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It is well established that zero as a numerical notation was

discovered in India. But, when did it occur has divided the
historians. The Bakhshali manuscripts dating back to 200A.D.
does represent sunya as both dot and a small circle. But, the
first inscriptions with the notation of zero as circle can be found
in Malay inscriptions at Kotakapur(686 A.D.). Since these were
based upon Saka calendar and Hinduized kingdoms, it is
presumed that the idea emerged in India. Though, the first
record of use of zero in India dates back to 876A.D. This
inscription is found on tablets in Gwalior. The time is relevant
with regard to spread of new doctrines across Indian geo-cultural
region and discussed later.
The greatest ancient Indian mathematician Aryabhatta who built new calendars by fixing beginning of
sidereal time in 499A.D. composed Aryabhattia at around same time. But, in all likelihood, he was not
aware about the operation of zero, nor any notation determined for zero. He did develop alpha-numeric
system. He apportioned certain values to 33 consonants from 1-25 and later 30-100. The vowels attached
to the basic consonants changed the numerical value as a series of power of Using these signs, the
numbers upto 10 to the power 18.The Aryabhatia system is summarized below:

Ka

Kha

Ga

Gha

Nga

Cha

Chha

Ja

Jha

Aena

10

Ta

Tha

Da

Dha

Na

11

12

13

14

15

Th

Da

Dha

Na

16

17

18

19

20

Pa

Pha

Ba

Bha

Ma

21

22

23

24

25

Ya

Ra

La

Va

30

40

50

60

Sha

Ssha

Sa

Ha

70

80

90

100

Now, 64 can be written in alphabet as gha (4) +va(60) or ghava.Thus Aryabhatta developed the
versification of mathematical works. This system clearly lacked any positional value and a numerical
notation for zero.
Stephen Chrisomalis concludes in his monumental work, Numerical Notation: A comparative
History,Cambridge:2010) that the concept of sunya or emptiness existed in the fifth century AD and
may have prefigured the use of positional numerals in India, but no good evidence survives for an actual
ciphered-positional numeration system prior to the seventh century AD, long after Aryabhatas death.
(p.208)
But, Aryabhata did use the word "kha" for numeric position and it was used later as the name for zero.
Since kha in Aryabhatas system denotes mere number 2, which for there were existing notation, what
actually favoured the use of kha to designate zero in words and then as the sign of small circle?

Before delving upon this kha-movement, we may sum up the beginning of use of kha/small circle for
zero.

It was a succeeding mathematician , Brahmagupta, who is credited with discovering zero and giving
sutras for the operation of zero in 628 AD..
In chapter 18 of his worked Brahmasphutasiddhanta (Corrected Treatise of Brahma), Brahmagupta
describes about Zero as the numerals which stood for nothing .?His formulations are as below

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Similarly, he gave the operation of zero as a multiplier correctly. But, he could not handle the formulation
of zero as divisor. For Brahmagupta, it would give 0 which was fallacious. This problem was taken up by
Mahavira two centuries later in his ?
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 .But, even he fumbled and stated that if 0 is
the divisor, the number would remain unchanged . =  wrote Lilavati during 12 th century and he
could put in proper perspective various operation of 0. One thing is interesting. Kha became synonymous
with zero beginning from Aryabhatta and later were more widely used in spiritual tradition than in the
mathematical world.

 

Aryabhata uses the word kha to denote emptiness.Suryadeva commenting on Aryabhatas kha, says that
, khani sunya upa lakshitaniIn Brahmaguptas work, the word gets prominence. Kha and sunya(void) is
used synonymously. In Lilavati, when one come across the chapter on description of Sunya(zero), its a
veritable carnival of kha. The verse reads as follows:


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Ananda Coomarswami had written an oblique piece on the concept in 1934,h? ?
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Studies, VII(1934). He has tried to trace the origin of the use of kha for space to Rigveda in the context of
the hole in the nave of a wheel through which the axle runs.He states that sunya(void) as well as
purna(full) have a common reference in the Vedas. Since, the Vedic seers were enamored by the

wheel(chakra), the names of various parts of wheel were used to explain metaphysical concepts. Now,
kha is the nabhi of the wheel, the space within the hub. Nbahi is also the navel, navel of beings and
things. Thus, kha is the central space of things and beings. In the Rigveda, kha or nabhi of the world
wheel is regarded as the receptacle and fountain of all order, formative ideas and goods(Coomarswami).

I find it unlikely that Vedas were influencing mathematical formulations during a period when there was
growth of new sects, a synthesis of Buddhism and Saivism was going on and various tantra sects were
emerging. Moreover, it was also the millennium moment from the Buddhamahaparinirvana calendar
which resulted into refixation of nakshatra chakra by Aryabhata in 499A.D.
Rather mathematicians had adopted reverse approach to the Vedas. While in the Vedas, there are
instances of numbers denoting things like number 12 denotes the year, the mathematicians like
Aryabhata opted to formulate alpha-numeric system where now the numbers were versified. This was a
prominent reversal of Vedic approach.
I would like to emphasize that some momentous churning occurred during the period from Aryabhatta's
time to Brahmagupta's time that made zero(sunya/kha) to emerge as a category. the notation of small
circle emerged only during the later half of the seventh century. This was the period of rise of Siddha
tradition in India which had significant impact over structure of Indian culture. The Siddhas were adept in
bodily techniques and oblique statements. The Siddha movement and the emergence of circle to denote
zero seems connected.

