Cleopatra

1 Etymology of the name

For other uses, see Cleopatra (disambiguation).

The name Cleopatra is derived from the Greek name

Greek: (Kleopatra) which meant she who
comes from glorious father or glory of the father in
the feminine form, derived from Greek: (kleos)
glory combined with Greek: (pater) father
(the masculine form would be written either as Kleopatros (Greek: ), or Patroklos (Greek: Cleopatra was a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, a fam)).[8][9]
[3]
ily of Macedonian Greek origin that ruled Egypt after
Alexander the Great's death during the Hellenistic period.
The Ptolemies, throughout their dynasty, spoke Greek[4]
and refused to speak Egyptian, which is the reason that 2 Biography
Greek as well as Egyptian languages were used on ocial
court documents such as the Rosetta Stone.[5] By contrast, 2.1 Accession to the throne
Cleopatra did learn to speak Egyptian[6] and represented
herself as the reincarnation of an Egyptian goddess, Isis.
Cleopatra VII Philopator (Greek: ; 69[1] August 12, 30 BC[2] ), known to history simply as Cleopatra, was the last active pharaoh of
Ptolemaic Egypt, shortly survived as pharaoh by her son
Caesarion. After her reign, Egypt became a province of
the then-recently established Roman Empire.

Cleopatra originally ruled jointly with her father, Ptolemy

XII Auletes, and later with her brothers, Ptolemy XIII and
Ptolemy XIV, whom she married as per Egyptian custom,
but eventually she became sole ruler. As pharaoh she consummated a liaison with Julius Caesar that solidied her
grip on the throne. She later elevated her son with Caesar,
Caesarion, to co-ruler in name.
After Caesars assassination in 44 BC, she aligned with
Mark Antony in opposition to Caesars legal heir, Gaius
Julius Caesar Octavianus (later known as Augustus).
With Antony, she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene II and
Alexander Helios, and another son, Ptolemy Philadelphus
(her unions with her brothers had produced no children).
After losing the Battle of Actium to Octavians forces,
Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra followed suit. According to tradition, she killed herself by means of an asp
bite on August 12, 30 BC.[7] She was outlived by Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh by his supporters, but
soon killed on Octavians orders. Egypt then became the
Roman province of Aegyptus.
To this day, Cleopatra remains a source of perpetual fascination in Western culture. Her legacy survives in numerous works of art and many dramatizations of incidents from her life in literature and other media, including William Shakespeare's tragedy Antony and Cleopatra, George Bernard Shaw's play Caesar and Cleopatra,
Jules Massenet's opera Cloptre and the lms Cleopatra
(1934) and Cleopatra (1963).

Ptolemaic Queen (Cleopatra VII?), 50-30 B.C., 71.12, Brooklyn

Museum

The identity of Cleopatras mother is unknown, but she

is generally believed to be Cleopatra V Tryphaena of
Egypt, the sister or cousin and wife of Ptolemy XII
Auletes, or possibly another Ptolemaic family member who was the daughter of Ptolemy X and Cleopatra
Berenice III Philopator if Cleopatra V was not the daugh1

