Name: Demetriou De Gannes

Date: 22/10/2015
Form: U6-2
Subject: Biology
Teachers name: Mrs. Deane-Paul
Title: Transpiration.
AIM: To compare rates of transpiration of a leafy shoot under different environmental
conditions.
INTRODUCTION:
Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from
aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only a
small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism. The
remaining 99-99.5% is lost by transpiration. Leaf surfaces are dotted with pores called
stomata, and in most plants they are more numerous on the undersides of the foliage. The
stomata are bordered by guard cells and their stomatal accessory cells (together known as
stomatal complex) that open and close the pore. Transpiration occurs through the stomatal
apertures, and can be thought of as a necessary "cost" associated with the opening of the
stomata to allow the diffusion of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis.
Transpiration also cools plants, changes osmotic pressure of cells, and enables mass flow
of mineral nutrients and water from roots to shoots. Mass flow of liquid water from the
roots to the leaves is driven in part by capillary action, but primarily driven by water
potential differences. In taller plants and trees, the force of gravity can only be overcome
by the decrease in hydrostatic (water) pressure in the upper parts of the plants due to the
diffusion of water out of stomata into the atmosphere. Water is absorbed at the roots by
osmosis, and any dissolved mineral nutrients travel with it through the xylem.
In plants, the transpiration stream is the uninterrupted stream of water and solutes which
is taken up by the roots and transported via the xylem vessels to the leaves where it
evaporates into the air/apoplast-interface of the substomatal cavity. It is driven by
capillary action and in some plants by root pressure. The main driving factor is the
difference in water potential between the soil and the substomatal cavity caused by
transpiration.
Water potential is the potential energy of water per unit volume relative to pure water in
reference conditions. Water potential quantifies the tendency of water to move from one
area to another due to osmosis, gravity, mechanical pressure, or matrix effects such as
capillary action (which is caused by surface tension). Water potential has proved especially
useful in understanding water movement within plants, animals, and soil. Water potential
is typically expressed in potential energy per unit volume and very often is represented by
the Greek letter \Psi. Water potential integrates a variety of different potential drivers of
water movement, which may operate in the same or different directions. Within complex
biological systems, it is common for many potential factors to be important. For example,
the addition of solutes to water lowers the water's potential (makes it more negative), just

as the increase in pressure increases its potential (makes it more positive). If there is no
restriction on flow, water will move from an area of higher water potential to an area that
has a lower water potential. One very common example is water that contains a dissolved
salt, like sea water or the solution within living cells. These solutions typically have
negative water potentials, relative to the pure water reference. If there is no restriction on
flow, water molecules will proceed from the locus of pure water to the more negative
water potential of the solution; flow proceeds until the difference in solute potential is
balanced by another force, for example, pressure potential.
Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave that can be seen by humans. The wave nature
of light was first illustrated through experiments on diffraction and interference. Like all
electromagnetic waves, light can travel through a vacuum. The transverse nature of light
can be demonstrated through polarization. Light is sometimes also known as visible light
to contrast it from "ultraviolet light" and "infrared light". Other forms of electromagnetic
radiation that are not visible to humans are sometimes also known informally as "light"
Light is produced by one of two methods.
Incandescence is the emission of light from "hot" matter (T 800 K).
Luminescence is the emission of light when bound electrons fall to lower energy levels.
The speed of light depends upon the medium through which it travels. The speed of light
in a vacuum is a universal constant in all reference frames. All electromagnetic waves
propagate at the speed of light in a vacuum. The speed of light in a medium is always
slower the speed of light in a vacuum. (The difference is usually negligible when the
medium is air.) The speed of anything with mass is always less than the speed of light in a
vacuum. (The speed of light in a vacuum is the universal speed limit.) The speed of light in
a vacuum is fixed at 299,792,458 m/s by the current definition of the meter. The amplitude
of a light wave is related to its intensity. Intensity is the absolute measure of a light wave's
power density. Brightness is the relative intensity as perceived by the average human eye.
The frequency of a light wave is related to its color. Color is such a complex topic that it
has its own section in this book. Monochromatic light can be described by only one
frequency. Laser light is very nearly monochromatic. There are six simple, named colors in
English (and many other languages) each associated with a band of monochromatic light.
In order of increasing frequency they are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.
Polychromatic light is compused of multiple frequencies. Every light source is essentially
polychromatic. White light is very polychromatic. A graph of relative intensity vs.
frequency is called a spectrum (plural: spectra). Although frequently associated with light,
the term can be applied to many phenomena. A continuous spectrum is one in which
every frequency is present within some range. Blackbody radiators emit a continuous
spectrum. A discrete spectrum is one in which only a set of well defined and isolated
frequencies are present. (A discrete spectrum is a finite collection of monochromatic light
waves.) The excited electrons in a gas emit a discrete spectrum. The wavelength of a light
wave is inversely proportional to its frequency. Light is often described by it's wavelength
in a vacuum. Light ranges in wavelength from 400 nm on the violet end to 700 nm on the
red end of the visible spectrum. Wavelengths slightly shorter than 400 nm are said to be
ultraviolet. (They are "beyond violet" in terms of frequency.) Wavelengths slightly longer
than 700 nm are said to be infrared. (They are "below red" in terms of frequency.) Phase