If one juxtaposes the greatest tantra literature, Tantraloka and the Para-Trika-Vivarana by Abhinavagupta
written at the time when Lilavati was composed by Bhaskar; one will be amazed at similarities of many
ideas. Kha is the mantra of absorption. Since, the Universe is viewed as a pulsating process between
manifestation and absorption, emergence and dissolution, the great thinkers of the time began to work out
the methods for achieving the state of permanent quietude,

Kha became a mantra. It became the mantra to realize ten succeeding inner spaces of peace, the ten khas.
By using the mantra of kha, the yogis were taught to awaken the Kundalini energy in the median nerve.
The ultimate kha is empty space of heart wherein consciousness shines alone without any covering.
From kha, another concept of khechari developed.Khechari is khe charati iti khechari-which moves in
kha(space) is khchari. Kha is the symbol of undifferentiated ultimate consciousness. It is the samvid-sakti,
consciousness-power. Abhinavaguptas definition of khechari is very homologous to Bhaskar or other
mathematicians conception about Kha.khe brahmani abhedarupe sthitva carati iti khechari-khechari is
that which while stationed in Brahman /Absolute, in unity, moves about, states Abhinavagupta. Its the
nature of mathematical zero. Though, it is indistinguishable from the void, it moves about and gives
power to the numbers. Khechari like zero is dynamic. Abhinavagupta even explained about various
dynamic modes of khechari like vyomachati, gochari, dikchari, bhuchari just like the number of zero that
succeeds a numeral adds to the power of number. Its clear that the kha pervaded literature of tantra as well
as mathematical treatises simultaneously.


 !  
The Nath sect is believed to have emerged during 9th century. They were instrumental in spreading
hathayoga techniques. In Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Khechari Mudra is described as below:

Verse 32. The Kechari Mudra is accomplished by thrusting the tongue into the gullet, by turning it over
itself, and keeping the eyesight in the middle
37. Turning the tongue upwards, it is fixed on three ways (esophagus, windpipe and palate). Thus it
makes the Khechari Mudra, and is called the Vyoma Chakra.
38. The Yogi who sits for a minute turning his tongue upwards, is saved from poisons, diseases, death,
old age, etc.
39. He who knows the Khechari Mudra is not afflicted with disease, death, sloth, sleep, hunger, thirst, and
swooning.
40. He who knows the Khechari Mudra, is not troubled by diseases, is not stained with karmas, and is not
snared by time.
41. The Siddhas have devised this Khechari Mudra from the fact that the mind and the tongue reach
akasa(sky) by its practice.

(One can visualize the inner circle as the folded tongue of khechri mudra and the
outside curve as the open mouth. Structure of phoneme kha thence corresponds with
the khechari mudra of yogies)

Thus, the Khechari mudra for the Siddhas and Nathas were meant to accomplish mastery over space, the
void ,the sky by doing which they believed ,they could achieve the Full Realization. What is interesting
that though, small circle is present in Devnagari script in many letters like tha, tha, va, ba, ma, bha; but
only the letter kha assumed significance in denoting sky/space/hole/circle. It has to do with khechari
mudra . Once a yogi folds the tongue, the mudra assumes the form of a kha. Based upon spiritual
experiments ,they might have realized that this gesture makes them feel lighter and experience the
expanse of consciousness. The correspondence between the structure of phoneme kha, the gesture of
khechari mudra appears to be a journey of phoneme mysticism. In Indian tradition, phonemes are always
considered as mere subtler form of the grosser Reality. The word is the World. Thus, the phoneme kha
and the khechari mudra became one by the relationship of hierarchy of manifestation.
What is interesting that like mathematical conception of kha, the mystical conception of kha incorporates
paradoxical ends of void and Expansion of fullness. Thus, one finds in the texts like Tantraloka how
Purnatasparsha and Kha fuse at a point. The Fullness of the Touch of Reality and the pervasion of inner
most space of heart is achieved at same times. The eternity and the nothingness became one and the same.

It is like a wheel, without end. Perhaps the small circle notation of zero emerged from the idea of wheel
during those centuries.
v   
After the attack of Huns during middle of the fifth century, Indian sub-continent was gripped by the
millennium fever. The millennium had approached from Buddha Parinirvana calendar. There was a spurt
in composition of literature like Puranas to describe about the coming avatars. At this time, the idea of
chakra spread all across. If one cycle was ending, another cycle shall begin with new avatar commanding
the righteous society. Chakras entered into tantra rituals. Practitioners believed that by performing chakraworship, they would be able to sail across the millennium time. Various kind of sects centered around
ritual like ganachakra, kalachakra ,srichakra, chakrasamvara emerged. The circle became important in
popular perception. The circle, triangle and dots were used to construct mystical diagrams in various
rituals. But, it was the circle which won the race since those times appeared to the thinkers and the royalty
as so cyclic. One can see the impact over Indian society after Aryabhat recalculated nakshatrachakra and
fixed sidereal time as zero in 499A.D. Subsequently, the chakra ideas peaked and so did the conception of
zero and later its notation as circle during middle of seventh century.
Emergence of notation for zero was dictated more by the religious needs rather than mathematical
exploration. The idea of kha, sunyata, khechari and chakra fused together to provide the most wonderful
gift to the modern world.
(Niraj, 0300 hrs.,31st May,2011)





+

,Ananda K. Coomarswami, K? ?

?
? ?
????? ?
??(Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, VII(1934)
2. Stephen Chrisomalis , Numerical Notation: A comparative History,Cambridge:2010
3. Lilian Silburn, Kundalini-energy of the depths, SUNY,1988
4. Jaidev singh,Abhinavagupta-Para-Trisika-Vivarana,The Secret of Tantrik Mysticism, MLBD,1988
4. K.V.Sarma eds. Lilavati of Bhaskaracarya with Kriyakramakari of Sankara & Narayan,VV Research
Institute,1975
5.B.B.Datta &A.N.Singh, History of Hindu mathematics, Asia Publishing House, 1935
6.R.N.Mukherjee, Background to the Discovery of the Symbol for Zero, downloaded from
http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af8_225.pdf