2 BIOGRAPHY

ter of Ptolemy X and Berenice III.[10] Cleopatras father 2.2.1 Assassination of Pompey
Auletes was a direct descendant of Alexander the Great's
general, Ptolemy I Soter, son of Arsinoe and Lagus, both While Cleopatra was in exile, Pompey became embroiled
in the Roman civil war. After his defeat at the Battle of
of Macedon.
Pharsalus, in the autumn of 48 BC, Pompey ed from
Centralization of power and corruption led to uprisings in
the forces of Caesar to Alexandria, seeking sanctuary.
and the losses of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, making Ptolemy
Ptolemy, thirteen years old at that time, had set up a
XIIs reign one of the most calamitous of the dynasty.
throne for himself on the harbor. From there he watched
When Ptolemy went to Rome with Cleopatra, Cleopatra
as on September 28, 48 BC, Pompey was murdered by
VI Tryphaena seized the crown but died shortly afterone of his former ocers, now in Ptolemaic service. He
wards in suspicious circumstances. It is believed, though
was beheaded in front of his wife and children, who were
not proven by historical sources, that Berenice IV poion the ship from which he had just disembarked. Ptolemy
soned her so she could assume sole rulership. Regardless
is thought to have ordered the death to ingratiate himself
of the cause, she ruled until Ptolemy Auletes returned in
with Caesar, thus becoming an ally of Rome, to which
55 BC, with Roman support, capturing Alexandria aided
Egypt was in debt at the time. This act proved a misby Roman general Aulus Gabinius. Berenice was impriscalculation on Ptolemys part. When Caesar arrived in
oned and executed shortly afterwards, her head allegedly
Egypt two days later, Ptolemy presented him with Pombeing sent to the royal court on the decree of her father,
peys severed head; Caesar was enraged. Although he
the king. Cleopatra now, at age 14, became joint regent
was Caesars political enemy, Pompey was a Roman conand deputy to her father, although her power would have
sul and the widower of Caesars only legitimate daughter,
been severely limited.
Julia, who died in childbirth. Caesar seized the Egyptian
Ptolemy XII died in March 51 BC. His will made 18-year- capital and imposed himself as arbiter between the rival
old Cleopatra and her brother, 10-year-old Ptolemy XIII, claims of Ptolemy and Cleopatra.
joint monarchs. The rst three years of their reign were
dicult due to economic failures, famine, decient oods
of the Nile, and political conicts. Although Cleopatra 2.2.2 Relationship with Julius Caesar
was married to her young brother, she quickly made it
clear that she had no intention of sharing power with him.
In August 51 BC, relations between Cleopatra and
Ptolemy completely broke down. Cleopatra dropped
Ptolemys name from ocial documents and her face
alone appeared on coins, which went against Ptolemaic
tradition of female rulers being subordinate to male corulers. In 50 BC Cleopatra came into serious conict
with the Gabiniani, powerful Roman troops of Aulus
Gabinius who had left them in Egypt to protect Ptolemy
XII after his restoration to the throne in 55 BC. The
Gabiniani killed the sons of the Roman governor of
Syria, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, when they came to ask
for their assistance for their father against the Parthians.
Cleopatra handed the murderers over in chains to Bibulus, whereupon the Gabiniani became bitter enemies of
the queen.[11] This conict was one of the main causes
of Cleopatras fall from power shortly afterward. The
sole reign of Cleopatra was nally ended by a cabal of
courtiers, led by the eunuch Pothinus, in connection with
a half-Greek general, Achillas, and Theodotus of Chios.
Circa 48 BC, Cleopatras younger brother Ptolemy XIII
became sole ruler.[12]
Cleopatra tried to raise a rebellion around Pelusium, but
was soon forced to ee with her only remaining sister,
Arsino.[13]
Cleopatra and Caesar (1866). Painting by Jean-Lon Grme

2.2

Relations with Rome

Eager to take advantage of Julius Caesar's anger toward

Ptolemy, Cleopatra had herself secretly smuggled into
his palace to meet with Caesar. Plutarch, in his Life

2.2

Relations with Rome

of Julius Caesar[14] gives a vivid description of how she

entered past Ptolemys guards rolled up in a carpet that
Apollodorus the Sicilian was carrying.[15] She became
Caesars mistress and nine months after their rst meeting, in 47 BC, Cleopatra gave birth to their son, Ptolemy
Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion, which means little Caesar.
At this point, Caesar abandoned his plans to annex Egypt,
instead backing Cleopatras claim to the throne. After
Mithridates raised the siege of Alexandria, Caesar defeated Ptolemys army at the Battle of the Nile; Ptolemy
XIII drowned in the Nile[16][17] and Caesar restored
Cleopatra to her throne, with another younger brother
Ptolemy XIV as her new co-ruler.[18][19][20] When Caesar left Egypt he stationed a Roman occupying army of
three legions there under the command of Ruo.[21]

3
Caesaris just outside Rome (as a foreign head of state
she was not allowed inside Romes pomerium)[22][23] The
relationship between Cleopatra and Caesar was obvious
to the Roman people and caused a scandal because the
Roman dictator was already married to Calpurnia Pisonis. But Caesar even erected a golden statue of Cleopatra represented as Isis in the temple of Venus Genetrix
(the mythical ancestress of Caesars family), which was
situated at the Forum Julium.[24][25] The Roman orator
Cicero said in his preserved letters that he hated the foreign queen.[23] Cleopatra and her entourage were still in
Rome when Caesar was assassinated on 15 March 44
BC., [26] returning with her relatives to Egypt. When
Ptolemy XIV died allegedly poisoned by his older sister
Cleopatra made Caesarion her co-regent and successor
and gave him the epithets Theos Philopator Philometor (=
Father- and mother-loving God).[27][28][29]
2.2.3 Cleopatra in the Roman Civil War
In the Roman civil war between the Caesarian faction, led
by Mark Antony and Octavian, and the faction including
the assassins of Caesar, led by Marcus Junius Brutus and
Gaius Cassius Longinus, Cleopatra sided with the Caesarian party because of her past. Brutus and Cassius left
Italy and sailed to the east of the Roman Empire, where
they conquered large areas and established military bases.
At the beginning of 43 BC, Cleopatra formed an alliance
with the leader of the Caesarian party in the east, Publius
Cornelius Dolabella, who also recognized Caesarion as
her co-ruler.[30][31] But soon, Dolabella was encircled in
Laodicea and committed suicide (July 43 BC).

