.94) and 26.32 (SD = 5.87) for experimental group
and control group, respectively. There was no statistically significant difference between the
average score in pre-test of the participants assigned to the two treatment groups, [t (36) = .374, p > 0.05]. Therefore, prior knowledge concerning Circuit Theory was found to be
approximately equal for all participants.
WoCTVET 2014 | 387
3.2 Learning Phase

The mental effort was obtained by dividing the perceived mental effort by the total number of
lesson session for each during learning phase. Out of possible 9 points of mental effort rating, the
participants mean scores and standard deviation for the mental effort on the learning phase
problems was 3.72 (SD = 1.16) and 5.15 (SD = 0.92) for experimental and control group,
respectively. There was statistically significant difference between the average mental effort
during learning phase score of the participants assigned to the two treatment groups, [t (36) = .4.19, p < 0.05]. The effect size was large (d Cohen = 1.36). The results showed that there was a
significant main effect of instructional strategy on mean mental effort invested during learning
phase.
3.3 Post-Test Phase
The exploratory data analysis was conducted for all the data collected in this phase. Students
performance was measured by the post-test. The participants average score was 56.67 (SD =
14.12) and 39.87 (SD = 13.71) for experimental group and control group, respectively. There
was a statistically significant difference between the average pre-test score of the participants
assigned to the two treatment groups, [t (36) = 3.279, p < 0.05]. The effect size was large (d
Cohen = 1.21). The results showed that there was a significant main effect of instructional
strategy on test performance concerning Circuit Theory.
3.4 Efficiency
The mean score on the learning efficiency for experimental group was 0.74 (SD = 1.18) and that
of control group was -0.73 (SD = 0.82). Hence this indicated that the experimental group
performed better on learning transfer test as compared to control group. The t-test performed
on learning efficiency showed a significant main effect of type of instructional strategy, [t (36) =
4.44, p < 0.05]. The effect size was large (d Cohen = 1.44). The results showed that there was a
significant main effect of instructional strategy on learning efficiency.
WoCTVET 2014 | 388
Table 2: The calculation of Z-score and Efficiency
Control
Experimental
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Grand
Mean (M)
Std
Deviation
(SD)
36.25
70.00
58.75
65.00
67.50
75.00
47.50
50.00
38.75
65.00
66.25
30.00
38.75
43.75
75.00
42.50
67.50
48.75
52.50
36.25
35.00
42.50
40.00
20.00
27.50
35.00
62.50
82.50
40.00
30.00
41.25
42.50
46.25
38.75
27.50
45.00
32.50
32.50
40.1
7
10.9
0
5.00
4.63
2.75
2.50
3.00
2.00
4.50
3.63
3.50
2.25
3.38
6.00
5.25
5.25
3.50
4.75
3.25
2.75
2.88
4.75
3.75
5.50
5.75
5.63
4.63
6.13
6.00
4.88
5.50
4.63
5.13
4.75
2.38
5.38
5.25
6.25
5.88
5.63
-0.70
1.45
0.73
1.13
1.29
1.77
0.01
0.17
-0.54
1.13
1.21
-1.10
-0.54
-0.23
1.77
-0.30
1.29
0.09
0.33
-0.70
-0.78
-0.30
-0.46
-1.74
-1.26
-0.78
0.97
2.25
-0.46
-1.10
-0.38
-0.30
-0.07
-0.54
-1.26
-0.15
-0.94
-0.94
0.44
0.15
-1.34
-1.54
-1.14
-1.94
0.05
-0.64
-0.75
-1.74
-0.84
1.24
0.64
0.64
-0.75
0.25
-0.94
-1.34
-1.24
0.25
-0.55
0.84
1.04
0.94
0.15
1.34
1.24
0.35
0.84
0.15
0.55
0.25
-1.63
0.75
0.64
1.44
1.14
0.94
Efficiency
(E)
z-score
Test
Performa
nce
(P)
Mental
Effort
(ME)
Mental
Effort
Test
Performa
nce
Student
Group
Raw Data
-0.81
0.92
1.47
1.89
1.72
2.62
-0.02
0.58
0.14
2.03
1.45
-1.66
-0.84
-0.61
1.78
-0.39
1.58
1.02
1.11
-0.67
-0.17
-0.81
-1.06
-1.90
-1.00
-1.50
-0.19
1.35
-0.92
-0.89
-0.66
-0.39
1.11
-0.91
-1.35
-1.12
-1.48
-1.34
4.83
1.09
WoCTVET 2014 | 389
The 2-D learning efficiency is indicated at octant when the test performance z-scores are
greatest and the mental effort z-score are the least. The z-score of test performance and learning
tasks mental effort as presented in Table 3.
Table 3:
Z-score of test performance and learning tasks mental effort

z-score Mean
Variables
Test Performance
(M = 40.17; SD = 10.90)
Mental Effort
(M = 4.83; SD = 1.09)
Experimental
Control
0.47
-0.47
-0.57
0.56
Test
Performance
Z-Score
High Efficiency
Zero Efficiency
1
Experimental Group
(0.47, -0.57)
Mental Effort
Z-Score
-1
(-0.47, 0.56)
Control Group
-1
Low Efficiency
Figure 4: The 2-D Learning Efficiency Graph

Then, the quantities of the z-scores are plotted on a 2-D graph; mental effort on the x-axis and
performance on the y-axis as presented in Figure 4. In this case, the EPBL strategy (experimental
group) is plotted in the positive efficiency (0.47, -0.56), while TCL strategy (control group) is
plotted in the negative efficiency (-0.47, 0.56). This means EPBL strategy is better than the TCL
strategy because it shows that high test performance with low mental effort. Instead, TCL
strategy showed low test performance with high mental effort.
4. DISCUSSION
The aim of the current study was to compare the effects of EPBL and TCL strategy on
performance, specifically on knowledge acquisition, learning transfer, mental effort, and
learning efficiency of vocational diploma-level students on Circuit Theory.
Performance test: We predicted that students in EPBL group would outperform their peers in
TCL group on performance test. This prediction was confirmed and the results of this study
WoCTVET 2014 | 390
reaffirmed earlier studies [33, 34], where combination of worked-examples and problem-solving
contribute to increase students knowledge acquisition; in which the knowledge acquired have
been more strongly entrenched and better automatized allowing it to be used on novel problem.
Worked examples provide the novice students with the relevant domain-specific knowledge and
organize the information in a manner that increases the probability of schema development and
students success in solving the problem. Participants in the EPBL group are able to apply parts of the
relevant procedures to the new problem. They also have a deeper understanding of the rationale behind
the solution steps; they not only know the procedural steps to complete the task, but they also
understand when to use the different steps and how they work.
Mental effort: In terms of mental effort invested, cognitive load research demonstrated that by
using well developed worked examples instead of conventional problem solving strategies could
improve test and transfer performance with lower investments in mental effort by reducing
extraneous cognitive load on students [15, 35]. In accordance with cognitive load research
findings, recently, several studies have shown the effectiveness of worked examples to teach a
well-structured domain such as Circuit Theory [30, 36] by increasing learning while
simultaneously reducing the amount of mental effort exerted during the learning process. This is
done by providing the student with the knowledge to understand and utilization of particular
operator to solve a problem [13] based on how an expert would approach the problem. Worked
examples reduce extraneous load but simultaneously increases the germane or relevant
cognitive load. It is important not to induce high-extraneous load [18], such as load due to
activities unrelated to the learning process, especially when it is coupled with high-intrinsic
load. This is because the extraneous and intrinsic load may leave no room for germane load
[18]. From an instructional perspective, it is especially important to explore ways of specifically
fostering germane load (e.g., giving worked examples).
Learning efficiency: Finally, in terms of learning efficiency, EPBL was instructionally more
efficient compared to TCL strategy. Hence use of EPBL has enhanced learning conditions and has
reduced extraneous cognitive load which in turn can turn created optimal learning condition.
Learning by studying worked examples would lead to better learning outcomes and be more
efficient for novice students, whereas learning by solving problems would lead to better learning
outcomes (effectiveness) and be more efficient for expert students.
Overall, this finding indicates that the use of EPBL been improving learning and reducing
extraneous cognitive load which in turn can create an optimal learning conditions. EPBL enable
students to acquire the cognitive schema that can drive in solving a given problem. Students are
better able to filter out extraneous information and optimize the cognitive resources available to
develop problem-solving schema in long-term memory. Teaching will be effective if the
achievement is maximized and at the same time the required amount of cognitive load is
minimized [36]. Thus, EPBL instructional methods are more efficient than TCL.
WoCTVET 2014 | 391
4.1 Future Research

Metric in determining the learning efficiency (E) in this study was limited to 2-dimensional (2D),
i.e., test performance (ZP) and mental effort (ZR) during the learning phase. Future research is
proposed to consider a third dimension, namely the amount of time (ZT) learning phase. The
metric combination of 3-dimensional (3D) can be written as the following formula:
z P z R zT
3
3D metric is more accurate because there is a time factor. Cognitive load is related to the amount
of time involved during learning.
5. CONCLUSION
The current research findings paralleled the previous studies [14, 24, 34, 37, 38] where the use
of a combination of worked examples and problem solving proves to be an effective instructional
approach, leads to better test performance with less mental effort invested during learning [4]
as well as to more efficient learning. As a conclusion, more efficient and effective instructional
designs can be developed if the limited capacity of working memory is taken into consideration.
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WoCTVET 2014 | 394
Perception of Continuing Program for Teacher Education Students

on their Program and Performance in the Licensure Examination
for Teachers
Werson R. De Asis
Technological University of the Philippines
wersondeasis@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Continuing Program for Teacher Education (CPTE) is a special program offered by the College of
Industrial Education of the Technological University of the Philippines. Students accepted in this
program are noneducation graduates. To finished the course they are required to take eighteen
(18) units of Professional Education subjects and twelve (12) units for practice teaching. The
study was conducted to determine the relationship of the program offering to the performance
of the students in the licensure examination for teachers. The respondents consisted of eighty
five (85) students from school year 2010 to 2012. The descriptive method of research was used
in the study and the questionnaire was the main instrument in gathering the data. Most of the
students in the program are young adults who are aged thirty (30) and below. It was found in
the study that the school related factors, such as; facilities, curriculum, policies and classroom
structure affects the performance of the students in the licensure examination to a high extent.
The teacher related factors such as; educational qualification, communication skills, classroom
management also affect the performance of the students in the licensure examination for
teachers. Similarly, the students learning style, study habits, and work schedule also affect their
performance in the licensure examination.
Results showed that 90.59% of the students who took the licensure examination passed and
9.41% failed. Most of the passers are in the area of Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE).
The result also shows there was no significant difference between the perception of students on
their program and their performance in the Licensure Examination. The result of the research
can be the basis for curriculum enhancement and strengthening the qualification standards for
applicants and professors of the program.
Keywords: Continuing Program, Licensure Examination Performance, Technology
1. INTRODUCTION
Teachers, as defined in the Republic Act 7836 section 4b, refers to all persons engaged I teaching
in elementary, secondary school and tertiary, whether on full time or part time basis, including
industrial arts, home economics, vocational teachers and other people performing
supervisory/administrative functions in all schools and practice teaching under this act.
Teaching as always says, the noblest profession since takes a lot of effort and passion to mold
and train people to his fullest potential. Therefore; there is a need requirement in the teaching
profession to be effective teacher.
In Philippine education, a non teacher education graduate has an option to teaching career after
their graduation. They have to comply with the requirements set by the Professional Regulation
Commission as mandated by the R.A. 7836 and Article III of the CMO 36 series of 2004.
WoCTVET 2014
Non-education graduates are required take eighteen units (18) of Professional Education
courses and twelve units (12) of experiential learning courses, to qualify for the Licensure
Examination for Teacher (LET)
The College of Industrial Education of the Technological University of the Philippines offered the
program as Continuing Program for Teacher Education (CPTE). Under this program, students
are prepared to become effective teachers in their line of specialization. Students need
understand and experienced the science of teaching, the different principles, theories, strategies
and approaches in teaching.
Since the program started and hundreds of graduates had taken the Licensure Examination, the
college would like to find out how effective the program to our clientele as they perform in the
board examination based on the three factors; schools related factors, teacher related factors
and student related factors.
The researcher would like to know the relationship of these factors on their performance in the
licensure examination. Do this variables are important for a good result in the examination
through the following questions?
1. To what extent do the School Related Factors relate to the performance of CPTE students in
the Licensure Examination for Teachers in terms of;
a. Facilities
b. Curriculum
c. Classroom Instruction
d. School Policies?
2. To what the extent do the Teacher Related Factors relates to the performance CPTE students
in LET in terms of:
a. Faculty Qualification
b. Classroom Management
c. Communication Skills
d. Teaching Skills?
3. To what extent do the Students Related Factors relates to their performance in the LET in
terms of;
a. Study habits
b. Learning style
c. Work schedule?
4. Is there a significant difference between their program and their performance in the licensure
Examination for Teachers?
WoCTVET 2014 | 396
2. METHODOLOGY
The study utilized the descriptive method of research. A survey questionnaire was the main
instrument to gather the pertinent data in the study. The frequency and percentage count, mean,
standard deviation were utilized to describe descriptive data and the correlation analysis was
used to determine the relationship of the program to the performance of the students in the
licensure examination.
The sample of this study consisted of 75 respondents who completed the Continuing Program
for Teacher Education and took the Licensure Examination for Teachers. Most of the
respondents are already teaching and others are company employees. The respondents were
mainly in between 25 42 years old with different major of specialization.
2.2 Instruments
The preliminary draft of the questionnaire was submitted to the panel of experts for content
validation and for further enrichment of the questionnaire. Corrections and recommendations
acted upon for the final draft of the questionnaire. The first part of the asked for the personal
information of the respondents age, sex, civil status, highest educational attainment, year
completed the program and rating in the licensure examination for teachers. The second part of
the questionnaire asked the respondents to evaluate the school factors relationship with regards
to their performance in the LET like the school facilities, curriculum, classroom instruction and
school policies. Also included in this part the teacher related factors such as; faculty
qualification, classroom management, communication skills and teaching skills. The students
related factor was also included such as; study habits, learning style, and work schedule. The
criteria for the extent of relationship are well defined using 5- point Likert type scale.
3. RESULTS
The Continuing Program for Teacher Education students perceived that there is a very high
extent of relationship between the Program and the school related factors, teacher related
factors and student related factors.
Results implied that the program given to the noneducation graduates who wants to become
teachers are implemented effectively. The professors teaching in this program are well qualified
because all of them are holders of doctorate degree.
The classrooms for the students are air conditioned and are composed of 25 students in the
class and are easy to manage. Students enrolled in this program are well selected. They are given
written essay examination and oral interview, if they passed then, they will allowed to enrolled
in the program.
The mean distribution of the extent of relationship of the program to the different related
factors is shown below.
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Table 1 shows that school related factors relates to the performance of the cpte students in their
licensure examination. School policy has a very high extent of relationship.
Variables
Table1. Extent of Relationship

Between School related Factors and
Their Performance in the LET
Mean
Facilities
4.54
Curriculum
4.61
Classroom
Instruction
School
Policy
Legend: Numerical Rating
4.54
Very High Extent

Very High Extent
Very High Extent
Descriptive Rating
4:51-5:00
Very High Extent
3:51-4:50
High Extent
2:51-3:50
Moderately Extent
Variables
Table 2. Extent of Relationship

Between Faculty Related Factors and
Mean
Faculty
Qualification
Classroom
Management
Communicati
on Skills
Teaching
Skills
4.59
Interpretation
Very High Extent
4.79
4.64
4.73
4.65
Interpretation
Very High Extent
Very High Extent
Very High Extent
Very High Extent
Descriptive Rating
4:51-5:00
Very High Extent
3:51-4:50
High Extent
2:51-3:50
Moderately Extent
1:51-2:50
Less Extent
1:00-1:50
No Extent
WoCTVET 2014 | 398
Table 2 describes a high extent of relationship of Faculty Related Factors to the performance of
CPTE students in the Licensure Examination for Teachers.
Variables
Table 3. Extent of Relationship

Between Student Related Factors and
Mean
Study
Habits
Learning
Style
Working
Schedule
Interpretation
Very High Extent
4.74
Very High Extent
4.75
Very High Extent
4.72
Descriptive Rating
4:51-5:00
Very High Extent
3:51-4:50
High Extent
2:51-3:50
Moderately Extent
1:51-2:50
Less Extent
1:00-1:50
No Extent
Independent
Variables
Table 3 shows the very high extent of relationship of Student Related Factors to their
performance in the Licensure Examination for Teachers.
Age
Table 4. Correlation Between

Respondents Profile and Their
Performance in the Licensure
Examination
Pearso
Sig.
n Chi.
Value
Interpretation
Square
.259
Not significant
.254
Sex
.379
Civil Status
.382
Highest
Educ.
Attainment
.263
.375
Not significant
.188
Not significant
.232
Not significant
Significant at the 0.05 level

Table 4 described that the respondents profile is not significant to their performance in the
Licensure Examination. It implies that the CPTE students are much matured students. It also
shows that they are prepared and willing to learn the craft of teaching. Therefore they need to
study hard and perform well in the class.
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Independent
Variables
Facilities
Curriculu
m
Classroom
Structure
Policies

School Related Factors and Their
Examination
Pearso
Sig.
n Chi.
Interpretatio
Value
Squar
n
e
.513
Not significant
.356
.317
.071
.149
.575
Not significant
.145
Not significant
.322
Not significant
Significant at the .05 level
Independent
Variables
Table 5 indicates that School related factors are insignificant relation to the performance of the
CPTE students in the Licensure Examination for teachers. It implies that the College offer a good
curriculum aligned to what is mandated by the Philippine Regulation Commission. Classroom
structures are good, using its useful and functional educational technology. Good facilities are
enjoyed and well defined policies are implemented effectively by the teachers.
Qualification
Classroom
Management
Communication Skills
Teaching
Skills

Teacher Related Factors and Their
Examination
Pearson
Sig.
Chi.
Value Interpretation
Square
.221
Not significant
.217
.430
.390
.249
.434
Not significant
.395
Not significant
.254
Not significant

Table shows that teacher related factors are not significant to the performance of CPTE students
in the Licensure Examination for Teachers. This means that professors teaching in the program
are all qualified and they are doctorate degree holder. This also implies that the professors can
managed well the students in the classroom and manifests high teaching skills with a very good
communication skill.
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Independent
Variables
Study Habits
Learning
Style
Work
Schedule

Student Related Factors and
Their Performance in the
Licensure Examination
Pearson
Sig.
Chi.
Value Interpretation
Square
.213 Not significant
.211
.141
.162
.145
Not significant
.167
Not significant
Independent
Variables
As reflected in Table 7, it showed that the Student related factors are not significant to the
performance of CPTE students in the Licensure Examination for Teachers. This means that CPTE
students have already a good study habits since most of them are graduates of private schools.
Professors in their subjects can cope with their learning styles and even most of them are
already working still they have time for their assignments in school.
Teacher
Qualification
Communica tion Skill
Classroom
Management
Table 8. Differences in the CPTE

Students Perception on their
Program and Performance in the
Licensure Examination for
Teachers
Sig.
Interpretatio
T-value
Value
n
1.226
.151
.077
Teaching Skills
.745
Curriculum
.508
Classroom
Structure
.203
Facilities
.103
Policies
.235
.226
Not significant
.881
Not significant
.939
Not significant
.460
Not significant
.614
Not significant
.473
Not significant
.718
Not significant
.543
Not significant

Table 8 revealed that the students perception on their program effectiveness have no significant
difference to their performance in the Licensure Examination for Teachers. This implies that the
program given to the students as its over-all packaged is very effective. Professors are all
effective in their subjects handled; classrooms are structured according to its standard, well
ventilated and equipped with good facilities. School policies are observed both by the teachers
and students.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
Considering the findings of the study the following collusions are drawn:
1. The University Related Factors such as facilities, curriculum, classroom structure,
policies affect the performance of CPTE students in the Licensure Examination for
Teachers to a high extent.
2. The Teacher Related Factors such as; teacher qualification, classroom management,
communication skills and Teaching skills of the faculty affect the performance of the
CPTE program students in their licensure to a high extent.
3. The Students Related Factors such as; study habits, learning styles, work schedules
affect the performance of the CPTE students in the licensure Examination
to very high
extent.
4. There is no significant relationship between students perception on the CPTE program
for teacher education and their demographic profile, school related factors, School
related Factors and students related factors no significant.
5. There is no significant difference between the students perception on their program and
the performance in the licensure examination.
5. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Since the school related factors has no significant relationship to the performance of the
students it is recommended that additional facilities in the classroom should be installed
like television sets, and good air-conditioning unit.
2. Give more immersion activities for the students to be able them to understand and relate
to the nature of teaching profession.
3. Technological University of the Philippines, specifically the College of Industrial
Education should conduct review classes for their graduates for the licensure
examination.
4. Make a varied policy on the selection of applicants for the CPTE.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This piece of work has been realized through the effort of the researcher and the help of some
students for the accomplishment and collection of data. The following colleagues who also
helped and give their assistance for this study;
Dr. Cherrypyn Barbacena, his department head sho shared her invaluable assistance and time
for some comments and suggestions. Dr. Gabriel Sicam, for his support for the accomplishment
of some data in the study. Professor Neil Andrew Calayag, for his assistance and sincere
encouragement to finish the study on time. Dr. Helen Caparas, his Dean of the college for the
support and assistance to locate the graduates of CPTE.
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REFERENCES
1. Wagner Karen Van. (2005) Journal on Adolescense Attitudes and Behavior, Volume 5 N0.1,
pp 54-59.
2. Linda, Emma. (2014) Does After School Work Affect School Performance? www.
education.seattle.com
3. Marzano R and J. Pickering. (2014) Clasrroom Management That Works: Research-Based
Strategies for Teachers. www.ascd.org/publications/books103027.aspx
4. Vandiver, Bert. (2011) The Impact of School Facilities on the Learning Environment.
schoolworks.umass.edu/theses/497
5. F Rahman, Irman. (2010) Students Perception Effectiveness Hospitatilty Curriculum and
Their Preparedness. schoolworks.umass.edu/theses/497
6. Panti, Josefina M. Effectiveness of Certificate Program for Non-Specialist Teachers in
Technology and Livelihood Education, DEPED-NCR. Unpublished Masters Thesis, TUP
Manila, 2012
7. Madrazo, Marilyn B. Science Teachers Performance Based on the Competency Standards
and Students national Achievement Test Result: Basis for Enhancement Program.
University of Southern Philippines, Unpublished Dissertation, 2009.
8. Abian, Annalyn V. Personal-Socal Adjustment Factors and Academic Achievement of
Grade V and VI Pupils of Malate Catholic Scholl Manila, Unpublished Thesis TUP, Manila
2009.
9. Correlates of Academic Achievement of Grade V Puils in Two Districts in the Division of
City Schools, Malabon Navotas, Unpublished MASTERS Thesis, 2007.
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The Impact of Computer Literacy Skill via Learning Management

System (LMS) on an Effective Learning Practice
Norhafizah Ismail1, Wan Zah Wan Ali2
1,2Faculty of Educational Studies, University of Putra Malaysia
1 nhi.jmsk@gmail.com, 2 wanzah56@gmail.com.
ABSTRACT
The practice of effective learning is a vital challenge in the educational institution for the era of
technology to grasp positive encouragement. Hence, the emergence of Learning Management
System (LMS), which has been applied in several compulsory courses in Malaysian Polytechnics,
has a pertinent role in enhancing computer literacy skill. Learners do not merely gain knowledge
in the contexts of educational institution, but without time constraint, location and technology
can increase comprehension, introduce various learning techniques, and improve academic
achievement. The research was based on survey with the objectives to determine the computer
literacy element obtained via LMS, to identify the most frequent activity in LMS, and to
determine the relationship between forum activities in LMS and effective learning practice
among Engineering students. Furthermore, this research looked into the differences between
males and females in learning activities via LMS and identified the differences between
Engineering and non-Engineering students in computer literacy skills. The quantitative method
and the instrument of questionnaire were implemented in data collection. The findings revealed
that the experience of computer usage was the highest literacy skill with mean = 4.33, and the
forum was the most frequently used in LMS among the first semester students that comprised of
80 respondents, which involved DTP1, DEP1, DPM1, and DSB1 programmes in Merlimau
Polytechnic. It indicated that the computer literacy skill that was obtained via LMS gave a
significant effect on effective learning practice in Computer Application course.
Keywords: Computer Literacy; Learning Management System (LMS); Learning Practice.
1. INTRODUCTION
Students ability to manage learning in a webbased environment and their comprehension on
the icons, menu, and language used in certain systems can be related to computer literacy skills.
In the past experience, academic achievement satisfaction, application of software, and
computer device exploration, which are synchronized with the emergence of technology, are
embraced in computer literacy elements. The skill plays a crucial role in order to ensure the
learners can grasp insightful information, equipped with knowledge and provide feedback to
learning via Learning Management System (LMS).
LMS is a platform of teaching and learning implemented to improve the optimization of blended
learning process and it seems reasonable to consider the educational resilience and the
interpersonal engagement. It means that in order to manage learning activities based on portal
web, a collaboration between software and the rapid emergence of Web 2.0 tools, such as social
media,has produced impact and has contributed to the teaching and learning methods(Breiter,
2004; Wall,& Ahmed, 2008). These applications promote a pertinent terminology with digital
teaching material and stimulated collaboration, as well as interaction between learners and
WoCTVET 2014
educators (Seufert, 2002). Basically, the functions of LMS comprise of storage, organization,
distribution, searching, indexing, and retrieving learning materials.
Furthermore, it is good to implement effective learning practices in the rapid rise of internet
technologies as a new element to foster in the process of meaningful learning. Interactive
environment is part of effective learning. In the educational context, interactive learning
environment has meaningful learning attributes. For instance, it enhances intrinsic motivation.
Based on Luo(2009), Li, Luo, and Liu (2009), Ma (2009), andLiu, Ma, Ru, andGuo(2009), basic
guidelines, challenges, and difficult and practical exercises increase problem solving skills and
mental ability. The recommendations for the development of learning and teaching practices
and blended learning approach enhance students learning experiences (Poon, 2013). The
experience of problem solving among learners is crucial in the educational setting in order to
achieve certain goals in their academic performance and as valuable learning practice.
The practices of effective learning assist in producing spontaneous feedback for the requirement
of students academic achievement. Besides, the networking and the interaction between
learning partners can enrich social and communication skills. Besides, Murugaiah, Atan,
Samsudin, and Idrus (2004)highlighted that the interactive environment features are the main
factors in constructivism learning and promote positive output from effective learning practice.
Besides, they encourage learners interest and this is pertinent to academic achievement.
2. BACKGROUND
The learning climate extends beyond the traditional classroom, in a way, necessitating
integration of computer literacy with education, establishing e-learning culture within future
technical education, and facilitating lifelong learning (Polytechnic Transformation, 2010). The
transformation emphasizes innovation, creativity, and explores the niche area and certain
technologies to produce quality, competence, and high employability graduates.
Polytechnics have a specific role to overcome the institution of higher learning eco system,
which enables in coping with the changes of human capability in high order thinking skill, as
well as generic skill upon graduation. As National Higher Education Strategic Plan (2010) has
highlighted, Malaysia needs to increase high technical skill workers from 23% to 37% in 2015.
Therefore, students should be equipped with technical skills (Bakar, &Hanafi, 2007),
competency in ICT, generic skills, and computer literacy (Ahmad, Karim, Din, & Albakri, 2013)
that would enable them to fulfil the current work demands and professional expectations. The
generic skills comprise of elements of critical thinking skill, problem solving skill, information
technology and communication, effective communication and management skill.
The process to produce a good outcome is closely related to the skill in computer literacy and
the ability of students to manage work, experience, the learning session via technology and LMS
in the institution. In fact, LMS has been deployed in many institutions in surveying education
and the information retrieved provides some insight for blended learning, which is preferably
the standard in education in future years (El-Mowafy, Kuhn,& Snow, 2013). It is gradually
becoming familiar in many higher education institutions. Thus, LMS is implemented to assist in
the delivery and management of learning-related materials, for instance, course outline, lectures
important notes, lecture recordings, e-assessments, as well as discussion forums.
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The critical success factors in the transformation embrace non-physical infrastructure, such as
application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). It transforms in real context
and goes hand in hand in reshaping the future of Malaysian Polytechnics educational institution
practice. Despite the rapid integration between computers and different appropriate teaching
and learning issues, studies have indicated that polytechnic students need various approaches to
enhance their computer literacy skill. Active interaction does not indicate improvement in
students achievement, but it is vital as it acts as a starting point in fostering online teaching and
learning process (MohdHashim, &MohamadHisyam, 2006).
Moreover, computer literacy skill is vital to novice learners and it plays a basic role inpreparing
to grasp the learning content in the teaching and learning session. It includes declarative and
step-by-step computer relevance knowledge for the students to be familiar and have confidence
with using the computers (Richter et al., 2001).As the learners become more responsible in
gaining information, they can prepare themselves and think beyond to be competent in their
learning outcome. The key factors of computer literacy skill contribute in immediate success
through hands-on demonstration, user-friendly hardware and software, as well as support from
peers, educational institution, and other sources (Youngman,& Harrison, 1998). In the context of
academic, even though various efforts have been implemented to introduce the exposure to ICT
among learners, the constraint still exists among students in terms of their readiness to accept
ICT, its uses, and access to the internet (Robiah et al., 2003). Literacy is infrastructural and it is
essential for the education to produce students who are knowledgeable, competent, and possess
the ability to convey new ideas as well as practices effectively (Andrea, 2001).
The integration of technology into the curriculummakes the students familiar to the skill in
handling icons in the application that avoids computer literacy anxiety. Learning can be an
exciting mode if active learning takes place as the domain element, fostering authentic learning
and introducing new technologies as a creative approach in classroom. As adult learners,
frequent communication and variety techniques in transferring the knowledge ought to be
synchronized in order to make them understand in depth and strengthen the education entities
relationship throughout the learning process. Therefore, it is better to regulate their learning
through the use of effective learning techniques and practices.
3. OBJECTIVES
The research objectives were to:
1. Determine the computer literacy element obtained via LMS.
2. Identify the most frequent activities deployed via LMS.
3. Determine the relationship between forum activitiesvia LMS and effective learning
practices among Engineering students.
4. Determine the differences between males and females for learning activities via LMS.
5. Identify the differences in computer literacy skill between students fromEngineering and
non-Engineering programmes.
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4. SETTING
The study was implemented in the Polytechnic of Merlimau inMalacca (PMM). It was managed
by the Department of Polytechnics Studies, Malaysian Ministry of Education. According to the
Students New Intake Department from the Malaysian Polytechnics in the Ministry of Education,
PMM is the 14th Polytechnic established out of the 32 Polytechnics in Malaysia. Based on the
category of Conventional Polytechnics, it has offered study programmes that consist of
engineering, commerce, and tourism and hospitality. The selection of the location was based on
the students from the first semester deployed LMS, which refers to the Curriculum Information
Document Online System (CIDOS) for the Malaysian Polytechnics. The students enrolled in the
Computer Application (BC101) course would need to complete the continuous assessment, as
stated in the course structure of the current syllabus.
5. SAMPLE
5.1 Characteristics of the Sample
Generally, the research population comprised of the first semester students who registered for
Computer Application (BC101) as a compulsory course. The course is offered to all students in
diploma level. Based on the Computer Unit Assessment Report for June 2013 session, 789
students enrolled for the course at the Department of Mathematics. The research samples
consisted of 80 first semester students with simple random sampling fromboth Engineering and
non-Engineeringprogrammes. The Engineering programmes included Diploma in Manufacturing
Technology (DTP1) and Diploma in Communication Electronic (DEP1A), meanwhile, the nonEngineering programmes consisted of Diploma in Architecture (DSB1) and Diploma in Business
Studies (DPM1). The sample size was selected according to the Table of Krejcie and Morgan
(1970).
6. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Questionnaire was used to collect the data to determine the computer literacy element
perceived via LMS and to identify the most frequency activity in LMS. It determined the
relationship between forum activity via LMS and effective learning practices among the
Engineering students. Furthermore, it identified the differences between males and females for
learning activities via LMS.
This research also determined the differences between Engineering and non-Engineering
students for computer literacy skills. The measurement process was implemented to investigate
views, perceptions, and respondents attitudes in more detail and in depth (Othman,
2013).There were 3 basic questions that had to be answered by the researcher in constructing
the research questionnaire, as suggested by Cjaza (1998):
6.1 Do the respondents understand the words or terminologies used?
6.2 Do the questions attract the interest among the respondents to answer and give feedback?
6.3 Are the questions understood the same way by allrespondents?
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The research instrument comprised of 4 sections: A, B, C, and D. They are indicated in the table
below:
Table 1.
Research instrument section.
7. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The respondents were informed before participating in the research. In order for them to give
informed consent, they were explained the purpose, content, duration, and benefitsof the study.
They spent several minutes to complete the questionnaire and if they wished to quit from the
research, they could do so at any point. As for the issue of confidentiality and anonymity, it was
pertinent to keep the respondents identities confidential, such as their names, registration
numbers, and brands of electronic gadget used. The questionnaire was designed with a series of
questions to collect information from the individuals regarding computer literacy skill in LMS
environment to measure the learning practice paradigm.
8. DATA COLLECTION AND PROCEDURES
8.1
Descriptive and Inference Statistics
This study was based on descriptive statistics, whereby the data collection method was from
management summary and data representative in clear and informative way. It was related to
the extraction of information with measurement of central location or dispersion
measurement.Inference statistics is a method used to interpret conclusion or inference, which
are related to population features based on the data of the sample.
9. DATA ANALYSIS
9.1
Independence t-test
It is an inferential statistical test, which involved if there are significant differences between
male and female students for learning activities via LMS. The related data were gender, which
were grouped as nominal and learning activities as ordinal data. The assumptions before
implementing independence t-test are random sampling, normality test, and homogeneity of
variance (Levene test).
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9.2
One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
It involved measurement of differences between mean of 3 or more groups. In this research, it

had been the mean of computer literacy skills for DTP1, DEP 1A, DPM1, and DSB1. The
assumptions referred to the population were normally distributed, the homogeneity of variance
and random sampling, and were not dependent between each other.
Fig. 6. ANOVA Statistical Category

9.3 Correlation
Correlation is the quantity that represents the strengthness of relationship degree or
relationship between two variables (Othman, 2013). In the study, the relationship between
forum activities via LMS and effective learning practices among Engineering students were
determined by score correlation assumption from the same sample, score with normally
distributed, linear relationship between variables, and homogeneity of variance.
10.1 Research demography results
According to the pie chart below, male students were greater than female students, 49 students
compared to 31 students. The differences occurred as the sample was chosen from Engineering,
management, and architecture programmes. They consisted of Diploma in Manufacturing
Technology (DTP), Diploma in Electrical Engineering (DEP), Diploma in Business Studies (DPM),
and Diploma in Architecture (DSB). The male students preferred to pursue studies in
Engineering. management and architecture programmes. Based on Merlimau Polytechnic
Students Affairs Unit, the students registration in June 2013 revealed that hands-on and
technical skills are crucial programmes and they need the requirement and skill involved in
electrical, mechanical, and civil engineering.
Fig. 7. Respondents distribution by gender

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10.2 Computer literacy skill elements

Computer literacy is related to the ability to control or program a computer to accomplish a
variety of personal, academic, and professional goals (Watt, 1980). The usage of computer
applications requires greater familiarity with representing and processing visual information
that has been required in the past. It covers confidence and the ability to use computer, software
used, internet services, and information retrieval. Furthermore, working method and spirit of
enthusiasm by providing good features of teaching materials, and finally,the ease in accessing
the resources are the skills of computer literacy (Youngman, &Harrison, 1998). The mean value
of computer literacy skill among the first semester students who enrolled Computer Application
(BC101) course, which includedprogrammes of DTP1, DEP 1A, DPM 1, and DSB1, was 4.1908,
with variance = 0.853, and standard deviation = 0.9234. The mean is commonly used in central
tendency measurement and is influenced by changes of value in data distribution unless if it
exists in extreme values.
Table 2.
Mean of Computer Literacy Skill.

