MECHANICS NOTES

UNIT :-4

Introduction
Kinematics is the branch of dynamics which describes the motion
of
bodies without reference to the forces which either cause the
motion or
are generated as a result of the motion. Kinematics is often
described as
the geometry of motion. Some engineering applications of
kinematics
include the design of cams, gears, linkages, and other machine
elements
to control or produce certain desired motions, and the calculation
of
flight trajectories for aircraft, rockets, and spacecraft. A thorough
working
knowledge of kinematics is a prerequisite to kinetics, which is the
study of the relationships between motion and the corresponding
forces
which cause or accompany the motion.

Rectilinear Motion

Consider a particle P moving along a straight line, Fig. 2/2. The

position
of P at any instant of time t can be specified by its distance s
measured
from some convenient reference point O fixed on the line. At time
t+t the particle has moved to Pand its coordinate becomes
s+s.
The change in the position coordinate during the interval t is
called
the displacement s of the particle. The displacement would be
negative
if the particle moved in the negative s-direction.

Velocity and Acceleration

The average velocity of the particle during the interval t is the
displacement
divided by the time interval or vav =s/t. As t becomes
smaller and approaches zero in the limit, the average velocity
approaches
the instantaneous velocity of the particle, which is
v=

lim s
t

t 0

Or
v=

ds
=s
dt

Thus, the velocity is the time rate of change of the position

coordinate s.
The velocity is positive or negative depending on whether the
corresponding
displacement is positive or negative.
The average acceleration of the particle during the interval t is
the
change in its velocity divided by the time interval or aav =v/t.
As t
becomes smaller and approaches zero in the limit, the average
acceleration
approaches the instantaneous acceleration of the particle, which
is

a=

lim v
t

t 0

Or
a=

dv
=v
dt

PROJECTILE MOTION
INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapters, we have been

discussing the motion of bodies, either in horizontal
or vertical directions. But we see that whenever a
particle is projected upwards at a certain angle (but
not vertical), we find that the particle traces some path
in the air and falls on the ground at a point, other than
the point of projection. If we study the motion of the
particle, we find that the velocity, with which the
particle was projected, has two components namely
vertical and horizontal.
The function of the vertical component is to
project the body vertically upwards, and that of the
horizontal is to move the body horizontally in its directionThe
combined effect of both the components is to move the particle
along a parabolic
path. A particle, moving under the combined effect of vertical and
horizontal forces, is called a
projectile. It may be noted that the vertical component of the
motion is always subjected to gravitational
acceleration, whereas the horizontal component remains
constant.

IMPORTANT TERMS
The following terms, which will be frequently used in this chapter,
should be clearly understood
at this stage :

1. Trajectory. The path, traced by a projectile in the space, is

known as trajectory.
2. Velocity of projection. The velocity, with which a projectile is
projected, is known as the
velocity of projection.
3. Angle of projection. The angle, with the horizontal, at which
a projectile is projected, is
known as the angle of projection.
4. Time of flight. The total time taken by a projectile, to reach
maximum height and to
return back to the ground, is known as the time of flight.
5. Range. The distance, between the point of projection and the
point where the projectile
strikes the ground, is known as the range. It may be noted that
the range of a projectile
may be horizontal or inclined.

MOTION OF A PROJECTILE
Consider a particle projected upwards from a point O at an angle
, with the horizontal, with
an initial velocity u m/sec as shown in Fig. 20.4.
Now resolving this velocity into its vertical and horizontal
components,
V = u sin and H = u cos
We know that the vertical component (u sin ) is subjected to
retardation due to gravity. The
particle will reach maximum height, when the vertical component
becomes zero. After this the particle
will come down, due to gravity, and this motion will be subjected
to acceleration due to gravity.

The horizontal component (u cos ) will remain constant, since

there is no acceleration or
retardation (neglecting air resistance). The combined effect of the
horizontal and the vertical
components will be to move the particle, along some path in the
air and then the particle falls on the
ground at some point A, other than the point of projection O as
shown in fig:-2

EQUATION OF THE PATH OF PROJECTILE

FIG:-3
Consider a particle projected from a point O at a certain angle
with the horizontal. As already
discussed, the particle will move along certain path OPA, in the
air, and will fall down at A as shown
in Fig. 20.5.
Let u = Velocity of projection, and
= Angle of projection with the horizontal.
Consider any point P as the position of particle, after t seconds
with x and y as co-ordinates as
shown in Fig.3. We know that horizontal component of the velocity
of projection. = u cos
and vertical component = u sin
y=u sint-1/2gt2 ..(1)
and x=u cos t

or t = x/u cos
Substituting the value of t in equation (i),

y= u sin (x/u cos) 1/2 g(x/u cos)2

= x tan g x2 /2 u2 cos2 .(2)
Since this is the equation of a parabola, therefore path of a
projectile (or the equation of
trajectroy) is also a parabola.