Cleopatra VII and her son Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera

Cassius wanted to invade Egypt to seize the treasures of

that country and for her support for Dolabella. Egypt
seemed an easy target because it did not have strong land
forces and there was famine and an epidemic. Cassius
also wanted to prevent Cleopatra from bringing reinforcements for Antony and Octavian. But he could not execute
an invasion of Egypt because Brutus summoned him back
to Smyrna at the end of 43 BC. Cassius tried to blockade
Cleopatras route to the Caesarians. For this purpose Lucius Staius Murcus moved with 60 ships and a legion of
elite troops into position at Cape Matapan in the south
of the Peloponnese. Nevertheless, Cleopatra sailed with
her eet from Alexandria to the west along the Libyan
coast to join the Caesarian leaders, but she was forced to
return to Egypt because her ships were damaged by a violent storm, and she became ill. Staius Murcus learned of
the queens misfortune and saw wreckage from her ships
on the coast of Greece. He then sailed with his ships into
the Adriatic Sea.[32]

Although Cleopatra was 21 years old when they met and

Caesar was 52, they became lovers during Caesars stay
in Egypt between 48 BC and 47 BC. Cleopatra claimed
Caesar was the father of her son and wished him to name
the boy his heir, but Caesar refused, choosing his grandnephew Octavian instead. During this relationship, it was
also rumored that Cleopatra introduced Caesar to her astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria, who proposed the idea
of leap days and leap years. This was not new - they
were proclaimed in 238 BC but the reform never took
eect. Caesar made this the basis of his reform of the
Roman calendar in 45 BC and the Egyptian calendar was
2.2.4 Cleopatra and Mark Antony
reformed along these lines in 26 BC.

Cleopatra, Ptolemy XIV and Caesarion visited Rome in In 41 BC, Mark Antony, one of the triumvirs who ruled
the summer of 46 BC. The Egyptian queen resided in Rome in the power vacuum following Caesars death, sent
one of Caesars country houses, which included the Horti his intimate friend Quintus Dellius to Egypt to summon

2 BIOGRAPHY

Antony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema

A tetradrachm of Cleopatra VII, Syria mint

Denarius, 32 BC. Obverse: Diademed bust of Cleopatra,

CLEOPATRA[E REGINAE REGVM]FILIORVM REGVM. Reverse: Bust of M. Antony, ANTONI ARMENIA DEVICTA

Cleopatra to Tarsus to meet Antony and answer questions

about her loyalty. During the Roman civil war she allegedly had paid much money to Cassius. It seems that in
reality Antony wanted Cleopatras promise to support his
intended war against the Parthians. Cleopatra arrived in
great state, and so charmed Antony that he chose to spend
the winter of 41 BC40 BC with her in Alexandria.[33]
To safeguard herself and Caesarion, she had Antony order the death of her sister Arsinoe, who had been banished to the Temple of Artemis in Roman-controlled
Ephesus for her role in leading the Siege of Alexandria.
The execution was carried out in 41 BC on the steps of
the temple, and this violation of temple sanctuary scandalised Rome.[34] Cleopatra also retrieved her strategos
of Cyprus, Serapion, who had supported Cassius against
her wishes.[35]

ing Antonys conquest of Armenia, Cleopatra and Caesarion were crowned co-rulers of Egypt and Cyprus;
Alexander Helios was crowned ruler of Armenia, Media,
and Parthia; Cleopatra Selene II was crowned ruler of
Cyrenaica and Libya; and Ptolemy Philadelphus was
crowned ruler of Phoenicia, Syria, and Cilicia. Cleopatra was also given the title of Queen of Kings by
Antonius.[36] Her enemies in Rome feared that Cleopatra, "...was planning a war of revenge that was to array all
the East against Rome, establish herself as empress of the
world at Rome, cast justice from Capitolium, and inaugurate a new universal kingdom.[37] Caesarion was not only
elevated having coregency with Cleopatra, but also proclaimed with many titles, including god, son of god and
king of kings, and was depicted as Horus.[38] Egyptians
thought Cleopatra was a reincarnation of the goddess Isis,
as she called herself Nea Isis.[39]