Statistics
COMPUTER LITERACY
Valid
80
N
Missing
0
Mean
4.1908
Std. Deviation
0.92338
Variance
0.853
Computer literacy skill in this research comprised of the experience of using computer (EC),
satisfaction achievement (SA), icon familiarity (IF), application software (AS), and ability of
handling the electronic device (HD).Based on the data below, the highest mean of computer
literacy skill was experience in using the computer, with value 4.3333. Besides, the lowest mean
wasfamiliarize in using icon and application menu, such as Microsoft Word, Excel, Power Point,
and Microsoft Project, with value 4.0708. Most of the students were exposed to computer
technology since secondary school and were familiar in using notebook and desktop personal
computer at their homes. In other views, it is synchronized with the national campaign with one
personal computer in a home to fulfil with ICT knowledge and to develop the knowledge of
workers among the young generations.
Table 3.
Mean of Computer Literacy Skill Elements.
10.3 Activities via LMS

The learning activities implemented via LMS comprised of assignment submission, academic
chat platform, forum interaction, online quizzes, as well as teaching and learning resources.
Overall, the activities gave the mean value 4.1525. Forum activity was the most interested
session by students with mean 4.2625, standard deviation 1.7747, and variance 3.150. The
advantages of the forum increased the interaction among course mates, changes of ideas, and
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shared information about learning activities. The next activity was uploading and downloading
the materials of teaching and learning with mean 4.0917, standard deviation 1.0514, and
variance 1.105. The students submitted their assignment in a hardcopy compared to the concept
of uploading to CIDOS elearning as LMS.
Table 4.Mean of Computer Literacy Skill Elements
Statistics
LMS Activities
Valid
80
N
Missing
0
Mean
4.1525
Std. Deviation
0.96208
Variance
0.926
10.4 The Relationship between Forum Activity via Lmsand Effective Learning Practice
among Engineering Students.
Pearson product-moment correlation is used when x and y variables are interval or ratio or
combination of interval or ratio. The analysis comprised of two variable types, predictive
variable (forum activity) and criterion variable (effective learning practice). According to
Connolly, and Sluckin(1971), the research had moderate correlation, 0.590 for forum activity via
LMS and effective learning practice among Engineering students in Merlimau Polytechnic.
Table 5.Correlation Relationship Degree
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10.5 The Differences Between Gender and LMS Activities

Table 6. Mean and Independent Samples Test
In this research, a significant value in a first row was greater than 0.05 that was 0.059. Hence, it
summarized a significant value (2 tailed), 0.420, as the value is less than 0.05. It indicated that
there was a significant difference in the mean score between male and female students in the
LMS activities.
10.6 Effective Learning Practice
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the mean of three or more independent
sample groups to identify if there was a significant difference. If the significant value is at
Between Group < 0.05, hence it is significant. If the significant value is at Between Group > 0.05,
hence, it is insignificant. From the research findings, it indicated a significant value at Between
Group of 0.000, which is less 0.05, thus, there was a significant difference between diploma
programmestudents who enrolled in the Computer Application course on computer literacy
skills.
Table 7. Mean and independent samples test
According to Table 7 above, it showed that there was a significant difference between the mean
of computer literacy skill [df(3) = 7.000, p = .000] for both Engineering and non-Engineering
student groups. It indicated that the students from each group had different computer literacy
skills.
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11. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IMPLICATIONS

The academic programmes offered by the Polytechnic ofMalaysia represent the image and
starting point toimprove technical education among the higher learning institution. With the
tremendous emergence ineducational teaching and learning methods that enhances the
institution to compete, various ways have been attempted toattract the interest of learners.
Without LMSas a platform in delivering the material, it is quite difficult to stimulate learners in
exploring new technologies, aswell as to be familiar with the activities, such as forum,
onlinequizzes, and assignments. All process of learning is not only measured in the classroom
session; but it can beaccomplished through outside lecture, either via synchronous or
asynchronous method. Therefore, the process oflearning that continues in LMS can be
conductedto foster the educational entities to continue to engage inthe educational mode.
Active interaction and computer literacy skills are required to ensure that the learners perceive
effective learningpractice. The students confidence level in grasping theconcept of learning can
be increased after the end of thesemester. The deployment of LMS, which refers to CIDOS
elearning in the context of Polytechnic, has achieved thecriteria of ICT requirement that has
been introduced by the Department ofPolytechnics Studies in theMalaysian Ministry of
Education. Hence, inorder to produce good competence among graduates and to sustain inan
employment, it contributes as the key successfactor to extend Technical and Vocational
Education (TVET) and lifelong education as world class education in the future.
12. RECOMMENDATIONS
The requirement of network society in enhancing the literacy of computer needs to suggest a
model of the P3Es: personalization, participation, productivity, educators ethics, learners
ethics, and organizational ethics (Nuno et al., 2011). In order to gain educational practices for
effective learner engagement in LMS, the learning environment ought to motivate, provide
online socialization, and promote information exchange and knowledge construction (Brennan,
2003). Materials for teaching and learning should be designed via LMS as it can encourage active
learning among students and the use of blended learning approach. A short video on LMS
facilitates a concept of learning in the syllabus, as well as exposing the learner to practice
student-centred learning in a flipped classroom. The context of sampling can be enlarged to
national public university, community colleges, and other educational institutions. As the
educational technology plays a main role to influence the trends in computer literacy, the
Internet-based applications are blooming while applications with PC-based have languished
(Hoffman, & Blake, 2003). The way of document production has changed to communications and
information. Since the new Internet-based development of LMS has attracted the students to get
engaged in their learning context thoroughly, it has changed the culture of conventional learning
to blended learning approach. Thus, the learners must prepare with basic computer and
technology skills as vital requirementsfor a smoother learning session.
13. CONCLUSION
Learning a course which comprises of computer literacy skill through the application of LMS can
foster the students development of new knowledge, experience, hard work, and self-discipline.
Webbased learning can be implemented in various techniques, can enhance mastery learning
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and activate knowledge transfer via internet technology or Web 2.0 tools. The effective learning
practices can be increased with good mastery of the elements of computer literacy skills. It
describes real experience of using different types of computers, satisfaction of achievement,
familiarity of using icons and menu, and optimizes the application software features for
Windows, Macintosh, Linux or Solaris, and others in the market. Furthermore, effective learning
practices can be generated through students ability to use technology device and built in with
artificial intelligence in rapid emergence of World Wide Web or www.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author, Norhafizah Ismail, would like to express unending gratitude to her research
supervisor, Professor Dr Wan Zah Wan Ali, for her help in the process of academic writing,
combing through the amendments, and completing this research.The funding was received from
the Putra Grant, University of Putra Malaysia and the Malaysian Ministry of Education (MOE).
Special thanks are also dedicated to the lecturers of Mathematics, Science, and Computer
Department in Merlimau Polytechnic for theirexcellent support as far as the data collection
process was concerned.
REFERENCES
1. Ahmad, M., Karim, A.A., Din, R., &Albakri, I.S.M.A. (2013). Accessing ICT Competencies
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Curricular Innovations in Vocational Agriculture in Nigerian

Colleges of Education for Life Skills and Career Development in
the 21st Century
Umar A. Muazu*
Department of Agricultural Education, School of Vocational Education,
Federal College of Education (Tech), PMB 1088, Gusau-Zamfara state,
Nigeria
aumuazu67@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The curriculum content of the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) Vocational Agriculture is
inadequate to the requirements of the labor market. Most of the content are not derived from
functions perform on relevant jobs rather are based on theoretical foundations of available
textbooks and teachers background. This has created gaps between the expectations of the
labor market and the competences possessed by the graduates of this education. Considering
this, making innovations in the content, methodology and assessments in the NCE Vocational
Agriculture curriculum will make the product of this educational system more suitable to the
labor market and self employed which will lead to self reliance. This paper carefully examined
the limitations of the present curriculum of Vocational Agricultural education in Nigerian
College of Education and the implementation lapses which hindered the self reliance objective
of the National Policy on Education (NPE) in Nigeria. Finally, the paper suggests strategies to
reform the present curriculum so that Vocational Agricultural Education Program can truly be
a strong tool as life skill and career development in the 21st century. The conclusions and
recommendations were proffered to guide future research on these issues.
Keywords: Curriculum, Vocational Agriculture, Innovations, Nigerian Certificate In
Education (NCE)
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of a nation in the socio-economic and technological areas has brought along
with it new challenges to individual and the society. The life of an individual is becoming more
complex and the society is witnessing a number of problems threatening its survival. Unless
individuals are equipped with innovative skills that would enable them to adapt to these
changes they will be woefully unprepared to meet the new challenges created in the society
[4]. It is clear that since the society is dynamic, changes will continue to happen and new
challenges will be created which will require new skills for their solutions.
In Nigerian society today, there were similar challenges due to the socio-economic and
technological development going on in the nation. Amongst the challenges gaining attention of
most Nigerians are the unemployment, poverty, hunger, corruption etc. The Government has
introduced a number of short term strategies for solving the problems but the ultimate
solution requires the overhauling of the educational system. This will involve resolving the
mismatch between the world of work and the curriculum in one hand and making innovations
in the content, methodology and assessment in the curriculum such that products of our
educational system can become more suitable for the labor market and for self-employment
WoCTVET 2014
which will lead to self-reliance. This paper examined the limitations of the present Vocational
Agricultural Education Curriculum (VAEC) content in Nigerian College of Education (NCE) and
innovative reforms were suggested for effective change of attitude for life skill and career
development in the 21st century.
The structure of the paper is organized in the following order; next section highlights the
structure of the Nigerian educational system and discussion on the current Nigeria Certificate
in Education (N.C.E) Curriculum in Nigeria, this is followed by discussions on the aims and
objectives of the Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria as contained in the National
Policy on Education (NPE). The next section presents the limitations of the content of VAEC in
the NCE and in the last section the innovative reforms in the present VAEC in the NCE were
suggested. Finally, the conclusion is presented.
2. THE STRUCTURE OF THE NIGERIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
Until 1984, the structure of Nigeria education system was 6 years of primary schools, 5 to 7
years of post primary schools (Secondary, Teacher Training College) and 4 to 6 yrs of tertiary
education (College of education, polytechnics, College of Technology and University education).
From 1985, the structure that emanated can be classified thus, pre-primary or kindergarten
education (2 to 3 yrs), for the children of ages 3 to 5 years the primary school which is of 6
years period for children of ages 6 to 11 yrs, the post primary education which is of 6 years
duration but divided into two halves (3 years of Junior Secondary School and 3 years of Senior
Secondary School) and the 4 to 6 of tertiary education level. This is called the 6-3-3-4 system
[5].
3. CHANNELS TO ATTAIN TERTIARY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
In Nigeria, there is a sequence of three possible channels of attaining higher educational levels.
The possible channels are illustrated in figure 1. The first channel assumes that after
completing secondary education a graduate went through NCE to the University and the
second routes assumed the person went through Higher diploma and then to the University.
The third channel is the most common that is, those who went straight from secondary school
to the university. Out of the three possible channels of educational attainment, the most
prevalent route is that which is, from primary education to secondary education to university
education. This is so because this route takes a shorter time to achieve an educational goal and
cost less than any of the other routes.
Figure 1: Possible Channels to Attain Higher Education in Nigeria

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The philosophy of the NCE educational program is to train individuals to attain the minimum
qualification of teachers in the country as stipulated in section 8 sub-sections 70 of the [6]. that
the Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE) shall be the minimum qualification for teachers in
the country. This by implication is that the NCE shall be the qualification for teaching in the
primary schools since it is the lowest level of education.
The NCE curriculum is geared towards making the recipient a subject specialist. That is, the
recipient is trained in either one or two subject areas. In the case of one subject area, double
major like agricultural education or Home Economics courses were taught. While in the case of
two subjects it is two combined subject as major are taught. Courses are offered in the subject
areas either as double major or as combined course and in addition education courses like
Philosophy of Education, Psychology of Education, Sociology of Education, Curriculum,
Guidance and Counseling and so on are taught. In addition to these, there are the General Study
courses like language and communication skills, citizenship Education and others.
4. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE AT NCE LEVEL
The philosophy of the NCE vocational agricultural program is tied with the national philosophy
on agriculture for self-reliance based on the provision of teachers endowed with a balanced
approach between principles and practice of Agriculture for academic and vocational ends.
The Nigerian Certificate in Education minimum standards in Vocational and Technical
education 2012 edition highlights the objectives of the program among which include;
1. To prepare graduates with the right attitudes to, and knowledge/professional
competence in vocational agriculture.
2. To produce teachers who will be capable of motivating students to acquire interest in
and aptitude for agriculture.
3. To develop the student-teachers the appropriate communicative skills effective
transmission of agricultural information and skills to the students in the context of
their environment.
4. To provide a sound background to enhance further academic and professional
progression of student-teachers.
In view of the aforementioned, a good NCE curriculum in vocational agriculture should ought
to among other things, adequately prepares her graduates for immediate employment with
their skills, reduce drastically the drop out and unemployment rates among her recipients,
make her recipient self-reliant thus, an employer of labor and instill the sense of dignity in
labor among her beneficiaries.
Substantiating the alarming rate of curriculum inadequacy in schools, [7] lamented that the
education sector is trailing behind other sectors in the adoption of modern innovations such as
industry, business, aviation and administration. The author attributed this to the fact that
substantial number of our educational institutions lacks the basic resources/infrastructure. In
support of the above assertion, [1]posited that most Nigerias classrooms have been typified by
traditional pattern of science education which has remained unchanged.
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5. OBSERVED LIMITATIONS OF VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM

AT THE NCE LEVEL
Vocational Agricultural Education program in Nigeria is meant to assist the learners to adjust
successfully to constantly changing situations in the world of work. In his opinion to support
this assertion [2] posits that curriculum content should be tailored to the needs and
aspirations of the learners. The author further noted that curriculum should be built in and
around the day to day problems of the local people or the immediate beneficiary. It has been
observed that the curriculum of the VAE program is not regularly reviewed, evaluated and
modified to reflect current needs and it is in view of this opinion scholars suggest that
curriculum should not be static but rather dynamic so as to assist learners to address current
issues.
It is based on the above discussion that the following limitations of the present Vocational
Agricultural Education curriculum contents need an urgent attention for effective change of
attitude as well as life skill and career development in the 21st century. The limitations include;
1. Lack of adequate pedagogical training of the teachers and instructors.
2. Inadequate practical contents to provide sufficient on the job training experience for
the learners.
3. Lack of the accreditation of the SIWES attachment centers to ensure that available
skills exist for student to learn.
4. Inadequate capacity building (training workshop) for teachers and instructor to equip
them with current challenges on job.
5. Inadequate funding of the entire Vocational Education programs.
It is note-worthy therefore that to overcome this challenges of the present curriculum in the
VAE program for life skill and career development in the 21st century, the following innovative
reforms were here-by identified and highlights in the next section of the paper..
6. PERCEIVED INNOVATIVE REFORMS NEEDED IN THE CURRICULUM OF THE VAE AT NCE
LEVEL IN NIGERIA
1. As a teacher training level of education, it is expected that those who should responsible
for the teaching and learning of the VAE program be versatile with both the theory and
the practice of the subject matter. The observed imbalance between classroom lectures
and field practical suggests that square pegs are put in round holes. There is need for a
shift curricular emphasis from theory to practice so as to ensure that beneficiaries
acquire self reliant skills.
2. According to [8] VAE program involves development of knowledge, skills and attitudes. In
most institutions skills are usually de-emphasized due to inadequate time, for instance the
SIWES is always four weeks which is too short. A minimum of six months to one year may be
required as practical attachment to acquire the desired skills.
3. Nigerian Colleges of Education that offered VAE program should accredit SIWES centers and
should spell out the criteria that must be met by the student before they are posted to these
WoCTVET 2014 | 420
accredited attachment centers. On the other hands institutions should take inventory of skills
available in any attachment centers before dispatching students to them for attachment.
4. The curriculum should be modified to support decreasing the teacher-student ratio especially
for the field practical. This could be achieved through increasing the number of technologist
and technicians to adequately help the teachers in the supervision for necessary skills and
knowledge.
5. The funding of the VAE program in Nigeria is solely government responsibility as spell out by
the content of the curriculum. In addition to the need for the government to increase her
funding, there is also need to for the NGOs and the private sector to contribute especially, in
the supply of the new technology to ensure that beneficiaries acquire self-reliant skills.
7. CONCLUSION
Curriculum innovation in VAE program is necessary to improve the current methodology in
other to strengthen the modern practices of the 21st century to cope with the challenges that
were needed world over. Curricular innovation will improve teaching methodology, enrich
curriculum content therefore enhance student learning consequently improve the quality of
the educational program in Nigeria school system.
REFERENCES
1. Adamu, A. U (1992) Operation, Efficiency and Desirability of special Science Schools at
Secondary School Level: The Nigerian Experience. Mans International Institute of Educational
Manning, ENESCO.
2. Akpama, S. (2005) Curriculum Contents and International Methods for Sensitizing Adult
Learners to the Health Implication of Improper Solid Waste Disposal. Readings in Adult
Education Calabar, Glad Tidings Press Ltd.
3. Amaghionyeodiwe, L.A. and Osinubi, T.S. (2006) The Nigerian Educational System And Returns
To Education, International Journal of Applied Econometrics and Quantitative Studies Vol.3-1
pp. 3140.
4. Ceci, S. (1996) On intelligence Cambridge M.A Havard University.
5. Dada, A. (1999) The Teacher and the Curriculum Ibadan, Tejama General Enterprises.
6. Federal Ministry of Education, (2004) National Policy on Education. Abuja-Nigeria: Federal
Ministry of Education.
7. Nworgu, L. N. (2007) Curricular and Infrastructural provision of the ICT in STM Teacher
Education: Implication for Optimization of Service delivery. In service delivery in Education
sector Issues and Strategies, Nsukka University Trust Publishers.
8. Okoh, E. C. (2004) Fundamentals of Vocational Technical Education, Kontagora: Amaka Press.
WoCTVET 2014 | 421
A Model of Supervision in Communicating Expectations Using

Supervisory and Student Learning Styles
Suriana Nasir1, Alias Masek2
1, 2Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussien Onn Malaysia (UTHM),
86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia.
1suriana_nasir@yahoo.com, 2aliasmasek@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Malaysia is developing rapidly and is increasing numbers of Professional of Doctorate (PhD)
graduates. Synchronizing with the development of Technical and Vocational Education Training
(TVET), handbooks for postgraduates supervision is providing to improve the understanding of
the complex relationship between PhD students and supervisors. From the literature, the
common factors that limit the success of PhD students are difficulties in the supervisory process.
This paper discusses the needs of effective supervision to resolve problem arise within the PhD
student-supervisor relationship by using supervisory styles and students learning style in
communicating expectations. Several models of supervision and then several models
implemented for PhD supervision are reviewed. Then, the lessons learned are used as a
reference to develop a supervisory model that may fit into the Malaysian TVETs education
system. In future, the model is requiring experimentation its effectiveness to expedite
graduation, increase graduation rates, and improve the quality of research in the TVET sector.
Keywords: Supervisory Model; TVET; Supervision; PhD
1. INTRODUCTION
Academic supervision in Malaysia needs to be strengthening due to satisfaction on PhD research.
According to Al-Naggar, Al-Sarory, Al-Naggar and Al-Muosli [1], a specific guideline is necessary
for supervisory system to guide both supervisors and students during the PhD study period.
Although, a handbook for postgraduate supervision was established, but focusing is on the
knowledge and skills to support the supervisor in professional working relationship with
students [2].
Quality of supervisory practice has been demonstrable effect on the outcomes and the need of
universities to improve their supervision of the PhD graduates [1]. Agreed by Gill and Burnard
[4], the quality of the PhD can influence by the effective of supervision. Effective supervision in
research required supervisors to be knowledgeable and skilled [5].
In Malaysia, research supervision is early stage, no specific based model use in supervise PhD
[1]. The purpose of supervision model is a guidance to enhance the quality of supervision PhD
students. Nevertheless, supervision in Malaysia was not in satisfaction [1]. Specifically, this
paper aims to outline a supervisory model that may fit into the Malaysian TVETs education
system. Supervision models are used to improve the efficiency of the supervision. The paper is
written from the lesson learned by several models of supervision and several models
implemented for PhD supervision.
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2. TVET in Malaysia
Malaysias TVET system has been categorized in World Bank by Pillay [6] into five main pillars,
which are Public higher education system which caters mainly to SPM school leavers; Malaysian
Skills Qualifications Framework, which was introduced by the National Vocational Training
Council in 1993; Company-based training, which comes under the Human Resource
Development Fund established in 1993 to promote the training of employees; Private higher
education, largely under the purview of the Private Higher Education Institutions Act 1996 and
accredited by the National Accreditation Board; and Continuing education and training.
3. RELATED WORKS
Several selected Supervision Models have been reviewed to identify the phases of supervision
that contribute to the success of supervision. Without seeing into the specific disciplines or the
particular models, the discussion focuses on critical components, which includes interpersonal
relationship between supervisor and supervisee in supervisory process [10], the role of
supervisor and supervisee [5], and the expectation supervisor and supervisee in research
supervision [2]. In order to gain a better understanding, the discussion will also specifically
include supervisory systems.
3.1 Lessons from Supervision Models
Throughout the Supervision Models in the higher education context, generally includes
supervisory systems and supervisory process. These models also involved understanding of
systems approach during the supervisory process. The summary of the review is presented as
follows:
3.2 Systems Approach
The supervisor needs to have better understanding the function of supervision and tasks of
supervision itself. The systems approach is to focus on what supervisors are actually doing and
why [12]. This is done on the assumption that this grounds discussion in the practice of
supervision and the behavior of participants, ensuring that their learning is situated in their
particular research contexts [12].
Supervisors expectations of students [2]:
a. To have a clear idea of what they would like to research on.
b. To be self-motivated.
c. To work consistently.
d. To keep to appointments for meetings.
e. To take responsibility for keeping notes of meetings.
f. To work on the feedback given to them.
g. To complete on time.
WoCTVET 2014 | 423
h. To take ultimate responsibility for their own work.

i. To be independent
j. To be proficient in the language.
k. To do their own or outsource editing and proof-reading.
Students expectations of supervisors [2]:
a. To read drafts before supervisory meetings.
b. To be readily available when there is a need.
c. To be collegial, open-minded and supportive. To provide constructive feedback.
e. To have a clear understanding of the research. To facilitate supervisory meetings that enable.
To show keen interest in the research that is being conducted.
h. To be sufficiently involved in their success to help them get jobs. To be punctual for
supervisory meetings.
Supervision model is common to all disciplines and highlights certain basic elements:
negotiating/guiding the transition from dependence to independence (i.e. the level of direction
given varies bi-modally), adapting the supervisory approach to individual student's needs and
personalities, disciplinary differences etc. and recognizing that a key to the entire process is the
deft formulation of the problem/topic/question since it is that which ensures focus and
engagement. The tension here arises from the delicate task of guiding students away from nonproductive paths without taking over or undermining student 'ownership' of the problem [12].
3.3 Supervisory Process
The supervisory process involved an input-output process mediated by a knowledge conversion
stage [1]. The input is the PhD students and environment. Cullen [12] stated input process is
characterized by a significant input of time and effort helping the student to find or establish a
question, problem or topic for their dissertation.
The output is the completion of the research dissertation or products and competent PhD
graduates. The knowledge conversion stage is modified by separate knowledge creation,
transfer, and embedding processes. PhD students normally demand supervisory expertise due to
skill in doing research such as theory, methodology, writing and presentation [12].
Supervisors assisting PhD students to involve in conference and journal paper publications also
as a mediated in supervisory process to develop skill and knowledge [13]. Publishing is a
process has their work evaluated and eventually accepted by experienced peers [2].
3.4 Lessons from Local Supervision Models Case Studies
To fix into Malaysian TVETs education system, several local Supervision Models Case Studies
have been reviewed. In Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Abiddin [5] conducted a case study in
postgraduate students perception on effective supervision. Throughout, the combination of
three approaches can be used in the supervision of research students depending upon the
WoCTVET 2014 | 424
situation and requirements. The students requirements from a supervisory relationship are as
follows: personal help: support, motivation, socializing, help in organizing accommodation and
other things that may be required but are unrelated to the research; indirect research related
help: providing contacts, both industrial and academic, providing equipment and initial help in
locating references; and direct research related help, namely: critical analysis of work, help with
methodological problems, precise direction and help with the management of the project.
In 2013, Ghani and Said [7] conducted a study on the PhD supervisory relationship gap in
Malaysian Public University. This study examines the supervisory selection criteria of the PhD
supervisees and PhD supervisors in selecting their supervisors and supervisees. The result show
PhD supervisee group tend to agree that having common research interest is a primary factor in
choosing their supervisors. However, the PhD supervisor group perceived common research
interest as the least important factor in selecting a supervisee. The PhD supervisees also
perceived professional reputation of the supervisors as an important factor whereas the PhD
supervisors perceived the PhD supervisees past research and work experience as a major
influence in choosing their supervisee.
An Exemplary Supervision Model: A Collection from the Literature
Several implemented Supervision Models have been reviewed and identified the phases of
supervision. Then, the stages were considered and used to develop a new tentative Supervision
Models. This tentative model is explained in details as below:
3.2 Supervisory approach
The systems approach is effective communicative supervisor and student learning styles.
Systems approach that acknowledge a dynamic relationship between supervisor and supervisee.
Crucially, they strive to avoid focusing on the individual relationships which obtain between
students and supervisors. By locating that relationship in a broader context, the authors hope to
identify universal strategies that transcend individual differences.
3.3 Supervisory process
The supervisory process involves an input-output process mediated by a quality relationship of
supervisor and student. Quality relationship includes of set of good communication and mutual
expectation each other. The input process involves supervisor and student learning styles, from
that the mutually expectation will build. The output process will tend to quality of research
dissertation and PhD students to graduate on time.
4. CONCLUSION
The demand for PhD graduates is the factor to strengthen research supervision and increase
PhD student to graduate on time. Therefore, a good professional relationship between
supervisor and supervisee seems to be most important. This paper aims to provide a specific
guidance on supervision implementation, which comprise of exemplary practices collected from
the Supervision Models literature. Hence, it is believe that the exemplary model tends to
expedite graduation, increase graduation rates, and improve the quality of research in TVET.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper is financed by FRGS.
REFERENCES
1. Al-Naggar, R.A., Al-Sarory, M., Al-Naggar, A.G.A. and Al-Muosli, M. (2012) Doctorate
international students satisfaction and stress on academic supervision in a Malaysian
University: a qualitative approach, Vol. 3(3). International Research Journals, pp. 264-269.
2. Kumar, V. and Huat, B. B. K. (2011) A handbook for postgraduate supervision. Ministry of
Higher Education, pp. 1-112.
3. Smith, K. L. (2009) A brief of supervision models. Gallaudet University, pp. 19.
4. Gill, P. and Burnard, P. (2008) The student-supervisor relationship in the PhD/Doctoral
process, Vol.17(10), British Journal of Nursing, pp. 668-672.
5. Abiddin, N. Z. (2007) Postgraduate students perception on effective supervision: a case
study at one public university in Malaysia, , Vol. 1(1), The Journal of International Social
Research, pp. 7-19.
6. Pillay, G. F. (2005) Technical & vocational education (TVET) systems of selected East Asian
countries: Malaysia. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
7. Ghani, E. K. and Said, J. (2013) The PhD supervisory relationship gap in the accounting
discipline: a study in a Malaysian Public University, Vol. 2(1), International Research in
Education, pp. 73-92.
8. Mainhard, T., Rijst, R.V. D., Tartwijk, J. V. and Wubbles, T. (2009) A model for the
supervisor-doctoral student relationship, Vol. 58, High Educ, pp. 359-373. doi:
10.1007/s10734-009-9199-8. Last accessed 17 March 2014.
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development, Vol. 11(2), Educational development, pp. 18-23.
10. Ives, G. and Rowley, G. (2005) Supervisor selection or allocation and continuity of
supervision: PhD. students progress and outcomes, Vol. 30(5), Studies in Higher Education,
pp. 535-555.
11. Zhao, F. (2001) Postgraduate research supervision: A process of knowledge management.
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supervision. Canberra: AGPS.
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supervision process using repertory grids- Reflections on application in practice in built
environment research, Vol. 12(3) JCEB, pp. 66-81.
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The Pattern of Learning Styles among Second Year Students in

Business Management and Hospitality Programs at One of the
Vocational College in Northern Zone
* 1Tee, T. K., 2Md Yunos, J., 3Kuppusamy, B., 4Yee, M. H., 5Mohamad, M. M., 6Othman, W.
1, 3Sultan Idris Education University
2, 4, 5Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
6Open University Malaysia
*tktee@fptv.upsi.edu.my, vic5555@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research is to explore the learning styles of second year students in the
Business Management and Hospitality programs at one of the Vocational College in Northern
Zone, Malaysia. The sample consisted of 30 students from each program, a total of 60 students.
The method of mesurement used was questionnaires based on the Index of Learning Styles (ILS)
developed by Felder and Silverman (1988) that adduce of 44 items. The items verifying 4
dimensions and 4 sub-scales, namely procession (active / reflective learners), perception
(sensing / intuitive learners), input (visual / verbal learners) and comprehension (sequential /
global learners). Each of the dimensions contain 11 items. Data were analyzed descriptively
using the SPSS 20.0 for Windows. Results from the analysis revealed that overall, the second
year students of this college are more dominant in visual (90%) than verbal style for input
dimension; active (71.7%) then reflective style for procession dimension; sequential (71.7%)
than global style for comprehension dimension and sensing (55%) than intuitive style for
perception dimension. Based on the findings, the researchers suggest that the college lecturers
should align their teaching approaches, strategies, methods and techniques with the dominant
learning styles for each dimensions among the students.
Keyword: Learning Styles; Vocational College, Felder-Silverman; Visual Style
Learning style is the way of individual receives, maintain and facilitate the understanding of
obtained information [1] [2]. Each individual has various ways to learn. Some like to learn by
seeing, hear, respond, give logical reason, remember and learn by using graphics [3]. Learning
styles is a way to learn [4] and each student has different learning styles [5]. In addition,
learning styles can vary greatly based personal experiences. Learning styles affect academic
achievements [6]. Due to the low achievements on academic subjects among the Business
Management and Hospitality programs students, the researchers are interested to investigate
the students learning styles.
1.1 Research Objectives
The objectives of the study are:
Identify the pattern of learning styles among the Business Management and Hospitality
programs second year students at one of the Vocational College in Northern Zone, Malaysia.
Identify the differences between Business Management and Hospitality programs second year
students learning styles at one of the Vocational College in Northern Zone, Malaysia.
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1.2 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

The researchers hope that the findings will be beneficial to all teachers and students. It is also
hoped that this study will contribute in :
Helping teachers to select and execute appropriate learning activities in order to create
conducive learning environment for the students based on their preferences in study.
Guidance from the teachers is needed to ensure that all students are able to develop their
potential to the optimum.
Identifying the learning styles preferred and dominant by the students for Business
Management and Hospitality programs.
Students who have learning styles that are align with the instructors teaching styles tend to
retain information longer [7], able to apply knowledge effectively, and have more positive postcourse attitudes toward the subject compare to their counterparts who experience mismatch
between the learning and teaching styles [8] [9]. Many researchers have tried to study and
understand the basic question in this care what are the students learning styles?
Many studies were conducted on learning styles evaluation [10] including the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator, Kolbs Learning Styles Inventory, Canfields Learning Styles Inventory, Gregorcs Type
Indicator and others. In this study, the researchers selected the Felder and Silverman model as the
basis for this study because it has been successfully implemented [11] [12] in previous studies [13]
[14] [15]. The instrument is user friendly and the results are easy to interpret. The number of
dimensions is controlled and can be implemented in the teaching and learning process [14].
2.1 Felder-Silverman Learning Style Instrument
The first version of the Index of Learning Styles (ILS) involves 28 items, which was carried out on
100 students. From the analysis, the items which did not show a high coefficient value were removed
and replaced with more appropriate items. Finally, a total of 44 items were included in the new ILS.
The ILS assesses the preferences on four dimensions of Felder-Silverman model (1988) [16]. Earlier
version was created in 1991 by Richard Felder and Barbara Solomon of North Carolina State
University. In 1994, several hundred sets of answers to the Version 1 was collected and subjected to
factor analysis, and items that do not load significantly on single factors have been removed and
replaced with new items to create the current version.
Soft copy version of the instrument was placed on the World Wide Web in 1996 and the online version
was added in 1997 when a complete ILS submit questions online profile immediately returned to score
in four dimensions, a brief explanation of its meaning, and links to references that provide more
detailed information about how the score should and should not be construed. ILS is available at no
cost to individuals who want to evaluate their own choice or to an instructor or a student who wants to
use it for classroom teaching or research, and it can be licensed by non-educational organizations.
The Felder-Silverman learning style model is tested using the Felder and Solomans ILS [9]. The five
dimensions of learning preferences are Active / Reflective, Sensing / Intuitive, Visual / Verbal,
Sequential / Global and Intuitive / deductive dimension. The ILS scale only measures the first four
bipolar continua. ILS instrument was divided into four dimensions and the four sub-scales of
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Procession (Active / Reflective learners), Perception (Sensing / Intuitive learners), Input (Visual /
Verbal learners) and Comprehension (Sequential / Global learners).
Each dimension of learning styles are associated with 11 forced-choice items (forced choice or
selected response), with each option ('a' or 'b') corresponding to each dimension separately. The
respondents are asked to select one of the answers provided.
2.1.1
Active Learners
Active learners are students who like to try something through experiments and do not like to
learn through lectures. In addition, students also prefer learning and working in a group than
working alone. They also find it easier to remember information. Upon receiving the
information, they will be sharing, discussing and explaining to friends.
2.1.2
Reflective Learners
Reflective learners refer to students who prefer to learn through thinking. Reflective students
like to learn and work independently. When acquiring information they like to think before
explaining to friends. Students of this type also like lecture learning that enables them to think
about the information obtained. Reflective learners prefer to learn in theory.
2.1.3
Sensing Learners
The sensing learners are students who are more likely to involve learning facts only. These
students practice learning styles with information, has the advantage of considering the facts
and doing hands-on activities. The students of this type can also solve the problem on a regular
basis with relevant examples, more meticulous in carrying out practical work, like to memorize
when learning is not associated with life outside the classroom.
2.1.4
Intuitive Learners
Intuitive learners refer to students being conceptual, innovative and orientated towards theory
and purpose. Their innovative nature and of creativity is important in their work. These
students tend to look for reasons, possibilities and relevance. They do not like it when the
teacher reiterates learning that has been studied previously. Students are also fond of, fast
working with disorganized situation and do not like to memorize a fact. They understand new
concepts better and are always comfortable with abstract ideas and mathematical formulas.
2.1.5
Visual Learners
Visual students are those who can remember very well what has been seen as photographs,
drawings, diagrams, series, films, and demonstrations. They prefer teachers to use teaching aids
and use a lot of graphic presentation in the teaching process. They remember things by sight
easily.
2.1.6
Verbal Learners
Verbal learners are students who love learning through words and explanation argument.
These students prefer to hear an explanation in writing or orally or discussions conducted in
class and like to read out loud and repeat it several times.
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2.1.7
Sequential Learners
Sequential learners are the students who are more likely to understand and convenient to
systematically and sequentially. Students of this type find it easier to remember and understand
something if teaching is delivered systematically, from easy to difficult, and by logical steps.
Therefore, these kinds of students prefer to learn in a structured manner that shows a strong
correlation with what has been taught previously.
2.1.8
Global Learners
Global learners are students who are keen to gather information they need at random, and thus
understand something spontaneously based on the information they collected. Students can also
receive information in any way, whether organized or not, and they are able to solve complex
problems quickly. They also like to relate one thing to another.
Aspects discussed are design of the study, respondents to the survey, research instruments, data
collection procedures, data analysis procedures and the conclusions that will serve as a guide.
3.1 Population and Samples
This pilot study was conducted at a Vocational College in the Northern Zone of Peninsular
Malaysia. The selected college was based on their infrastructure and workshop facilities. All
students of this college have undergone vocational and academic subjects. The sample consists
of Business Management and Hospitality programs second year students. Each program consists
of 30 students. The results obtained from the respondents were used to identify the learning
styles practiced in vocational college.
The instrument used in this research was a set of questionnaire. Researchers chose
questionnaire technique because the administration procedures are simple and easy to control.
The questionnaire is also able to help and facilitate the samples on answering the items. With the
simple tasks, a sample will be more responsible and cooperative. In this study, researchers
elected to use the Felder Silverman ILS [16], because students are able to self-administer this
questionnaire at no cost. In addition, the four learning styles dimensions are numerically coded
and could be easily quantified for analysis. The ILS has been validated [17] [12]. This
questionnaire was translated by Mohamed Zakaria (2007) from English to Bahasa Malaysia and
used in this study [18]. Test retest method was used to identify the reliability value ( = .92) for
this instrument.
Distribution of items is based on four dimensions of learning styles ILS (Table 1).
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Table 1: Breakdown of 4 dimensions and 4 sub-scales of Felder & Silverman learning styles.
Dimensions and subscales
Processing
(Active / Reflective)
Items
25, 1, 29, 5, 17
37, 13, 9
21, 33, 41
38, 6, 18, 14, 2, 10, 34, 26,
22, 42, 30
7, 31, 23, 11, 15
27, 19, 3, 35, 43, 39
20, 36, 44, 8, 12, 32, 34
28, 4, 16, 40
Perception
(Sequential / Intuitive)
Input
(Visual / Verbal)
Comprehension
(Sequential / Global)
4. FINDINGS
Table 2 shows the distribution of overall learning styles for Business Management and
Hospitality programs students. The students are more dominant in visual (90%) than verbal
style for input dimension; active (71.7%) then reflective style for procession dimension;
sequential (71.7%) than global style for comprehension dimension and sensing (55%) than
intuitive style for perception dimension.
Table 2 Overall distributions in learning styles dimensions for Business Management and
Hospitality programs students.
Procession
Frequency
Valid
Active
Reflective
Total
43
71.7
17
28.3
60
100.0
Perception
Frequency
Valid
Sensing
Intuitive
Total
33
27
60
Valid
Visual
Verbal
Total
Sequent
Global
Total
Percent
55.0
45.0
100.0
Input
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Percent
54
90.0
6
10.0
60
100.0
Comprehension
Frequency
Percent
43
17
60
71.7
28.3
100.0
Valid
Percent
71.7
28.3
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
71.7
100.0
Valid
Percent
55.0
45.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
55.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
90.0
10.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
Percent
71.7
28.3
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
71.7
100.0
100.0
Table 3 shows the detailed distribution in learning styles dimensions for Business Management and
Hospitality programs students.
About half of the students have strong and balanced preferences on active style for procession
dimension. More then half of the students are balanced on sensing and intuitive style for
perception dimension. Furthermore, two third students have strong preferences on visual style
for input dimension. On the other hand, 70% of the students are balanced for sequential and
global style for comprehension dimension.
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Table 3. Detailed distribution in learning styles dimensions for Business Management and
Hospitality Programs students.
Procession
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
30
50.0
50.0
50.0
25
41.7
41.7
91.7
8.3
8.3
100.0
60
100.0
100.0
valid
Strong/Moderated
Active
Balanced
Strong/Moderated
Reflective
Total
Perception
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
12
20.0
20.0
20.0
41
68.3
68.3
88.3
11.7
11.7
100.0
60
100.0
100.0
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
43
71.7
71.7
71.7
17
28.3
28.3
100.0
100.0
60
100.0
100.0
valid
Strong/Moderated
Sensing
Balanced
Strong/Moderated
Intuitive
Total
Input
valid
Strong/Moderated
Visual
Balanced
Strong/Moderated
Verbal
Total
Comprehension
valid
Strong/Moderated
Sequent
Balanced
Strong/Moderated
Global
Total
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
13
21.7
21.7
21.7
42
70.0
70.0
91.7
8.3
8.3
100.0
60
100.0
100.0
Table 4 shows the distribution of overall learning styles Hospitality programs. The students are more
dominant in visual (90%) than verbal style for input dimension; active (73.3%) then reflective
style for procession dimension; sequential (66.7%) than global style for comprehension
dimension and intuitive (56.7%) than sensing style for perception dimension.
Table 4: Overall distribution of learning styles dimension for Hospitality Program.
Procession
Valid
Active
Reflective
Total
Frequency
Percent
22
8
30
73.3
26.7
100.0
Valid
Percent
73.3
26.7
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
73.3
100.0
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Perception
Frequency
Sensing
Intuitive
Total
Valid
13
17
30
43.3
56.7
100.0
Input
Frequency
Visual
Verbal
Total
Valid
Percent
27
90.0
3
10.0
30
100.0
Comprehension
Frequency
Percent
20
10
30
66.7
33.3
100.0
Sequent
Global
Total
Valid
Percent
Valid
Percent
43.3
56.7
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
43.3
100.0
Valid
Percent
90.0
10.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
90.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
66.7
33.3
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
66.7
100.0
Table 5 shows the detailed distribution in learning styles dimensions for Hospitality programs
students. Half of the students have strong preferences on active style for procession dimension.
60% of the students are balanced on sensing and intuitive style for perception dimension.
Furthermore, 80% students have strong preferences on visual style for input dimension. On the
other hand, more then half of the students are balanced for sequential and global style for
comprehension dimension.
Table 5. Detailed distribution of learning styles dimension for Hospitality Program.
valid
Procession
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Strong/Moderated
Active
Balanced
16
53.3
53.3
53.3
11
36.7
36.7
90.0
Strong/Moderated
Reflective
Total
10.0
10.0
100.0
30
100.0
100.0
Perception
valid
Strong/Moderated
Sensing
Balanced
Strong/Moderated
Intuitive
Total
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
23.3
23.3
23.3
18
60.0
60.0
83.3
16.7
16.7
100.0
30
100.0
100.0
valid
Input
Frequenc
y
Percen
t
Valid
Percen
t
Cumulativ
e Percent
Strong/Moderat
ed Visual
Balanced
24
80.0
80.0
80.0
20.0
20.0
100.0
Strong/Moderat
ed Verbal
Total
100.0
30
100.0
100.0
valid
Comprehension
Strong/Moderat
ed Active
Balanced
Strong/Moderat
ed Reflective
Total
Frequenc
y
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulativ
e Percent
30.0
30.0
30.0
19
63.3
63.3
93.3
6.7
6.7
100.0
30
100.0
100.0
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Table 6 shows the distribution of overall learning styles Business Management programs. Likely the
Hospitality program students, the Business Management program students are also dominant in
visual (90%) than verbal style for input dimension; active (70%) then reflective style for
procession dimension; sequential (73.3%) than global style for comprehension dimension. But,
in contrast, the students preffered sensing (66.7%) than intuitive style for perception
dimension.
Table 6 Overall distribution of learning styles dimension for Business Management Program
students.
Procession
Frequency
Valid
Active
Reflective
Total
21
70.0
9
30.0
30
100.0
Perception
Frequency
Valid
Sensing
Intuitive
Total
20
10
30
Valid
Visual
Verbal
Total
Percent
66.7
33.3
100.0
Input
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Percent
27
90.0
3
10.0
30
100.0
Comprehension
Frequency
Percent
22
8
30
73.3
26.7
100.0
Sequent
Global
Total
Valid
Percent
70.0
30.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
70.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
66.7
33.3
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
66.7
100.0
Valid
Percent
90.0
10.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
90.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
73.3
26.7
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
73.3
100.0
Table 7 shows the detailed distribution in learning styles dimensions for Business Management
programs students. Almost half of the students have strong and balanced preferences on active
style for procession dimension. About two third of the students are balanced on sensing and
intuitive style for perception dimension. Furthermore, 63.3% students have strong preferences
on visual style for input dimension. On the other hand, two third of the students are balanced
for sequential and global style for comprehension dimension.
Table 7. Detailed distribution of learning styles dimension for Business Management Program.
Procession
valid
Strong/Mode
rated Active
Balanced
Strong/Mode
rated
Reflective
Total
Freque
ncy
Perce
nt
Valid
Perce
nt
Cumulat
ive
Percent
14
46.7
46.7
46.7
14
46.7
46.7
93.3
6.7
6.7
100.0
30
100.0
100.0
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Perception
Frequ
ency
Perce
nt
Valid
Perce
nt
Cumulat
ive
Percent
16.7
16.7
16.7
23
76.7
76.7
93.3
Strong/Mode
rated
Intuitive
6.7
6.7
100.0
Total
30
100.0
100.0
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
19
63.3
63.3
63.3
11
36.7
36.7
100.0
100.0
30
100.0
100.0
valid
Strong/Mode
rated Sensing
Balanced
Input
valid
Strong/Moderated
Visual
Balanced
Strong/Moderated
Verbal
Total
Comprehension
valid
Strong/Moderated
Active
Balanced
Strong/Moderated
Reflective
Total
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
13.3
13.3
13.3
23
76.7
76.7
90.0
10.0
10.0
100.0
30
100.0
100.0
5. DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Learning Styles Index model was developed by Felder and Silverman (1988) [16] and improved
by Felder and Solomon (1991) [9]. There are four dimensions of learning styles: active (acts do)
and reflective (think before doing), sensing (fact) & intuitive (concept), visual (picture) & verbal
(reading and explanation), sequential (learning step by step) and global (flexible learning).
The findings of this study are similar to findings that have been made by several previous
researchers. In a study that was conducted by Mohamed Zakaria (2007) on 269 Master of
Education first year students at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia [18], learning styles preferred by
the respondents is visual style (85.8%). Similarly, studies performed by Graf, Kinshuk & Liu
(2009) found that the visual learning style (87%) is also preferred by 207 students of
Engineering and Information Management from Massey University, New Zealand and the
University of Vienna, Austria [19]. In addition, Constant (1997) supports this research findings
whereby the visual learning style (85%) is mainly practiced by 129 students in the field of
education at Iowa State [20].
Overall, the learning styles among the second year students for Business Management and
Hospitality programs in descending order are visual (90%) style for input dimension; active
(71.7%) style for procession dimension; sequential (71.7%) style for comprehension dimension
and sensing (55%) style for perception dimension. There are not many differences between
these two programs on the preferences in learning. A further study is suggested to identify the
lecturer teaching style for these two courses. A mismatch between the teaching style and the
learning style could affect the academic performance among the students. This is supported by
[21] that emphasized there was a strong linear relationship between students whose learning
style matches the instructors teaching styles and students test performance.
WoCTVET 2014 | 435
Furthermore, there is a close relationship between learning styles and teaching styles [22]. For
better learning outcomes, the teaching styles of the educator must match the learning styles with
the students [22]. Many studies found that when instructors deliver course materials using the
learning styles that are preferred by students, learning is enhanced and the course performance
improves [21]. Researchers recommend that the lecturers from college vocational should match
their teaching style based on the students learning style in teaching and learning. By matching
the preferred learning styles with the teaching styles, approaches, methods and techniques,
these definitely will give great positive impacts on the students performances.
Based on the findings, researchers propose that lecturers should use more graphical materials in
teaching and learning process such as real model for demonstration, presentation software such
as powerpoint and prezi to suite and attract the students when delivering the lecture content
(input). On the other hand, lecturers should also create an integrative teaching environment to
promote active learning among the students. Activities like discussion, brainstorming,
demonstration, simulation, cooperative learning, problem based learning and project based
learning are strongly recommended.
Due to the nature of most technical subjects, it involves procedures. In this case, lecturers are
encourage to deliver the teaching systematically, from easy to difficult and by logical steps to
optimize the students comprehension. Lastly, lecturers can start a lesson by emphasizing on
facts then follow by hands on activities to strengthen the students perception on new
knowledge. At the same time, giving examples will enable the students to relate with real work
situation outside the classroom.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Malaysia and Sultan Idris Education
University for supporting this research.
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Disparity of Learning Styles and Higher Order Thinking Skills