TIME OF FLIGHT OF A PROJECTILE ON A

HORIZONTAL PLANE

It is the time, for which the projectile has remained in the air. We
have already discussed in that the co-ordinates of a projectile
after time t.
1 2
y=u sin t g t
2

We know that when the particle is at A, y is zero. Substituting this

value of y in the above
1
o=usint g t 2
2
1
usint = g t 2
2
1
usin= g t 1
2
t=

2 usin
g

HORIZONTAL RANGE OF A PROJECTILE

We have already discussed, that the horizontal distance between
the point of projection and the
point, where the projectile returns back to the earth is called
horizontal range of a projectile
ucos

2usin
g

=horizontal velocity time of flight

ucos

2 usin 2 u sincos
=
g
g

R=

u sin 2
g

( sin=2 sin cos )

NOTE :-for a given velocity of projectile ,the range

will be maximum when sin2=1 . therefore
2 =90

or =45
u2 sin 90 u2
Rmax=
=
g
g

MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF A PROJECTILE ON A

HORIZONTAL PLANE
we have already discussed that the vertical
component of the initial velocity of a projectile
usin

and vertical component of final velocity = 0

Average velocity of (i) and (ii),

usin +0 usin
=
2
2

Let H be the maximum height reached by the

partical and t be the time taken by the partical to
reach maximum height i.e. ,to attain zero velocity
from (u sin). we have also discussed that
time taken by the projectile to reach the maximum
height,

usin
g

Maximum height of projectile ,

H=average vertical velocitytime

usin usin u2 sin2

=
2
g
2g

TIME OF FLIGHT OF A PROJECTILE ON AN

INCLINED PLANE

FIG:-20.17. Projectile on an inclined plane.

consider a projectile from O on an upward inclined plane OA. let
FIG :-20.17.
the projectile strile B as shown in
let u = initial velocity of projection,
= angle of projection with the horizontal.
=inclination of the plane OA with the horizontal ,
R = range of flight from Oto B, and
t = time of flight from O to B.
Component of intial velocity , normal to the plane OA
= u sin (-) ..( i )
we know that acceleration due to gravity normal to the plane OA
= g cos ..(ii)
and acceleration due to gravity alone the plane OA
= g sin ..(iii)
Now consider te motion of the projectile normal to the plane . we
know that distance covered by the projectile normal to the plane
OA is zero . therefore substituting these values in the general
equation of motion , i.e.
1 2
s=ut g t
2

1
0=usin ( ) t ( gcos) 2
t
2

0=usin(-) (gcos)t

(dividing both side by t)

t=

2 u sin ( )
gcos

NOTE:- When the projectile is projected on a downward inclined

plane , the times of flight may be found out by substituting
instead of + in the above equation .

RANGE OF PROJECTILE ON AN INCLINED

PLANE
We have already discussed that time of flight ,
t=

2 u sin ( )
gcos

And horizontal component of the range ,

OC= horizontal component of velocity Time
ucos

2 u sin ( )
=
g cos

2 u2 sin ( )cos
gcos

Actual range on the inclined plane,

R=

2
2
OC 2u sin ( )cos 2u sin ( )cos
=
=
cos
gcos cos
g cos 2

u2
[2 cos sin ( )]
2
g cos

u2
[sin ( 2 )sin]
g cos 2

From the above equation , we find that for the given values of u
& , the range will be maximum , when sin(2-) is maximum(as
the value of u,g,& are constant).we know that for maximum
value of sine of any angle ,the angle must be equal to 900 or /2
(2-) = /2 or = (/4 + /2)
Or in other word ,the range on the given plane is maximum, when
the direction of projection bisects the angle between the vertical
and inclined plane.
Now the maximum range , substituting the value of in equation ,

Rmax=

{ [(

] }

u2

sin 2 + sin
2
4 2
g cos

{ [(

] }

sin
+ sin
2
2
g cos

u2

= g cos 2 [sin ( 2 sin)]

u2
= g cos 2 [1sin ]
1sin
g ( 2 )
u 2(1sin )

u2
= g (1+ sin)