Relations between Antony and Octavian, disintegrating

for several years, nally broke down in 33 BC, and Octavian convinced the Senate to levy war against Egypt. In
31 BC Antonys forces faced the Romans in a naval action
o the coast of Actium. Cleopatra was present with a eet
of her own. According to Plutarch, Cleopatra took ight
with her ships at the height of the battle and Antony followed her.[40] Following the Battle of Actium, Octavian
On 25 December 40 BC, Cleopatra gave birth to twins invaded Egypt. As he approached Alexandria, Antonys
fathered by Antony, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Se- armies deserted to Octavian on August 1, 30 BC.
lene II. Four years later, Antony visited Alexandria again There are a number of unveriable stories about Cleopaen route to make war with the Parthians. He renewed tra, of which one of the best known is that, at one of the
his relationship with Cleopatra, and from this point on, lavish dinners she shared with Antony, she playfully bet
Alexandria was his home. He married Cleopatra accord- him that she could spend ten million sestertii on a dining to the Egyptian rite (a letter quoted in Suetonius sug- ner. He accepted the bet. The next night, she had a congests this), although he was at the time married to Octavia ventional, unspectacular meal served; he was ridiculing
Minor, sister of his fellow triumvir Octavian. He and this, when she ordered the second course only a cup
Cleopatra had another child, Ptolemy Philadelphus.
of strong vinegar. She then removed one of her priceless
At the Donations of Alexandria in late 34 BC, follow- pearl earrings, dropped it into the vinegar, allowed it to

2.3

Death

dissolve, and drank the mixture. The earliest report of

this story comes from Pliny the Elder and dates to about
100 years after the banquet described would have happened. The calcium carbonate in pearls does dissolve in
vinegar, but slowly unless the pearl is rst crushed.[41]

2.3

Death

The Death of Cleopatra by Reginald Arthur, 1892

dered his freedman Epaphroditus to guard her to prevent her from committing suicide, because he allegedly
wanted to present her in his triumph. But Cleopatra was able to deceive Epaphroditus and kill herself
nevertheless.[51] Plutarch states that she was found dead,
her handmaiden Iras dying at her feet, and another handmaiden, Charmion, adjusting her crown before she herself fell.[52] He then goes on to state that an asp was concealed in a basket of gs that was brought to her by a
rustic, and, nding it after eating a few gs, she held out
her arm for it to bite. Other stories state that it was hidden
The Death of Cleopatra by Guido Cagnacci, 1658
in a vase, and that she poked it with a spindle until it got
angry enough to bite her on the arm. Finally, he indicates
The ancient sources, particularly the Roman ones, are in that in Octavians triumphal march back in Rome, an efgeneral agreement that Cleopatra killed herself by induc- gy of Cleopatra that had an asp clinging to it was part of
ing an Egyptian cobra to bite her. The oldest source is the parade.[53]
Strabo, who was alive at the time of the event, and might
as Plutarch, also
even have been in Alexandria. He says that there are Suetonius, writing about the same time
[54]
says
Cleopatra
died
from
an
asp
bite.
two stories: that she applied a toxic ointment, or that
she was bitten by an asp on her breast, but he said in Although classical sources say that Cleopatra was bithis writings that he was not sure if Cleopatra poisoned ten on the arm,[55][56][57] she is more usually depicted in
herself or was murdered.[42] Several Roman poets, writ- medieval and Renaissance iconography with asps at her
ing within ten years of the event, all mention bites by two breast, a tradition followed by Shakespeare.[58]
asps,[43][44][45] as does Florus, a historian, some 150 years
later.[46] Velleius, sixty years after the event, also refers to
an asp.[47][48] Other authors have questioned these historical accounts, stating that it is possible that Augustus had
her killed.[49] In 2010, the German historian Christoph
Schaefer challenged all other theories, declaring that the
queen had actually been poisoned and died from drinking
a mixture of poisons. After studying historical texts and
consulting with toxicologists, the historian concluded that
the asp could not have caused a quick and pain-free death,
since the asp (Egyptian cobra) venom paralyses parts of
the body, starting with the eyes, before causing death. As
Cleopatra would have wanted a relatively painless death,
it is quite unlikely that the asp was the cause of her death.
Also, the asps bite is not always fatal. Schaefer and his
Ang kamatayan ni Cleopatra (The Death of Cleopatra) by Juan
toxicologist Dietrich Mebs decided Cleopatra used a mix- Luna, 1881.
ture of hemlock, wolfsbane and opium.[50]
Plutarch, writing about 130 years after the event, re- Plutarch tells us of the death of Antony. When his armies
ports that Octavian succeeded in capturing Cleopatra deserted him and joined with Octavian, he cried out that
in her mausoleum after the death of Antony. He or- Cleopatra had betrayed him. She, fearing his wrath,