among Technical Students
M. H. Yee1*, J. Md. Yunos2, W. Othman3, R. Hassan4, T. K. Tee5, M. M. Mohamad6 and B. Kuppusamy7
1, 2, 4, 6Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
3Open University Malaysia and 5, 7Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
1* mhyee@uthm.edu.my, 2 jailani@uthm.edu.my, 3 widad@oum.edu.my, 4
razalih@uthm.edu.my, 5tktee@fptv.upsi.edu.my, 6 mimi@uthm.edu.my, 7 bkris27@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Learning styles and higher order thinking skills are an important aspect in teaching and learning
especially at higher education institutions. The purpose of this research was to analysis the
disparity in learning styles on the level of higher order thinking skills (HOTS) among technical
students. A total of 375 technical students from four technical universities in Malaysia were
randomly selected as samples. The Kolb Learning Styles Inventory and a set of questionnaires
adapted from Marzano Rubrics for Specific Task or Situations were used as research
instruments. This is a quantitative research and the gathered data was analyzed using SPSS
software. The findings indicated that the most dominant learning style among technical
students is Doer. The findings also depict none of the students perceived their thinking skills
levels to be high. Only four Marzano HOTS, namely comparing, inductive reasoning, deductive
reasoning and investigation are rated at the moderate level. On contrary, nine Marzano HOTS
are rated as low. The Cramer V analysis showed that there is a very low relationship between
Kolb Learning Styles and the level of 13 Marzano HOTS. Besides that, the findings revealed that
there is statistically significant difference in Kolb Learning Styles on the level of 13 Marzano
HOTS. However, only two Marzano HOTS are significant difference in Kolb Learning Styles.
Therefore, the identification of learners learning styles could serve as initial guide in developing
more effective and conducive teaching-learning environment for learning HOTS.
Keywords: Learning Styles; Higher Order Thinking Skills; Technical Students; Relationship;
Difference
1. INTRODUCTION
Thinking skills is the sense of competence to carry out the thought process [1] which essential in
our daily lives. Thinking skills is an intellectual process that involves the formation of concepts,
analysis, application, syntax, and evaluate the information collected or generated by observation,
experience or reflection [2].
Thinking skills closely related to the human person's ability to use both cognitive and affective
domains in order to obtain or provide information, solve problems or make decisions for the
various active activities [3]-[4]. Therefore, thinking skills is a combination of cognitive
processes and the ability to complete a given task [5].
HOTS is the highest level in the hierarchy of cognitive processes. HOTS enable students to
overcome the challenges that too much information in this information age, but the time for
processing is limited [6]. HOTS happens when someone gets new information, keep in memory
and compile, link to existing knowledge and generate this information to achieve a goal or solve
a complicated situation.
WoCTVET 2014
Consequently, reference [7] defined HOTS as the potential use of the mind to deal with new
challenges because HOTS can challenge individual to interpret, analyze or manipulate
information [8]-[9].
Thinking skills are fundamental in educational process. A person thought can affect the ability of
learning, speed and effectiveness of learning. Therefore, thinking skills is associated with
learning process because there was a close relationship between thinking skills and learning
[10]. Students who are trained to think demonstrate a positive impact on the development of
their education.
Perception and processing are the two main processes in learning thinking skills [3]. The ability
and tendency of a person in perceiving and processing information is different [11]-[12]. This
tendency of the learning environment is defined as learning styles [13]-[14].
Learning style is the way individuals interact with information [15]-[16], began to concentrate
on process [17]-[18] and maintains new and difficult information [19]-[20], perceiving, thinking,
remembering back and solve the problem [21]-[22]. However, the learning style is a consistent
pattern of behavior, but each individual has their own way, in contrast to his peers [23].
According to reference [14] and [24], learning styles explain a person's behavior in a learning
task. The behavior consists of two aspects which are cognitive learning style that shows the way
of thinking and learning strategies that demonstrate the process used to respond the needs of
learning activities.
In other words, learning style is an individual strategy that is used in facing learning
environment and materials. By such, learning style is related to the tendency of students to think
and communicate with others, classroom environment and learning activities [13], [25]. In
conclusion, learning styles not only highlight elements of cognitive processing thinking style, but
also observing and organizing information.
Many researchers study the uniqueness of individuals learning style to generate alternatives for
learner to foster their learning habits and increase their achievements in study [26]-[28]. One
will be more successful in any area if he knows his own strength and lowness [29]-[31]. Hence,
students should expose themselves to learning styles and thinking skills, so that they will
enhance a better and more effective learning environment [32]-[33].
2. PROBLEM BACKGROUND
The role of Institute of Higher Education is to constantly improve the quality of students in order
to provide students in training and education for the job market [34]-[35]. One of method to
produce future employees is to educate students how to think rather than what to look for
thought [9], [36]-[37]. In fact, education acts as an agent of development thinking skills that
needed to produce a productive and meaningful life [38]-[40].
However, education in the 21st century still emphasizes on rote learning of facts without
understanding [41]-[43]. Most of the students are mastering in memorizing but not thinking
skills [44]. Pedagogy of HOTS cannot be developed in the exam-oriented education system [45],
[41]. Educators prefer teacher-centered teaching methods which are focus on delivering content
and cover the syllabus for the examination requirements [46]. As consequence, the graduates
WoCTVET 2014 | 439
less skilled and less ability in higher-order thinking [47] in order to apply the knowledge they
have learned well in many different situations for solving problems that arise in daily life [6].
According to research [48], the majority of technical students regardless of gender, year of study
or intake have difficulty in generating ideas when completing coursework assignments
individually. This finding is consistent with studies of [49] stating that most students are not
able to think outside of the box and generate ideas intuitively and spontaneously.
Deadlock of ideas is the factor contributing most to the difficulty in generating ideas among
technical students. Deadlock of ideas is a reflection of the weakness of thinking skills [40].
Students who are weak in HOTS cannot complete the tasks based on cognitive and metacognitive
effectively [50]. Implications, academic performance will be affected.
However, idea generation is important for the completion of individual assignment. Overcoming
the difficulty in generating ideas is crucial. As a solution, students need to learn learning styles
and HOTS to address the difficulty in generating ideas. This is because the style of learning is the
cognitive process that exposes methods to observe and process information. HOTS is a
metacognitive process that teaches how to use a method of observing and learning process
information in idea generation.
Consequently, the need to determine the pattern of Kolb Learning Styles and the level of
Marzano HOTS among technical students arises. In addition, the relationships and disparity
between the levels of Marzano HOTS with Kolb Learning Styles will also be analyzed.
Specifically, the objectives of this study are to identify:
1. The pattern of Kolb Learning Styles among technical students.
2. The level of Marzano HOTS among technical education students.
3. The relationship between Kolb Learning Styles and Marzano HOTS.
4. The difference in Kolb Learning Styles on the level of Marzano HOTS.
This is a survey research where data can be collected directly from respondents [51]. Common
in most survey research, the characteristics of the population can be described through the
distribution of frequencies, percentages and mean score.
Population is a group of people who have similar characteristics. Population should be
identified appropriately based on the research to be conducted [52]. In this study, the target
population was the year 1, 2, 3 and 4 technical students in the Bachelor of Civil Engineering,
Electrical and Electronic Engineering and Mechanical Engineering from the Malaysian Technical
University Network (MTUN) institutions. MTUN comprises four universities, namely University
Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTEM), Universiti
Malaysia Pahang (UMP) and Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UNIMAP).
A total of 375 technical students were selected as samples. The minimum number of samples
selected was based on the reference [53] table. The sampling procedure used for this study was
WoCTVET 2014 | 440
stratified random sampling. The stratification was based on university. The samples were
randomly selected in a specified layer to reduce sampling error such as the size of a large
variance of sample estimates [54]. Table 1 shows the population and sample of technical
students by university.
Table 1.
The Population and Sample of Technical Students in Four Universities University

Population Sample
University
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia (UTHM)
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia
Melaka (UTEM)
Universiti Malaysia Pahang
(UMP)
Universiti Malaysia Perlis
(UNIMAP)
Total
Population
Sample
5373
148
3425
95
2194
60
2626
72
13, 618
375
Source of student population data: Student Academic Management Division, MTUN

The Kolb Learning Styles Inventory and a set of questionnaires adapted from Marzano Rubrics
for Specific Task or Situations were used as research instrument.
The Kolb Learning Styles Inventory (2000) was used as research instrument. The questionnaire
is divided into two parts. Part A comprises three items related to demographic factors including
gender, year of study and intake qualification. Meanwhile, Part B comprises 18 items which
consists of two choice answers, 'Yes' and 'No'.
The questionnaires adapted from Marzano Rubrics for Specific Task or Situations comprises 44
items based on the 13 Marzano HOTS with 4 points scale responses. Prior to the actual research,
a pilot test was conducted to determine the reliability of the instrument and to achieve the
desired objective of this study. The reliability of this set of instrument is .7030.
3.3 Data Analysis
The collected data were analyzed using SPSS software. The statistics selected for data analysis
was based on the research questions as illustrated in Table 2.
Table 2.
Summary of Research Questions and Statistical Techniques used in the Study

No
Research Questions (RQ)
RQ1
What is the pattern of Kolb Learning

Styles among technical students?
RQ2
What is the level of Marzano HOTS

among technical students?
Is there any significant relationship
between Kolb Learning Styles and
Marzano HOTS?
Is there any significant difference in
Kolb Learning Styles on the level of
Marzano HOTS?
RQ3
RQ5
Statistical
Techniques
Percentages
and
frequencies
Mean scores
Cramer V
MANOVA
WoCTVET 2014 | 441

Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used as analytical tools. Parametric statistical
techniques were used with the inferential statistics. Table 3 showed the strength of correlation.
Table 3.
The strength of the Correlation Coefficient
Correlation Coefficient
.91 sehingga 1.0
.71 sehingga .90
.51 sehingga .70
.31 sehingga .50
.01 sehingga .30
.00
Correlation Strength
Very Strong
Strong
Medium
Low
Very Low
No Correlation
4.1 The Pattern of Kolb Learning Styles

The pattern of the technical students learning styles were determined through descriptive
analysis and the results are presented in Table 4. The findings depict a total of 107 (28.5%)
technical students have dominant learning styles in Doer. This was followed by Watcher
(25.6%), Feeler (24.0%) and Thinker (21.9%).
The fact that the students in our study group predominantly adopted the Doer and Watcher
learning styles may be explained by the professional preferences of the different learning styles
group. Doer generally prefer professional fields such as education, communication, technical,
nursing and business, whereas Watcher generally prefer humanity, fine arts, languages, history,
and psychology.
Distribution of The Existence of Problems when Technical Students Complete
Individual Assignment
Year of Study
Gender
Independent
Variables
Intake of Student
Table 4.
Kolb Learning Styles

Doer
Thinker
%
f
%
14.4
40
10.7
Total
Male
Feeler
f
%
51
13.6
Female
39
10.4
53
14.1
42
11.2
53
14.1
187
Total
90
24.0
107
28.5
82
21.9
96
25.5
375
100
Year 1
22
5.9
23
6.1
24
6.4
25
6.7
94
25.1
Year 2
Year 3
22
20
5.9
5.3
29
25
7.7
6.7
20
22
5.3
5.9
23
27
6.1
7.2
94
94
25.1
25.1
Year 4
26
6.9
30
8.0
16
4.3
21
5.6
93
24.8
Total
90
24.0
107
28.5
82
21.9
96
25.5
375
100
Matriculation
STPM
Diploma of
Community
College
Diploma of
Polytechnic
Diploma of
University
Total
31
8.3
35
9.3
31
8.3
37
9.9
134
35.7
17
4.5
27
7.2
12
3.2
25
6.7
81
21.6
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.9
30
8.0
34
9.1
25
6.7
28
7.5
117
31.2
f
54
Watcher
f
%
43
11.5
f
188
%
50.1
49.9
11
2.9
2.4
12
3.2
1.1
36
9.6
90
24.0
107
28.5
82
21.9
96
25.5
375
100
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4.2 The Level of Marzano HOTS

The findings from the study showed none of the students perceived their thinking skills levels to
be high. Only four Marzano HOTS are rated at the moderate level. On contrary, nine Marzano
HOTS are rated as low (Table 5).
Table 5.
The level of Marzano HOTS
Marzano HOTS
Comparing
Classifying
Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
Analyzing Errors
Constructing Support
Abstracting
Analyzing Perspectives
Decision Making
Investigation
Problem Solving
Experimental Inquiry
Invention
Percentage (%)
65.9
66.7
64.8
64.0
70.7
75.5
69.3
73.3
65.1
64.0
77.3
68.8
68.5
Skill Level
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Moderate
Low
Low
Low
4.3 Relationship between Kolb Learning Styles and Marzano HOTS

Using Cramer V Correlation Test, it was found that there was a very low relationship between
Kolb Learning Styles and the level of 13 Marzano HOTS (Table 6).
Table 6.
The relationship between Kolb Learning Styles and Marzano HOTS

Marzano HOTS
Comparing
Classifying
Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
Analyzing Errors
Abstracting
Decision Making
Investigation
Problem Solving
Invention
X2
ETA
4.04
5.06
7.07
6.98
10.99
10.92
5.22
12.28
1.84
3.35
7.35
4.32
4.49
.67
.54
.32
.32
.09
.09
.52
.06
.93
.76
.29
.63
.61
.07
.08
.10
.10
.12
.12
.08
.13
.05
.07
.10
.08
.08
Correlation
Strength
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
Very Low
4.4 Disparity in Kolb Learning Styles on the Level of Marzano HOTS
MANOVA analysis test showed that there was a significant difference in Kolb Learning Styles on
the level of Marzano HOTS. It can be safely concluded that learning styles have significantly
effect on the level of deductive reasoning and analyzing errors (Table 7).
WoCTVET 2014 | 443
Table 8.
The difference between Kolb Learning Styles on the level of Marzano HOTS
Marzano HOTS
Comparing
Classifying
Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
Analyzing Errors
Abstracting
Decision Making
Investigation
Problem Solving
Invention
Mean
2.50
1.94
2.17
2.16
2.00
1.88
1.90
2.00
1.99
2.32
1.88
1.80
1.88
SD
0.47
0.56
0.67
0.60
0.63
0.48
0.60
0.39
0.41
0.54
0.42
0.63
0.61
p
.70
.18
.15
*.01
*.00
.36
.57
.15
.98
.98
.38
.65
.97
*Difference is significant at the .05 level

5. CONCLUSION
This study illustrated that the most dominant learning style among technical students is Doer
and it was followed by Watcher, Feeler and Thinker. Also, the findings indicated that students
perceived they have moderate level for comparing, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning and
investigation. However, classifying, analyzing errors, constructing support, abstracting,
analyzing perspectives, decision making, problem solving, experimental inquiry and invention
are at low level. There was a very low relationship between Kolb Learning Styles and the level of
Marzano HOTS. Besides that, learning style is a factor which can influence the level of HOTS
among technical students. The level of deductive reasoning and analyzing errors were
significantly different from four types of Kolb Learning Styles. However, learning style
contributed only 3.1% and 4.9% to deductive reasoning and analyzing errors respectively. The
results of this study suggest that future studies should be conducted to examine other factors to
HOTS because more than 90% change in the independent variables cannot be identified through
this study.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia for supporting this
research under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS). In addition, the authors also
wish to thank the four universities of Malaysia Technical University Network (MTUN), namely
University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTEM),
Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) and Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UNIMAP) who have given
their full cooperation to ensure the success of this study.
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Production Based Learning: an Instructional Design Model in the

Context of Vocational Education and Training (VET)
Ganefri1, and Hendra Hidayat2
1Padang State University
2Bung Hatta University
1 ganefri_ft@yahoo.co.id, &2 hendrahidayatmpd@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Problem statement for this research is implementation of a learning process which was carried
out recently to generate output from each skill but haven't touched aspects of outcomes. This
research was aimed to create valid, practical, and effective syntax of production based learning
model in the context of Vocational Education and Training (VET). Production based learning is
an alternative learning model of VET which is relevant to the needs of learners in developing
their knowledge, attitude, and skills in learning process. Research methodology used was
Research and Development by conducting expert validity test with Focus Group Discussion
(FGD) and limited test towards production learning based model. The results of this research
were formed in syntax of production based learning model which consisted of; (1) Analysis of
curriculum and learners characteristics; (2) Identification and product analysis; (3) Creating
important questions about product; (4) Questions mapping; (5) analysis of equipment and
materials needed of the product which was going to be made; (6) making schedule of
implementation of making product; (7) process of making product; (8) evaluated regularly; and
(9) creating business plan. Finally, by applying production based learning model in Vocational
Education and Training (VET) can help learners preparing themselves to enter work, as well as
developing their critical thinking and having good moral attitude. In addition, it also can
motivate the learners to be more active in the learning process which would contribute to the
learners learning outcomes .
Keywords: Production Based Learning Model, Instructional Design Model
1. INTRODUCTION
Vocational Education and training (VET) is a part of education system which prepares an
individual for a work or a group of work, and also can develop him/her in the field of work itself.
In order to be able to achieve the goals of the VET, as determined in government regulation UU
No. 20 year 2003 article 15, the needs for learning components which can support learning
process. One of the components is learning model which is appropriate to the standard to
support education in order to be able to work effectively and efficiently.
Learning model is one of important components in supporting learning process, a learning
model that no one can be suitable for all conditions but can be adapted to the needs and
conditions of environment and students in learning. According to the opinion of the [22] In our
analysis of the observations and interviews we found no evidence of the intentional, planned
and systematic use of teaching models, as defined above. That is not to say that teachers
practice was uninformed by theory. In some cases teachers stated explicitly the aspects of
teaching and learning theories that underpinned their practiceexperiential learning and
learning styles theories being predominant. Teachers referred to the importance of actively
WoCTVET 2014
engaging learners and the observations and interviews showed that experiential, activity-based
learning was the norm.
Therefore, it is needed to conduct a development in its empowering and organizing, to achieve
desired goals. Models are description of a reality reflection which will be done as stated by [1]
models by definition are a reflection of reality-temporary stand-ins for something more specific
and real; model are helpful in explaining that may be difficult to describe; a model may illustrate a
process; a model may be a representation of something.
In fact, learning process is still far from principles which have been stated in PP No. 32 year
2013 and UU No. 20 year 2003 article 15. Besides, VET is hoped to create competent workers in
increasing productivity and efficiency and also readiness for international workers market
competition in the era of globalization. However, based on the data of Central Stats Agency (BPS)
in launching numbers of unemployment are stood at 5,7% or 7,15 million people. This number
has decreased compared to February 2013, 6,17% (7,41 million people). Moreover, BPS
recorded that workers who have educational background are elementary school are still
dominate employment. 52 million people or 46, 95 percent of Total of Indonesian Workers,
Elementary school graduates. For workers which are Junior High School are 20,5 million people
or 18,47 percent and people which have higher education only 10,5 million people, where 2,9
million people are Diploma and 7,6 million people are university graduate. This data describe
that university graduate are still weak in the workers market. It is caused by learning process
which is oriented to the output not to outcomes. According to [19] explain the impact of
Vocational Education on employment outcomes, while controlling for consumer characteristics
that influence outcomes, [20] relationship between Holland's person-environment congruence
constructs to employment outcomes, this result tried to explain to produce outcomes in
learning should analyze the needs of the students, one way with the Holland's personenvironment congruence. And according to [21] Psychosocial rehabilitation, and more
specifically, the clubhouse model, has gained increased attention in regard to employment
outcomes, and improving vocational outcomes. Based on some of these quotes shows a good
learning model can affect the outcomes of graduates including hail graduates of vocational
education, so that unemployment can be suppressed
This is no exception to the implementation of the learning processes which are carried out in the
Faculty of Engineering of The State University of Padang which still results output from each
skills and have not touched outcomes. Therefore, it is needed an alternative solution in
developing learning model which can give chance to the students to be active as in cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor. One of the learning model which is developed is Production Based
Learning Model. In the steps of its implementation are part of active learning, where the
students are given chances to develop skills and their creativity in the learning process.
The aim of this development is to develop production based learning model which is valid,
practice, and effective in VET.
Review of Related About of Vocational Education and Training (VET)
At the beginning, people said that vocational education was a simply training which was aimed
for a skill only. (Vocational education is simply training for skill only) or just training the hands.
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VET is a part of education system which prepares an individual for a work or a group of work. In
accordance to [4], who stated that ...vocational education is that part of education which makes
an individual more employable in one group of occupations than in another.
Meanwhile, [13] state that VET is education for a or some kinds of work which individual
interested in for his/her social needs. [3] argues that Vocational education is also designed to
develop skills, abilities, understanding, attitudes, work habits and appreciation encompassing
knowledge and information needed by a worker to enter and make progress in employment on a
useful and productive basis. [17] stated that educational programmes that assist people as they
develop towards occupations and careers and is understood in relation to three components:
technology, people and society. In his view vocational education is any education that provides
experiences, visual stimuli, affective awareness, cognitive information, or psychomotor skills;
and that enhances the vocational development processes of exploring, establishing, and
maintaining oneself in the world of work.
Moreover, [15] propose that vocational and technical is a program of specialized studies
designed to prepare the learner for employment in a particular occupation. It is supported by
[2] who states that, Vocational education as organized educational programs which are directly
related to the preparation of individuals for paid or unpaid employment, or for additional
preparation for a career requiry other than a baccalaureate of advanced degree. [10] also
supports that Vocational education should facilitate students' creative and critical capacities to
detect meaningful problems or challenges in their own experiences and surrounding cultural
conditions, pose liberating and morally responsible visions, and actively engage in the struggles
of living a coherent story of vocation or meaningful work
From the explanation above, VET can be meant as an activity which develops every people
potency in accordance to skills and interest which people have based on knowledge and skills to
survive and work which is appropriate to areas of expertise and also be able to create a job for
them.
Review of Related About of Production Based Learning Model
Model is a systematic pattern or reference which can be a guide for educators. Learning models
is a direction from the implementation of learning which are applied by educators with the aim
to guide the students being active in the learning process.
[9] terms the learning model as work procedure which is regular and systematic and containing
of thoughts, description or explanation of a concept. [12] means a learning as process of
interaction between educators and students which can support them to study actively,
participative, interactively by using methods, approaches, and media, and appropriate learning
environment. [11] defines learning as the basic of adding information and new knowledge
processes.
Therefore, it can be stated that learning model is a procedure or steps which are needed by
educators to facilitate their students to study actively, participative, and interactively with the
aim to be able to achieve the aims of education; the development of self potency of students
optimally.
Based production learning Model give students the chances to develop thinking, and skills and
also cooperation. In the learning process by using this model, the students are expected to be
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active for instance; creating important question that related to the product that are going to be
made. According to [5], production-based learning model is defined as the procedures or steps
that need to be performed by the educator to facilitate learners to actively learn, participate and
interact, with a competency-orientation to produce a product either goods or services required
Research Method
The research design which will be used is development research. This research is included to the
research that develops and results new product in a learning system which will be applied to the
students as the users. That will be developed is a model of learning for VET, the learning
model is a production based learning model with the following development stages
Procedure of Production Based
Learning Model Development
Needs Analysis
This analysis includes learning facilities analysis, students needs analysis, students
characteristics, educators skills analysis in some obstacles which they faced during learning
process.
Design
In this step, the first thing that should be done is determine the main concept of learning model
design which is integrated to the materials and determine courses which will be used as the
subject of the research and then analyze the students first condition.
Evaluation
The development in the evaluation step consists of formative and summative evaluation.
Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process [23]. Summative evaluation
consists of tests designed for criterion-related referenced items and providing opportunities for
feedback from users, revisions are made as necessary. Summative evaluation step start with the
validity will be done by expert test by using focus group discussion and limited test towards
production based learning model. Meanwhile, the test for students will be done in three steps.
They are small group test, big group test to see the practicality and the effectiveness of the
product that is made and developed. Respond regarding appropriateness will be get after
students give response in the sheet give, based on suggestion and response of expert and
students, the product will be revised.
Results of Research
The research results syntax of production based learning model which can be applied in the
learning process of VET. The syntax consists of: (1) Analysis of curriculum and learners
characteristics; (2) Identification and product analysis; (3) Creating important questions about
product; (4) Questions mapping; (5) analysis of equipment and materials needed of the product
which was going to be made; (6) making schedule of implementation of making product; (7)
process of making product; (8) evaluated regularly; and (9) creating business plan. It can be
seen in picture 1. Nine levels of production based learning model.
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Analysis of curriculum and learners characteristics
Identification and product analysis
Creating important questions about product
Questions mapping
Analysis of equipment and materials needed of the

product which was going to be made
Making schedule of implementation of

making product
Process of making product
Evaluated regularly
creating business plan
Figure 1. Nine levels of Production based Learning Model
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3. DISCUSSION
Based on the results of the research of syntax of production based learning model where its
implementation is done systematically ang logic as the explanation below:
Analysis of curriculum and learners characteristics in this step, the analysis was done in
courses of practice, identify the materials practices which was fit to the needs of the
implementation of production based learning. Then, analysis of students characteristics are
done by identify the learning process which done through individual and group. For an analysis
of the characteristics of the students like; a) have the ability to read under the standard,
it will be more effective if the medium used is not in a printed format (nonprint media),
b) was less interested in the material presented, overcome by using media that has a
high level of stimuli, such as: the use of video tape, games, simulations, etc, c) first seen
or got conveyed, better use or direct experience (the real thing). If instead, use verbal or
visual alone is considered insufficient, d) heterogeneous, more secure when using a
medium that can accommodate all the characteristics such as students use video tape, e)
Initial Capability specification, that related knowledge and capabilities previously
students, this information can be found if the students entry is given a test before it is
carried out the study. Result of entry test is referable about things what is necessary and
there is no longer passed on to students, f) learning style originated or arising from the
existence of the perceived comfort students (psychologically and emotionally) as they
receive and interact with the environment to learn, because it appears in learning
modality (audio, visual, and kinesthetic) [14]. Analysis is needed to identify the
appropriateness the precondition of the students and learning style which fit to the curriculum
used.
Product identification and analysis product identification is important to see the
appropriateness with the minimal competencies of courses. By knowing the minimal
competencies of the courses, it is hoped that product can answer the kind of product that are
going to be created. Besides, the product should also fit to the social need the product should
meet the minimum standard of courses competencies, it also social needs. Product created
should also considered that the product has answered the problem in the social or not yet.
Through the steps of Production Based Learning, it is hoped that it can answer the social needs
especially for products that related to the daily needs.
Creating important question about product exploration and elaboration individually and
group of the product analyzed which is aimed to create some questions around the product
identified and analyzed before. In the learning process is started with important question, it is
good for students activities. [16], according to [8], started from giving challenging questions
about .....
Questioning mapping questions from the students is classified based on needs and its
urgency towards the product. This mapping is aimed to make the students understand the
meaning of the questions that related to the product, supported by [7] stated that when the
learners learn something and can find the meaning. In this step, the mapping can be done if the
students understand the questions which have essential meaning.
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Analysis of equipment and materials needed of the product which was going to be made
in this step, it is important to analyze tools and materials which are needed based on the
mapping. If the tools and materials have been prepared well, it is hoped that the creating process
is run well.
Making schedule of implementation of creating product the determination of when the
product is finished, deadline, and this process can be done collaboratively, cooperatively
between lecturers and students.
Process of making product in the process of creating product, it is important to notice the
completeness of tools and materials and its time completion. As in the case of implementation of
the courses, that is ICT-based learning media, this course is practice course which have result a
product and has not been structured. Therefore, by using the model which is designed can result
a product which meet the minimal standard competencies of the course and social needs. In this
case, media is really needed for all lecturers in the learning process.
Regular Evaluation the assessment are done holistically since the beginning to the end,
besides it is also specified for creating process implementation, we can use matrix of assessment
in the form of rubric.
Creating business plan in this step, the students are given, chances to make business plan of
the product which is done through production based learning model. Creating this business plan
gives the description about a product for instance; students make a business plan of Power
Saving Devices. The business plan created is able to describe the aspect of entrepreneur such as
product benefits, price, competitor, and marketing product. Therefore, by implementing the
production based learning model, the students can results a product that is needed by social and
also develop their entrepreneurships.
Production based learning model is an alternative in solving the problem of learning process of
VET, not mentioned that model can improve the outcomes of VET graduates. In fact, the learning
process is still oriented to the short term result and just transfers the knowledge, not
understanding the knowledge. Therefore, if the process of learning is understood by the
students, the goals of VET can be achieved and compete as the skilled workers and develop
themselves including entrepreneurships based on their skills.
Moreover, production based learning model has impact to the students affective, because the
students and lecturers are collaboratively in the learning process. The students also get
opportunity to work together, and asking a question among them, giving response and
suggestion towards the product, start from the scheduling steps creating, and evaluation. The
learning which is done collaboratively including all process of learning, the students are taught
each other. Moreover, it is not impossible the students will teach their lecturer. As the previous
discussion production based learning model which applied the concept of student center,
however, in the implementation the lecturers are still supervise. In the Production based
learning model has impact to affective, cognitive, and psychomotor. It is supported by [18]
where in his research summarized that the learning based on project facilitate the development
of some competencies such as communication, cooperation, and writing skills.
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4. CONCLUSION
Production based learning model is an alternative of learning model which is

appropriate to VET, by using this model, the learning will be more meaningful. Moreover,
Production based learning model which has been applied in VET can help learners in preparing
entering the world of work, be able to develop critical thinking, and having good morale.
Therefore, it can give support to the learners to be more active in the learning process which
have impact to the results of learning process and their outcomes.
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A Comparison of the Work-based Learning Models and