RIGID BODY
Strictly speaking, the laws of motion, enunciated by Newton, are
applicable only to the rigid
bodies. Though a rigid body (or sometimes written as body for
the sake of simplicity) is defined in
many ways by the different scientists, yet there is not much of
difference between all the definitions.
But the following definition of a rigid body is universally
recognised.
A rigid body consists of a system of innumerable particles. If the
positions of its various
particles remain fixed, relative to one another (or in other words,
distance between any two of its
particles remain constant), it is called a solid body. It will be
interesting to know that in actual practice,
all the solid bodies are not perfectly rigid bodies. However, they
are regarded as such, since all the
solid bodies behave more or less like rigid bodies .
NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

Following are the three laws of motion, which were enunciated by

Newton, who is regarded as
father of the Science.
1. Newtons First Law of Motion states, Everybody continues in
its state of rest or of uniform
motion, in a straight line, unless it is acted upon by some external
force.
2. Newtons Second Law of Motion states, The rate of change of
momentum is directly
proportional to the impressed force, and takes place in the same
direction, in which the
force acts.
3. Newtons Third Law of Motion states, To every action, there is
always an equal and opposite reaction.

NEWTONS SECOND LAW OF MOTION

It states, The rate of change of momentum is directly
proportional to the impressed force and
takes place, in the same direction in which the force acts. This
law enables us to measure a force,
and establishes the fundamental equation of dynamics. Now
consider a body moving in a straight
line. Let its velocity be changed while moving.
Let m = Mass of a body,
u = Initial velocity of the body,
v = Final velocity of the body,
a = Constant acceleration,
t = Time, in seconds required to change the velocity from u to v,
and
F = Force required to change velocity from u to v in t seconds.
Initial momentum = mu
and final momentum = mv
Rate of change of momentum
=

mvmu m(v u)
=
=ma
t
t

According to Newtons Law of motion , the rate of change of

momentum is directly proportional to the impressed force.
Fma = k ma
Where k is a constant of proportionality.
For the sake of convenience , the unit of force adopted is such
that it produce unit acceleration to a unit mass.
F = ma = mass acceleration
In S.I. system of units, the unit of force is called newton briefly
written as N. A Newton may
be defined as the force while acting upon a mass of 1 kg,
produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 in
the direction of which it acts. It is also called the Law of dynamics
and consists of the following
two parts :
1. A body can posses acceleration only when some force is
applied on it. Or in other words,
if no force is applied on the body, then there will be no
acceleration, and the body will
continue to move with the existing uniform velocity.
2. The force applied on a body is proportional to the product of
the mass of the body and the
acceleration produced in it.
It will be interesting to know that first part of the above law
appears to be an extension of the
First Law of Motion. However, the second part is independent of
the First Law of Motion.

MOTION OF A LIFT
Consider a lift (elevator or cage etc.) carrying some mass and
moving with a uniform acceleration
Let m = Mass carried by the lift,
a = Uniform acceleration of the lift, and
R = Reaction of the lift or tension in the cable, supporting the lift,
Here we shall discuss the following two cases as shown in Fig. 6
(a) and (b) :

1. When the lift is moving upwards

We know that downward force due to mass of the lift

= mg
And upward force on the lift , F = R mg (i)
We also know that this force = mass acceleration = m a ...
(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii),
R- mg=ma
R= ma +mg = m(a+g)
2. when the lift is moving downwards.
In this case ,the net downeard force , which is responsible for the
motion of the lift.
= mg R .(iii)
From equation (ii) and (iii),
ma = mg R
R = mg ma = m(g-a)

Note. In the above cases, we have taken mass carried by the lift
only. We have assumed that it
includes mass of the lift also. But sometimes the example
contains mass of the lift and mass carried bythe lift separately.
In such a case, the mass carried by the lift (or mass of the
operator etc.) will exert a pressure on
the floor of the lift. Whereas tension in the cable will be given by
the algebraic sum of the masses of
the lift and mass carried by the lift. Mathematically. (When the lift
is moving upwards), then the
pressure exerted by the mass carried by the lift on its floor
= m2(g + a)
And tension in the cable = (m1+m2)(g+a)
Where m1 = mass of the lift and
m2 = mass carried by the lift.

DALEMBERTS PRINCIPLE*
It states, If a rigid body is acted upon by a system of forces, this
system may be reduced to a
single resultant force whose magnitude, direction and the line of
action may be found out by the
methods of graphic statics.
We have already discussed in art. 24.6, that force acting on a
body.
P = ma ...(i)
where m = mass of the body, and
a = Acceleration of the body.
The equation (i) may also be written as :
P ma = 0 ...(ii)
It may be noted that equation (i) is the equation of dynamics
whereas the equation (ii) is the
equation of statics. The equation (ii) is also known as the equation
of dynamic equilibrium under the
action of the real force P. This principle is known as D' Alemberts
principle

*..*