ANCESTRY

but the line of all Egyptian pharaohs. The three children

of Cleopatra and Antony were spared and taken back to
Rome where they were taken care of by Antonys wife,
Octavia Minor. The daughter, Cleopatra Selene, was
married through arrangements of Octavian to Juba II of
Mauretania.[63]

3 Character and cultural depictions

Main article: Cultural depictions of Cleopatra
Cleopatra was regarded as a great beauty, even in the ancient world. In his Life of Antony, Plutarch remarks that
judging by the proofs which she had had before this of
the eect of her beauty upon Caius Caesar and Gnaeus
the son of Pompey, she had hopes that she would more
easily bring Antony to her feet. For Caesar and Pompey had known her when she was still a girl and inexperienced in aairs, but she was going to visit Antony
at the very time when women have the most brilliant
beauty.[64] Later in the work, however, Plutarch indicates that her beauty, as we are told, was in itself neither
altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who
saw her.[64] Rather, what ultimately made Cleopatra atCleopatra is depicted taking her own life with the bite of a venwit, charm and sweetness in the tones
omous serpent. Adam Lenckhardt (Ivory).[59] The Walters Art tractive were her
[64]
of
her
voice.
Museum.
locked herself in her monument with only her two handmaidens and sent messengers to tell Antony that she was
dead. Believing them, Antony stabbed himself in the
stomach with his sword, and lay on his couch to die. Instead, the blood ow stopped, and he begged any and all
to nish him o. Another messenger came from Cleopatra with instructions to bring him to her, and he, rejoicing
that Cleopatra was still alive, consented. She would not
open the door, but tossed ropes out of a window. After
Antony was securely trussed up, she and her handmaidens
hauled him up into the monument. This nearly nished
him o. After dragging him in through the window, they
laid him on a couch. Cleopatra tore o her clothes and
covered him with them. She raved and cried, beat her
breasts and engaged in self-mutilation. Antony told her
to calm down, asked for a glass of wine, and died upon
nishing it.[60]

Cassius Dio also spoke of Cleopatras allure: For she was

a woman of surpassing beauty, and at that time, when she
was in the prime of her youth, she was most striking; she
also possessed a most charming voice and knowledge of
how to make herself agreeable to everyone. Being brilliant to look upon and to listen to, with the power to subjugate everyone, even a love-sated man already past his
prime, she thought that it would be in keeping with her
role to meet Caesar, and she reposed in her beauty all her
claims to the throne.[64]
These accounts inuenced later cultural depictions of
Cleopatra, which typically present her using her charms
to inuence the most powerful men in the Western world.
Cleopatra was also renowned for her intellect. Plutarch
writes that she could speak at least nine languages and
rarely had need of an interpreter.[65]

The site of their mausoleum is uncertain, though the 4 Ancestry

Egyptian Antiquities Service believes it is in or near the
temple of Taposiris Magna, southwest of Alexandria.[61] The high degree of inbreeding amongst the Ptolemies
Cleopatras son by Caesar, Caesarion, was proclaimed is also illustrated by Cleopatras immediate ancestry,
pharaoh by the Egyptians, after Alexandria fell to Octa- of which a reconstruction is shown below.[66] Through
vian. Caesarion was captured and killed, his fate report- three uncleniece marriages and three sisterbrother
edly sealed when one of Octavians advisers paraphrased marriages, her family tree collapses to a single couple at
Homer: It is bad to have too many Caesars.[62] This four, ve or six generations back (counting through difended not just the Hellenistic line of Egyptian pharaohs, ferent lines).[67]

Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners by

Alexandre Cabanel (1887).