Impelementation in Training Institutions
Syamhanimbinti Ismail1.2Mimi Mohaffyzabinti Mohamad
1,2Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 syamhanim_ismail@yahoo.com, 2 mimi@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Work-based Learning is a transition from education in institutions to carriers. It is combines
institutional learning with industrial learning and creates an integrated experience for the
student. Basically, WBL is a learning approach that uses the work place as a medium for learning
transfer. This paper discusses about WBL model applied in training institution and industrial
field.Student will learn at the institutional education and industrial to complete their courses
using WBL method.This paper also emphasis the WBL model in Malaysia that have been used in
advance diploma courses in polytechnic KPM. To make sure WBL succeed, cooperation from all
three parties, namely the student, the educational institution and the industrial employer, is
important. Various models have been studied by researchers locally and abroad to identify the
parties involved that make the WBL successful. This paper also described the comparison of
WBL model and how its implementation in training institutions. . It concludes with a review of
the challenges in implementing a WBL model. The discussion that follows is grounded
experience from various countries.
Keywords: Work-Based Learning; Model: Comparison; Industry: Educational Institution; Student
1. INTRODUCTION
Work-based Learning (WBL) is one of the learning approaches that has been practiced all over
the world for decades now and converges towards the theory of constructivism, which is an
active and dynamic form of learning that slowly develops throughout the lifetime of an
individual [1]. WBL is suitable for use in tertiary education and applicable in Technical and
Vocational Education but not for programs that are more towards the academic disciplines such
as the economics and business sciences [2].
WBL is a form of learning that relates to all fields of work, work-based learning, learning at the
work place and learning through working [3]. Researcherhad stated that WBL is a term used to
elaborate on the programs by learning institutions that bring together universities and work
organizations in order to create new learning opportunities at the work place [4].According to
[5], WBL is a learning approach that encompasses a working experience in which students need
to go through a learning process in an institution to gain the experience and apply the skills in
the related industries according to what is required in an actual working environment. The WBL
method is a terminology used for students in school level in order for them to obtain experience
through work. It enables students in institutions to adapt themselves with the institutional
transition to work and exposes the students to the reality of the working environment that
allows them to make the best career choice [6]. Researcher sees WBL as different from
conventional training, whereby it is directly involved and renders actual experience of a work
place[7].
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In addition, acquisition of specific and competent skills at the work place enables the student to
improvethe skills and competence to a critical level through a specific kind of learning. This was
supported by[8]stating thatWBLis learning that occurs at the work place and learning that takes
over the role played by the work place. This is because WBL is a learning approach that uses the
work place as a medium for knowledge transfer. Generally, the WBL method involves the
combination of learning in an educational institution and the work place. Various models are
used to make the WBL method successful.
2. CONCEPT OF WBL
Conceptualisation of WBL does not put it directly at odds with the idea ofdiscipline-based
learning that forms the basis of much higher education, but it does suggest that WBL takes place
in a broader; essentially trans-disciplinary or post-disciplinary framework that can incorporate
disciplinary learning but also goes beyond it.
WBL also conceptualised in terms of what it is adequate or effective for researcher a perspective
that draws on the idea of capability [9] as developed by [10] and [11]. A narrow version of
adequacy might be concerned with reaching the threshold standards needed to do a particular
job; a broader conceptualisation more relevant to university-level WBL might consider the kinds
and levels of issues encountered by the practitioner and leave the detail open to negotiation.
Particularly but not only at postgraduate level, WBL can be concerned with developing adequacy
for what [12] terms the swamp of real-world practice where practitioners engage with a mix of
indeterminate problems, pieces that dont fit and people who dont behave according to the
theory.
3. THE WBL MODELS
3.1 The WBL-Arizona Work-Based Learning Resource Guide Model
It is very important from the outset that everyone in the community understand the mission of
work-based learning. People need to think of work-based learning as at wo-way bridge between
the classroom and the workplace across which the school and the community work
cooperatively to provide the resources and the "classroom" that will help each student to find
and develop his or her potential. Work-based learning can take place at the school site or a
business site. This requires a coherent sequencing of activities that prepare students to function
in the highest level of work based learning at the worksite.
According to[13]one of the models used to implement the WBL is theArizona Work-Based
Learning Resource Guide Model. Figure1 shows the WBL implementation model in Arizona.
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Figure 1: TheWBL-Arizona Work-Based Learning Resource Guide Model

Figure 1 represent that WBL creates a two-way relationship between the educational institution
and the industry through various activities and resources. Researcher had stated that a strong
two-way relationship could make the WBL method more efficient and effective [14].
3.2 The WBL Model in Malaysia in Diploma in Automotive Diploma: Collaboration between
the Community College and Proton
The pioneer collaboration in Work-based learning was between Proton (automotive
manufacture) and the Ministry of Higher Education in 2007. As a national car manufacturer,
Proton and its dealers are responsible to support the government mission. The participation of
Proton in the program started in the early stages of the developing the WBL curriculum.
Therefore, the collaboration between Proton and community colleges has developed with
relatively equal input from both sides. Researcher argues thatin the industry-institutions
collaboration; both sides accessed opportunities as a win-win situation where both sides
obtained benefits from the WBL program [15].
The collaboration is enhancing the relationship between the community colleges and the
automotive industry (in this case Proton exclusively). For example, as a training-partner in the
WBL program, Proton has taken things a step further in setting up new engines, tools and
equipment at the community colleges. In fact, the equipment is purposely built for Protons pitstop or one stop-centre to educate Protons sales and technicians in Proton service centre all
over Malaysia. This means that the facilities at the community colleges are upgraded to meet the
Protons needs in particular distribute new technologies to the technicians Proton service
centre. The obvious limitation to this model is that it sets up a systems and technology base that
is exclusively developed for Proton technologies protocols: making it manufacturer specific
rather than more broadly, industry-based.
The findings through the collaboration between the Community College and Proton had used the
WBL in its Diploma in Automotive Program and found that WBLnecessitates the learning of
theory in the class and in the work place [16].
Figure 2 illustrate the WBL course structure includes both guided lesson at the Proton Training
Centre (PTC) which is guided by teachers from the industry and taught in the classroom for 25%
and 75% on-the-job training at Proton Edar Service Centres (PESC). According to [3] the WBL
program should have elements of coordinated classroom and workplace learning, integration of
occupational-technical and academic curriculum and also assessment system. Today, three
polytechnic have been use WBL learning in advance diploma courses in Malaysia which is
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Polytechnic Ungku Omar, Polytechnic Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah and Polytechnic Sultan
Azlan Shah. Polytechnic Ungku Omar offered Advance Diploma in Networking while Polytechnic
Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah offered two courses which is Advance Diploma In Electronic
(Medical) Engineering And Advance Diploma In Facility Management. Polytechnic Sultan Azlan
Shah also offered Advance Diploma in Design and Automotive Engineering.
Figure.2: WBL Model in di Malaysia

This WBL approach is similar to [17], [18], [19] collaborative concept. The WBL program
designed for the students at the community colleges is basically based on guided lessons that involved
theory lessons in which they have to undergo continuous lessons for 5 days each month at PTC. It
concentrates on recapitulating the basic/intermediate knowledge in automotive as well as lessons on
the advance level in the Proton technology. Assessments are held at the end of each course syllabus.
Following that, the students will be allocated at the PESC for 3 weeks before coming back to the PTC.
On-the-job site, their work is based on the students Job Record. One mentor will be designated to
one student and they will guide the student in executing the task. The skills competency of the student
is monitored by the service head. Then, the lecturer and the trainer from PESC will assess the students
on a regular basis.
3.3 The relationship model between industrial institutions and the industry by theCouncil of
Ontario University: Sector Skills Needs
The relationship model between the industrial institutions and the industry illustrates the
relationship between the industry and the technical and vocational education institution
system.Institutions are the main source of new workers in the various fields of employment, and
the employer has the right to assess the activity and product education through product issued
by those, namely graduates
The model in Figure 3 shows the relationship between the institutions system and the industry
that produces enough graduates and workers who possess the knowledge and skills needed by
the current industry. The industry would stand to gain if the education implemented by the
institution is in line with technological developments [20].
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Figure 3: Relationship Model between the technical institution and the industry by Council of
Ontario University: Sector Skills Needs (1998)
Based on Figure 3, it was found that the relationship between the institutional system and the
industry is the main aspect in technical or vocational education. The educational institution is a
place to stamp a certain skill and it is responsible for designing its products according to its own
mould. Hence, the role of the industry towards the technical educational institute is undeniable.
Notwithstanding the quality of the technical graduates produced by the institute, it must fulfil
the criteria and demands of the industry. The product has to meet the wishes of the industry.
The current curriculum and skills training that is developed should emphasize the aspect of the
skill that fulfils the needs of the employer and the industry.
Therefore, a two-way relationship between the institution and the industry is important because
it has mutual benefits for both parties, especially in producing a k-worker who is knowledgeable
and fulfils the demands of the industry.
3.4 Edmunds Model
The Edmunds Model links the student, the employer and the educational institution by way of
linking training (student-employer relationship), education (student-educational institution
relationship) and knowledge codification (employer-education institution relationship) for the
WBL.
Edmunds defines Work-Based Learning in Edmunds Model as a situation in which the learning
experience is inclusive of the learner, employer and the Learning Institution. In other words
there is the active participation to at least some extent by each of those parties. Edmunds
disagrees that there are only two of those parties cooperating.
Figure4illustrate the Edmunds Model.It was found that Edmunds model involving participating
from three parties which is student, industrial employer and educational institution to make
WBL successful.
Edmunds also suggests that the industrial employer or the educational institution generate
knowledge by codifying it against the academic needs that are relevant to the educational
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institution. Edmunds also said that the WBL is not similar to normal academics as it is directly
related to individual work, a specific work context and is differentiated from general education
[21].
From this Edmunds proposed a definition that Work-based learning is the acquisition of
accredited knowledge and skill in the context of purposeful activity involving the active
participation of an individual learner, their employing organisation and an education or training
institution working to an agreed curriculum to the mutual benefit of each.
Figure.4: Edmunds Model

3.5 The WBL based on the involvement zone of the student, educational institution and the
industry.
The WBL Model is based on the involvement zone of the student, educational institution and the
industry and shows that the total involvement from the three parties is important in
determining the success of this method. Figure 5 shows the involvement zone for the WBL
model.
There are three zones, namely Zone A, B and C. Zone A shows the involvement relationship
between the educational institution and the industry. Zone A use the strategy by joint
membership of regional/national HEI/employer networks, establishment of Employability
Forum with joint HEI Employer membership, strategic partnerships between HEI and employer,
joint memberships of employer/HEI councils/governing bodies, HEI/employer collaborate
together in research and consultancy, joint course planning HEI aligning course objectives with
employer objectives and promoting Knowledge Transfer Partnerships. They operational by key
bridging staff (joint appointment between HEI and employer), reciprocal secondments of HEI
and employee staff, employer involvement in Course Boards, employer feedback in the design
and validation of new programmes, HEI contributions to employer CPD activities, regular
dialogue between HEI and employer involvement in University or Faculty level Advisory Boards.
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Zone B shows the involvement relationship between the industry and the student. Zone B use
the strategy by student Unions represented in employer network organisations, student
involvement in Employer Forums, employer representatives on student union bodies and
employer involvement in career events while the operational by employers and students
actively represented on Course Boards, student/alumni contributions to employer publications
and employer contributions to alumni activities.
Zone C shows the involvement relationship between the educational institution and the student.
Zone C using the strategies by students feeding back into course boards for course development,
development of shell frameworks to accredit student learning through part-time employment
and student representation on Faculty/Academic Boards while operational by developing key
skills and competencies in individual students, devising negotiated assessments and developing
personal skills and capital.
Figure5: Involvement Zone for the WBL Zone

There is a two-way relationship founded between each zone that enables the WBL method to
work smoothly [22].
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4. CONCLUSION
There were five models discussed, which were the WBL-Arizona Work-Based Learning Resource
GuideModel; WBL Model in Malaysia from the Automotive Diploma program and the
collaboration between the Community College and Proton;The Technical Institution-Industry
Connection Model;Edmunds Model; and the WBL Model based on the involvement zone of the
student, educational institution and industry. It was found that all these models emphasize that
the WBL method needs the involvement of the student, educational institution and the industrial
employer. This would render value-added features to the student, as the student would excel in
the theories, academics and skills in the hands-on technical field.
Students who possess these value-added features would be in great demand from the industry
because the industry needs all-rounded competent workers who would be an asset to the
company. With this WBL method in the education system, it would benefit all three parties,
namely the student, educational institution and the industry. In Malaysia today,two Public
Education Institutions offer programs that use the WBL method. They are the Polytechnic and
Community College systems, both under the auspices of the Ministry of Education, which offer
nine Advance Diploma courses and four of them are using WBL methodin Polytechnic while two
Diploma programs in Community College, respectively.
Therefore, this method needs to be expanded to enable the three parties to obtain maximum
benefits. Hence, the involvement of these three parties is important in ensuring a more
systematic application of this method in the education system. In order to ensure this method
works smoothly, the relationship between these three parties has to be safeguarded at all times.
REFERENCES
1. Wilson, J. (1997). Creating & initiating a cooperative education program. Boston, MA:
World Association for Cooperative Education.
2. Stones, E. (1994). Assessment of a complex skill: Improving teacher education.
Asssessment in Education, 1(2), 235-251.
3. Seagraves et al. (1996) Learning in Smaller Companies (LISC) Final Report. University of
Stirling: Educational Policy and Development.
4. Lemanski et al., (2011,) An introduction to work-based learning: A physical sciences
practice guide. The Higher Education Academy.
5. Becker, K. (2007). Digital game-based learning once removed: Teaching teachers. British
Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3):478-488.
6. Fleming, J., & Martin, A. J. (2007). Facilitating reflective learning journeys in sport
cooperative education. Journal of Hospitality, Sport, Tourism, Leisure and Education, 6(2),
115-121
7. Seufert, S., (2000). Work Based Learning and Knowledge Management: An Integrated
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29, no. 5: 757-770
10. Stephenson, J. (1998). The concept of capability and its importance in higher education. In
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12. Schn, D. A. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner. London: Jossey-Bass.
13. Lynne, B. H., (2003). Arizona Work-Based Learning Resource Guide. A Guide for Connecting
Career and Technical Education to the Workplace. Arizona Department of Education
14. tala, L., (1993). Industry-University Partnership: Implementing Lifelong Learning'.
Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 18 No. 8, 1994
15. Tajul Ariffin, Ani Asmah. (2009). Innovative practices in TVET toward education for
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in Malaysia. International experts meeting on reorienting TVET policy towards education
for sustainable development, Berlin, Germany.
16. Yusuff, et al., (2007). Diploma in Automotive: A Collaboration between Community College
& Proton. A 12 month Work Based Learning (WBL). Malaysia
17. Boud, D. and Solomon, N. (2001).Work-based learning: A new Higher Education? USA:
SHRE and Open University Press
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developing and assessing nursing competence, Journal of Clinical Nursing
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University.
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A Theoretical Review for Practicability of Mcgregors Theory X and

Y for Students Academic Performance
Ahmad Rizal Bin Madar1 & Sivan Rajah2*
1Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
1 rizalm@uthm.edu.my, 2*schruti06@yahoo.com.
ABSTRACT
This paper is introducing a cross sectional point of view by applying managerial theories of
McGregors Theory X & Y as well as Principle of Compatibility to access students academic
performance. Deriving from several theoretical supports, students academic performance is
caused intrinsically by compatibility between their attitudes and behavior towards their
learnings. Whereby, rather than measuring students personal traits, educators should take
efforts to assess students learning attitudes so that their adequate learning behavior would be
expected. Hence this paper is calling for attention from practitioners to engage in understanding
the need to access students attitude towards learning. The significance of this paper is to widen
the body of knowledge by supporting McGregors Theory X and Y in assessing students
academic achievement.
Keywords-Theory X, Theory Y, Principle of Compatibility, Academic Performance, Extroversion,
Introversion
1. INTRODUCTION
Humans eternal aspiration to appease the thirst for new knowledge and skills has brought
about substantial improvement in the method of teaching and learning. From Socrates to the
current theorist or educationalist, scholars have not stopped to identify and enhance the way
knowledge is to be delivered effectively. Researchers, academicians, educators, school
administration and government are constantly engaging in quest to ensure the acquisition of
knowledge and skills is able to prepare the students for his or her future (1). Academic
achievement or excellence is the result of educators and students engaging in education and the
learning outcome or objective is achieved (2). Students academic achievement are related to
various factors such as learning style, personality, family, friends, teachers, the students
themselves, gender, location of school and school environment which act as significant
predictors in evaluating students academic performance (3). Learning outcome is only
attainable if the students are able to engage and actively partake in the process of acquiring new
knowledge. Then only the objective of the learning process designed by educators or
administrators be achieved. Henceforth the objective of this paper constructs with supports
from empirical findings that the use of management theory of personality by Douglas
McGregorin identifying students attitudes to match with learning behavior to enhance the
achievement of the students.
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2. MCGREGORS THEORY X & Y

Douglas McGregor born in Detroit in 1906 is considered as a prominent American social
psychologist alongside with Argyris and Likert. In 1932 he graduated psychology degree from
College of City of Detroit, and moved on to MA and PhD in Psychology from Harvard
University.In 1957 published an article titled Human Side of Enterprise and went on to publish
a book in 1960 with the same title. His theory Y was considered as the new humanism and his
theory served as the link between human and the new organizational humanism.The theory of X
& Y was developed when McGregor examined behavior theories of individuals at work and
building on Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs(4).McGregor argued that management style
and decision making depended on which theory management believed it applied to their staff.
Theory X proposed people are sharing attitudes of lazy, dislike work and need threat of job loss
and financial incentives to work hard. They need direction and control and cannot take
responsibility. The Theory X philosophy of management was described as the stick and carrot
method of management where managers would have to constantly police their staff to do any
work and where the workers would need to be coerced, intimidated and punished. This created
an oppressive and frustrating atmosphere for the manager and the managed (5,6).
Theory Y assumes people having the attitudes of enjoying work, actively seek responsibility,
generally creative and resourceful, wanted to learn and that their work was their natural activity
to the extent that they develop self-discipline and self-development. They are self-directed to
achieve objectives that met both organizational and individual goals. Theory Y philosophy
describes manager scholars job was dovetailing the human wish for self-development into the
organizations need for maximum productive efficiency (5).
3. LITERATURE SUPPORT OF THEORY X & Y IN EDUCATION INDUSTRY
From perspective of educator teaching methods that educators posed will effects students
learning (7). The statement was developed upon McGregor's classic distinction between
management theories X and Y that further adopted into alternative educational version of
theories X and Y. According to the McGregors personality theory, alternative Theory X assumes
students are passive and much dependent on educators to make all curriculum decisions and
lead students toward preparation for the future. In contrast, alternative Theory Y assumes
students are autonomous and self-directed and will actively participate in the educational
process.
Subsequently, the benefits of implementation of Theory X & Y in classrooms and assumptions of
educators perceptions towards students Nature of Learning, Locus of Control, autonomous,
willingness for responsibilities as wells as capabilities of learning were adopted from original
McGregors Theory X & Y that was custom made for working environment to fit-in learning
environment (8). Table 1 below further summarizes the attitudes that adopted from McGregor
into education environment.
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Table 1: Theory X and Theory Y in classroom

Theory X
Theory Y
Students have little desire to learn new Learning is as natural to student as play or
material.
rest.
Students are inherently lazy and will attempt Students are not lazy. Threats or
to get the material dumbed-down; the diminished grades are not necessary to
teacher must use a controlling environment motivate students.
to force students to learn and prevent
cheating.
Students prefer to be directed.
The self-satisfaction from learning is

sufficient to commit students to achieving
the educational objectives.
Students do not want to be responsible for Students will naturally accept responsible
their own learning.
for learning.
The teacher must act as the source of Imagination, ingenuity, and creativity are
information and actively transmit it to the widely distributed within the student
student
population and will be willingly applied to
the learning process.
Students are not capable of learning the The intellectual potential of most students
necessary material.
are being only partially utilized in the
classroom.
Source: John (2006)

The author (8) suggested that students have the potential of a successful learning experience in
their courses that is if all students nowadays are posing as theory Y personalities. No doubt,
similar to working adults, students willingness for learning is positively correlated with their
motivation level (9, 10). Failure of learning experience is caused by either inappropriate
perception between educators hypothetic and actual students personalities that will follow by
improper delivering methods, or inaccurate expectations about the challenges and relevant of
courses as well as educators personalities that students are about to sit-in that will affect their
motivation to learn.
Congruously, these two authors supported the adoption of Theory X & Y into education
environment. Hence this paper agrees that the distinction of attitudes of Theory X and Theory Y
are applicable for students. Since Theory X & Y was originally designed for working adults
represent two sets of assumptions about human nature and human behavior regarding intrinsic
attitudinal factors such as Responsibilities, Locus of Control, Autonomy, etc.; it is found that
these attitude and behavioral factors are also being empirically found on students by various
researchers (11,12,13,14,15,). As results, the framework of Theory X & Y is applicable to apply
on students in academy.
Theory X & Y in classroom has been tested by (17) on a study of relationship between Emotional
Intelligence and Theory X & Y, the researcher implemented the theory towards categories of
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students. The questionnaire used in the research was designed to survey how students rated
themselves towards Theory X or Theory Y mode of thinking. With seventy students that
undertaking subject of Management Skills in Eastern Michigan University College of Business,
the research has reported a high mean in variable of Theory Y (63.51) than Theory X (36.49).
The research also successfully detected a non-significant relationship between Emotional
Intelligence and Theory X & Y and further concluded un-relatedness between the two groups of
variables
4. INTROVERT-EXTROVERTS
The discussions of academic achievements are always linked to the perspective of IntroversionExtroversion personality traits. The proposition of Extroversion and Introversion involves how
individuals prefer to "focus their attention" and "gain their energy" that will be in accordance
with their personality traits (18). It categorized individuals into two distinct groups according to
a person's dominant and auxiliary functions. An introvert's dominant function is to analyse and
reason things within his head before using his auxiliary function to go out into the world and
share.
The opposite personality, an extrovert, will use his dominant function to go out into the world
and bounce ideas around, eventually ending up taking the data gained and analyzing it via his
auxiliary function, dealing with the idea internally. For example, individuals with Extroversion
personality focus their attention and gain energy through interaction with the external world of
people, activities and things; in contrast, individuals with Introversion personality focus their
attention and gain energy through the inner world of ideas, impressions, and emotions.
Introverts may prefer indirect communication style such as written communication while
extroverts may prefer a more direct communicate such as face-to-face discussion and
interaction. In simple, an introvert is an individual who pose characteristics that is oriented
toward the inner world, whereas an extroverts characteristics is oriented toward external
reality (19).
According to the introvert and extrovert psychological theoryreviewed, individuals learning
process is the outcome of the way in which the personality of the student conforms towards the
learning. It further supported by (20), where personality that combined by individual
characteristics or qualities that form an individual's distinctive character will affect their
learning processes. Personality that differentiates individuals into exclusive units or
combination of units also affected their learning outcome (21). The fundamental of this theory
into academic environment is built upon believe of involvement rate of students in teaching and
learning activities. The higher the involvement rate of students towards subjects they are
undergoing, the higher academic performance will be predicted (22).
The idea of Introversion-Extroversion has received several empirical finding that challenge the
reliability of the theory. For example,an empirical research reported a non-significant
correlation between students, academic performance and the Introversion-Extroversion
dimension of their personalities (19,20). Furthermore, it discovered that respondents that
categorized into Introverts and Extroverts have no significant differ in terms of academic
performance for the subject of Mathematics, Biology, and English. On the other hand, another
empirical study also detected a similar outcome, from a sample of 102 fresh student that
studying Engineering, Fine arts, Business Administration, Economics, Education and Humanities
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and Letters at Bilkent University where the medium of instruction is English, a low statistical
relationship between the personality traits (Introversion-Extroversion) and the learning styles
that they employ in foreign language education were concluded by t-test (23). Furthermore, a
more recent empirical study that investigates performance of the extroverts and introverts with
regard to their progress in writing has found no relationship between extroversion and
introversion with learners writing progress. With a sample size of 120 early intermediate EFL
learner in Iran that were selected according to their cores in a pre-intermediate version of
Nelson English Language Test and also on the basis of the responses to Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire, the study has concluded that Personality traits demonstrate no significant effect
on learners' writing progress (21).
Surprisingly, the above empirical findings were found not parallel with the theory of
Introversion-Extroversion towards learning behavior. Although previous researcher had
claimed that high involvement exerted by students in teaching and learning activities will
significantly increase their academic performance, however, the personality of Extroversion that
is expected to turn-up a positive correlation towards academic performance than Introversion
personalities have dramatically reported with non-significant differ between the two
personalities towards academic performance or even no relationship between personalities and
academic performance. These findings were consistent with another empirical finding where
personal traits did not predict behavior (24). As result, according to the empirical finding above,
the idea of students personality traits may conclude as weak prediction towards their academic
performance.
5. WHY MCGREGOR? THE PRINCIPLE OF COMPATIBILITY
In order to support the practice of Theory X & Y in education, a consequence for students
performance will be explained here. From the theory Planned Behavior (26) that developed
upon Principle of Compatibility(hereafter as POC) and concept of Behavior Intention, human
actions is a sequential process that affected by their own cognitive evaluation.
As presented in Figure 1, it is a combination of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceptions of
control towards behavior that will become a motivation to influence actual behavior. The extent
of intention will hence determine the performance of the behavior (25, 26, 27, 28).
Figure 1: Theory of Planned Behavior (23)

However, instead of adapting the whole theory into discussion, this paper is only focus on POC in
assessing students internal or personal learning attitudes by adopting McGregors Theory X & Y
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towards students academic performance, rather than further into concept of Behavioral
Intention or theory of Planned Behavior that discussing Subjective Norms and Perceived
Behavioral Control that may go through perceptual process on external or environmental factors
that will also intervene attitudes towards actual behavior.
Arriving from the literature review above, this paper hence advocates that the cross-sectional
application of POC from management to education field of study is able to answer the myth of
students academic performance that represent overall educational excellence. According to the
principle, measures of attitude and behavior are compatible to the extent that the target, action,
context and time element are assessed at identical levels of generality or specificity (25). With
POC as fundamental to explain attitude is compatible with behavior, the concept of Behavior
Intention further define individuals performance is affected by their behavior, and the
particular behavior is resulted from motivation of attitudes towards that particular behavior
(24). It can summarize as the higher compatibility between attitude and behavior towards a
same target that share a same context with a same action at a same time, higher performance
will be achieved. However compatibility between students learning attitudes and behavior
doesnt affirm that the particular behavior will be performed.
As discussed above, concentrating on controlling students behavior,in order to achieve
academic excellence might create attitude-behavior problems (26).Hence the core essence of
this paper proclaims that educators should assess attitudes, thus design a proper delivery
method that will strengthen the compatibility of students psychological attitudes towards
learning in order to increase their motivation for performing physical behavior for learning.
All the statements provided have eventually answered (23) proposition where behavior was
principally determined by the characteristics of the situations in which people find, rather than
reflecting stable characteristics of the person themselves. Hereby, with understanding of POC,
characteristics of the situation (such as educators delivery method based on their perceptions
towards students learning attitudes) are one of the mediating factors that will affect students
attitudes as motivation for behavior. To demonstrate, rather than simply showing up behavior
according to their personal traits, student will experience perceptual evaluation process towards
environmental factors that they think will have direct impact on their behavior. Educators
should thereby design delivery methods that can support their learning attitudes for the
purpose of motivating their learning behavior(29); on the other hand, prevent any attitudebehavior problems. Obviously, the most exorable and apprehensive theory to assist educators to
distinct and categorize students attitudes in order to design the environmental factors that will
strengthen the commitment of behavior towards academic excellence is the McGregors Theory
X & Y that introduced a set of assumption of attitudes as references point.
6. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this paper has discussed the practicability of Principle of Compatibility in
assessing students academic performance. Although the well-known Introversion-Extroversion
Personalities traits received high supports from education industry in categorizing students into
distinct groups, however, several recent empirical finding were found inconsistent with the
theory. As result, this paper is suggesting the implementation of McGregors Theory X & Y from
perspective of Principle of Compatibility as factor in dominating students academic
performance. This paper further suggest that rather than identifying students personal
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characteristics to predict their academic performance, it is recommended to access their

learning attitudes in order to design delivery methods that can motivate their commitment to
perform desired behavior for the ultimate goal of academic excellence.
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and Sons
7. Ozkan, F., & Ulutas, B. (2011, September). Evaluating the effect of teaching strategies and
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framework for improving student motivation. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
Education, 32(5), 323-325.G. Schraw, D.
9. W. Brooks, K. J. J. Crippen (2005). Improving chemistry instruction using an interactive
compensatory model of learning. Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 82 no. 4 pp. 637-640.
10. Williams, K. C., & Williams, C. C. (2011). Five key ingredients for improving Student
motivation. Research in Higher Education Journal, 121-23.
11. John Stephenson, (1998). Supporting student autonomy in learning. Chapter 15, in
Capability and Quality in Higher Education, Stephenson J.& Yorke M. (eds), published1998
by Kogan Page, London, pps 129-141
12. Amy S. H., Maureen E. W. (2002). The sociology of the classroom and its influence on
student learning. Peabody Journal of Education, 77(3), 85100
13. Yu Liang Liu, Ellen Lavelle, James Andris (2002). Effects of online instruction on locus of
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student autonomy in adventure education. Journal of Experiential Education, Volume 31,
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16. Hyungshim Jang, JohnMarshall Reeve, Edward L. Deci (2010). Engaging students in
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Acquisition Through Mathematics Education for Sustainable

Development in Nigeria: A Case Study of North West Zone
1Hassan
Abubakar Augie*, 2Garba M. Koko

of Mathematics, Federal College of Education (Technical), Gusau Zamfara StateNigeria, 2Planning, Research and Statistics Department, National Commission for Colleges of
Education, Abuja-Nigeria
1 augiehassan@gmail.com
1Department
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the importance of basic functional skills acquisition in mathematics for
national development. For this purpose, 600 questionnaires were distributed among randomly
sampled primary and junior secondary mathematics teachers in Kebbi, Sokoto and Zamfara
states of the North western zone of Nigeria. However, five hundred (500) duly completed
questionnaires were retrieved. Mean Analysis of Respondents opinion Based on Four-Point
Likert Scale reveal that: mathematics taught in basic institutions contains enough elements of
basic functional skills; lack of basic mathematics functional skills amongst Nigerians constitutes
slow development in Nigeria; majority viewed that applied mathematics should be given more
priority at basic level; students are not exposed to basic mathematical training; there are no
suitable mathematics workshops and laboratories in basic educational institutions; The study
sought respondents opinion on the way forward, majority suggests there is need to review
present basic mathematics to include more mathematical skills; Based on the findings
recommendations are proffered among which is the training of primary and junior secondary
school mathematics teachers should be geared towards inclination to the demands of the
mathematics curriculum.
Keywords: Basic Functional Skills, Mathematics Education, Sustainable Development.
1. INTRODUCTION
Throughout human history mathematics education is found to be an inevitable ingredient for
human, economic, and physical development. According to Mitchell (2004) historical records
showed that demands for mathematical skills aroused in response to practical needs in
agriculture, business and industry in the ancient empires of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China,
Babylon and Greece from 2nd to 3rd Millennia B.C.. According to Inforplease.comsuitable to put
the reference? (2013) in these empires mathematical skills were used for surveying and
measurement on farm lands. Even in the modern world, especially in developed countries of
Europe, America, and China mathematical skills are the pivot of their greatness in all areas of
economy. Mathematical skills provided them with the knowledge of metal work which finally
resulted into automobile production and weapons of mass destruction for defense. Mathematical
skills provided them with talent to use earth materials to construct beautiful storey buildings
(skyscrapers). Mathematical skills also provided them with talents for cloth weaving, drugs
production and carpentry as well as advancement in mechanized agriculture.
According to Popoola (2008) in Ahmed (2012) there is rapid economic development in
Singapore as a result of its heavy investment in science, technology and mathematics. As small as
it is, the country has a diverse population of 2.5 million people comprising 70% Chinese, 20%
Malay and 10% Indians and virtually no resources but responds meaningfully to the dynamics of
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globalization, information and telecommunication technology. With political economy deeply

rooted in Singaporean tradition, the determination and willingness of her nationals reflects
greatly in her annual earnings as distinct from what is prevalent in countries like Nigeria, and
many other countries that are reservoirs of global energy resources. This is because it has
heavily invested in science, technology and mathematics and has successfully planned to work
along a knowledge based economy.
Nigeria is considered as a developing nation because of its backwardness in the fields of science,
engineering, technology and mathematics. As observed by Ahmed (2012) to date, the country
cannot engage effectively in activities such as:
1. Production of automobile machines and facilities;
2. Exploitation of her natural resources except with the help of foreigners who will
normally provide the technology and expertise to undertake the exploitation of these
natural resources;
3. Mechanization of her agriculture i.e. crude implements are still used for agricultural
production activities by a large percentage of those who are involved in agricultural
production,
4. Dependence on other countries for the supply of its spare parts for industrial machinery;
5. Exportation of raw materials to other countries as against finished products; and
6. Inability to produce her own military hardware with which to defend herself, if the need
arises.
7. Now the question is, how can Nigerians acquire relevant mathematical skills that can be
used for sustainable development of the country? To answer this very important
question the study aims at collecting Nigerians opinions guided by specific research
questions.
Research Questions
The study aims at finding answers to the following questions:
1. Does mathematics taught in Nigerian basic educational institutions (primary and junior
secondary schools) oriented towards imparting functional skills for self-reliance and
national development?
2. Does mathematics taught in Nigerian basic educational institutions have practical
applications to real life situations?
3. Does lack of enough mathematics functional skills amongst Nigerians contribute to
countrys slow development?
4. Is there need to give more priority to applied mathematics in Nigerian basic educational
institutions?
5. Do students in Nigerian basic educational institutions exposed to basic mathematics
practical training?
6. Are there functional and well equipped mathematics workshops and laboratories in
Nigerian basic educational institutions?
WoCTVET 2014 | 474
7. Does basic mathematics content need to be restructured to include more mathematical

skills?
8. Are the teachers teaching mathematics at primary and junior secondary school levels in
Nigeria qualified mathematics teachers?
1. Is there need to retrain primary and junior secondary school mathematics teachers (in Nigeria)
in areas of mathematical skills?
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 Sampling procedure
A research design used in the conduct of this study was a survey method. This is because the
method can be used to collect data from a fairly large number of cases at a particular time (Best
& James (1985) in Wushishi, 2010). The study aimed at covering North-West geographical zone
of Nigeria which comprises of Kebbi, Sokoto and Zamfara states. Hence the target population of
this study comprised all the primary school and junior secondary school mathematics teachers
within the zone. However, some primary and junior secondary schools in each of the states were
randomly selected and used as a sample for the study.
2.2 Data collection
For the purpose of collecting data, developed a questionnaire based on four-point Likert scale
was developed. The points on the scale are SA = Strongly Agree (4 points); A = Agree (3 points);
D = Disagree (2 points) and SD = Strongly Disagree (1 point). The questionnaire comprised ten
(10) statements aimed at finding out the opinions/views of the teachers on the availability of
enough required basic functional mathematical skills for self-reliance and national development.
The instrument was carefully scrutinized (for validity) by three chief lecturers, two from School
of Education and one from School of Science Education, Federal College of Education (Technical),
Gusau, Zamfara state. Their criticisms, observations and recommendations were considered and
implemented accordingly.
For reliability of the questionnaire, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) method
was used to determine coefficient of correlation after test-retest administration of the
questionnaire on randomly sampled one hundred (100) primary school and junior secondary
school mathematics teachers in Zamfara state. The schools involved for this administration of
the questionnaire were not part of the schools for the actual study. The correlation coefficient (r)
obtained was 0.73 which was further subjected to reliability test using Spearman- Browns
formula. The reliability coefficient was found to be 0.84 which was an indication that the
questionnaire was very reliable. The instrument was administered on the randomly selected
sample of respondents by the researchers.
3. RESULTS
For this study, six hundred (600) questionnaire were randomly distributed among sampled
primary school and junior secondary school mathematics teachers in the three states (Kebbi,
Sokoto and Zamfara). However, after retrieval five hundred (500) were found to be duly
completed, hence the data analysis was carried out on the duly completed 500 questionnaire.
WoCTVET 2014 | 475
The result of data analysis is presented in Table 1.0 where is the table? which answered research
questions:
The standard or criterion referenced mean (i.e. the mean of the scale, Xcrit) is 2.50. The statement
is agreed upon if Xcal is greater than Xcrit otherwise disagreed upon if Xcal is less than or equal to
Xcrit. The result in table 1.0 revealed that statements 1 5, 8 and 10 are agreed upon by the
respondents since in each statement Xcal Xcrit. In other words primary school teachers and
junior secondary school mathematics teachers are of the opinion that: (1) The mathematics
taught at basic level is oriented towards imparting functional skills for self-development; (2) The
mathematics taught at basic level can provide enough functional skills to Nigerian citizens for
sustainable development; (3) The mathematics taught at basic level has practical applications to
real life situations and capable of promoting basic skills for self-reliance; (4) Lack of basic
mathematics functional skills amongst Nigerians constitute slow development in Nigeria; (5)
Applied mathematics should be given more priority at basic level; (6) There is need to
restructure the content of basic mathematics to include acquisition of more mathematical skills,
and (7) There is need to retrain basic mathematics teachers in areas of mathematical skills.
On the same table it is observed that statements 6, 7, and 9 are being disagreed upon. This is
because in each of the statements Xcal Xcrit. In other words basic mathematics teachers (primary
and junior secondary schools) have the view that: (1) Students at basic level are not exposed to
basic mathematics practical training; (2) There are no suitable mathematics workshops and
laboratories in basic education institutions for basic mathematics practical training, and (3)
Most of the teachers teaching mathematics at basic education level are not qualified
mathematics teachers.
The standard deviations of the opinions revealed by the result of data analysis express a good
homogeneity of opinions among the respondents as all the standard deviations appear to be
very close to each other.
4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Research question 1
Research question 1 is answered by findings associated with statements 1 and 2 in table 1.0. The
opinions of basic mathematics teachers show that the present mathematics taught in Nigerian basic
educational institutions contains enough elements of functional skills capable of preparing citizens for
sustainable development. The implication of this finding is that the mathematics curriculum in Nigeria
is designed in such a way that it has taken care of all the basic mathematical skills needed for citizens
and the nations sustainable development.
Research question 2
Research question 2 is also answered by finding associated with statement 3 that is basic mathematics
teachers are of the view that the present mathematics in Nigerian basic educational institutions is
designed to contain practical applications that are relevant to real life situations. The implication of
this finding is that the mathematics syllabuses are prepared in such a way that they are capable of
imparting basic skills to students which can be applied to practical production or construction of
materials for self-reliance and development.
Research question 3
WoCTVET 2014 | 476
Finding against statement 4 answered research question 3 that is basic mathematics teachers are of the
opinion that lack of basic mathematics functional skills amongst Nigerian citizens constitute slow
development in Nigeria. The implication of this finding is that despite agreement with statement 1 that
is mathematics taught in basic educational institutions is oriented towards imparting functional skills,
still basic mathematics teachers are of the view that this slow development in Nigeria is as a result of
lack of sufficient basic functional mathematical skills amongst citizens. This implies that there could
be problems in basic mathematics curriculum delivery to Nigerians. It could be possible that the way
the curriculum is delivered lacks expertise in terms of teaching personnel and teaching materials.
Research question 4
Research question 4 is also answered by the responses against statement 5. Basic mathematics teachers
are of the opinion that applied mathematics should be given more priority in Nigerian basic
educational institutions. The implication of this finding is that basic mathematics teachers are of the
view that applied mathematics contains more practical applications to real life situations, and this is
seriously needed for self-reliance and national development.
Research question 5
Research question 5 is also answered by the finding against statement 6. It is the general opinion of
basic mathematics teachers that students in Nigerian basic educational institutions are not exposed to
basic mathematics practical training. This finding also contradicts the agreement with the statement 3,
hence there is wide gap between what is contained in the mathematics syllabuses and the real exposure
of students to the syllabuses.
Research question 6
Research question 6 is answered by responses against statement 7. It is viewed by the basic
mathematics teachers that there are no suitable mathematics workshops and laboratories in Nigerian
basic educational institutions. This could be complete absence of these facilities or where they exist
they are seriously ill-equipped. The absence or the ill-equipping of these facilities could result into
students lack of exposure to basic mathematics practical.
Research question 7
Statement 8 targets answering research question 7. The finding against this statement reveals that basic
mathematics teachers agree that there is need to restructure present basic mathematics to include more
mathematical skills. The implication of this finding is that though it is agreed that basic mathematics
contains basic skills for self-development and national development it is still the general view of basic
mathematics teachers that the content of the subject should be restructured to include more
mathematical skills.
Research question 8
Research question 8 is answered by responses to statement 9. The result of the data analysis shows that
most of the teachers teaching mathematics at primary and junior secondary levels in Nigeria are not
qualified mathematics teachers. In fact this could be one of the possible reasons why Nigerians are not
exposed to basic functional mathematics skills as enshrined in the mathematics syllabuses.
WoCTVET 2014 | 477
Research question 9
The responses to statement 10 answer research question 9 in the sense that basic mathematics teachers
agree that there is need to retrain basic mathematics teachers in areas of mathematical skills. This
finding could not be unconnected with the observation that most of the present basic mathematics
teachers that passed through primary and secondary schools lack basic mathematical skills.
5. CONCLUSION
This study reveals that generally primary and junior secondary mathematics teachers are of the
view that mathematics taught in primary and secondary schools in Nigeria contains enough
basic functional skills for self-reliance and national development. However they agree that
students at these levels are not exposed to basic mathematics practical training which is a
medium for gaining mathematical skills, and this possibly constitutes slow development in
Nigeria. Considering the inclination of the mathematics towards provision of basic functional
skills and the products that passed through the subject graduating without gaining such basic
mathematical skills, then one can deduce that it could be possible that the way mathematics is
taught lacks expertise in terms of teaching personnel, materials and facilities.
6. Recommendations
From the findings of this study the following recommendations are made:
1. The training of primary and junior secondary school mathematics teachers should be
geared towards inclination to the demands of the mathematics curriculum.
2. The government should employ more qualified mathematics teachers for primary and
junior secondary schools.
3. For acquisition of basic functional mathematical skills the government should provide
well equipped mathematics laboratories and workshops in all the primary and junior
secondary schools in Nigeria.
4. Primary and junior secondary school mathematics teachers should be relating
mathematical problems to real life situations (practical) in order to impart basic
functional skills to students.
5. The government should review the present primary and junior secondary mathematics
syllabuses in order to include more aspects of mathematical skills.
6. The state ministries of education in collaboration with Universal Basic Education
Commission should embark on organizing workshops on mathematical skills for primary
and junior secondary school mathematics teachers.
WoCTVET 2014 | 478
REFERENCES
1. Ahmed,M. (2012) Restructuring Sciences, Technology and Mathematics Education for
Skills Development and Acquisition in Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social
Sciences, 4(2), 31 36.
2. Inforplease.com (2013) Mathematics: Development of Mathematics. Retrieved on
17/3/2013 via
http://www.funbrain.com/
3. Mitchell, N. H. (2004) Mathematical Applications in Agriculture. Delmar: Cengage Learning.
Retrieved on 3/6/2013.File://C:\Documentsand settings\USER.USER-8D994E82B2\My
Documents\agric mathematics
4. Popoola, L. (2008) Contemporary Issues in Sustainable Development. Lessons for, and
Challenges to Nigeria. Volume 1. The Post Graduate School, University of Ibadan.
5. Wushishi, D. I. (2010). A Survey of the Attitude of Students towards the Environment from
selected Science Secondary Schools in Niger State. Journal of Studies in Science and
Mathematics Education. 1(1), 47 51.
WoCTVET 2014 | 479
Statement
1.The mathematics taught in primary and junior secondary schools is oriented towards imparting
basic functional skills for self development.
2.The mathematics taught in Primary and junior secondary schools can provide enough
basic functional skills to Nigerian citizens for sustainable development.
3.The mathematics taught in primary and junior secondary schools has practical applications to real life situations and promotes basic skills for self-reliance.
4.Lack of basic mathematics functional skills amongst Nigeriancitizens constitute slow developpment in Nigeria.
5.Applied mathematics should be given more priority at basic education level.
6.Students at basic education level are exposed to basic mathematics practical training.
7.There are suitable mathematics workshops and laboratories in primary and junior secondary
schools for basic mathematics practical training.
8.There is need to restructure the content of basic mathematics to include acquisition of more
mathematical skills.
9.Most of teachers teaching mathematics in primary and junior secondary schools are qualified
mathematics teachers.
10.There is need to retrain mathematics teachers in areas of mathematical skills.
SA(4)
A(3)
D(2)
SD(1)
fx
122
217
137
24
1437 500 2.87
108
203
161
28
1391
500 2.78
0.845
Agree
42
274
146
38
1320
500 2.64
0.743
Agree
203
170
254
306
38
19
5
5
1655 500
1641 500
3.31
3.28
0.653
0.582
Agree
Agree
15
108
255
122
1016
500
2.03
0.761
Disagree
19
104
231
146
996
500
1.99
Xcal
137
311
43
1576
500
3.15
19
222
175
245
259
14
47
19
1166
1670
500
500
2.33
3.34
StDev
0.833
0.807
Decision
Agree
Disagree
0.639
0.697
0.713
Agree
Disagree
Agree
WoCTVET 2014
Creative Teaching in Design and Technology Curriculum:

Using Structural Equation Modeling
Nazeri Mohammad1, Ruhizan Muhammad Yasin2, Wan Ameran Wan Mat3and Ana Syarief4
1 Sultan Mizan Campus, Besut, Terengganu,
2National University of Malaysia (UKM), Bangi, Selangor,
3IPG Technic Campus,
4Indonesia University of Education
1nazeri@ipgmksm.edu.my, 2ruhizanmy@gmail.com, 3wanameeran@gmail.com &
4ana_syarief@yahoo.co.id
ABSTRACT
The main purpose of this study was to test the active learning variables as mediators of the
appropriate variables between the teaching and guidance of teachers with creative teaching
(PK) in Design and Technology (RBT) in secondary schools peninsular Malaysia. In addition this
study also conducted to identify the different variables influence exogenous to study
endogenous variables based on 2 zones in peninsular Malaysia (North and East). This
quantitative study used a survey method, involving a total of 407 teachers who teach RBT
northern zone (205 people) and the eastern zone (202 people). Data were analyzed using path
analysis with Analysis of Moment Structure (AMOS) software version 20. The findings showed
that active learning is an appropriate mediator variable between teaching and mentoring
process variables with creative teaching in northern and rural zones. Path analysis structural
equation model (SEM) also shows the data used in this study has a reasonable accommodation
for the proposed regression model. Thus proving both the independent variable is directly and
indirectly with independent variables of the study creative teaching. It is hoped that this study
will provide useful input for the improvement of teaching and learning in Design and
Technology Curriculum
Keywords: Active Learning, Creative Teaching, Design and Technology and Structural Equation
Modeling Analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
Active learning is a teaching and learning approach that is gaining popularity in this era [9].
Teachers are encouraged to switch from passive to active teaching lessons in the process of
teaching and learning [3]. But teachers need to have innovation and creativity in their
imagination either within or outside of the classroom to implement a set of active learning
activities [4],[10]. Active learning refers to the approach in which students interact with
instructional materials. Including students do something to recognize, process and apply
information (value) received. Active learning encourages students to learn from the teacher and
other students in comparison with traditional methods that involve students' own only [10].
2. LITERATUREREVIEW
The education system currently requires teachers to be mentors to the students so that they
have the skills to think, to solve problems, communicate and collaborate. To this end the teacher
should face challenges positively to take steps to gain knowledge and skills for self-enrichment
WoCTVET 2014
and enhancement in order to apply these skills in the classroom through creative teaching[12].
Given flexibility allows teachers to plan and implement teaching and learning more interesting
through their own creativity [9],[13]. The fact is the process of teaching either in formal and
informal, will not happen optimally if the students do not have an active self-learning to
acquire knowledge and skills of teachers[13]. Teachers are driving forces and motivators to all
that happen in the process of teaching their students either within or outside the classroom[10].
Both the driver and the driver of the role are important in order to help students develop the
desire to explore the academic environment at times beyond the limits of their ability to learn,
especially in this era of globalization [13].
Therefore, beginning from 2011, the primary school curriculum standards (KSSR) and the
secondary school curriculum standard (KSSM) have been implemented in schools where when
the teachers apply the lessons,they need to be more creative based on standards curriculum
issued by the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC), Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE). It
covers aspects of teaching and learning plan; guiding and facilitating; assess continuously;
manage the learning environment and develop a community of subjects taught.
Creative teaching for the purpose of this study is taking into account the following aspects:i)
students developed an understanding of active individuals through the process of social
interaction in the classroom or KH workshop, ii) creativity can be taught and developed by the
teacher to the student, and iii) what students gain and master are influenced by the way they are
taught by teachers.
This is consistent with the view Starko[15], defines creative teaching refers to the teaching that
results from the creativity of teachers and not teaching to develop rather students creativity. In
this study, creative teaching is also referred to the ability of the teacher to practice and use their
creativity to design their lessons systematically, modification of differences in the factors that
affect it.teaching techniques and change the normal method of teaching or reasonable
adjustments and effective teaching activities during the lesson.
Using active learning can be a challenge for teachers and students who are not familiar with the
approach. Teacher as facilitator surrender part of the power control classes to pupils and
students are taking responsibility not only for what they have learned but also taught how to
learn something.
3. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Malaysian students, particularly those who are studying in secondary schools hoped are capable
of performing active learning that is not solely dependent on the teachers to acquire knowledge
and skills through learning in the classroom. The issue of active learning is very important as for
active learning is able to move a person to move forward regardless of anything done. It is
necessary to enhance the creativity of students, where a creative approach to teaching,
especially in KH subjects is necessary because this subject is central to creativity and innovation.
Thus creative teaching is significant to produce students who are creative and innovative[7]. The
question is, how teachers can stimulate an environment of creative teaching and learning in the
classroom? This issue is often associated with inherent
WoCTVET 2014 | 482
4. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
4.1 Teaching process
In this study teaching process refers to the process of teaching students' perception of how the
whole teaching process should be carried out by a teacher of Islamic education from the
beginning to the end. Students will give feedback on the instruments based on the perception of
various teaching aspects, the use of reinforcement and consolidation, clarity of teaching,
questioning techniques, and until the close of the session should be conducted by a competent
and effective teacher. A good teaching process is a process of combining various methods of
teaching and teaching approaches to achieve optimal teaching effect. According to Palaniappan
[11], good teaching should involve teaching the basic micro teaching skills, from set induction till
the end of the lesson to produce the optimal lessons outcome.
4.2 Teachers Guidance
In this study, teachers guidance refers to the extent to which teachers' willingness to provide
ongoing guidance and counsel to students outside their classrooms. In addition, it also refers to
the interaction on how respond to problems or questions raised by the students either well or
badly.
4.3 Active learning
According to Yasin, Mustapha, Azami [12], active learning is defined as a part of the nervous system
that can identify natural behavior and direction of behavior. It is a force that push and sustain
behavior and explain why a particular behavior appears at a time and no other behaviors.
According to Mohammad, Yasin&Rahman [10], a research on human active learning shows that
humans sometimes behave irrationally and their behavior is influenced by an unconscious goal.
However, most humans behavior is directed to the goal which is at least rational in the eyes of
the person concerned. In this study, active learning refers to the determination of whether the
students learn while they are in school or even in anywhere. In addition, active learning in a
study looking at the aspects of their interest in and enjoyment of learning itself. In this research,
active learning only intrinsic only to be studied and seen as it has a direct relationship with the
dependent variable of the study self-directed learning (SDL) and the independent variables
other.
4.4 Creative teaching
In this study, creative teaching refers to the ability of the teacher to practice and use their creativity to
design their lessons systematically modification of teaching techniques and change the normal
method of teaching or reasonable adjustments and effective teaching activities during the lesson [7].
5. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study was to identify the active learning variables as mediators between the
appropriate teaching and guidance by teachers to creative teaching. The secondary objective is
to examine differences in the independent variables (exogenous) leaned against the variable
(endogenous) based on the location of the respondent (the north and east zone).
WoCTVET 2014 | 483
6. METHODOLOGY
This study used a survey method to collect data using questionnaires. All items have been tested
their validity and reliability. Teaching instrument is adapted from Palaniappan [11].
Respondents were from among the teachers of living skills (KH) who teach RBT from the
northern and eastern zones of Peninsular Malaysia. 407 people were selected using purposive
sampling technique and simple random sampling. Researchers use Structural analysis of
Equation Model (SEM) with AMOS 20 software to test hypotheses of the study [1],[5].
7. RESULTS
Based on the analysis of structural equation modeling path (path analysis / SEM) using AMOS
20, it shows that active learning is an appropriate mediator variable in this study [2]. Analysis
shows that active learning is a key variable influencing variables creative teaching either in the
northern and eastern zones. So these finding mediators have met the conditions of variable
assignments mediators byTabachnick& Fidell [16], Thus HA1 of 'The data used in this study have
significant reasonable accommodation for the proposed model accepted. Complete analysis can be
referred to Figure 1, Table 1 and Figure 2, Table 2 below:
Figure 1: the North Zone.
Table 1: Goodness of Fit Measurement Model (GFI) of respondents to the north.

Bil
1
2
3
4
5
measurement model
(GFI)
CMINDF <3.00
RMSEA <0.08
GFI > 0.80
AGFI > 0.80
NFI > 0.80
Coefficient /
Index
1.5353
0.037
0.996
0.962
0.993
Figure 2: East Zone Model.
.50
WoCTVET 2014 | 484
Table 2: Goodness of Fit Measurement Model (GFI) of respondents to the East zone.
Bil
1
2
3
4
5
measurement model
(GFI)
CMINDF <3.00
RMSEA <0.08
GFI > 0.80
AGFI > 0.80
NFI > 0.80
Coefficient /
Index
1.000
0.097
0.001
1.000
0.998
The test results the structure equation modeling (SEM) of the respondents in the northern zone
indicates the size of the chi-square/df=1.553 (the minimum value is below 3), Root Mean Square
Error Approximation (RMSEA) =0.037 (the minimum value is less than 0:08), Goodness of Fit
Index (GFI)=0.996 (value approaching 1 is better), and a measure of Adjusted Goodness of Fit
Index (AGFI)=0962 (value above 0.9 is good). All types of assessments used measurements show
that the data used in this study proved to have reasonable adjustments for the proposed model.
Next, path analysis test results structural equation model (SEM) of the respondents in the
eastern zone indicates the size chi-square/df=0.097 (the minimum value is below 3), Root Mean
Square Error Approximation (RMSEA)=0.001 (the minimum value is less of 0.08),
GoodnessofFitIndex(GFI)=1.000(value approaching 1 is better), and a measure of Adjusted
Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI)=0.998 (values above 0.9 is good). All types of assessments used
measurements show that the data used in this study have proven to have reasonable
adjustments to the model proposed [1],[5].
Based on Figure 1 (northern zone), the results of structural equation modeling path analysis
(SEM) show that the proposed regression model is appropriate, where the only variable was the
teacher teaching a significant predictor variables for active learning variables (Teaching: =0:37,
CR=4:33, p=0.001). The findings also show variable analysis of active learning and teaching is a
significant predictor variable for creative teaching variables (CTV) (Active Learning: =0.44,
CR=7.13, p=0.001; Teaching: =0.23, CR=3.66, p=0001). Overall, the results of structural
equation modeling path analysis (SEM) showed that the variance in creative teaching
endogenous variables predicted by variables involved exogenous was 0.33. It shows that 33% of
the variance in creative teaching are as predicted by all independent variables of the study [2].
Thus meaning that 0.67 or 67% of the variance are in self-directed learning variables that cannot
be predicted by the regression model [6].
Meanwhile, based on Figure 2 (out of town), the results of structural equation modeling path
analysis (SEM) show that the proposed regression model is also ideal, in which the only variable
was the teacher's guidance is a significant predictor variables for active learning variables
(Guidance: =0:22, CR=2.64, p=0.008). The findings also show variable analysis of active
learning and teaching is a significant predictor variable for creative teaching variables (PTK)
(Active Learning: =0:49, CR=8.82, p=0.001; Teaching: =0:32, CR=5.72, p=0001). Overall, the
results of structural equation modeling path analysis (SEM) showed that the variance in the
endogenous variables creative teaching (CLA) predicted by variables involved exogenous is 0.42.
Then show that 42% of the variance in creative teaching predicted by all independent variables
of the study [2]. Thus meaning there 0:58 or 58% of the variance in creative teaching variables
that cannot be predicted by the regression model. So, just like the model in the north before, this
variance may be caused by other external factors that are not identified by this study. Thus Ha2
of 'There is a significant difference variables influence learning, guidance, and active learning
based on creative teaching locations received.
WoCTVET 2014 | 485
8. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

This study shows clearly that there are different variables that influence students' active
learning in northern and rural zones. In the northern zone, the teacher variables influencing
students' active learning significantly. But in the eastern coastal zone, the variable was teacherstudent active in the learning process significantly.
The findings support past findings by Starko[15], and Mohammad, Yasin, & Rahman [10], who
found that there are different variables that influence creative teaching students. However, the
same variables that influence creative teaching either in the northern or eastern zones are of
active learning and teaching.However, there are some similarities between the models in the
northern zone of the eastern zone. The first equation is a moderately strong correlation between
the variables of teaching and teacher guidance. This finding tells us that the importance of
integrated aspect of teaching in the classroom to teacher guidance aspect out of the classroom
for students to activate and drive the creative teaching[15].
The next equation variables of active student learning and teaching are two variables that
significantly influence the creative teaching[16]. Then it explain that in addition to carrying out
active learning in the classroom, the teaching in the classroom teacher is so critical also given
emphasis in the school so that teachers can effectively implement creative teaching [15],[17].
Such as, it can be concluded that the aspect of teaching in the classroom and also in terms of
guidance outside the classroom[14], the teacher must give attention to active learning to
improve students learning. This is important because just by implementing active learning in
the classroom, it will be a catalyst for KH teacher's ability to implement creative teaching
effectively. Element in creative teaching can be a very significant impact on the success of an
RBT KH teachers who teach in the classroom.
9. RECOMMENDATIONS
The findings from this study indicate that as a teacher to teach three domains (moral reasoning,
moral sense, moral behavior), teachers are faced with a relatively complex challenges in the
provision of teaching and learning activities. Attention should be given to activities that will help
increase student responsibility in their learning. Teachers should also help students by
providing guidelines on how they work in groups or carry out collaborative activities. Teachers
provide opportunities for communication that will have an impact on students in terms of
sharing ideas, implement activities and reach a consensus. Level of active student participation
also depends on the amount of time and depth in student participation during the teaching and
learning process.
Here are some common techniques to provide an opportunity for students to be actively
involved in their learning, namely:a) Think-pair-share is a simple activity that can be used in
class. Give students time to think about a topic, ask them to talk to friends on the side and then
share the results of the discussions we had with the whole class; b) Minute Papers provide an
opportunity for students to synthesize their knowledge and ask questions on issues that are not
answered. Give students a few minutes to answer the following questions in writing or orally:
What is the most important thing you learned today? What you do not understand? Vary these
questions and student responses will reinforce their learning process and give you feedback /
feedback on student understanding; c) Brainstorming is another simple technique that involves
WoCTVET 2014 | 486
the entire class in a discussion. Introduce what needs to be learned and ask for input from your
students will post on blackboard, d) Game of teaching and learning to promote active learning
and student engagement. Match shape game, contests, board games, solve puzzles, etc. may be
used: e) Working group allows each team member to speak, share ideas and develop skills to
work with others to accomplish a task; f) cooperative group work requires all members of the
group work together to accomplish a given task; g) Debate in the classroom is an effective tool
that can encourage students to wonder diverse perspectives an issue; h) using a case study that
describes the true story of what is happening in the community, family, school or individual will
encourage students to integrate the knowledge gained in the classroom with the knowledge of
life true, the action and the consequences of an action
REFERENCES
1. Brown, T.A. (2006) Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research. New York:The
Guilford Press
2. Byrne,B.M.(2010) Modeling
with
AMOS:
Basic
ProgrammingSecond Edition. Routledge: New York
Concepts,Application
and
3. Flavell, J.H. Cognitive development: Children's knowledge about the mind.(1999) Annual
Review Of Psychology, 50, pp. 21-45.
4. Flavell, J.H., Green, F.L., Flavell, E.R.Development of Children's Awareness of Their Own
Thoughts (2000) Journal of Cognition and Development, 1 (1), pp. 97-112.
5. Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E., Tatham,R.L.(2010) Multivariate Data
Analysis. (7th edn). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education
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A Survey of Work Process-Based Learning (WPBL) in Malaysian

Vocational Colleges
Tuan Aidil Khairuddin bin Tuan Abdullah1, Mohd. Noor bin Hashim2,
Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia.
1aidilazhar@hotmail.com, 2 mohdnoor@uthm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
One of the goals of the vocational education and training provision in Malaysia is to create
comprehensive employability skills that are the ability to work autonomously. A combination of
learning within the real work place learning experiences and college-based learning is the best
way of developing the professional, methodological and social competence required to achieve
this. This descriptive institutional survey seek to conducted extensive focus groups opinion
survey interviews to survey their opinions on the existence of Work Process Based Learning
(WPBL) in the new VCs curriculum of the `Kurikulum Standard Kolej Vokasional (KSKV) and
also to propose the possible solution for the stakeholders of VCs to narrow down the gaps
between what being perceived by the industries and the providers. The researcher planned to
observe the teaching and learning practices in Vocational Colleges systematically selected
according to the Construction Technology trades from the perspectives of the WPBL criteria. The
population of this study shall be targeting program administrators, teachers and trainees to
identify good practices and key challenges, covering the entire trade. The concept of WPBL
according to this paper assumed that WPBL is an approach that combined theoretical knowledge
and existing practices with experience based on generic routine work process and schedules
applicable in wide job prescription. For example, learning processes in the workplace conducted
through the ability to mine out information from handouts, work planning, internet, videos,
manuals, problem solving with team members, facing work challenges, expert advice, training
with equipment, experience, avoiding repetitive or routine work, management support. As the
outcome of this study, this paper hoped to look into how the actual levels of WPBL
implementation being carried in the KSKV program and finally proceed to make
recommendations to the TVED of the Ministry of Education to improve the implementation of
WPBL in the delivery where ever possible.
Keywords: Work Process-Based Learning, Malaysia Vocational Colleges, Technical and Vocational
Education and Training (TVET)
1. INTRODUCTION
Malaysia currently is progressing fast through the final six years to transform from a developing
to become a nation with successful developed economy as being targeted by the Vision 2020.
This ambitious national strategic plan was formally visualised by Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohammad,
the fourth Prime Minister of Malaysia. Part of the vision is to enhance the provision of Technical
and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) across all sectors, in particular the secondary
schools sector. Special emphasises were given the quality of delivery of secondary schools
sector through initiatives such as more industry-based and employer participation in syllabus
and curriculum construction, a increasing the number of seats offered for vocational
alternatives and to improve students pathway options for post-15 level. On the part of the
teachers, the government is also expanding the opportunities for continuous professional
WoCTVET 2014
development to inculcate the culture of continuous learning and improvement among vocational
teachers to attain world-class teaching standards. There are still many issues and challenges that
needed to be overcome in TVET towards achieving Vision 2020 and the Malaysian Education
Blueprint (PPM) 2013-2025. Currently, perhaps one of the main challenges are to produce
adequate and quality human capital, to meet the targeted manpower needs in the technical and
vocational sector of 1.6 million workers by year 2020 [1]. For example, if the system fails to
produce competent trainees, that alone would jeopardise the smooth transition to their
respective employment market. This kind of job mismatch situation if happened is often caused
by the weaknesses of curriculum that did not narrow down into actual industry requirements
[2]. In Malaysia, the discrepancy between curriculum delivery and workplace actual needs are
the main causes of mismatches for new graduates[3]. According to the Graduate Employability
Blueprint 2015-2017 (Ministry of Education, 2012), amongst the reasons why employers did not
employ graduates was that 30.2 per cent of graduates were mismatched in terms of skills while
23.8 per cent were mismatched in terms of knowledge skills.One of the reasons for the mismatch
between the supply and demand of labour is the lack of employment readiness amongst graduates. The
curriculum in technical schools and polytechnics lack the perspective of the industry and awareness of
the current state of the industry, this has adversely affected the quality of skills in trainees [4].
Therefore, it is the recommendation of the International Labour Organisation [5] that the government
addresses the mismatch issue and revamp the current structure.
The statistics from the Department of Statistics, Malaysia , proved that providers-industries
mismatch clearly gives rise to issues of unemployment [6]. Unequal supply and demand of
manpower contributes to high unemployment rates, especially after their first year of
graduating [7]. According to the newest report from the Department of Statistics, Malaysia [8] in
November 2013, the unemployment rate was 3.5 percent. The November 2013 statistics showed
that 484,600 citizens of Malaysia were unemployed while there were 6.234 million foreign
labourers working in this country in the same year.
There are 20 public universities and 60 private learning institutions in the country and 180,000
graduate trainees with diplomas and bachelors degrees as stated by the Prime Minister in his
budget speech on 28 September 2012 [4]. In May of the same year, the Deputy Minister of
Human Resources, Datuk Maznah Mazlan, informed Parliament that 76,200 graduates were
unemployed [9]. Her attempt to draw focus onto the real issue failed to gain media coverage. In
general, the perception was that unemployment existed because there were no jobs on offer
[10].
The problem of unemployment requires policy makers to overcome the causes such as the
mismatch between skills and jobs. Change in technology is one of the contributing factors to the
existence of this mismatch. Such changes rendered certain skill obsolete and to acquire new
skills would require high costs and give rise to other issues related to adapting to new
technology or new work processes [11]. At the same time the fast rate at which technology
changed has immediate impact on work practices within the industry necessitating the
development of new job profiles while the qualifications of new employees were narrowed
down [12]. Education today is too exam driven, leading to the phenomenon of over-educated
graduates who were less skilled and less able to adapt themselves within the industry, and jobs
offered to them are not up to their level of qualification [13]. The rationale behind this study is
that TVET must prepare trainees with adequate training to become competent for the job
market (Buzzell, 1993). To achieve success in TVET, we must refer to other countries that have
had such success in making a positive impact in the preparation of manpower. This study refers
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to the success of Germany, specifically the ideas of Georg Spttll [14] on Work Process Based
Learning (WPBL) at the workplace.
Therefore, to overcome the previously discussed issues, this study planned to conducted
extensive focus groups and interviews to survey their opinions on the existence of Work Process
Based Learning (WPBL) in the new VCs curriculum of the `Kurikulum Standard KolejVokasional
(KSKV) and also to propose the possible solution for the stakeholders of VCs to narrow down
the gaps between what being perceived by the industries and the providers.
The question of now that I am qualified, but I have no skills shows why secondary school
leavers who are looking for work needs to undergo further training for 2 to 3 years in order to
attain sufficient skills for the vocational sector [15]. The success of having the vocational
industry training module from the Ministry of Human Resource accepted into the academic
education system of the Ministry of Education as stated in the Technical and Vocational
Education Transformation Plan [16] has shown the researcher that the advantages and
strengths of WBPL could also be integrated into the VC school system.
TVET enables trainees to learn how to do a job within a set of standards determined by a subject
matter expert. The main product of vocational education is skill and the measure of skill level is
based on competency [17]. The implementation of the Malaysian Technical and Vocational
Education Strategic Transformation Plan showed that a large part of vocational learning and
evaluation was based on competencies. The concept of competency has, for the past decade,
attracted the interest of vocational education worldwide [18]. Reference [18] defined
competency as the ability to show and use knowledge, skill and attitude in an integrated
manner in ones profession. This is a critical factor, competency should mean the capability to
make the best decision in a real situation and not simply checking and ticking off check boxes on
a job specific competency list [17]. Most importantly, competency must be relevant and in line
with current developments (ibid).
The researcher believes that formal qualifications are needed as a benchmark of competency
standards and a guarantee of quality education; however under other circumstances
qualifications could be misconstrued. Reference [19] wrote : what the trainee knows,
understands and is able to do is more important than how and where the ability is formed. This
means that workplace learning should also be practiced in class to acquire the same impact with
regards to skill. The command of skills amongst school trainees could be linked to the issue of
trainees failing to adapt the class based earning to the workplace based learning. In other words,
VC trainees must practice the form of workplace learning in class such that would allow greater
command of the skills. This process of learning is referred to as work process-based learning
(WPBL). Therefore, WBPL could be carried out in the school environment such as VC.
This study focuses on VC as VC trainees are lower secondary trainees aged between 16 and 19
years. Lower secondary trainees are the target group for this study as the highest percentage of
unemployed citizens are made up of the lower secondary educated demographic.
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Table 1: Table of Statistics percentage of unemployed according to education level for the years
2001-2010
Source: Malaysian Department of Statistics, June 2011, Indicators of the Labour Market 2001-2010
Table 1 as above shows that the secondary school leavers are the main contributors to the
increasing unemployment statistics. Secondary schools leavers alone, made up between 60.1
percent and 68.1 percent of the jobless young person for the duration between 2001 and 2010.
This evidence that secondary education sector plays an important role in overcoming the young
man unemployment issue. TVET, especially at secondary level, needs a change of process which
requires a curriculum and teaching methods suitable to the countrys social changes, met the
needs of the employment market and considered the social dynamics of technology dependent
industries [20]. Reference [21] stated that secondary education plays an important role in
determining a trainees job status in the future and the use of labour. Therefore, this study
narrows into VC as VC are involved in secondary education. Thus, the role of the VC is central
and has a direction capacity to change this unwanted scenario.
3. STUDY OF LITERATURE
3.1 Work Process Based Learning (WPBL)
Wilfred Kruse in 1986, defined the Work Process Knowledge or knowledge of work process
as Arbeitsponzesswissen, a definition which in German Language had two meanings [22]. The
first was the knowledge of process by a worker and the second knowledge of work process.
Both definitions are frequently used in recent studies. Kruze referred to the definitions as the
experience that enabled the worker to fulfil the training needs and job duties in order to support
current needs and society related to the job duties. Reference [22] emphasised that the concept
of Arbeitsponzesswissen could increase the understanding of job duties for a worker on an
individual basis, and freely control the consciousness of a department in an organisation
carrying out its activities. The concept of knowledge work process arose as at that time the
industry was facing issues. One of which was technology change which was occurring at a very
fast pace that had immediate impact to work practices in the industry thus requiring the
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formulation of new job profiles while the qualifications of new workers became more narrow as
in a Taylors model of organisation [23]
In the context of modernising the industry and as an alternative to the Taylors model of
organisation that was very dependent on the worker having multiple skills, good self
management and the ability to work under a variety of situations [12], a new approach towards
vocational education and training based on knowledge understanding of a skilled worker
needed to be established.
The term Work Process Based Learning (WPBL) was first introduce as early as in 1980s, where
many researchers from Technical and Vocational Institute of Universitat Bremen Germany the
coordinated together to become a frontrunner in the basic development of Vocational Education
and Training based on knowledge work process [15].. The work process approach had a very
different effect compared to the traditional approach practices in Germany. The result after the
restructuring of job training in 1987 was that the rate of barter in iron substances was reduced
from 37 to 6. This was a great achievement in the history of vocational education and training
that had evolved from the Taylors training concept which provided concise operational training
for detailed jobs to a training concept that allowed for the reshaping of the working world [23].
The use of knowledge work process is an important element in the paradigm shift of vocational
education and training that was acknowledged as spurring the development of a new education
curriculum and vocational training [15].
The success of Germanys TVET was in line with the Malaysian Technical and Vocational
Education Strategic Transformation Plan where the excellence in vocational training produced
by the transformation initiative was formed from the educational element guided by the
National Education Philosophy:
Education in Malaysia is a continuous effort towards enhancing potentials of individuals in a
holistic and integrated manner in order to create individuals who are well-equipped intellectually,
spiritually and emotionally. This effort aims to produce knowledgeable, ethical and responsible
Malaysian citizens who are can contribute towards the harmony and prosperity of the community
and nation.
The vocational education for the post 16 years in Malaysia aspires to achieve excellent human
capital through instilling good values, aspiration values, fostering of positive attitudes, and
mastery of knowledge and sharpening of skills. Excellent human capital, the product of the
vocational educational model, brought with it the love for lifelong learning and the desire to
continue learning and training.
The Ministry of Education (MOE) through the Technical and Vocational Division (TVED) is
persistent to t fulfilled the needs the right human capital for the industry, society and nation in
accordance to the National Education Policy. The vision of TVED is to produce human capital as
acknowledged in the Cabinet Committee Report on Review of Implementation of Education
Policies (1974):
In the interest of the nations development, the people resources needed cannot only be looked at
from the perspective of number of knowledge and skills, but also from the perspective of accepted
disciplinary values. In respect of attitudes, they must be honest and dedicated to their work. Not
only must they be efficient, whether individually or collectively, guided by noble values. Ultimately,
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an individual who is the product of the countrys education system must be aligned with the
purpose of humanities development.
If WPBL is widely implemented in VCs, graduates can seamlessly articulated to outstanding
careers of their trades without any form of queries from employers. This is because WPBL
enabled working know ledges and craftsmanship skills being imparted and at the same time
continue to raise and meet the ongoing requirements of the industry, business and society.
A study by reference [14], WPBL is an approach that combined theoretical knowledge and
existing practices with experience based on routine duties in the context of the daily job. For
example, according to the study conducted earlier among micro industries in Ireland showed
that of the forms of learning through WPBL process in the workplace are mainly conducted
through [14]:
1. Handouts;
2. Work planning;
3. Internet
4. Videos;
5. Manuals;
6. Problem solving with team members;
7. Facing work challenges;
8. Expert advice;
9. Training with equipment;
10. Experience;
11. Avoiding repetitive or routine work;
12. Management support
Benefits that could be attained by trainees in the implementation of WPBL include:

1. The trainee is able to master skills and competency required and achieve employability
through WPBL;
2. The trainee is able to master skills faster because learning takes place on work premises
in VC without having to be at the actual workplace;
3. The trainee is able to master the latest technological skills in the market without
incurring high costs and without having the said technology at the VC;
4. Learning through work process could be done informally and is a lifelong learning skill;
5. Problem solving at the workplace take place on a daily basis;
6. Organisational change and innovation requires self adaptation;
7. Systematic change in facing work burdens;
8. Raises the quality of work that benefits the trainee and prospective employers;
9. Maintains the work performance.
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An excellent example of the German model of WBPL also emphasises the aspect of learning at
the workplace as a strategy to improve competency of prospective employees. The combination
of knowledge and experience in prospective employees will enable them to act fast and be more
flexible to meet business requirements [24]. A workers competency is an absolute advantage
that could maintain the competitiveness of an organisation, specifically firm-specific competency
that is very difficult to be duplicated by its competitors [25].
3.2 Workplace Learning Versus In-Class Learning
Actually, Workplace learning has been discussed numerous times by vocational educators.
Livingstone (1999) stated that functional learning has shown more positive and clear results
when the learning took place at the workplace [26]. Reference [14] stated that a study
conducted by Bchter, Christe, and Jankofsky (1998) in Germany on small industry owners
showed that 43 percent of learning occurred at the workplace as compared to 22 percent
through seminars, 14.9 percent through adaptation of advanced skills training, 13.7 percent
through advanced training, and 8.8 percent through advanced training during leisure time.
Workplace learning is an integration of learning and working. Workplace learning is a process
practiced where an individual and a group obtains, interprets, identified, solidifies or assimilated
a cluster of information, skills and emotions to formulate learning [28]. Learning is a complex
process. We continuously learn something new in the process of conducting our jobs. This
learning is used as a spur to improve learning in vocational education classes.
Reference [29] and [30] also defined formal learning such as in-class vocational education as
learning that is structured, sponsored by an institution, traditionally in a lecture room, with a
syllabus planned by the teaching resource and implemented and evaluated. In-class learning is
the easiest to organise compared to workplace learning. An organisation would conduct training
needs analysis to identify training needs for prospective employees in accordance with the
organisations requirements. In-class learning usually emphasised core knowledge.
Competent vocational skill is the product of the dynamic interaction between in-class learning
and workplace learning. They are of the opinion that in-class learning would usually influence
workplace learning and consequently encourage more active participation and continuity in
learning activities. Both methods of learning complement each other and spur each other
towards improvement and more sophisticated innovation.
Prospective VCs graduates must always update themselves with the skill and knowledge needed
to maintain their competency at a high level to assist in preserving an organisations
competitiveness. They must always identify the source of knowledge and skill and manage them
as best as possible as a tool to maintain high competency. The gap between in-class learning and
workplace learning should be reduced to ensure continuity of learning from one to the next.
Life long learning or self continuous knowledge engagements can be achieved through in-class
work process-based learning. Work process-based learning makes it possible for knowledge
content and skill furnished to the trainee to be constantly raised and standardised to meet new
needs and requirements of the industry, business and society.
In the context of modernising the industry and as an alternative to an organisational system that
is highly dependent on employees having a multitude of skills, good self management and the
ability to work under various circumstances, effective teaching in TVET based on the process of
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knowledge understanding by actual skilled employees need to be in place [12]. Effective

teaching refers to actions needed to be taken as a TVET educator to raise the bar of achievement
and add value to the treatment of trainees. Reference [31] states that to heighten the effect in
teaching and training, consideration should be made to use various teaching techniques
appropriate to each trainees place of learning. TVET education that is precise and positive
provides a learning method for trainees needing help in the curriculum.
3.3 Vocational College Curriculum
The governments effort in developing human capital in Malaysia has been realised through
another programme which saw the upgrading of vocational secondary schools to Vocational
Colleges (VC). Courses offered at the VC are courses in the Malaysian Skill Certificate (MSC).
Trainees at the VC may obtain their MSC up till level 3 if they are successful in delivering the
assignments given in every level. Other than the courses opted for, the trainees also receive
instruction in other academic subjects such as Bahasa Melayu, Mathematics, English, Islamic
Education, Moral and History.
The existence of the vocational colleges has two pronged strategies, firstly to furnish trainees
with skills, and secondly to addressed the issue of trainees that are left behind academically.
Effectively, this means that trainees selected to attend vocational colleges are those who
obtained low grades in the PMR exams. Their acceptance into these vocational colleges provides
them the opportunity to learn a skill and improves their prospects to compete in the working
world down the line.
There are three programmes offered in VCs as follows:
1. Malaysian Vocational Diploma
2. Skill Training Programme
3. Apprenticeship Programme or SLDN Mode
The effort to improve the delivery of the national vocational education and training system
began in 2013. The transformation initiatives emphasised on the actual capacity of human
capital trained in work places in the industry or the technical practical exercises resulting in
reduced academic composition. The curriculum referred to the National Occupational Skills
Standard (NOSS), MSC and other forms of certifications recognised by the industry. Vocational
education and training indeed plays an important role in paving the way towards producing
skilled human capital and further contribute to the generation of wealth for the nation. For that,
the quality of its curriculum needed to be raised and adapted according to industry needs.
The structure of vocational education provision of VCs is divided into two semester system of
four years duration. The programs prepare their trainees for the award of the Diploma
Vokasional Malaysia (DVM), the new version of skills competency certificate equivalent to the
Sijil Kemahiran Malaysia (SKM). The nature of the program took them to undergo On Job
Training, Production Based Learning, School Enterprise and co-curricular aspects to produce a
group of highly skilled and talented craftsmens ready to serve as out of the box graduates for
their respective employers of their trades. The recognition of the Diploma and Certificate is
given by MQA, JPK, JPA, the industry or other internationally authorised bodies such as City &
Guild, TWO (London) and LCCI if conditions are met. If an engineer in this country could obtain
professional recognition from the Malaysian Engineering Board, then similarly, graduates of the
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Vocational College who is granted the Diploma could obtain professional recognition from the
Malaysian Board of Technology (MBOT). The MBOT shall be responsible for giving recognition to
Technologists and Certified Technicians.
VCs departed from the traditional `term system of their vocational secondary schooling system
to the new `semester system equivalent to other local vocational training institutions
spearheaded by the Ministry of Human Resources (MOHR) that took four years or comprising
eight semesters for graduation. One year is divided into two long semesters and one short
semester. A semester comprised 16 weeks whereas a short semester had four weeks allocated to
it. Short semesters are used to conduct practical training, entrepreneurship, production based
education, traineeship and other modules according to needs. Each lesson period is one hour
long as opposed to 30 to 40 minutes as practices in the daily school system. The trainee would
take four years of study, whereby the first two years are the pre-diploma stage and the third and
fourth years are the Diploma stage. A trainee needs to achieve at least a CGPA of 2.5 to qualify to
the Diploma level. Otherwise, they would only receive a Malaysian Skill Certificate level 3. The
Skill Training Programme on the other hand consists of two to three years of study.
Perhaps one of the criticism of the current system in VCs, is the composition of vocational pre
employment experiences in VCs which is made up of four years or 32 months are spent on in
campus `in-class learning as compared to only three months only spent on actual workplace
`On Job Training (OJT). As previously discussed, the importance of workplace learning, the short
period of on job industry training is insufficient to gain maximum benefits from workplace
learning. Therefore, activities that are similar to workplace training should be practiced in-class
to that the inpact of workplace learning could also be achieved from in-class learning through
the understanding of the work process-based learning.
3.4 Learning Methods in Preparation of Workforce Education Class
Perhaps the critical success factor of the VCs vocational curriculum was in line with the
recommendations of Integrated System for Workforce Education Curricula (ISWEC) pioneered by
Walter H. Edling and Ruth M. Loring [32]. Against the backdrop of the capability and willingness
to work of Malaysias human resources, the path looks set to an improved situation as envisaged
in the Malaysian Technical and Vocational Education Strategic Transformation Plan [1].
However, the reality was that there still existed many differences in opinion over what a how
work force preparation education should be implemented within the normal school academic
system. Both employers and academicians are of the same opinion that experience based
education needed to be made a main component of and education syllabus geared towards
preparation of work force.
In fact, the Cabinet Committee Report 1979 strengthened the said component by expanding
TVET through the restructuring of the Vocational School curriculum in 1978 [13]. The
governments justification was one strategy to fulfil the manpower needs for a developed nation
(Cabinet Committee Report, 1979 and the Malaysian Education Development Plan 2012).
The governments awareness of the importance of including the component to address work
force preparation education in the daily academic curriculum could be seen from the extended
time allocated for subjects that catered for work force preparation such as Integrated Living
Skills (Kemahiran Hidup Bersepadu- KHB), Technology and Vocational Education (Pendidikan
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Teknologi dan Vokasional PTV) and Basic Vocational Education (Pendidikan Asas Vokasional PAV).
The reasonableness of incorporating the element of preparation of work force into the daily
school academic system and vocational college is easy to understand and accept. However, the
awareness only extended as far as allocating more time for such subjects. There exists no study
or research addressing the form and quality of work force preparation education experience
suitable to be incorporated into the curriculum of the vocational college, specifically when
speaking of the quality of experience that needed to be furnished to trainees. For example, what
is the actual gain in terms of vocational competencies does the trainee take home from such an
education, and what is the correlation, if any, between what the trainee actually gains compared
with what the school expects the trainee to gain. This is the main issue that must be first
addressed before we can determine the actual experience and the period of experience vis-a-vis
work force preparation education that should be furnished to a trainee [33].
Although acceptance of the work force preparation education component in the secondary level
is growing, it is polemic within the teaching profession that questions the appropriateness of
continuing the existing implementation structure. Generally, they contend that the in-class
experience that the trainees are exposed to was still conservative, which served only to socialise
the trainee according to the existing patterns and practices of the school. If the trend were to
continue, educational sociologists and economists agree that the existing curriculum only served
to widen the gap between working life and school [34] [35]. If the trend goes unchecked, it
would inevitably widen the gap even further vis-a-vis the conflict between benefit and criticism
of work force preparation education in schools [36].
4. OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
The researcher wish to conduct a study to investigate the existence of WPBL approaches in one
of the randomly equivalent DVM courses in the Ministry of Educations Vocational College. If the
answer found to be positive, the next question of this study shall proceed further to look into
how the actual levels of WPBL implementation being carried in the program. Finally, upon
answering these questions, the researcher seeks to recommend the TVED of the Ministry of
Education to improve the implementation of WPBL where ever possible. This study is part of
the soft landing process of work process-based learning in Vocational Colleges.
Hence the objectives of this study are as the following:
1. To identify the existence of WPBL practices in teaching at Vocational Colleges in a
specific stream.
2. To study the level of practice of WPBL in VC.
3. To compare the levels of practice of WPBL between the subjects in a specific stream.
4. To compare the levels of practice of WPBL between different streams in VC.
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5. IMPORTANCE OF STUDY
This study on WPBL is to be conducted in the VCs of the Ministry of Educatio. The researcher
seeks to determine the existence of WPBL from the perspectives of the level implementation.
The researcher hoped that the findings of this study would encourage the stakeholder to take
the next course of action to raise the quality of TVET provision through enhancing WPBL across
the entire curriculum. The deliverables of this study would be recommendations on how the
soft landing process for VC to apply WPBL within the school environment. The implementation
of the new VC curriculum was still new that is from two year ago after having gone through the
pioneer study at several VC countrywide since 2012. Therefore, VC required assistance by the
conduct of new and current research to obtain the expected results in accordance with the
objective of the VC. The robustness of the VC system could aid in overcoming previously
discussed issues.
5.1 Importance to Trainees
1. The trainee is able to master skills and competency required and achieve employability
through WPBL;
2. The trainee is able to master skills faster because learning takes place on work premises
in VC without having to be at the actual workplace;
3. The trainee is able to master the latest technological skills in the market without
incurring high costs and without having the said technology at the VC;
4. Learning through work process could be done informally and is a lifelong learning skill.
6. INSTRUMENTATION
This paper proposes a descriptive institutional survey to conduct an opinion survey focus on the
existence of WPBL approaches in the delivery of the KSKV curriculum materials in Construction
Technology course in the selected Vocational Colleges. Colleges Vocational Training Managers
(VTM), executives (VTE) and instructors (VTO) shall be purposely selected to be interviewed
face-to-face using WPBL checklist as reference and questionnaire.
7. CONCLUSION
As a concluding remark, the researcher expects to find the existence of WPBL and the level of its
practice in Vocational Colleges. The result of this study can aid in the soft landing practice of
WPBL in Vocational Colleges. It could also aid to recommend steps to raise the levels WPBL
practice. Looking at the scenario and achievement of the work force preparation education in
Europe, it would be sensible to emulate them to move towards work process-based learning.
Competent vocational skill is the product of the dynamic interaction between in-class learning
and workplace learning. They are of the opinion that in-class learning would usually influence
workplace learning and consequently encourage more active participation and continuity in
learning activities. Both methods of learning complement each other and spur each other
towards improvement and more sophisticated innovation.
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Prospective employees must always update themselves with the skill and knowledge needed to
maintain their competency at a high level to assist in preserving an organisations
competitiveness. Prospective employees must always identify the source of knowledge and skill
and manage them as best as possible as a tool to maintain high competency. The gap between inclass learning and workplace learning should be reduced to ensure continuity of learning from
one to the next.
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Subject Didatic Competence of VTE from the Perspective of Studies

on Teacher Thinking
Zheng Jianping *, Li Tongji
The Institute for Vocational Education at The Tongji University Shanghai, VR China
zhengji@tongjiedu.cn
ABSTRACT
To identify the nature and structure of domain specific teacher competenceand to find a way of
its development and improvementis the key challenge in the vocational Education reform and
development in China nowadays
This article reviewed first insights in the research on teacher thinking in order to clarifythe
conceptualization of VTE teachers didactical competence. Leading research in mathematical
teacher studies and another study on VTE teachers are reviewed too. This theoretical and
empirical reviewsupports the conclusion that to describe teachers subject matter related
knowledge is a very important way to define VTE teachers subject specific didactic
competence.Research results about the conceptions on good teaching practice of VTE teachers in
Shanghai and didactical thinking of teacher students in Shanghai are reported.Finally, the
researchideas thatfocus on VTE teachers subject specific didactic competence are discussed.
Keywords: Specific Didactic Competence; Research on Teacher Thinking; Teacher Knowledge
1. BACKGROUND
The subject specific didactical competence is the keyword in the vocational Education reform
and development in China. Since 2003 the Ministry of Education of China (MoE) organizesthe
program of enhancingteachers quality, one of the targets is to define the domain specific teacher
competence and to find a way of its development and improvement. What is its nature and
structure? The modeling of teacher competence is a core theme in teacher research which
attracts the most research interest, thus the discussion on it and attempts of its modeling are not
seldom. However there is not so much empirical results as substantial supports except for the
mathematical teacher.
First, in order to understand the integrity and complexity of subject specific didactic competence
of teacher (abbreviated to SPDC), the most important insights from the study on teacher
thinking are selectivelysummarized. The conceptualization and methods of SPD Competence in
relevant research are then introduced. Thenthe report on two studies in Shanghai: one about the
didactical self-concept of VTE teachers and the didactical thinking of teacher students for
economy education. Based on all of these, the possible content focus and methods in the future
research is discussed.
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2. .IMPORTANT INSIGHTS FROM THE STUDY ON TEACHER THINKING

It is not necessary here to complete a resume for the research on teachers thinking. The
relevance lies inwhat this research means for the conceptualization of SPD Competence and its
development. Thereforethe leading research question and the popular used terms will be went
through for a better understanding of the complexity and integrity of the SPDC and its
connection to the knowledge.
Driven by the positivisms and behaviorisms the Paradigm Process-result for
effective
teaching ruled once the research on teacher and teaching. It was expected that the researchers
could find and explain the knowledge which can be formed as instruction package, the
teachers could get skills or strategies through training and in the end the students achievement
could be improved. But the fact is that this knowledge for teachers didnt achieved the effect as
expected (Li&Ni 2006, Pei&Liu 2011, Verloop et al., 2001. But this kind of professional
development route still hasimpact on the VTE teacher education in China.
This difficulty leaded to an important perspective change in the research on teacher and
teaching: teachers thinking became and stay as the new focus instead of teachers behavior.
Following were key questions: how does the thinking process looks like (Decision-making and
the information process) ?what is the practical knowledge base for their thinking (practical
knowledge, beliefs) ? what should they know for teaching (prescriptive Knowledge structure )
?In answering these questions researchers came naturally to the acquisition of teacher
knowledge. In this sense the research on teachers thinking is the study on their knowing and
knowledge.
The Study on the thinking process is the beginning. Stimulated by the cognitive psychology and
Information Process theory the Planning and Decision-making of teachers were studied, loud
thinking and Stimulus Recall were often used. The teaching expertise became in the late phase
the research focus, the distinguish between expert and novice reveals that expert teacher not
only know more but also know it in a different way: their knowledge are effectively organized in
forms such as Scripts, Schemata or Routines.
With the development of the Study on teachers thinking the practical knowledge of teachers
came into the public attention of researchers. Practical knowledge, personal practical
Knowledge were labeled mainly by Elbaz, Cannelly and Clandin etc. They tried to understand
what teachers practically know through their story telling, through their narrative report about
their experience and biography. Interpretation of individual experience takes the place of
prescriptive view. The reflection and reconstruct of teachers experience are seen as an
important possibility for their professional development. But Schn and Russel for example paid
their attention to their thinking in the action with the motto of reflective practitioner
Reflection in action. The difference between practical and formal knowledge were emphasized.
Teacher as practitioner must interpret and make decision with an inner uncertainty, there is a
continuous dialog between them and the situations whichare always changing. The most difficult
thing is to define the problem in the situation.
With Shulman as the leader there was another approachwhich focuses on the knowledge bases
of teaching. Shumans Structure Proposal and the concept of Pedagogy content knowledge had
great impact on the following discussion and research: content knowledge(CKsyntactic
knowledge), general pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK, teachers
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own special form of professional understanding, for instanceexplaination and representation of

content according to the learner), knowledge of learners and their characteristics, knowledge of
educational contexts, knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values. The concept of PCK
highlights the uniqueness and integrity of teachers profession. But the possible distinguish
between CK and PCK in practice is still a critical point. But there was also different voice. Based
on other critical arguments and her empirical studies Turer-Bisset claimed that PCK is not one
part of the teachers knowledge, but the overarched formulation for it, and it includes something
more besides the factors listed by Shulman: beliefs about the subject, beliefs about the teaching,
knowledge about self, and the knowledge about the learner is differentiate to empirical and
cognitive; the knowledge about the educational purpose is not so evident, and the general
pedagogy knowledge was difficult to grasp because of its context-dependence and tacit
character. So its here better to observe what teachers do than what the (can) say.
The actual discussion switched from the individual teachers to their interaction with their
surroundings. The working knowledge in teaching is described as ecological intelligence which
interacts with its surroundings consequently: knowledge exists not only in individual mentality,
but also comes from different systems: culture system, physical system, social system and
personal system; it comes into being in specific activity and practice and becomes available; all
participants and systems create together these knowledge in the activity.
The Research on teacher thinking until nowmaily focus on teachers knowledge, teachers
knowing and known, although not each approach explicate or mention it. The termknowledge
here doesnt mean generally accepted truth and includes not only cognitive results but also
emotion-affected beliefs. Verloop (2001) described therefore teacherknowledge as all
profession-related insights that are potentially relevant to the teachers activities,it is an
overarching, inclusive concept, summarizing a large variety of cognitions, from conscious and
well-balanced opinions to unconscious and unreflected intuitions. This is related to the fact that,
in the mind of the teacher, components of knowledge, beliefs, conceptions, and intuitions are
inextricably intertwined.(Verloop,2001,446). The Discussion about the nature of teacher
knowledge is even one topic in the relevant research.
Due to the difference in the research subject and interest there are many terms that were used
to label the researchers different understanding of the teacher knowledges nature or structure.
For example,personal knowledge emphasizes its individuality, beliefs means those emotional
principles, intuitive theories describe the instinctive nature of teacher knowledge
whichwasnot scientifically examined. Practical knowledge and Practical wisdom pay more
attention on the aspect that it wasacquired through practical experience. Implicit theory
pointed out the unawareness of the teachers about their own knowledge sometimes.
Knowledge about the context and situation is clearly about the context.
The Research on teachers thinking and knowing reveals the integrity and complexityof teachers
knowledge. It ispersonal, based on (reflection on) experience in a social interaction, mainly tacit,
contextual, guides teaching practice, and content-related (domain specific). The knowledge
difference between teachers lies not only in its amount but also in its structure and accessibility.
Therefore, teachers become the centrality: no longer the passive knowledge consumer but also
constructor of knowledge. The knowledge base for teaching has not only common part but also
individual construct. Teachers knowledge arises from many origins: practical experience and
schooling (preparation study and training). The context and surroundings has great impact on
the professional development of teachers. The connection of theory and practice in the teacher
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education is re-examined too. There are many theoretical propositions in teachers knowledge
that needs to be adapted to the specific situation. How is this propositional knowledge
connected to teachers knowledge? How are they integrated so that it can really work as
knowledge base for teaching? That is all problems that need to be deepened.
Those insights are of great importance for teacher education and professional development.
the most challenging question with respect to teachers professionalism is no longer how we can
best provide teachers with insights developed elsewhere, but how the process of dialogue with
the situation takes place in teaching context, which insights are developed in this context , and
how these insights relate to insights form other sources. (Verloop 2001) especially to find out
how that dialog with the situation in domain specific field looks like, namely their practical
knowledge. It is stillan actual challenge in the research on teacher thinking.
3. MODELING AND REVEALING OF SUBJECT SPECIFIC DIDACTIC
COMPETENCE IN SELECTED RESEARCH
Competence as an often-used concept not only in the science community but also in the daily life
is yet seldom mentioned in the research on teacher thinking. Instead of that there is expression
like know-how. And the concept of competence is different interpreted by different users, to
explain that a new article is needed. The main difference lies in authors view in the width of the
interpretation.
The most accepted interpretation nowadays are from Weinert (2001) who investigated and
conceptualized it for the purpose of international student assessment. According to his
interpretation competence is the personal capacity to cope with specific situational demands,
which includes in broader sense the cognitional, motivational aspects, learnable and teachable.
What is the connection between competence and teachers knowledge? In authors view, the
expression of competence emphasizes more the performance side of knowledge. So the defining
of teachers SPD competence is actually in the end the description of teachers practical
knowledge. The competence development of teacher is the change of knowledge in amount and
also in structure.
What the research on teacher thinking studied is exactly how they think, knowledge base for the
thinking process in coping with the demands in the classroom teaching. So in this sense it
reveals from the aspect of content and nature what the teacher didactic competence looks like.
The description about the teacher (subject specific) didactical competence will finally lead to the
study on different kinds of knowledge base of teachers. The discussion on the structure, nature
and development of teachers knowledge is actually the discussion on that of teachers
competence. When teachers practical knowledge is defined as core of the teaching quality of
teaching (Benjaard&Verloop,1996), that is yet similar to (when not exactly) what the didactic
competence means.
A view on empirical research can support this viewpoint. Leading researches are mostly on
mathematics und science teacher. VTE teachers are seldom studied, when then mostly by
German researchers. Research topics are typically based on the knowledge structure of Shulman
and therefore about the CK and (part of) the PCK: the relationship between teachers subject
background and their didactical disposition, teachers understanding of specific subject matter,
about the nature of the subject, about the typical students errors, about the learning task. With
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respect to specific subject, how is the SPD Competence in research conceptualized and
methodologically revealed? There are three examples as following.
The COACTIVE Project on mathematic teacher defined the concept of Profession Competence of
teacher as the individual coping with demands in profession situation, based on the competence
concept of Weinert and Shulmans knowledge structure. It is divided into four dimensions:
beliefs/values/goals, motivational orientations, self-regulation and professional knowledge.
Under professional knowledge were CK,PCK,pedagogical and psychological knowledge(PPK),
organizational knowledge and consulting knowledge. The PCK again in three categories:
explanatory, knowledge of students mathematic thinking, knowledge of mathematic tasks
(Kunter et al. 2012)This structure let easily tracedback to different kind and structure of
teachers knowledge.
German Researcher Lindmeier (2013) distinguished extra the competence and the knowledge of
teacher. He described the teaching core requirement as: basic knowledge( including CK and PK
of Shulman), reflection competence and action competence (intuitive and direct action: response
to students words, instant explanation, provide pro- or contra- examples in a short time). For
the revealing of the action competence, teachers were asked to give their first reaction and
reason after watching a simulated video episode about a specific teaching situation. Actually this
is just similar to the intuitive part of teacher knowledge. He wanted to emphasis the observable
side of the knowledge, eventually performance of the competence.
German researcher Kuhn&Brueckener (2014) examined if economic teacher students or preteachers thought didactically. The core of economy teaching was defined as: transfer/analysis
and reasoning. Selling, Purchasing and macro-economy were selected as the main subject
matter. The didactical aspect was decision making and conflict management. Teachers were
asked to finish some described teaching tasks which are simulated teaching situations in form of
pencil and paper, and then were interviewed on their thinking process (so-called cognitive
interview). The study showed that there was thinking and knowledge difference between
different groups with different pedagogical and didactical education and practice backgrounds.
The validity of the test concept was verified. The definition of core teaching activity and the
selection of subject matter is illuminating.
4. REPORTS ON RESEARCHES IN SHANGHAI
4.1 Self-conception of VTE Teachers in Shanghai
In 2003 nineteen VTE teachers in business field from 7 vocational schools in Shanghai were
investigated through a half-structured interviewby Zheng (2007) The goal was to find out their
views and practice about successful teaching, in order to examine the acceptance of a planed
reform. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and analyzed with the content analysis
technique of Mayring. The results revealed mainly teachers beliefs about good teaching, selfconception, conceptions about the students, conception about the surroundings.
The investigation showed that to combine the practice and the theory was highly valued
didactical principle. But the personal interpretation differed,the most common understanding
was to illustrate the propositional theory or concept with examples from daily life or business
activity(Beliefs).Teachers talk ruled the class time mostly and the autonomous learning seldom
took place, learning tasks were not really cognitive challenging. That naturally leaded to
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unsatisfied effectiveness, most of interviewed teachers reported the feeling of failure and lower
teaching efficacy. Confusion and Disappointment were the key words in their reports (didactical
self cognition).The study confirmed the statement that beliefs, self-cognition and their
willingness to reform are relevant.
This pioneer study on VTE teachers thinking in Chinahad revealed mainly the one dimension of
SPD competence of business teacher due to the resource constraint and investigation
background. Interview took place often with a very short warming-up phase and under time
pressure, observation in the classroom wasnt possible, so the tacit part of teacher knowledge
couldnt be revealed. The subject or courses mentioned so widely spread that it was impossible
to find a content focus in order to find out the relative representations and knowledge about the
students preconception or typical errors.
4.2 Didactical thinking of teacher student
It was an embedded diagnose test on 22 teacher student of IBB in economy education subject by
Zheng and Gerdsmeier in 2011. The students planed in 4-er group a teaching episode for an
stimulated learner on a given economy concept, documented their planning process, provided
reasoning and acted it in role play before other groups in the class. The test showed:
CK: There was a obvious content difficulty which make the teaching plan especially challenging
for those teachers students. They didnt understand the inner connection between economy
phenomena. What they learned didnt changed their conception, their false pre-conception
stayed unchanged, although they knew the definition of the term.
Pedagogy Goals: they had an narrow understanding of goals in the teaching. Only a few of them
planned the episode with the goal to stimulate learning in the future. Some of them regarded the
teaching of this term to the given learner was meaningless.
Knowledge about the learner: they had already the sensibility to take the background of the
learner into consideration, specifically the learners understanding level. Personal experience
was activated and therefor their assumption about the learner according to the given role
character were different. Calculation Skill and awareness of cost were two typical imagined
character of the learner. But the assumption about the learner was still abstract, even empty and
was made too fast. There was no critical review from theoretical aspect.
Explanation and Representation: They tended to use examples as illustration, but they are
mostly mechanical didactical reduction. And they had difficulty to find alternative
representation concepts, when yes, the inner logic and form of them were mostly the same. One
of the reasons was that they couldnt make the correct diagnose of the understanding difficulty
of the learner. Their concepts had although two models: deduction or induction, yet they tended
to give the definition of the concept very early.
These results supports the description about novice teacher(Turner-Bisset, 1999). Due to the
evaluation task, there wasdifference with the dimension. Pedagogy goals became problematical
because of the different background of the given leaner not as a school-aged person. As a short
episode it was impossible to reveal the long term curriculum conception of teacher students. As
a embedded test in the normal course it was easier to carry out and convenient to dig deeper
into the cognition of the students, but how to avoid the influence among groups in the phase of
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role-playing is a critical point. And more importantly, the selection of the subject matter, the
description about the learner should be done with much more attention.
5. DISCUSSION ON POSSIBLE RESEARCH CONCEPT IN THE FUTURE
Based on above, the definition of SPD competence is in the end the descriptionof teachers
knowledge. The competence development of teacher needs therefore first the revealing of their
practical knowledge. The deign of competence development strategies is only meaningful only
with the awareness of what they already know. So the revealing of existing practical knowledge
is the first and key step.
The task design in the research on teacher practical knowledge is a great challenge. Especially in
the VTE field, which subject theme, what kind of teaching situation or tasks is more appropriate
for a better revealing of VTE teachers knowledge?
There are two critical points in the design of testing task: the one is the selection of the subject
content; the other is the test form. In the selection of the subject content both the subject topic
and the didactical aspect must be taken into consideration. Teaching materials in VTE schools
spread widely, taking business as an example, Marketing, Accounting and Logistic are all
business field but are greatly different, so it is not easy to find a subject matter topic to focus on.
When the didactical aspect is taken into account, which didactical activity is appropriate for the
specific domain teachers? The study on mathematic teacher focus on learning task, what is the
typical didactical situation for business teachers for example?
Considering the individuality, implicit and social construction of teachers knowledge, there are
some suggestions to the design of the test as following:
First, a pencil-paper-test: teachers should write down their personal review of a given teaching
plan and provide their reasoning. Analysis on a teaching plan can provide a broad spectrum of
teachers thinking and knowledge: their understanding of the subject matter, their judging on
the learner, the management of learning activity, and pursuit of pedagogy goals.
Secondly: Group Discussion on a teaching plan: with the consideration of the great impact of
teachers surroundings (context) on their knowledge, its better to observe a teacher group
instead of individual teacher, in order to study the arising and development of their knowledge
in the group dynamic and interactivity. The constitution of the group member should also be
done with carefulness. The existing working group in the school is not bad.
Third, Video-Episode analysis and reacting and documenting: in order to reveal the tacit and
action-related part of SPD competence. Authentic Video could be too complicated to form a focus
in the test, so it needs probably a simulated Episode. The selection of didactical situation would
be a critical point.
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Implementation of Inclusive Education in Special Education

Program Integration with Learning Disabilities: Testing the Validity
of Qualitative Interview Questions
Maizatul Azmah, A.L1 dan Wan Azlinda, W.M 2*
1 University Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia, 86400, Batu Pahat, Malaysia
1 maizatulazmah@yahoo.co.uk, 2azlinda.uthm@gov.my
ABSTRACT
Conducting interviews are very important qualitative research technique that helps researchers
to obtain answers from respondents by exploring their perspectives on a particular idea,
program, or situation. In this study, the researchers would like to explore the implementation of
inclusive education in Special Education Program Integration with Learning Disabilities in the
Primary school. Specifically, this study aims to identify the form of implementation of the
program, the form of collaboration and adaptation performed by the subject teacher and
resource teacher. To achieve the purpose of the study, the researcher designed a structured
interview questions to the principal, senior assistant special education teachers, subject teachers
and resource teacher. Interview questions were then pilot tested in a primary school in the state
of Malacca. Two administrators and two teachers who were involved in the Inclusive Education
Program have been selected to be interviewed in this pilot test. Structured interview data were
analyzed. Based on the interview, 68 units of themes have been established. These analyzed data
were given to three experts to evaluate. Cohen's Kappa index for the validity and reliability of
the interview questions were used and the Cohen's Kappa coefficient of agreement at 0.7 was
obtained. Thus, the set of interview questions is found to be suitable for this study. In addition to
this structured interview, the study will also be supported through other findings such as
observation and document analysis.
Keywords: Qualitative, Interviews, Inclusive Education Program (Key Words)
1. INTRODUCTION
Inclusive Education Program in Malaysia began in 1962, 1988 and 1999. These differences in
years are based on the type of target students with special needs. In 1962, the implementation of
the Inclusive Education Program implemented to visually impaired students [1]. In 1988, the
program was implemented in Special Education Integration Program with Learning Disabilities
[2]. This program is the largest contributor to increase enrollment in Inclusive Education
Program now. In 1999, Inclusive Education Programs was implemented at Technical schools [3].
In Malaysia, the Inclusive Education Program is an education program for students with special
needs who are educated in regular classes in government schools or non-government schools
for nearly all of the day, or at least for more than half of the day [4].
Studies related to the Inclusive Education Program in Malaysia is not new. Several researchers in
previous studies have conducted it with a different focus. Some of the studies include, The
Perceptions of Inclusive Practices in Malaysia [5]; Malaysian Preschool Children with ADHD in
Inclusive Setting [6]; Pilot Study Implementation of Inclusive Education in Malaysia [7]; Pilot
Study on the Commitment and The Role of Teachers in The Implementation of the Approach to
Inclusive Education in Malaysia [8]; The Management of Inclusive Education Program in
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Technical and Secondary Day School [9]; and A case Study on Inclusive Education Program
Implementation for Autistic Pupils at a Primary School [10].
In 2013, a guideline was issued by the Ministry of Education. This guideline briefly describe the
procedure for placing pupils in inclusive classes, age pupils involved, the typical ratio of pupils
and students with learning disabilities in the inclusive classroom, and the responsibilities of
relevant parties (in school) in the implementation of Inclusive Education Program. This study
will use this guidelines to explore the implementation of Inclusive Education Program in
Malaysia. This study will only focused on Special Education Integration Program with Learning
Disabilities in Primary schools. Since most of the research on Inclusive Education program uses
quantitative research and/ or mixed methods research, the researchers felt the need to conduct
a full qualitative research. This is because in qualitative research, there are various forms of
interview design that can be developed to obtain thick, rich data utilizing a qualitative
investigational perspective [11].
In this study, the researchers will design a set of interview questions to obtain information from
the respondents. Through the interviews, the researchers will have in-depth information
relating to the experiences and views respondents by exploring their perspectives on the
implementation of inclusive education in Special Education Program Integration with Learning
Disabilities in the Primary school. The interview was conducted as a pilot study to test the
validity of a set of questions developed by the researchers. The pilot study was conducted at
Sekolah Kebangsaan Pulai, Merlimau, Malacca.
The interview became a key instrument in the study of the implementation of Inclusive
Education in Special Education Integration Program with Learning Disabilities. Thus, the set of
questions must be valid and reliable in order to answer the research objectives effectively. Other
than testing the validity of the questions by verifying through the agreements of experts, themes
from the findings in interviews was also established.
2. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES
The purpose and the objectives of the study is as follows.
2.1 Purpose of study
The purpose of this study is to design a set of interview questions for qualitative research. The
set of questionnaires will be validated in a pilot study. This validated interview questions will be
used in the study to explore the implementation of the implementation of Inclusive Education
Program in Malaysia. Among the questions posed in this study are:
1. How do teachers implement the Inclusive Education Program?
2. What form of collaboration that occurred in the implementation of the Inclusive
Education Program?
3. What are the adaptations made by subjects teacher and resource teacher to the
implementation of Inclusive Education Program?
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2.2 Objectives of the study

The objective of this study is to:
1. Test the validity of the set of interview questions set by the researcher
2. Establish the themes of study from the findings from interviews
3. Obtain the agreement of experts in order to validate the set of interview questions.
3. RESEARCH DESIGN
Qualitative research design can be complicated depending upon the level of experience of the
researcher may have and with particular type of methodology. As researchers, efforts to develop
and expand their knowledge and experience in the form of qualitative research is very necessary
order to better utilize a variety of research paradigms for further investigations [12].
In qualitative research design, an interview protocol is one of area of interest to researchers.
Interviews help researchers to collect in-depth information on respondents views and
experiences on a particular idea, program, or situation. In fact, in order to strengthen the
findings from interviews, researchers usually makes additional data collection such as through
observation and document analysis.
Pilot tests should also be carried out to help researcher determines whether there is a weakness,
limitation, or other flaws in the set of interview questions. Through the pilot test, the
researchers could make checking and improve the set of questions before performing the actual
study [13]. The pilot test will also help researchers refine research questions.
A place of study chosen should be simple and not complex [14]. This allows researchers to make
more frequent visits, observations and interviews at the school and save time. Respondents
should be carefully selected for an interview [15]. Researchers should also conduct a pilot study
on respondents who are prepared in an open and honest sharing of information or "their story"
(p. 133). This is because the interview is easier done in a comfortable environment in which
respondents can share the information.
3.1 Research Instruments
Research instrument is a device used to measure the variables studied [16]. With this
instrument, the study is more systematic, organized, focused and have high reliability [17]. In
this study, the main instrument is the researchers. This is because the study was carried out
based on the thinking of researchers [18]. According to Miles and Huberman [19], researchers
should get a better understanding of making data interpretation because of the dynamic
interaction between researchers and informants.
3.1.1
Interview
In this study, the researchers choose the structured interview technique because is suitable for
this research. In addition, the structured interview gives more space to the respondents to
express an opinion on the scope required. Structured interview are given consistently to several
respondents. Thus, the answer given by the respondents is consistent in the scope of the
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question. The questions construction it's relatively easy to build. The researchers use the
protocol questions as proposed by Hill, Knox, Thompson, Williams, Hess and Ladany [20].
Protocol questions are a list of questions prepared by the researchers to find answers to the
research questions. Protocol questions are arranged according to which:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Introduction questions
Transition questions
The key question;
Closing questions.
However, the researchers will also provide additional follow-up questions to the respondents
when more information is needed (probing question). According to Berg [21], additional
questions will provide additional reliability to respond to repeated topics and responses had
been given. This interview was also conducted with flexibility to respondents and is not subject
to the order of questions in the interview protocol [22]. The questions used were of the "openended" questions. This is because the research questions should be effective and has the
elements:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
The words should be open

The question must be as neutral as possible
The question must be asked one by one;
The question must be clear; and
Be careful to ask "why" questions [23].
In this pilot study, interviews were carried out to the principal, senior assistant special
education teacher, subject teachers and resource teacher. All interviews was then analysed using
NVivo8 software.
3.2 Data Collection
Sekolah Kebangsaan Pulai, Merlimau Malacca has been selected as the pilot school to test the
validity of the interview questions. Interviews were carried out with principal, senior assistant
special education teacher, subject teacher and resource teacher. Each interview takes 45
minutes to 2 hours. All interviews are recorded using a tape recorder and video recording.
3.3 Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of making sense of the data collected [24]. If the data is not analysed,
the data collected will not bring any meaning. Researchers also need to analyse the data at each
time the data was collected [25]. This shows that the process of data analysis is an on-going
process.
In this study after the data is collected, the data are analysed. Data in the form of speech and
actions of respondents are collected were than transcript into word (Verbatim). Researchers
will make screening data (select, focus, simplify, abstract, changing the meaning of the data easy
to handle and count) [26].
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In this study, researchers compared the data obtained from respondents, as proposed by
Mohammed [27]. Researcher then gets themes and categories using NVivo8 software. For the six
steps proposed by Malakolunthu [28], namely:
1. Data cleaning
2. The encoding of data
3. Updating the data
4. Analysis of documents
5. Understand of documents; and
6. Analytical categories
7. There are two types of validity thats internal validity and of external validity. In order to
ensure the internal validity, there are 5 strategies that can be used in qualitative
research as follows:
8. The method of triangulation;
9.
Inspection and peer review as well as supervisors to ensure the validity of the interview
instrument;
10. The review by the informants in this research by allowing them to read, view and
interpretation done;
11. Involve respondents in all phases of the research study and
12. Explain the hypothesis, subjectivity and theoretical orientation of the researchers at the
beginning of the study [29].
External validity is ensured through a lot of information and the use of various themes and the
maximum variation data until the data reached saturation. To preserve the validity of the
content of the study, the researcher obtained information from teachers and administrators to
use a different set of questions to get feedback on.
In this study, researchers have obtained the consent of the Index Cohen Kappa coefficient [30].
Based on Cohen's Kappa analysis, researcher has sought the cooperation of three qualitative
experts who knows how to evaluate the calculation of Cohen's Kappa coefficient level or consent
of the themes of the interviews. The theme chosen based on the domain of the transcription of
the interview.
There are several opinions about the Cohens Kappa index analysis to determine the degree of
agreement among experts in qualitative research. According to Steven [31], an agreement
among the experts is important to determine the reliability to illustrate the themes. In 1977,
Landis and Kosh have suggested ways to calculate Cohen's Kappa agreement using the scale
[32]. Table 1 shows the Cohens Kappa scale of agreement.
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Table 1. Cohen's Kappa scale of agreement