differences between light waves can produce visible interference effects. (There are
several sections in this book on interference phenomena and light.)
A stoma is a pore, found in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs, that is used
to control gas exchange. The pore is bordered by a pair of specialized parenchyma cells
known as guard cells that are responsible for regulating the size of the opening. The term
is also used collectively to refer to an entire stomatal complex, both the pore itself and its
accompanying guard cells. Air enters the plant through these openings, and contains
carbon dioxide and oxygen, which are used in photosynthesis and respiration, respectively.
Oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis diffuses out to the atmosphere
through these same openings. Also, water vapor is released into the atmosphere through
these pores in a process called transpiration.
Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue in vascular plants, phloem being the
other.
A photometer sometimes known as a transpirometer. It is a device used for measuring the
rate of water uptake of a leafy shoot. The causes of water uptake are photosynthesis and
transpiration. Everything must be completely water tight so that no leakage of water
occurs. There are two main types of potometers used - the bubble potometer (as detailed
below), and the mass potometer. The mass potometer consists of a plant with its root
submerged in a beaker. This beaker is then placed on a digital balance; readings can be
made to determine the amount of water lost by the plant. The mass potometer measures
the water lost through transpiration of the plant and not the water taken up by the plant. A
potometer is a piece of apparatus used to measure the rate of water loss from a plant
(transpiration).
The rate of transpiration can be estimated in two ways:
1) Indirectly - by measuring the distance the water level drops in the graduated tube over
a measured length of time. It is assumed that this is due to the cutting taking in water
which in turn is necessary to replace an equal volume of water lost by transpiration.
2) Directly - by measuring the reduction in mass of the potometer over a period of time.
Here it is assumed that any loss in mass is due to transpiration.
Apparatus:
Photometer: conical flask, short rubber tubing, rubber bung, with a single ring hole,
hypodermic syringe, graduated capillary tube, large black polyethene bag, large
transparent polyethene, small electric fan, retort stand and clamp, stopwatch,
thermometer, leafy shoot from a hibiscus and water bath.
Method:
1. A suitable leafy plant was selected, in a bucket of water the shoot was cut off so air
is not drawn into the xylem.
2. Immediately after, the shoot was cut again under water with a slanting cut, a few
centimetres above the original cut. (The stem must be thick enough to fit tightly
into the bung of the photometer.
3. A conical flask was submerged in a sink of water to fill it with water.

4. The leafy shoot was transfered from bucket to sink and again immediately a slanting
cut was made a few centimetres above the last cut.
5. The shoot was fitted into the bung of the flask under water and the bung was
pushed in to make a tight fit.
6. The graduated capillary tube was submerged, with rubber bung attached, in the
sink, it was filled with water and attached to the side arm of the filter flak.
7. The apparatus was removed from the sink and the syringe was set up with the
needle pushed into the rubber tubing.
8. The syringe was clamped in a vertical position.
9. The joint between the shoot and bung was smeared with Vaseline to make sure it is
airtight.
10.As the shoot took up water, the end of the water column in the capillary tube
moved. It was returned to the open end of the tube by pushing in water from the
syringe.
11.The shoot was allowed to equilibrate for 5min whilst regularly replacing the water
taken up.
12.The time taken for the water column to move a given distance along the capillary
tube was measured and expressed as the rate of water uptake in convenient units
such as mlmin-1.
13.A number of readings were taken to ensure that the rate is fairly constant, and the
mean result was calculated.
14.The temperature of the air around the plant was also noted.
15.Each time the air bubble reached the end of the graduated section of the tube, it
was returned to its original position with the syringe.
The effects of some of the following factors on rate of uptake of water was investigated:
a) Wind: A small electric fan was used to allow wind to fall on the plant. (the fan wasnt
strongly buffet or the stomata would close.)
b) Darkness: The shoot was enclosed in a black polythene bag or cupboard.
c) Normal transpiration occurred.
(In each case sufficient time should be allowed to ensure that the new rate has been
attained.)
Results:
Table showing the volume of water transpired in light, dark and windy conditions.
Time(mins
)
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16

Volume of water
transpired in light
conditions
1.0
1.5
2.1
2.6
3.3
3.9
4.5
5.1

Volume of water
transpired in dark
conditions
0.7
1.3
1.9
2.4
3.1
3.5
4.1
4.6

Volume of water
transpired in wind
conditions
0.9
1.7
2.5
3.4
4.3
5.1
5.8
6.6

18
5.7
20
6.2
Calculations:

5.1
5.6

7.5
8.4

Light >> (14,4.5) and (6,2.1)

M=

4.52.1
=0.30
146

Dark >> (20,5.6) and (2,0.7)

M=

5.60.7
=0.27
202

Light >> (18,7.5) and (12, 5.1)

M=

7.55.1
=0.4
1812

Discussion:
Cell membranes act as barriers to most, but not all, molecules. Development of a cell
membrane that could allow some materials to pass while constraining the movement of
other molecules was a major step in the evolution of the cell. Cell membranes are
differentially (or semi-) permeable barriers separating the inner cellular environment from
the outer cellular (or external) environment.
Water potential is the tendency of water to move from an area of higher concentration to
one of lower concentration. Energy exists in two forms: potential and kinetic. Water
molecules move according to differences in potential energy between where they are and
where they are going. Gravity and pressure are two enabling forces for this movement.
These forces also operate in the hydrologic (water) cycle. Remember in the hydrologic
cycle that water runs downhill (likewise it falls from the sky, to get into the sky it must be
acted on by the sun and evaporated, thus needing energy input to power the cycle).
Osmotic pressure is defined as the hydrostatic pressure required to stop the net flow of
water across a membrane separating solutions of different compositions. In this context,
the membrane may be a layer of cells or a plasma membrane.
Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light
stimulates the opening of the stomata. Light also speeds up transpiration by warming the
leaf. When there is no breeze, the air surrounding a leaf becomes increasingly humid thus
reducing the rate of transpiration. When a breeze is present, the humid air is carried away
and replaced by drier air. This experiment proved all of the above.
The average rate of transpiration was obtained with respect to the graphs. This was done
by obtaining two coordinates from the graphs plotted of the results during the experiment.
By the three graphs plotted, the graph representing the rate of transpiration in dark
3

conditions reacted the slowest with a rate of 0.27 cm min

, followed by the graph

representing the rate of transpiration in light conditions which rate was 0.30 cm min

and the graph representing the rate of transpiration in light conditions with the rate of
3

0.40 cm min

Light, specifically light intensity, is probably the most obvious among the environmental
factors affecting transpiration in plants. It has a controlling effect on the opening of the
stoma through which water primarily escapes in gaseous state. In general, transpiration
rate is high during daytime, particularly when light is bright, than during night time. The
stomata are typically open during daytime, allowing the entry of CO2 and the exit of O2.
The opening of the stomata likewise enables the escape of water as water vapor in the
process of stomatal transpiration.
As represented by the graphs plotted with the coordinates obtained from the experiment
conducted, the graph representing the rate of transpiration in dark conditions had the
3

slowest rate of 0.27 cm min

. This is the result because there is an absence of light.

Water and carbon dioxide travel through the same pours/ stomata. As there is no light
present, photosynthesis is not proceeding so the stomata is closed as there is no need for
carbon dioxide absorption. By the stomata not opening, there will be minimal water loss or
transpiration.
The middle rate graph, the graph representing the rate of transpiration in light conditions
3

was a bit faster with the transpiration rate of 0.30 cm min

. This is the result because

there is a presence of light. Photosynthesis is proceeding so the stomata is open as there

is now a need for carbon dioxide absorption. As the water and carbon dioxide travel
through the same stomata, by the stomata opening, there will be a greater water loss or
transpiration.
The graph with the most rapid rate of transpiration was the graph representing the rate of
3

transpiration in windy conditions which was 0.40 cm min

. This result was because the

test subject was exposed to both light and windy conditions. The result was assured to be
higher than the light conditions graph because this test subject was exposed to light as
well and another favourable condition of transpiration, light. Pockets of air saturated with
water vapor are present ear the stomata of plants which increases the humidity because
of there being a large concentration of water vapor near the stomata which allow
transpiration to occur. This reduces transpiration but as there is wind present, the pockets
filled with water vapor are removed and as the water vapor concentration decreases, the
transpiration rate will increase.
Precautions made in doing the experiment were as simple as washing the apparatus clean
before use to prevent contamination, systematic errors were avoided (such as faulty
equipment) and all reactants were made the same temperature before reacting. Avoid
parallax errors. The same plant was used to avoid natural different rates of transpiration.
Limitations experienced in this experiment were; there was a delay in using the stop watch
as there was the factor of reaction time and there was temperature fluctuations from not

being in a closed environment as this is also a factor which affects the rate at which plants
transpire. Another very important limitation was the ability of the test plant to be reacting
before the clock was started being the reason why the graph did not start at 0 cm

Conclusion:
By the three graphs plotted, the graph representing the rate of transpiration in dark
3

conditions reacted the slowest with a rate of 0.27 cm min

, followed by the graph

3

representing the rate of transpiration in light conditions which rate was 0.30 cm min

and the graph representing the rate of transpiration in light conditions with the rate of
3

0.40 cm min