Cohen's
Kappa
agreement using the
scale.
Scale of agreement
Below 0.00
Very poor
0.00 0.20
Poor
0.21 0.40
Moderate
0.41 0.60
Moderate good
0.61 0.80
Good
0.81 1.00
Very good
This analyzed questionnaire was given to three experts to evaluate. After that researchers will
sit together to calculate the value of Cohens Kappa agreement. Every agreement of the unit has
been noted. The coefficient of agreement each expert is separately recorded and then aggregate
to obtain a coefficient of agreement for the entire process. Then, the researchers calculate
Cohen's Kappa formula as follows:
K = fa fc
N fc
Which is:
K- the coefficient of agreement
fa unit of agreement
fc units likely set at 50 percent expected agreement
N number of units (themes) that tested the agreement.
4.1Cohens Kappa analysis
Table 2 shows the scale of agreement from the 3 expert who were given to evaluate the analyzed
interview questionnaire.
Table 2. Scale of agreement
Scale of agreement
Experts 1
Experts 2
Experts 3
62/68
64/68
51/68
62-34
64-34
68-34
51-34
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Scale of agreement
Experts 1
Experts 2
68-34
Experts 3
68-34
28
30
34
34
17
34
= 0.82
= 0.88
= 0.5
0.88+0.82+0.5
3
=0.7
Overall, there are 68 units of themes established. Operational definition of each theme was given
to the experts to evaluate. According to Cohen [33], 40 units are sufficient to find the consent of
each theme (unit). Through the pilot study, the Cohens Kappa coefficient of agreement at the
level of 0.7 was obtained as well. Not many comments and suggestions given in writing as
experts had verbal discussions with researchers. Improvements made based on oral and written
opinion given by the three experts appointed.
4.2 The result of the interview
Findings from the interviews conducted reveals that respondents can understand the interview
questions set. This is because, when the researcher described the purpose of this interview
questions, the respondents agreed that a set of questions developed can achieve the objectives of
the research. Prior to going to selected school to conduct the interview, the researchers have
contacted the school and special education teachers, senior assistant to explain to them about
the study so that respondents can respond truthfully and share their ideas and viewpoints
about inclusive education freely as suggested by Creswell [34].
The findings were analyses using NVivo8 software and researchers acquired 68 units themes.
This shows that the set of interview questionnaire reach the standard theme in Cohen
suggestion that is minimal 40 units [35].
Through the evaluation and suggestions made by experts, the researchers will also propose to
conduct interviews to the mainstream teachers who are not conducting the teaching and
learning of Inclusive Education Program. In addition, questions related to the theme of the
special pedagogical needs will also be provided. Subject teachers should also know the methods
and approaches that should be used appropriately when teaching in an inclusive classroom.
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5. CONCLUSION
This study is only a pilot study on the implementation of the Inclusive Education Program
conducted in the Special Education Program Integration at a primary school in Malacca. This
study is an initial step taken by the researchers to test the validity of the interview questions
that will be used in an interview before the actual study. It is also not intended to prove any
theory or model of the implementation of Inclusive Education. However, it opens up space for
discussions and improvements to make the study more rigorous and systematic. Thus, the set of
interview questions must be validated to ensure that the data obtained may help researchers
answer the research questions more accurately. In addition to this structured interview, other
forms of data collection will be used in order to provide the researcher with a well-rounded
collection of information for analyses.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thank you to principle and teachers at Sekolah Kebangsaan Pulai, Merlimau Melaka for giving
permission to conduct the pilot study.
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Malaysian Dual-TVET Curriculum Development

Mohd Yusoff Abu Bakar, George Spottle*, Wahid Razzaly**
Department of Skills Development (DSD) Ministry of Human Resources
*InstitutTeknik Und Bildung (ITB), Universitat Bremen, Germany, **Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia (UTHM)
yusof19@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Curriculum plays a vital role in ensuring the success of the Technical and Vocational Education
and Training (TVET). The existing competency-based-curriculum in the country was found
inadequately capable to play this role since it had created issue of skilled workers being
produced not duly meeting the needs of industry.. In order to address the issue, Malaysia has
decided to begin implementing dual training system which is popularly known as the National
Dual Training System (NDTS) in 2005. The development of curriculum was started in 2004, with
the help of industry experts skilled workers and guided by overseas consultants. However, it
was found that the development process was very time consuming. This has resulted in a serious
scarcity in the number of curriculum. Worse still, the completed compentacy based curriculums
have been found inappropriate that discouraged the participation of industry in the training
programmes because there were no proper guideline for the development of NDTS curriculum..
Hence, a study had been carried out which adopted qualitative method using case the main data
collection methods were in-depth semi-structured interviews, document reviews and
observations. The existing practice of the NDTS curriculum development was investigated and
findings were analysed based on the established NDTS curriculum document from developed
countries. Subsequently, the study outcomes were factored in for the optimisation the NDTS
curriculum development process which was simplified into a framework. This new curriculum
development framework is expected to benefit all parties involved in regard to the curriculum
development of the dual-TVET.
Keywords: Curriculum; Dual-TVET; Development Process
1. INTRODUCTION
Technological application has been widely utilised in developed and developing countries to
enhance and expedite their economic development by exploiting the modern and advanced
techniques especially in industrial sectors. In this regard, a carefull well-moulded development
of human resources is vital in fulfilling the manpower requirements of the industries. As a result,
a proper design of vocational training is indispensable to serve this purpose.
In relation to this, Malaysia as a developing country must not be left behind but to keep on
thriving in industrial development to achieve its vision of becoming a developed industrialised
nation by 2020. In making this aspiration a reality, several relevant ministries have been
appointed to look into this matter. The Ministry of Human Resources (MOHR) is one of the key
ministries, which actively involved in developing the national industry workforce. MOHR is
respoensible and support of workers welfares, training affairs and labour laws, including
foreign workers under this ministry a functional division called The Department of Skills
Development is designated to formulate, promote and co-ordinate vocational skills training.
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However, over time, it was found that a mismatch between the training programme and the
industry requirements that had resulted in low productivity [1]. On top of that, over time, rapid
changes in technology and increasing complexity of work processes particularly in Malaysian
industries have created new demands on skilled workforce or better known as a knowledgeworker or k-worker. According to [2], a knowledge worker is anyone who works for a living at
the tasks of developing or using knowledge. For example, a knowledge worker might be
someone who works at any of the tasks of planning, acquiring, searching, analysing, organizing,
programming, distributing, marketing and the like. Realising the essential of training for
developing k-workers, the Government of Malaysia decided on 19 May 2004 to implement the
National Dual Training System (NDTS) commencing in the year 2005 [3]. The implementation of
the NDTS was formulated with the purpose of strengthening technical education and vocational
training in the country by incorporating the dual training system as practiced in developed
countries.
2. DUAL-TVET IN MALAYSIA
The NDTS involves a two-year training programme carried out at two learning venues where
70% to 80% at the workplaces and the remaining 20% to 30% at selected training institutions.
In terms of training delivery, self-reliant learning and action-oriented teaching have been
adopted as the fundamental teaching and learning approaches [3].
The development of the National Occupational Core Curricula (NOCC) as a standard for the
NDTS has brought yet another new dimension into the Malaysian skills training landscape. The
work-process-approach builds upon the business process orientation of a modern and
innovative company in which its core work activities become the collective responsibility of all
its members rather than specific functional units only [4]. Work process knowledge requires a
holistic understanding of the overall work and business process; involves active knowledge
that is essential for quality performance of work. Clearly, the work process orientation differs
sharply from the traditional skills training approach. Therefore, it is hoped that the mismatch
issues would be alleviated with the implementation of the NDTS.
The NDTS that exposes the apprentices to the actual practice in the industries was introduced to
produce knowledge workers under a comprehensive and advanced training system, to meet the
industries prevailing requirements. The NDTS was expected to resolve the major issue of skilled
workers being produced but not meeting the needs of the industries. As such, more trained
people will be getting employed with a competitive income and significantly reduce the
unemployment rate.
The NDTS implementation of training and its assessment in the industry and training institute is
based on the NOCC that has been developed by the helps of industry experts and skilled
workers. The NOCC is applied in teaching and coaching process, used as a basis in preparing
teaching materials, as a standard for levels of achievement and skills quality of the apprentices
[5].
3. DUAL-TVET CURRICULUM ISSUES
Curriculum guides teaching and training personnel on what to teach, how to teach, what to test,
how to test and how to structure the progress of trainees. The design and development of the
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Dual-TEVT curriculum is a dynamic process which requires on-going revision and on-the-spot
customising [6]. Consequentially, it is inevitable to develop a curriculum that comply with the
requirement of training at workplace and training institution for each and every training
program needed in the country.
Unfortunately, the NDTS curriculum development had been very time consuming. For example,
the development of the first generation NDTS curriculum began since its inception in April 2004.
Unfortunately, after about two years later (in 2006) only four NOCCs had been completed which
has resulted in a serious shortage of curriculum in the market albeit the NDTS was officially
launched in 2005. The development process generally, had been heavily relying on industry
experts and skilled workers with insufficient guides. There was no proper curriculum guideline
or framework that could serve as a standard reference during the development process. The
problems were further escalated when the consultants engaged by the government had to leave
due to the discontinuation of their service [7]. Consequently, this situation has caused
uncertainties and disruptions and ultimately delayed the development progress.
These concerns have spurred a number of suggestions of solution. One of them was to make use
of available resources particularly the existing NOSS to be converted into the NOCC. Hopefully,
by doing so, the issue of scarcity of the NOCC would be duly addressed. So far however, no
attempts have been made as to what extent this suggestion could be implemented. A careful
study on the NDTS curriculum development must be carried out and a clear framework for the
NDTS curriculum development must be made available before considering any proposition of
adopting and adapting the existing NOSS into the NOCC.
In addition to that issue, it was found that those completed curriculums or NOCCs have been not
holistically developed to the requirement of industry. It could clearly be seen as not many
companies were interested to use them. For the record, in 2005 a total of 1200 companies
throughout the country attended a series of dialog sessions organised by the MOHR. Out of it,
only 159 companies have agreed to participate in the NDTS programmes as based on the written
feedback returns. It was a sad fact that only three companies had finally used the NOCC. The
poor participation of the potential companies has generated puzzlement of the reasons behind it.
From the initial responses of the expected-to-participate industries showed that, in their
perspectives, the available curriculums would not be able to fulfil their training requirements
and ultimately would not be capable to address their workforce development issues.
4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The dual-TVET curriculum development in the country has been in a quandary about whether or
not to continue with its approach due to unavailability of the needed guidelines. Hence, the
advent of the framework would enable the curriculum developers to help produce an emergent
curriculum in an acceptable timeline which subsequently shapes the right training programmes.
As such, the NDTS training programmes could be implemented in more systematic and
comprehensive manner in which ultimately in turn produces high quality skilled workforce that
fulfil the requirement of industry.
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5. RESEARCH IMPLEMENTATION
The study adopted the qualitative research approach and the main data collection methods were
in-depth semi-structured interviews, document reviews and observations. The existing practices
of the NDTS curriculum development processes were investigated and findings were analysed to
unveil the actual way of developing the curriculum. Then, the findings were benchmarked
against the practices applied by developed countries in relation to dual training curriculum
development in order to evaluate whether the current practices of the NDTS curriculum
development processes were in line with the developed countries. In order to ensure that the
study to be conducted in a holistic manner which premises on the main global practice and
implementation in terms of work process-oriented-curriculum development, an analytical
theoretical framework for the study has been developed based on those essential elements and
criteria of the dual training as shown in Figure 1 [6, 9] that has guided the researcher to
undertake the study. The framework was comprised of constituent elements which segregated
under three phases of curriculum development process namely; preliminary and preparation
phase; realisation phase and; transfer phase.
Fig. 1
Theoretical framework
Preparation phase highlighted the establishment of working team which was composed of many
different backgrounds in regard to curriculum development, training and employment matters.
The teams roles include analyses of influencing factors such as service, labour and target groups
of identified representative companies for the work process analysis. The selection of companies
was based on their best practices in particular sectors which was determined by considering
certain key data, input and recommendation by experts. The team was also responsible to
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promote a good relationship with the relevant industry in order to foster better cooperation and
collaboration for the sake of curriculum development [9].
Realisation phase deals with the development of curriculum contents which is made up of
determination of competencies scope, work process study that incorporates sector analysis, case
study, work process analysis and expert-skilled worker-workshop. Basically, sector analysis
explores the occupational and sector structures as well as comprehensive impact on all related
occupations. While case study looks into the organisational structures of occupational work
processes. Accordingly, work process analysis identifies the competencies in business and work
processes of the related occupation. In the meantime, expert-skilled worker-workshop examines
and evaluates the importance of identified competencies and work tasks for the occupation as
well as determines the structuring of the work process oriented core tasks [9]
Transfer phase entails curricular work which adheres to the dual training curriculum concept.
The activities involved in this phase among others are formulation and organisation of the
identified work processes related learning tasks into curricular documents such as the NOCC
(other related training manuals such as the LWA can be developed from the relevant NOCC). The
curricular work includes description of core work process, determination of occupational core
competencies and detailing of work process oriented core task [9].
They are four objectives of the study. Firstly, it is to explore and investigate the development
practice of the NDTS curriculum. Secondly, it is to verify whether the process of the NDTS
curriculum development is in accordance with the approach used by the developed countries.
Thirdly, from the findings, improvements for enhancing and optimising the NDTS curriculum
development will be proposed. Ultimately, it is to develop a new curriculum development
framework.
In terms of scope of the study, albeit there are three main occupational competences in the NDTS
namely the technical competence, learning and methodological competence as well as the
human and social competence, only the technical competence will be the focus of the research.
6. FINDING OF THE RESEARCH
Collected data had been analyzed and arranged according to each researched elements in order
to enlighten the actual practice of the NDTS curriculum development process. A brief
comparative analysis was also conducted to demonstrate the compliances and differences with
the global practice. Ultimately, suggestions for optimization of the NDTS curriculum
development practice were proffered through the proposed framework.
6.1 Setting up of working team
The global practice of the dual training curriculum development recommends that the
membership of the team should comprise all the interested parties such as relevant ministries,
training institutions, large-medium-and small-scale enterprises, associations of businessmen,
schools, non-governmental organisations and related individuals to contribute intentions and
ideas in curriculum development. The intentions and ideas of this working team among others
are to clarify and improve each partner regarding the common goals [6].
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However, analysis found that the current practice of the NDTS curriculum development process
was only made of industry experts and skilled or experienced workers from related industry and
teachers from training institution and was guided by experienced trainers as facilitators.
The proposed NDTS curriculum development framework on the other hand emphasises the
team to be
represented by all the stake holders involved in the TEVT in the country as
recommended by the global practice.
6.2 Analysing affecting factor
As far as the global practice is concerned, this element plays a key role in the curriculum
development. The analysis is expected to unearth the matters that are most likely to affect the
curriculum such as economic sectors, training sectors, geographical scopes and target groups of
the training programs [6, 8].
As for the NDTS current practice, this aspect was not given due consideration. As a result, the
NDTS curriculum for the Automotive Mechatronics in particular was developed merely based on
the requirement of big companies whereas the SME was the major player of industry which
accounted for about 99% of the country economic sector. This has resulted mismatch in terms
economic sector due to the failure of the curriculum developers in identifying the right economic
sector.
Therefore, the analysis of the affecting factor of economic sector in this regard is pivotal in
ensuring the development of the curriculum is truly based on the actual requirement of the
industry. For this purpose, the new framework has given reasonable attention on the analysis of
the affecting factor as an important part of the NDTS curriculum development process.
6.3 Executing work process analysis
For the work process oriented curriculum, work process analysis should have been the essence
of the existing NDTS curriculum development [8]. However, as revealed by the conducted study,
it is obvious that the analysis was not done in line with the recommended global practice.
Data showed that the only instrument used in the work process analysis was the expert-skilled
worker workshop. This was due to majority of the development panels for the NDTS have been
actually those who had developed the NOSS for the similar trades, they have become carried
away with the way they developed those NOSS-based programmes.
In this regard, the proposed new framework ensures that the entire process is taken care of and
no single element of the analysis would be left unattended. It is however, there are times where
certain elements could be skipped from the work process analysis such as the sector analysis
based on the availability and accessibility of the required information.
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Fig. 2: Proposed curriculum development framework

6.4 Curriculum development framework
Basing on the findings, the proposed framework should rest upon three phases and eight stages
of curriculum development process. The three phases are preparation, content development and
curricular works. While eight stages are working team, industrial relation and influencing
factors within the phase of preparation; sector analysis, case study, work process analysis and
expert-skilled-worker workshop constitutes the content development phase and; formulation of
work process-related learning task in the curricular works phase. The proposed framework is
graphically represented as in Figure 2.
6.5 Promoting industrial relation
This very element of research had not been earnestly deliberated initially since it was not an
issue in developed countries despite being very important in developing countries. In developed
countries, the industrial relation between companies and the TVET player has been very well as
a result of the vocational training legal codification in spite of the participation is on the
voluntary basis. For instance, there are two acts that regulate the TEVT in Germany that is the
Vocational Training Act 1969 that observe the training at the workplace and the Education Act
for training at school. In terms of standard and curriculum, it is agreed by employer and trade
union with regard to its training allocation and content development. This effort is made easier
with the commitment of the relevant chambers that helps make the implementation a success
through their participation and initiatives [10].
On the contrary, the introduction and implementation of the NDTS has been largely not only
government-driven but also government-funded. Hitherto, the NDTS is still being implemented
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without any clear national legislation or regulation that supports its implementation. Hence,
aspects of the implementation such as the obligation of the participating companies or
collaborating training providers, criteria and responsibility of apprentices and the structure and
organization of training especially the curriculum development matters are not pre-enacted or
legislated in any regulation.
Having aware of this deficiency, it is recommended that such responsibilities should be made
obligatory in the TEVT- governed regulation or via making amendments to the existing acts.
Realising the importance of this fact, the newly proposed curriculum development framework
cannot afford to exclude the role of the companies in the NDTS curriculum development.
Therefore, the industrial relation as decreed in the framework is pivotal in ensuring the to-bedeveloped NDTS curriculum is really capable to develop skilled workers who are in turn able to
fulfil the industry needs.
6.6 Uniqueness of the framework
Most of the researched elements of the curriculum development processes are based on the
global practice. Interestingly however, one of them i.e. the promotion of industrial relation was
actually brought to light by the respondents. Table 1 shows the fact that the global development
practice is still wanting for a developing country like Malaysia. It clearly stresses the standpoint
that the curriculum development is shaped by the requirements of the country in question,
which will in turn depend on the socioeconomic, political, organisational and cultural fabric of
the country.
Table 1.
Similarities and differences of practice
Global Practice
NDTS
Framework
1. Working Team
2. Affecting Factor
3. Sector Analysis
4. Case Study
5. Work Proc. Anal.
6. Expert Workshop
7. Curricular Work
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
8. Ind. Relation
Note: / - indicates that the element is adequately done;

x - indicates that the element is not done or inadequately done.
7. CONCLUSION
The curriculum development of dual-TVET in Malaysia, despite being non global-practice
compliant; the country needs more than what the best-practice has got to offer in order for the
dual-TVET to continue thriving and prospering, particularly on the curriculum development. The
advent of the new framework could be a potential solution to this aspiration.
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REFERENCES
1. Yogeesvaran, K. (2005). Addressing Skills Gap: Malaysian Case Study. November 2005,
Economic Planning Unit, Malaysia, pp. 6-12.
2. Drucker,
P.
(1959).
Landmarks
of
Tomorrow.
In:
http://searchcrm.techtarget.com/definition/knowledge-worker. Last accessed 27 November 2011.
3. MLVK (2005a).Registry of National Occupational Skill Standard (NOSS). Putrajaya: MLVK.

4. Spttl, G. (2004). Work process orientation of the TEVT system and consequences for the
NOSS an instrument for the development of occupational profiles. Report for
Berufsbildungs Institut Arbeit und Tecknik (biat), Universitat Flensburg, Germany.
5. MLVK (2005b). Development of the Malaysian National Occupational Skills Standard and
Certification System: Presentation to the Ministry of Youth & Sports, State of Sabah,
February 25, 2005. Putrajaya.
6. Adam, S., Blumenstein, Boehm, U., Ebeling, U., Gronwald, D. & Schade, E. (1999). CURRENT
A Guide to Curriculum Revision and Development. July 1999, Bremen.
7.
DSP (2004). The Planning Workshop and Beyond: Development Work for the
Operationalization of Dual Training, Presented to the 6th. Steering Committee Meeting for
the Dual System Project, 24 September 2004 (Unpublished), pp. 112-114
8. Richard, J. C. (2001). Curriculum Development in
Language Teaching. Cambridge:
9. Cambridge University Press. In: Wang, H./ Cheng, L. (2005). The Impact of Curriculum
Innovation on the Cultures of Teaching. The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly, Vol. 7, Issue 4, No.
1, pp. 7-32. Asian EFL Journal Press.
10. Spttl, G.& Becker, M. (2008).Work process analyses An Essential Instrument for
Qualification and Curriculum research. In: Loose, G., Spttl, G., Yusoff, M.S. (2000). ReEngineering Dual Training The Malaysian Experience. Frankfurt 2008.
11. Schmidt, H. & Alex, L. (1997). The Dual System of Vocational Education and Training in
Germany. In: Bundesinstut fur Berufsbildung; Vocational Training in Germany, 2000, pp.
12-13.
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Teacher Training in TVET A Structural Dilemma and the Role of

Standards
Georg Spttl
spoettl@uni-beremen.de
1. INTRODUCTION
In order to safeguard a high quality in Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET),
teachers for the TVET centers have to be qualified (cf. ILO 2010). Teachers need teaching
competence as well as competences in technical and engineering sciences in order to combine
technological and the scientific requirements with teaching requirements in an occupational
field: The education of teachers must meet these requirements to ensure that scientific findings
and occupational practice lead to professional action competence in terms of specializations and
pedagogics. The paper will clarify some questions regarding the dilemma of the planning of
study programs for TVET teachers.
2. WHY IS IT NECESSARY TO HAVE A PROFESSIONALIZED SCIENTIFIC
TRAINING OF THE TEACHERS WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC SYSTEM?
Vocational education and training (VET) is increasingly considered one of the three pillars of
educational systems apart from general school education and university education. VET has a
central significance for the organisation and the design of school-to-work-transition and forms
an important basis for life-long learning. The professionalism of vocational teachers is crucial to
ensure that graduates are adequately prepared for their occupational work and careers and that
the thresholds between the schools and vocational training as well as between vocational
training and the employment system are kept low. Within international competition, the quality
of vocational initial and further training has become an important factor, above all in countries
relying on high-tech.
In recent times, universities are intensively pursuing an improvement of the training of
vocational teachers and a reform of the study courses. The demand for an international
comparability of the graduations as well as the permeability of the European labour market lead
to a modularisation of the study offer and the quantification of the study specifications in
uniform credit systems (e.g. ECTS). At the same time the introduction of Bachelor and Master
study courses aims at internationally comparable study graduations.
By making work, technology and education in their comprehensive aspect the object of scientific
teaching, the vocational specialisation shall enable the graduates to systemically shape both the
vocational educational processes and the qualifying work processes. Within the framework of
scientific reflexion, technology is dealt with in connection with corporate work processes and
also with regard to vocational competency development.
Thus the university education of vocational teachers considers the changes in the vocational
training practice. There was a comprehensive modernisation in recent years which can be
described by key words such as work and business process orientation or context oriented
learning. These requirements can only be adequately implemented if the necessary basics for a
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quality assurance and a modernisation of the vocational specialisations as well as a future

oriented education of vocational educationalists are safeguarded.
Without qualified teachers and scientific and didactical standards these goals cannot be attained.
The presented benchmarks give an orientation for such a standard, both for the further
development of the vocational specialisations in existing Bachelor and Master study courses and
study courses for teachers and for the new development of study offers, e.g. according to the
Bachelor and Master model.
Standards are compiled in order to lay down demands, from minimum to maximum, the meeting
of which, through concieving of and putting into place a course of study, can be a worthwhile
project. Minimum requirements have to exist in order to formulate necessary, meaningful, and
desirable goal-settings instead of merely legitimizing the goals of accrediting agencies and
program directors (cf. Becker/ Spttl 2008).
3. STARTING POINT, ORIGINAL CONTEXT, AND PROBLEM DEFINITION
Within the higher-educational system teacher training for vocational education and training and
didactics are usually located between subject areas , without belonging to one or another, and
are poorly equipped (cf. Becker/ Spttl/ Vollmer 2012). A description of requirements which is
based on content criteria and oriented towards a quality teacher training course of study is not
in existence. Thus, teacher training within vocational-technical courses of study is significantly
endangered.
This threat is due to in the insufficient number of staff (researchers and professors)
representing vocational disciplines and their didactics (a quantitative problem) and the scarcely
manageable study programs at higher education institutions (a qualitative problem). In many
cases, a focus on the conception of the course of study is missing from teachers responsibilities.
Both types of threat mutually influence one another and the underlying issues, and have done so
for decades.
The analysis, creation, and evaluation of vocational training processes in vocational and
technical educational institutions require staff (professors and researchers) who have the
necessary technical requirements, vocationally-related experience, and the ability to didactically
deal with complex subject material. That necessitates that such a group of people are competent
in vocational sciences, engineering sciences, vocational didactics and general didactics, and that
future teachers are equally able to develop themselves within courses of study designed for this
purpose. Effectively teaching such an interdisciplinary profile is not possible without hard work
and is, at the same time, not especially motivational for potential students, since the kind of
complex learning thus required (managing the different approaches of various different
academic disciplines) demands significant efforts on their part. If other courses of study, in
which different learning goals exist, are also used, then, inevitably, mosaic concepts arise, which
are hardly manageable by students any more. (cf. Becker/ Spttl 2013).
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4. HOW CAN THE REQUIREMENTS FOR TVET BE INTEGRATED INTO A

SCIENTIFIC STUDY PROGRAMME OF TVET TEACHERS?
The study course of technical vocational education and training (TVET) prepares the students
for work process oriented and scientific practice of instruction, initial and further training in
technical vocational specialisations. The students should be enabled to shape the vocational
educational processes and the qualifying work processes.
The study course should consider the development of the TVET occupations and should impart a
future oriented acting competency for vocational educationalists working in the different
institutions and learning environments of vocational education and training. The scientific
reflexion of vocational and societal structures of the learning and working of the skilled workers
is the centre of interest, above all with regard to a co-shaping of their world of work and the
society with social and ecological responsibility. Work, technology and education in their
comprehensive perspective become the subject of scientific teaching. Technology will thus be
regarded in connection with the shaping of work and business processes and with regard to the
competencies of the employees (cf. Schrder/ Schulte/ Spttl 2013).
The study course encompasses specialist major fields of study and transversal contents. This
structure enables the students to acquire occupationally relevant scientific explanatory
coherences. As future occupational educationalists they can then analyse work processes and
shape learning situations oriented to occupational tasks and processes.
On the one hand the study course imparts a sustainable knowledge of structures and methods.
On the other hand the study course aims at showing strategies and methods for the reflexion of
current developments with regard to technology, work and society. Based on these ideas the
study course leads through the following levels:
Basic theoretical and methodological knowledge mathematics, natural sciences, work
sciences, economic and ecological transversal contents of the technical occupational
specialisations.
Structural transversal knowledge transversal contents of the occupational specialisation.
Knowledge oriented to the major fields of the study technology and occupational work in
the major fields of study of the occupational specialisation.
Advanced work on user oriented tasks(Work process knowledge) and transfer to the
occupational practice; advanced studies of specialist sciences and didactics of the
occupational field.
5. STANDARDS AS A CONTRIBUTION TO SOLVE THE STRUCTURAL
DILEMMA?
Chapter 4 demonstrates that the definition of standards for the content orientation of vocational
courses of study are only one of many approaches for solving the quantitative and qualitative
problems mentioned here. It is, however, a very weighty point, since it is crucial to planning and
decision-making that is both conducive to and inhibitive towards development in accreditation
processes, hiring, developing study programs, and educational politics in general.
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Here we will explore the question as to how standards for planning, orientation,
implementation, and quality control should be designed within the framework of accreditation
processes of vocational-technical teacher training courses of study, so that the course of study is
best able to support the development of the necessary skills, science-based knowledge and
engineering capabilities of the teachers.
6. HOW CAN EDUCATIONAL AND ENGINEERING SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS AND
REQUIREMENTS FOR A PREPARATION FOR TEACHING STANDARDS
MADE USE OF?
At the heart of the matter is the answer to the question which competencies and skills
instructors must develop and possess in order to be able to plan, analyze, implement, further
develop, and evaluate vocational training and vocational educational processes. To this end, a
double theoretical and practical reference (cf. Becker/ Spttl 2013) is necessary.
6.1 he double practical reference
On the one hand we are dealing with the confrontation with the professions which pupils in
vocational training courses of study are working towards or already have. This requires, first of
all, a reflective competence development with regard to the vocational content of these
professions, in other words, not just knowing about the professions as vocational pedagogy
should convey but also knowledge of the professions in the sense of the profession as a
specialized subject. In addition, entrance requirements as well as career paths and goals of the
targeted groups which are beyond the simple learning of a vocation, such as in the dual system
(for example a career as a technician or a course of study as an engineer), need to be factored in,
first and foremost so that the course is manageable. It must, however, be pointed out in any case
that the focus is on vocational training and career paths.
On the other hand, we are dealing with a confrontation with the profession of teacher, that is,
with the job that is the end goal of the course of study. This requires that instructors have
subject-specific and didactic (pedagogical) abilities which are contextually appropriate. Context,
here, means that teachers must develop and apply their competence within the educational
institution (the school) and with other learning locations (the company and external learning
locations). This expertise is thus applied to the vocation in a wider sense.
6.2 The double theoretical reference
These considerations lead to the direct conclusion that a confrontation with the following
subjects is unavoidable for a teacher training course of study for vocational subjects and thus is
also recommended by scientific communities as constitutive curriculum content.
Analysis, Organization and Evaluation:
of vocational learning, training, and qualification processes,
of vocational work and business processes as well as
of technology as a focus of work and learning processes
as well as their development over time, their current characteristics, and their future
perspectives (cf. gtw 2010, p 10).
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Thus the interdependency of educational processes, of circumstances rooted in the world of

work, and the technology encountered there becomes a starting point of a theory that should
characterize a course of studies. Theories that only focus on creating professional instructors
with a focus on teaching and learning fall too short, as do those which only deal with the
concept of (specialized) work or technology. Thus neither educational science, industrial
science, nor the engineering sciences provide the necessary theory. However, all three
disciplines are the foundation for a double theoretical reference, namely, referring to knowledge
of the profession (industrial science in the narrowest sense (cf. Becker/Spttl 2008) as well as
knowledge of teachers work and teacher training. Both reference points lead to requirements
concerning the contents of professions as subjects of practical relevance.
7. THE RECOMMENDATION FOR COMMON CONTENT REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE VOCATIONAL SUBJECT
The suggestions of a concept of a area of study based on standards is set out below. Above all,
this independent structure is underpinned by an academic discipline and the didactics will have
a clear reference to the subject area and not related to educational sciences or vocational
pedagogy. In particular, independence means that a division into two parts, engineering
sciences as a specialized discipline and instructional methodology as a transformation science
which serves engineering sciences on the other side and pedagogical sciences on the other is to
be emphatically rejected. If the didactics are a part of educational sciences then they are
generally oriented towards learning or educational theory. In the cases here, an orientation
towards a particular subject area is central, although of course educational and learning-science
references must also be brought to bear, albeit with a clear and specific reference to the context
of the particular subject area. Thus didactics are not just a subcontractor subject for teaching
that is supplied to educational sciences or vocational pedagogy but are a subject of research
coming from the subject area itself and thus including knowledge from learning-theoretical,
educational-theoretical, and vocational-pedagogical research.
When considering standards, the formulation of requirements for didactics together with the
positioning of didactics is an important step, since research findings are dependent on the
observation of the subject and thus can influence instruction and instructional content in very
different ways.
How can Requirements for TVET be Integrated into Scientific Study Programmes of TVET
Teachers?
Without referring to the TVET teacher training standards, which have not yet been completed,
there are intrinsically two major areas of study that are relevant for teachers in TVET:
the subject matter they will have to impart to their future students and
the pedagogical matters they will need for their future work
Additionally there may be additional areas of study that refer to more or less specific
development needs of TVET or the individual country, or to general national requirements
regarding study courses at higher education institutions. These can be for example areas like:
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TVET-related areas
guidance and counselling in TVET,
entrepreneurship
General requirements
culture studies (politics, religion, etc)
general studies (languages, explicitly taught key qualifications, general social sciences
topics, etc).
The topic of didactics has its roots in vocational pedagogy and is closely related to the subject
matter.
A possible coarse structure could look like the one presented in Figure 1.
Subject matter
Vocational pedagogy
Others
(min 50 percent)
(max 35 percent)
(15 percent)
Vocational modules
Vocational
Pedagogy
Scientific modules
Engineering modules
education e.g. Career

guidance &
counselling,
cultural
implications,
enterpreneurship
didactics
internship
Thesis
Figure 1: Possible structure for a Bachelor study course
8. CONCLUSION WHAT CAN STANDARDS GUARANTEE?
Standards in vocational-technical teacher training have a far-reaching influence on the future
orientation of such teaching. They can provide foundations for the formation of an independent
academic discipline, which could then make a claim of not only being manageable for students,
but also of being able to represent the specific scientific and practical needs of instructors. In
light of the far too small numbers of graduates in vocational-technical subjects in Germany, these
decide in the most far-reaching way how recruiting scenarios for vocational schools are to be set
up and what kind of future teacher training will have at institutions of higher education. The
establishment of vocational disciplines including their didactics as independent disciplines
which are capable of carrying out research also depends on the funding and equipping of
educational institutions, which are then able to be more or less successful in meeting the
standards. In this respect, the funding and equipping of vocational-technical teacher training
plays a key role in deciding how successful it can be consolidated and established as an academic
discipline and how well it can develop. Looking at successful models of higher education makes
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the connection between the achievement of demands for quality in teacher training and the
resulting effects obvious.
The existing analyses and conceptual studies also demonstrate the necessity for wider-reaching
and better-funded academic research in order to further contribute to the professionalization of
qualified teachers through the configuration of the vocational disciplines and their didactics.
They should not merely be contented with being pragmatic and only asking for minimal
requirements that are easy to meet for concepts of courses of study in existing engineering
sciences or pedagogical disciplines, as is currently being practiced at institutions of higher
education. Doing so would fail to meet the goal of establishing and developing the didactics of
vocational disciplines in a sustainable and future-oriented way.
REFERENCES
1. Becker, M.; Spttl, G. (2013): Standards for Teacher Training in Technical and Vocational
Educational (TVET) Fields of Study . In: Schrder Th. (Ed.): Vocational Teacher Education
and Research as a Task and Challenge for East and Southeast Asia Region. Shanghai: GIZVOCTECH-UNESCO Bangkok, p. 28-32.
2. Becker, M.; Spttl, G. (2008): Berufswissenschaftliche Forschung. Ein Arbeitsbuch fr
Studium und Praxis. Frankfurt a. M. u. a.: Peter Lang.
3. Becker, M.; Spttl, G.; Vollmer, Th. (Hrsg.)(2012): Lehrerbildung in GewerblichTechnischen Fachrichtungen. Bertelsmann-Verlag, Bielefeld.
4. ILO (2010): Teachers and traniners for the future Technical and vocational education in a
changing world. Geneva.
5. gtw (2010): Empfehlungen zur Ausgestaltung von Studienordnungen fr Bachelor- und
Masterstudiengnge gewerblich-technischer Fachrichtungen. z. B. Berufliche Fachrichtung
Metalltechnik. Arbeitsgemeinschaft gewerblich-technische Wissenschaften und ihre
Didaktiken (Hrsg.). Online abrufbar unter http://www.ag-gtw.uni-bremen.de/wpcontent/plugins/download-monitor/download.php?id=40 (Stand: 10.02.2012).
6. Schrder, Th.; Schulte, S.; Spttl, G. (2013): Vocational Science as an Academic Discipline
and its Research Approaches. In: Schrder Th. (Ed.): Vocational Teacher Education and
Research as a Task and Challenge for East and Southeast Asia Region. Shanghai: GIZVOCTECH-UNESCO Bangkok, p. 47-53.
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TRACK 6
INNOVATION AND
PRODUCTION
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The Effectiveness of Mastery Learning Strategy on Aboriginal

Students Knowledge Acquisition in Entrepreneurship
Mohd Hasril Amiruddin1, Noorazman Abd. Samad 2 and Norasmah Othman3
1
Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, UniversitiTun Hussein Onn Malaysia

of Education,Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
3Faculty
1
hasril@uthm.edu.my, 2 noorazman@uthm.edu.my, 3lin@ukm.my

ABSTRACT
Research indicates that low academic achievement amongst Aboriginal (Orang Asli) students is
due to the current practices of teaching and learning in the classrooms. Additionally, the
diversity of students for this community, leading to different cognitive abilities and cultures,
which contributing to major issues of teaching and learning effectiveness. As a part of special
education community, there is a need for a review of teaching and learning strategies for
Aboriginal students in the context of an entrepreneurship education. This paper addresses low
academic achievement amongst Aboriginal students using mastery learning strategy (MLS) and
investigates its effectiveness in the entrepreneurship education course. An experimental, pre
test and post test, with control group design was implemented on 80 Aboriginal students from
two department of Orang Asli Development Training Center in Malaysia. Students in the
experimental groups was treated using MLS throughout 12 weeks. Students knowledge
acquisition (achievement) was tested using multiple choices question, and the result were
compared to the traditional learning approach (TLA) group. The findings indicated that the MLS
was more effective than TLA in enhancing students knowledge acquisition. The implication is
that the model used in this study is appropriate for teaching, promoting learning, and conducting
research among Orang Asli students.
Keywords: Mastery Learning; Entrepreneurship Education; Academic Achievement; Aboriginal
Students
1. .INTRODUCTION
Research indicates that low academic achievement is one of the major reasons, contributing to
low socio-economic levels for the minority such as Aboriginal people [1]. Statistic indicates that
the drop-out rate for Aboriginal students in primary school is 54.8 percent, while 45.8 percent of
Aboriginal people are not going to school [2]. Only six out of 1,000 Aboriginal children who have
managed to complete until form five of schooling, leading to a small number of access into
higher educational institutions (HEIs) [3,4,5]. The most recent report from JHEOA, in 2009, only
368 Aboriginal students have managed to get place in public HEIs. As a result, only 652
graduates from 1971 to 2007 has been produced [1].
In this context, Aboriginal people should be more aware of the importance of education, as the
only way to compete within Malaysian society [5,6]. Nevertheless, some Aboriginal people have
been skeptical regarding the potential of education as a way out of poverty [6].
According to [2,6], academic achievement among Aboriginal people has lagged far behind
achievement among Malaysian students in general [1]. As a result, very limited numbers (only
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60 students in 2008) of Aboriginal youth aged between 19 to 35 years have managed to further
study in HEI [1].
One major reason for low academic achievement amongst Aboriginal students is due to
effectiveness of teaching and learning strategies in the classrooms [6,7]. Also, the diversity of
Aboriginal students in terms of cognitive abilities and cultures contributes to this gap. Therefore,
the strategies for learning and teaching Aboriginal students must be changed. It is proposed that
the strategies to be enhanced and enriched using various methods of delivery in similar contexts
with similar content. Previous research suggests that learning methods depends on the
materials used and the students circumstances [8]. Educators need to provide more proactive
and responsive teaching strategies in order to improve education for Aboriginal peoples [9,10].
In this capacity, several authors suggest that MLS does have potential to be an effective method
for teaching minority groups such as aboriginal students [11,12]. However, there has been
limited literature and empirical data to support this contention. For this reason, this study was
conducted to investigate the effect of a mastery learning strategy (MLS) on students
achievement in entrepreneurship classes. Then, the study also compare the effectiveness of MLS
and the traditional learning approach (TLA) as methods of improving students achievement.
2. MASTERY LEARNING STRATEGY (MLS)
The concept of mastery learning was initiated by the work of John B. Carroll [8] and Benjamin
Bloomin the 1960s [9,10]. Bloom indicates that it is an effective way to improve student
attitudes and interest toward learning, besides helping them to master in specific knowledge
[11,12].
The basic theoretical assumption of mastery learning is that students must have predetermined
set of necessary skills and knowledge in order to achieve their learning objectives [8]. In other
words, they need to acquire a foundation of appropriate knowledge to master the next concepts
[9,10]. They are likely to fail if they do not acquire this pre requisite knowledge, because they do
not have the appropriate cognitive skills and sets of information [12].
In keeping with this assumption, a mastery learning strategy requires students to reach a
particular level of mastery (usually 80 to 100 percent) of a topic before proceed to the next
topics [8]. The implementation of MLS is according to a set of process shown in Figure 1 [10].
Fig. 1: The process of mastery learning strategies

In MLS, teaching materials and concepts must be organized into small units appropriately [8].
After teaching a small unit, teachers will give students a quiz or test as a means of formative
assessment, intended to probe students learning achievement on the topic. Next, students are
given further lesson according to particular identified area, using intensive exercises. This
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exercises are focusing on particular concepts, before a different formative assessment are using
to test students improvement. Several advantages of MLS have been highlighted by previous
researchers [8,9,10] are listed as follows:
Ensuring better students achievement of total understanding (up to 80%) of current
learning materials before introducing the next challenging topics.
The requirement that teachers perform a task analysis that will ready them for teaching
particular material to their students.
The prior identification (before instruction) of teaching/learning objectives.
Reduction of the dropout rate,especially for minority and at-risk students.
Although mastery learning has generally been agreed to be an appropriate approach for
Aboriginal students [8], one critical aspect must be considered, that is, student motivation
during the learning process. Research indicates that motivation can be increased through
mastery learning [9,10,11,12], within an encouraging environment and appropriate teaching
aids.
Previous studieson the effects of learning strategies in entrepreneurship education have
employed models and learning approaches such as Kolbs Model [13] problem-based learning
[14], interactive learning [15], mentoring [16], experiential learning [13] active learning [14]
and project-based learning [15], and indisciplines such as mathematics[17,19] and physics [9].
However, few or no such studies have considered entrepreneurship education. Therefore, in this
study, MLS is used within a module-based entrepreneurship education course.
3. 3. METHOD
An experimental, pretest and posttest with a control group design was conducted in two JAKOA
Training Centres using a new module for basic entrepreneurial education. Two methods of
instruction were used; the experimental group (n=40) was exposed to basic entrepreneurial
knowledge using MLS, while the control group (n=40) was using TLA, which mainly based on
lectures and assignments.
Several variables were controlled such as using similar content and materials, equivalent level of
samples in both groups, and number of days and events for instructions. The teachers of the two
classes had almost equivalent in term of experience and same level of qualifications. In addition,
a double-blind method was used whereby the teachers and students involved in this study were
not informed of the experiment being conducted [20]. The independent variable was the method
of instruction (MLS vs. TLA), while the dependent variable was the students academic
achievement.
Sampling: The study involved 80 Orang Asli students consisting of34 male and 46 female.The
subjects were randomly selected amongst students from the Department of Orang Asli
Development Training Centres, locatein Paya Bungor Kuantan, Pahang and in Damansara Damai
in Selangor. The 34 male students (experimental group = 17, control group = 17) who attended
the GIATMARA Damansara Damai were enrolled in the vehicle repair skills course, while the 46
female students (experimental group = 23, control group = 23) from Orang Asli Development
Training Centre Paya Bungor were enrolled in the manufacture of womens clothing. Gender
distribution across groups was equal. Respondents were generally have similar backgrounds
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and had no experience inbusiness. Respondents had at least Penilaian Menengah Rendah level on
their academic record (a requirement to enroll at the Training Centre).
Entrepreneurial Education Module (EEM): The EEM was designed and developed to build on
previous secondary school and polytechnic entrepreneurship modules. The basic content was
then carefully selected to achieve the requirement of basic knowledge of entrepreneurship.
Finally, the EEM was validated by several experts in entrepreneurship education.
Treatment Procedures: The EEM was used as an instruction material through out the 12 weeks
of the treatment. At the end of the study, both groups were givena posttest.
Experimental group (MLS): In the experimental group, the treatment was according to special
model and module designed. However in general, right after the first instruction ends, the
teacher administered a brief formative assessment based on the units learning goals. The
assessment provided students with feedback to identify what they had learned to that point
(diagnostic feedback) and what they needed to learn better (prescriptive feedback). In this case,
students who had successfully acquired the concepts continued their learning experience with
enrichment activities such as case studies, problem-solving tasks, and exercises. While students
who needed more experience, in contrast, will be given a paired feedback paired and corrective
activities that are offering guidance and direction to remedy. To be effective, these corrective
activities were qualitatively different from the initial instruction, offering effective instructional
approaches and additional time to learn. Further more, learning goals and standards must be
aligned with instruction (or opportunities to practice), corrective feedback, and evaluation.
Finally, students were given feedback about their individual learning progress at regular
intervals throughout the instructional period. This feedback was intended to help them identify
what they had and had not learned well. Areas that were not learned well were allotted more
time, so that students could achieve mastery.
Control group (TLA): In brief, the procedures in the control group followed atraditional learning
approach (TLA); the lecturer was typically active in delivering information and facts, and
explaining terms, concepts, and procedures.
Instrumentation: Pretest and posttests were used to measure students knowledge acquisition.
The tests consisted of 35 multiple-choice questions, 30 right/wrong questions, three matching
questions, two fill-in-the-blank questions, five structured questions, and one essay question.
Items were designed based on the six cognitive levels of Blooms taxonomy. The total number of
marks was 100, and item validity was confirmed by lecturers in entrepreneurship education.
Data analysis: Inferential statistical tools were used including ANOVA and t-test, using SPSS
software. ANOVA can be used in cases where there are two or more groups to find significant
differences among sample means. Meanwhile, the t-test assesses whether the means of two
groups are statistically different from each other. This approach is simple and appropriate as
posttest in a two-group experimental design.
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ANOVA was performed to test the pre-experiment condition of students knowledge of basic
entrepreneurship (homogeneity of variance between groups). The result, as shown in Table 1,
shows no significant difference between groups (F(1, 78) = .353, p <.05).
Table 1: ANOVA for the basic entrepreneurship test score (pretest)
df
Mean
Square
Sig.
Source
Type III
Sum of
Squares
Group
31.250
31.250
.353
.55
Error
6907.
950
78
88.563
a. R Squared = .005 (Adjusted R Squared = -.008)
Meanwhile, Table2 shows normality test results based on the pretest score, using Kolmogorov
Smirnov and ShapiroWilk tests.
Table 2: Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and Shapiro-Wilk test
KolmogorovSmirnova
Group
Statistic
d
f
Sig.
Shapiro-Wilk
Statisti
c
df
Sig.
Experiment
al
.066
4 .200*
0
.990
40 .970
Control
.097
4 .200*
0
.981
40 .727
KolmogorovSmirnov results show significance in both groups (Sig. = .200), as do Shapiro

Wilktests(Sig. = .970 in the experimental group and .727 in the control group). In all cases,
significance is more than .05. Thus, the significance values were not in violation of the
assumption of normality. Therefore, control and experimental groups are assumed to have had
equivalent levels of knowledge of entrepreneurship at the beginning of the study, permitting
further analysis using the t-test to measure gain from treatment. The results are indicated in
Tables 3 and Tables 4.
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Table 3: Mean score of the pretests and posttests on Entrepreneurship

Grouping
Mean score
SD
Pre-test score
41.97
9.84
Post-test score
68.47
7.21
Pre-test score
43.22
8.95
Post-test score
55.90
10.86
Experimental group
Control group
Table 3 indicates that the mean posttest score on knowledge of entrepreneurship in the
experimental group exceeds the mean score of the control group the scores are 68.47 (SD =
7.21) and 55.90 (10.86), respectively. As shown in Table 4, knowledge acquisition of basic
entrepreneurship is significant [t = -13.939, df= 79, p< .05], indicating a significant difference
between groups on knowledge of basic entrepreneurship.
Table 4: T-test for the basic entrepreneurship test score
Score
df
Sig. (2tailed)
-13.939
79
.000
Pre-test
score
Post-test
score
5. DISCUSSION
As the results show, using MLS significantly increased acquisition of entrepreneurship
knowledge as compared to TLA among aboriginal participants. The effect size (.68) was medium,
with a power of 0.32.
The implementation of mastery learning strategies in the learning of basic entrepreneurship was
one of the options presented above to help in solving problems faced by aboriginal students. The
findings support the theory of Mastery Learning and the findings of previous research [8, 21].
This study has also proven that the teaching and learning strategies employed influences the
level of cognitive change in students, as described in [22,23].
These results are also in line with those of several previous studies [9,10,11,12,17,19,21], where
MLS improved students understanding of basic concepts in entrepreneurship education.In
addition, several authors [13, 14, 15, 16] agree that the use of a diversity of learning strategies in
entrepreneurship education provide an encouraging environment and interesting, interactive,
and effective learning climate for minority students.
In this study, several aspects of MLS might have been contributed to the promotion of
knowledge acquisition amongst the students. Repeated focus-group treatments for low-scoring
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students were seen as the key success factor. This is supported by the mastery learning model,
where in a follow-up test after the first unit, the group was successful but could not reach the
mastery criterion; this was achieved only after correctivet raining. In the second unit, however,
the learning criterion was achieved without any corrective training. This is interpreted as a sign
that the students eventually adapted to the mastery learning process. These results clearly show
that the MLS has significantly affected the achievement of Aboriginal students positively in
entrepreneurship education as compared to TLA.
MLS stresses cooperative skills more than mastery of content. As used in this study,this
emphasis was partly corrected through corrective feedback and remediation. Previous research
comparing the effects of MLS and of regular teaching methods on student achievement [10], the
result showed that MLS alone (without feedback) had significantly increased achievement
[11];the present studyshows that students who received feedback as part of MLS had higher
achievement scores in both immediate achievement and long-term retention.
However,MLS involves the provision of extra time to carry out activities such as formative
assessment, enrichment activities, and corrective activities.The findings of this study
isinlinewith these results. Apart from feedback,time is another aspects of MLS needs to be highly
considered. Mastery learning theorists, especially [22,23], contend that MLS reduces the amount
of time needed to achieve mastery. A study conducted by [23] on achievement, time, and
learning rate found that use of MLS significantly increases achievement levels but the time
needed is considerable.
To reduce time impediments with the implementation of MLS in this study, teachers were
carefully trained to use the MLS teaching method. Learning materials were prepared to ensure
that after teaching, testing was done, followed by remedial instruction and retesting. Continued
interaction with the process helped the teachers to discover students areas of weakness and
therefore assisted the students to reach the expected level of competence. MLS also helped the
students achieve deeper understanding of the concepts of entrepreneurship.
6. CONCLUSION
This paper proposes a MLS as a part of effectively learning strategies in entrepreneurship
education especially for aboriginal students in Malaysian. An experimental, pre-test and posttest with control group was used to test the effectiveness on students knowledge acquisition in
entrepreneurship. The result, a significant difference was indicated by the achievement of the
experimental groups, compared to the control group. For future research, more studies are
needed using similar samples and model, researchers are suggested to replicate the approach
with bigger samples and aboriginal students of different proficiency levels, as well as to explore
the extent to which each learning strategy contributes to learning success. More significant
findings are expected to contribute to the existing limited literature.
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Water-based Hydraulic Power Trainer for a Greener Technical

Vocational Education and Training System
Zarin Syukri Zaili1a, Ahmad Anas Yusof2b, Siti Nor Habibah Hassan3c, Tee Boon Tuan4d,
Mohd Noor Asril Saadun5e, Mohd Qadafie Ibrahim6f
1,2,3,4,5Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
6Faculty of Engineering Technology, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
azarinzaili68@gmail.com, banas@utem.edu.my, chabibah@utem.edu.my, dtee@utem.edu.my
easril@utem.edu.my fqadafie@utem.edu.my.
ABSTRACT
The research on water-based hydraulic trainer is now possible with the current development in
water hydraulics technology. In order to promote water hydraulics in Malaysia, this paper
presents research development of water-based hydraulic power training system for technical
vocational education and training system (TVET). A preliminary survey on public attitudes
towards water hydraulics technology has been conducted prior to the development of the
trainer. Subsequently, the performance of water-based hydraulic power trainer is simulated to
find the solution for a sustainable and energy efficient system. It is hope that the water
hydraulics trainer will provide an effective approach in promoting greentechnology through the
national TVET system.
Keywords: Water Hydraulic; Triplex Piston Pump; Pressure; Energy Efficient
1. .INTRODUCTION
The use of water hydraulics promotes the sustainability and environmental friendly approach in
power transmission. Water hydraulics plays the role as an exclusive green technology, which
involves the use of water-based fluids as the hydraulic medium to transmit energy and power
[1]. Basically, the aim of using water is to transfer the energy, power and the resource
sustainably, at a rate that does not compromise the natural environment. The awareness on the
use of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels, natural gas and coal has to be increased, in
order to promote long-lasting technology for a greener future. This involves the use of
educational tools, which is vital in developing human resource with sustainable and
environmental-conscious attitude. Simultaneously, water characteristics involving hygiene,
safety and low maintenance cost should provide interesting perspectives for teachers and
students themselves, due to concern over hydraulic fluid disposal, contamination, costly
maintenance and flammability [2], during the teaching sessions.
As the trainer continues to be developed at the Centre for Advanced Research on Energy,
UniversitiTeknikal Malaysia Melaka, the impressive uniqueness of water hydraulics technology
has also brought the study to a wider scope of application. The challenging problems which
normally occur in water hydraulics apparatus, such as corrosion and slippage can be reduced by
the use of triplex piston pumps. Water is significantly different from oil, which at the same time
can provide advantages in one aspect while producing disadvantages in other aspects. In
general, water hydraulics can offer a design for hygiene solution in various application, as
demonstrated by the development of water hydraulics driven burger machine, beef cutter and
ice filled machine in the food processing industry, and the use of environmental friendly
industrial scissor lift and waste packer lorry [3]-[5].
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Therefore, based on the current reality, this paper presents the development of green fluid
power trainer, using improved triplex piston pump. The trainer unit will be used to promote the
use of water hydraulics in Malaysia, for various areas such as food processing, robotics and
technical education. [6]-[7]
2. METHODOLOGY
In this paper, two approaches have been conducted. The first approach involves survey in
obtaining the understanding and awareness of the public regarding the use of water in hydraulic
system while the second approaches involve the simulation of the pump used in the research.
2.1 Survey
The survey consist two section of question that describe two different specific goal of the
section. It is divided into section A and section B. Section A describes the demographic of the
respondents which representing the types of the respondents. The specific goal for section A is
comparing the group of the respondents according to their age, occupation, specialization,
educations and also gender. The question of section A as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Gender.
Age group.
Occupations.
Specializations.
Highest education.
Section B of the survey refers to knowledge and also awareness on water hydraulic technology
and sustainable application. The goal of the section is to gather information about opinion and
thought on sustainability of the technology and environmental awareness. The question of
section B as follows:
(a) Question 1
Do you agree oil can be replaced by water as hydraulic fluid?
(b) Question 2
Do you know water was been used as hydraulic fluid?
(c) Question 3
Do you know water is a good energy transmitter than oil?
(d) Question 4
Do you agree that we must avoid depending on mineral oil or mineral resources?
(e) Question 5
Do you agree that we must use renewable resources in order to enhance sustainability?
2.2 Prototype Development
Fig. 1 illustrated the development of the cylinder, the pump and the trainer which is presented in
this paper. The triplex piston pump used in this study is a spray pump with maximum pressure
up to 40 bars which is usually used for car wash. This pump has a built in pressure regulator
with an electric motor as its prime mover. The size of the pump is 84 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm. A
simulation study is being conducted on this triplex piston pump in order to determine the
volumetric efficiency parameter of the pump, under the influence of various pump speed and
dimensions.
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Fig. 1. Water-based Hydraulic Power Trainer

2.2.1
Water Pump Simulation
The simulation of a reciprocating pump is presented on fig. 2 to fig. 4. This procedureis

conducted in order to understand its performance under different parameters. The pump
consists of three cylinders and pistons, suction and delivery valve.
Fig. 2.Triplex Piston Pump

The piston is connected to the rotating crank by a crank shaft. It is observable that the piston
will move, forward and backward, thus creating a simple harmonic motion. The pump used in
this study is considered as a triplex single-acting pump. Generally, a triplex piston pump exhibit
typical flow variations in the delivery and suction caused by the rotary motion of the electric
motor that drives the displacement elements which is piston or plungers in three cylinders. In
the suction stroke event, the piston moves to create vacuum in the cylinder. This vacuum causes
the suction valve to open, and thus allowing water to enter the cylinder. In the event of a
delivery stroke, the pistons opposite movement increases the pressure inside the cylinder. The
increment of pressure causes the suction valve to close and delivery valve to open, where the
water is forced into the outlet pipe [8]-[9].
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Fig. 3. Suction Stroke
Fig. 4. Delivery Stroke

The delivery or flow rate of a triplex piston pump can be calculated by identifying the volumetric
displacement of the pump. Thus, the volumetric displacement, VD, of triplex piston pump can be
represented by,
VD
D 2 LC
(1)
where D, L and C refers to piston diameter, stroke length and number of piston used in the
pump. Thus, the theoretical flow rate of the triplex piston pump is,
VD N
60
(2)
where N is the rotational speed of the pump. In energy efficiency, the volumetric efficiency must
be achieved with minimum losses as much as possible [10]. Any changes in slippage and
pressure have little effect on the performance, provided that it is operating at higher rotational
speeds and flow rates. Because the clearances are so small, leakage flow is treated as laminar as,
Q P
(3)
Thus for a triplex piston pump, the outlet to inlet leakage or slip flow is shown as,
QL SF P2 P1
(4)
where SF is the slip flow coefficient. During operation, a partial vacuum is created at the pump
inlet as the piston moves. The fluid will flow into the cylinder and at this moment the liquid have
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chances to slip at the edge of piston and cylinder wall. By applying the principle of continuity to
the inlet and outlet pipe, the expression for actual flow rate can be state as,
Q2 Q1 QL
(5)
where Q2 is the actual flow rate, Q1 is the ideal flow and QL is the slip flow rate,
Q2 VD N SFP2 P1
(6)
The expression for volumetric efficiency can be stated as,
VD N SFP2 P1
VD N
(7)

3.1 Survey Results
The result in the Fig. 5 obtained from question 1 are 72% which 29 of the respondents agree and
28% or 11 respondents chose not to agree with the idea that water can replace oil as a hydraulic
fluid. From 29 respondents that agree, 17 or 81% from that are students and another 63% that
represent 12 respondents are workers. There are 7 respondents from workers and only 4
respondents from student which representing 37% and 19% from both groups respectively for
the respondents do not agree with the idea.
Water Can Replace Oil As A

Hydraulic Fluid.
Disagree
28%
Agree
72%
Fig.5. Question 1
The statement for second question is water was been used as hydraulic fluid. [2]. As shown in
Fig. 6, 65% of the total respondents said yes which represents 26 respondents and the balance
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35% or 14 respondents said no for this question. From 19 workers, 11 said yes which
representing 58% of workers and from 15 from 21 students or 71% of students said yes. The
other respondents, 8 from workers and 6 from students said no which represents 42% of
workers and 29% of students respectively.
Water Has Been Used As

Hydraulic Fluid
Disagree
35%
Agree
65%
Fig.6
Question 2
The statement for third question is water is more efficient, faster and precise energy transmitter
than oil [11]. Fig. 7 shows there is a quite big different between yes and no. 70% or 28
respondents of the respondents said they do not know about it and only just 30% that
representing 12 respondents said yes. Majority of both group said no which are 63% of workers
and 76% of students that representing 12 workers and 16 students. Only 37% of workers which
7 respondents and 24% of students said they knew about it. It is only 5 students.
Water Is A Good Energy

Transmitter Than Oil
Agree
30%
Disagree
70%
Fig.7
Question 3
The statement is based on the facts that oil reserves are depleting [12]. Therefore, we must
avoid depending on mineral oil or mineral resources. As shown in Fig. 8, almost all said yes that
is 97% for 39 respondents but only 3% for 1 respondent from students said no for this question.
100% or 19 of workers which said they agreed. This is different with group of student. 20
students representing 95% of the group said yes but there is a student said does not agree which
representing 5% of the group.
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We Must Avoid Depending on

Mineral Oil
Disagree
3%
Agree
97%
Fig. 8 Question 4
The statement for this question is water source is unlimited compared to mineral oil [1]. Fig. 9
indicates 100% of the respondents said they agree with that. Itshows both groups which is
workers and students agree that we must use renewable resources in order to enhance
sustainability.
We Must Use Renewable

Resources in Order to Enhance
Sustainability
Disagree
0%
Agree
100%
Fig. 9 Question 5
3.2 Pump Simulation Results

The simulated value of the pump volumetric efficiency, with respect to slip flow coefficient, SF, is
presented in Fig. 10 to Fig. 13. The efficiency is represented with various pressures, ranging
from 10 bar, 20 bar, 30 bar, and 40 bar as the maximum loading pressure for the pump.
The data is also represented with various rotational speeds, ranging from 0 to 4000 RPM. All
figures show the trend of the volumetric efficiency, with slip factor coefficient of
0.003,
0.015,
0.03 and
0.06. Basically, the slip factor is increased from 5, 10 and 20
times of the original SF. The simulated data is recorded for a triplex piston pump having
theoretical volumetric displacement of 0.038 m3/rev.
At loading pressure, PL = 10 bar, for slip flow coefficient, SF = 0.003. It is noted that the efficiency
is around 96% to 98%, from 250 RPM up to 3500 RPM. The efficiency for the pump decreases when
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the slip factor is increased 5 times the original value, into SF = 0.015. At the same loading pressure,
the efficiency is around 80% to 98%, ranging from 250 RPM up to 3500 RPM. At SF = 0.03, or 10
times the original value, the efficiency declines from 62% to 96%, which is recorded from 250 RPM
to 3500 RPM. At 20 times the original value (SF = 0.06), the volumetric efficiency is around 24% to
82%, and also can be measured from 250 RPM to 3500 RPM.
The value of simulated volumetric efficiency slightly changes when the loading pressure
increases to 20 bar. It is noted that for slip flow coefficient, SF=0.003, the efficiency is around
92% to 98%, from 250 RPM up to 3500 RPM. The efficiency for the pump decreases when the
slip factor is increased to SF = 0.015. At the same loading pressure, the efficiency is around 62%
to 96%, ranging from 500 RPM up to 3500 RPM. At SF = 0.03, the efficiency decreases from 24%
to 90%, which is recorded from 1000 RPM to 3500 RPM. At SF = 0.06 (20 times the original
value), the volumetric efficiency is around 0% to 82%, but now, it is only measurable from 400
RPM to 3500 RPM.
Changes can be seen more clearly when the loading pressure increases to 30 bar. For slip flow
coefficient, SF = 0.003 the efficiency is around 90% to 98% which is recorded from 250 RPM up
to 3500 RPM. At SF = 0.015, the efficiency dropped to around 44% to 90%. The efficiency for the
pump keep decreasing when the slip factor is increased to SF = 0.03 and SF = 0.06. At the same
loading pressure, the efficiency is ranging from the efficiency is around 0% to 84%, and around
0% to 80%, while it can only be measured from 300 RPM up to 3500 RPM and from 400 RPM to
3500 RPM respectively.
Lastly, at PL = 40 bar, It is obvious that for slip flow coefficient, SF=0.003, the efficiency is around
84% to 96%, from 250 RPM up to 3500 RPM. The efficiency for the pump decreases when the
slip factor is increased to SF = 0.015. At the same loading pressure, the efficiency is dropped
until 24% to 88%, ranging from 250 RPM up to 3500 RPM. At SF = 0.03, the efficiency shows
significant decrement from 0% to 82%, which is recorded from 350 RPM to 3500 RPM. At SF =
0.06 (20 times the original value), the volumetric efficiency is around 0% to 78%, but now, it is
only measurable from 800 RPM to 3500 RPM. From this figure, it shows that at a typical
rotational speed of below 800 RPM, no efficiency can be recorded with the use of pumps having
slip factor of 0.06. Therefore, if the slip factor represents the use of water hydraulics in triplex
piston, it would be acceptable if a higher RPM is used. And even if the highest RPM is possible,
for example around 3500 RPM, it will only provide volumetric efficiency around 78%.
Fig. 10. Volumetric Efficiency at 10 bar
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4. CONCLUSION
The study on water hydraulics trainer for secondary and tertiary level of education is being
conducted at the Centre for Advanced Research on Energy, UniversitiTeknikal Malaysia Melaka.
The objective of the study is to provide variety information regarding to the use of low viscosity
and sustainable water hydraulics in educational apparatus. The survey results suggest that
adequate knowledge about water hydraulic technology should be available in technical and
vocational field. Besides that, the simulation results shows that, water can be applied in all
components, provided that suitable pressure and slip factor for the respective pump is achieved
within an appropriate value.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research work is supported under the short term project PJP/2013/FKM(10A)/S01228. The
authors wish to thank UniversitiTeknikal Malaysia Melaka for their financial support.
REFERENCES
1. E. Trostmann, B, Frolund, B. H. Olesen and B. Hilbrecht. Tap Water As A Hydraulic Pressure
Medium. New York. Marcel Dekker, Inc. 2001.
2. G.W. Krutz, P.S. Chua. Water hydraulicstheory and applications.The Water Hydraulics,
Agricultural Equipment Technology Conference, Lousville, Kentucky. United States. 2004, pp.
1-33
3. F. Conrad, Trends in Design of Water Hydraulics Motion Control and Open-Ended
Solutions. Proceedings of The 6th JFPS International Symposium on Fluid Power, Tsukuba,
Japan,2005, pp. 420-430.
4. W. Backe, Water or Oil Hydraulic in The Future. The Sixth Scandinavian International
Conference on fluid power, SICFP99, Tampere, Finland, 1999, pp.51-65.
5. A.A.Yusof, S.Mat and A.T.Din. Promoting Sustainability Through Water Hydraulics
Technology: The Effect of Water Hydraulics in Industrial Scissor Lift. Applied Mechanics
and Materials. 315, 2013, pp 488 492.
6. K.T. Koskinen,TLeino and H. Riipinen, Sustainable Development with Water HydraulicsPossibilities and Challenges. Proceedings of The 7th JFPS International Symposium on Fluid
Power, Toyama, Japan,2008, pp. 11-18
7. S. Oshima, T. Hirano, S. Miyakawa and Y. Ohbayashi, Development of a Rotary Type Water
Hydraulic Pressure Intensifier. Proceedings of The 7th JFPS International Symposium on
Fluid Power, Toyama, Japan,2008, pp. 391-396
8. A.A.Yusof, F. Wasbari, M.N.A. Saadun and M.S. Zakaria, Fluid Power System Part 1:
Introduction to Fluid Power System. Teaching and Learning Series. UTeM Publisher.
Malaysia. 2014.
9. R.S. Khurmi, A Textbook of Hydraulic Machines. S. Chand Publisher. India.2001.
WoCTVET 2014 | 556
10. A.A. Yusof, F. Wasbari, M.S. Zakaria and M.Q. Ibrahim. Slip Flow Coefficient Analysis in
Water Hydraulics Gear Pump for Environmental Friendly Application. IOP Conference
Series: Materials Science and Engineering50, 2013, pp 18.
11. Koskinen, K. T., Leino, T.,andRiipinen, H. (2008). Sustainable Development with Water
Hydraulics - Possibilities and Challenges. Proceedings of the 7th JFPS International
Symposium on Fluid Power, (pp. 11-18). Toyama.
12. Vidal, J. (2005), The end of oil is closer than you think, unpublished.
WoCTVET 2014 | 557
Capturing Creative Behaviours Whilst Using Computer Aided

Design (CAD) Through Personal Designing Exercise
Aede Hatib Mustaamal1*, Eddie Norman2 , Norzanah Rosmin3 and Yahya Buntat4.
1Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 2Loughborough Design School,
Loughborough University, United Kingdom, 3Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, and 4Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
1*aede@utm.my, 2 e.w.norman@lboro.ac.uk & 3 norzanah@fke.utm.my &p-yahya@utm.my
ABSTRACT
Many perceive that CAD is not facilitating creativity in designing compare to other design tools
such as sketching and 3D physical modeling. However, prior study by researchers have indicated
the possible link between creativity and the use of CAD through the emergence creative
behaviours. Hence, this study was undertaken with an attempt to capture the emergence of
creative behaviours whilst designer engaged in CAD. The personal designing research which also
known as a practice-led research was used to establish such evidence. Data gathering
approaches such as protocol analysis, and design diaries were used in this study. A framework
known as Creative Behaviours Framework was used to facilitate the data capturing, and data
analysis processes. Thus, this article is discussing on how the personal designing approach
undertaken, and reporting the findings whether there is any link between creativity and CAD.
Keywords: Computer Aided Design; Creative Behaviours, Personal Designing; Design Diaries
1. .INTRODUCTION
It seems unavoidable for humans to be involved with technology in their work especially when it
related to creative aspects. The use of CAD in designing activities had spark question on whether
this technology does have any implications to designers creativity? This study was initially
initiated as part of a bigger study to acquire data and evidence that could shed light on the link
between CAD and creativity through creative behaviours. Before those links could be evidently
proven, one other question need to be answered which is whether Creative Behaviours occurred
when designers engaged in CAD. Hence, this article presents an attempt to investigate whether
Creative Behaviours could be observed and identified whilst designer engaged in CAD through
personal designing activity
2. BACKGROUND OF STUDY
2.1 CAD and Creativity
The introduction of Computer Aided Design (CAD) has brought a new era in how designers deal
with their design tasks. CAD has gone through a progressive technology evolution for a wide
range of users from those undertakings less complex product design to more sophisticated and
complicated design tasks [1]. CAD technology has shown how it is able to facilitate various users
needs in designing activities including sketching tools in two-dimensions (2D) and threedimensions (3D).
WoCTVET 2014
Research reported by [2] found that skill was an essential factor in enabling CAD to be used
effectively for design development and modelling tasks. Studies also showed that CAD was also
successfully supporting post processes in design development (e.g. [3]. It is a useful
presentation tool, and the virtual reality features in CAD provide designers with efficient
environment to communicate their design thinking with adequate aesthetic quality and design
details [4].
There has been growing interest in exploring the link between the used of CAD and creativity in
designing e.g. [5]. In line with this, [6] suggested that CAD should therefore be seen as a set of
tools, which can be adopted as and when they are appropriate within the broad creative
process. In this context [7] suggested that there is still a need to articulate and clarify what the
nature of the links between CAD and creativity would possibly be.
Figure 1. Linking CAD and creativity in designing

2.2 Creative Behaviours Model (CBM)
The definition of creativity have been long debated by creativity experts and researchers.
According to [6], creativity is a complex topic and seen as a slippery concept. While [9]
considered it as something that is ambiguous and problematic to understand. These, according
to [10] have made research especially in creativity is difficult.
One way of understanding creativity is by building on four aspects which are the product, the
person, the process [11][12] or press (the environment) [12][13]. These are known as 4Ps
[14][15]. This is supported by [16] who suggested that the knowledge of creativity could be
acquired by studying any of these interlinked elements. They further suggested the creative
process may be inferred by observing the person and the product in combination.
Reference [17] reported from Eysenck that creativity is conceived as a latent trait underlying
creative behaviour. This may also be perceived as the act or manner that is demonstrated by
creative persons in forming creative outcome which named as creative acts [18]. This is
supported by [18] who stated that creativity may refer to the process from which the end
product emerges. In this sense it refers to behaviour which directed towards creative
achievement
From published literatures, the seven categories of creative behaviours is providing a
framework for observing and capturing their occurrences when designer used CAD in designing
activities. This framework was named as Creative Behaviours Model. The seven categories
including of fluency, flexibility, sensitivity, insightfulness, novelty, appropriateness, and
motivation [19][20]. The seven categories are shown in Figure 2 and also three descriptors
which help to explain the meaning of the seven terms.
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Figure 2. Creative Behaviours Model (CBM) and its Descriptors (Source: [19])
2.3 Personal Designing Exercise (PDE)
The personal designing research was inspired by Pedgleys PhD practice led-research which
reported on a case study of acoustic polymer guitar design. Reference [21] described practice
led-research or PDE in this context as a mode of enquiry in which design practice is used to
create an evidence base for something demonstrated or found out. By undertaking his own
design exercise, the researcher would potentially discover the unstated knowledge in the
designing process that is possibly difficult to apprehend by observing others design acts. In this
study, a design project related to developing a design concept of an alternative music therapy
instrument was conducted. This project was conducted with the advised from Liz Norman, a
professional music therapist to get a better understanding of any underlying issues in this area.
3. METHODOLOGY
The data collection approaches were including protocol analysis, and design diary. The protocol
analysis was chosen to be one of the research tools because it was one of the approach that
enable researcher to get close to the designers thought processes [22].
In this study, the researcher has played the role of designer, and at the same time recording the
data for the analysis. An on-screen video recording instrument known as CAMTASIA was used to
record the CAD designing sessions. This would allow a one-man operation of the data capturing
process without the need for other person to carry out the video recording of the CAD sessions.
Figure 3. A CAD activity session

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Besides the protocol analysis, design diary was also employed in the study. The design diary
allowed the researcher to have hindsight about his experiences each time he used CAD in
designing. The design diary entries were also filled in each time CAD was used to record the
emergence of creative behaviours. Frequent diary entries were vital to avoid difficulties in
recalling past experiences. Reference [23] notes that diaries track researchers daily activities
and objective experiences. The design diary would help the researcher to keep track, and gather
as much information as possible from every CAD session he anticipated throughout the design
project.
4. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
4.1 Protocol Analysis
The video recorded data from the CAMTASIA software were then analysed using Transana, a
type of qualitative analysis software for video and audio data. The video file was embedded into
the transana for transcribing. The software has features that enable audio and video data to be
transcribed concurrently while observing and/or listening the recording.
Time codes can be put into the text of the transcript that can be very useful for synchronising a
transcript with the audio and video especially with a longer recording. This is very useful in
facilitating the data analysis and links finding with the exact time these occurred in the video
clips.
The video data was analysed and examples of the findings are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Example of Creative Behaviours identified excerpts from a CAD activity analysis
From the analysis, twenty nine descriptor occurrences were captured which indicated the
emergence of six creative behaviours as shown in Table 2. None of descriptors identified had any
link with novelty behaviour.
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Table 2. Creative Behaviours identified in a CAD activity in Personal Designing Exercise
4.2 Design Diaries

In this study, the researcher was also completing the design diary sheets every time he engaged
in CAD activity. By filling the design diaries himself, the researcher would acquire a better
understanding of how this method could provide significant information on the design project
especially when related to CAD usage. The data provided was based on thirteen (13) CAD
sessions recorded by the researcher throughout the design project.
In total, 46 occurrences of creative behaviours were documented in the diaries and the findings
are tabulated as shown in Table 3.
Table 3. The frequency of Creative Behaviours occurrences
The table was indicated that motivation was the highest percentage of Creative Behaviours
identified by researcher when using CAD with 19 occurrences. This was followed by flexibility,
and fluency. Interestingly, 2 occurrences of novelty were recorded which had not been
distinguished from prior study (Aede Hatib et.al, 2008).
From the design diaries, the researcher has distinguished the emergence of the novelty
behaviour in two CAD sessions as follow:
a) Unexpected musical form
suggest unexpected form-elaboration from sketching [excerpt from diary entry (CAD/Diary02)]
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Figure 4. An initial idea of musical instrument form from one of the CAD activity session
b) Unexpected speaker holes pattern [excerpt from diary entry (CAD/Diary-06)]
Figure 5. An example of unexpected speaker holes pattern suggested in one of the CAD activity
session
The novelty behaviour in this context is actually referring to the designers behaviour who is
exploring the original, uncommon, and unexpected new form of musical instrument for his
design project.
5. CONCLUSION
This paper reports the authors efforts to understand how design researchers could observed
and captured designers behaviours through the lens of Creative Behaviours Model. This study
has demonstrated that the Creative Behaviours have been observed and identified through its
descriptors during the CAD sessions. Besides supporting prior research findings, this study have
been able to identify novelty which have not been able to be captured in previous study. These
findings have given a new perspective on how creativity could be perceived in CAD designing
activities, and the methods suggested in this study to capture Creative Behaviours were
effective.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge Ministry of Education for granting research funding (FRGS
Vot: 4F556), Loughborough University, and also to the Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia.
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7. Lawson, B. (1999). Fake and Real Creativity Using Computer Aided Design: Some Lesons
from Herman Hertzberger. Proceedings of the 3rd conference on Creativity & Cognition,
Loughborough, 174-179.
8. Spendlove, D. (2005). Creativity in Education: A Review. Design and Technology Education:
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9. Dakers, J. (2004). Exploring Creativity as a Component of the Manufacturing or Making
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Getzels, J.W (eds.). Perspectives in Creativity. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company. 1-36.
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13. Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in Context. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
14. Richards , P. (1999). Four Ps of Creativity. In Runco, M.A and Pritzker, S.R (Eds.)
Encyclopedia of Creativity. Volume 1. San Diego: Academic Press. 33-42.
15. Bostrom, R. P. and Nagasundram, M. (1998). Research in Creativity and GSS. Proceedings of
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16. [16] El-Murad, J. and West, D.C. (2004). The definition and Measurement of Creativity:
What Do We Know?. Journal of Advertising Research, 44(22), 188-201.
17. Aguilar-Alonso, A. (1996). Personality and Creativity. Person Individual Differences 21(6),
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18. Rogers, C. R. (1970). Towards a Theory of Creativity. In Vernon, P.E. Creativity.
Harmondsworth, Baltimore, Ringwood: Penguin Education.
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22. Pedgley, O. (2007). Industrial Designers Attention to Materials and Manufacturing
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