5 See also
List of female rulers and title holders

6 Notes
[1] Walker, p. 129.
[2] T.C. Skeat, The Last Days of Cleopatra: A Chronological Problem, The Journal of Roman Studies, 43 (1953),
pp. 98100 .
[3]

Statue of Cleopatra as Egyptian goddess; Basalt, second half of

the 1st century BC. Hermitage, Saint Petersburg

Ancestors of Cleopatra VII of Egypt

Western civilisation:ideas, Politics, and society by

Marvin Perry, Margaret C Jacob, Myrna Chase,
James R Jacob page 132: Cleopatra (69- 30 BC),
the Greek queen of Egypt, belonged to the Ptolemaic family, the Macedonian Greeks who ruled
Egypt during the Hellenistic Age. *The Civilization of Rome by Donald R. Dudley, Page 57: In
Egypt the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies was the
successor to the native Pharaohs, exploiting through
a highly organized bureaucracy the great natural resources of the Nile Valley. *The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Cleopatra VII was born
to Ptolemy XII Auletes (8057 BC, ruled 5551
BC) and Cleopatra, both parents being Macedonian Greeks. *Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of
Ancient Egypt by Kathryn Bard, page 488 Ptolemaic kings were still crowned at Memphis and the
city was popularly regarded as the Egyptian rival to
Alexandria, founded by the Macedonian Greeks;
Page 687: During the Ptolemaic period, when
Egypt was governed by rulers of Greek descent
*Cleopatra: A Sourcebook (Oklahoma Series in
Classical Culture) by Prudence J. Jones (Author)
page14: They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.
*Women in Hellenistic Egypt by Sarah B. Pomeroy,
page 16 while Ptolemaic Egypt was a monarchy
with a Greek ruling class.

[4] Cleopatra: the life of an Egyptian queen By Gary Jeffrey, Anita Ganeri page 6 : Throughout their dynasty, the
Ptolemies held onto their Greek culture and continued to
speak Greek as their main language..

6 NOTES

[5] Radio 4 Programmes - A History of the World in 100

Objects, Empire Builders (300 BC - 1 AD), Rosetta
Stone. BBC. Retrieved 2010-06-07.

[31] Cassius Dio, Roman History 47.30.4 and 47.31.5

[6] Plutarch, Antony 27

[33] Plutarch, Life of Antony 25-29; Appian, Civil Wars 5.811; Cassius Dio, Roman History 48.24

[7] Who Was Cleopatra? (page 2)". Smithsonian Magazine.

Retrieved 2008-01-22.

[34] BBC documentary, Cleopatra portrait of a killer

[8] Cleopatra: Meaning & History. Behind the Name.com.

Retrieved 4 April 2014.
[9] Kleopatros: Meaning & History.
Name.com. Retrieved 4 April 2014.

Behind the

[10] The German historian Werner Hu (Die Herkunft der

Kleopatra Philopator (The descent of Cleopatra Philopator), Aegyptus 70, 1990, pp. 191203) assumes instead
that Cleopatras mother was a high born Egyptian woman,
who possibly had become the second wife of Ptolemy XII
after he had repudiated Cleopatra V.
[11] Valerius Maximus 4.1.15
[12] Anderson, Jaynie (2003). Tiepolos Cleopatra. Macmillan Education AU. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-876832-44-5. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
[13] Peter Green (1990), Alexander to Actium: The Historical
Evolution of the Hellenistic Age, Berkeley: University of
California Press, pp. 661664, ISBN 0-520-05611-6
[14] Parallel Lives - The Life of Julius Caesar, 49

[32] Appian, Civil Wars 4.63; 4.74; 4.82; 5.8

[35] Appian, Civil Wars 5.9.35

[36] Syme, p. 270.
[37] Syme, p. 274.
[38] Stanley Mayer Burstein (30 December 2007), The Reign
of Cleopatra, University of Oklahoma Press, p. 20, ISBN
978-0-8061-3871-8, retrieved 31 March 2011
[39] Plutarch, Life of Antony 54.9
[40] 'Actium', The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature,
third edition, edited by M. C. Howatson. Oxford University, 2011.
[41] Ullman, Berthold L. (1957), Cleopatras Pearls, The
Classical Journal 52 (5): 193201.
[42] Strabo, Geography, XVII 10
[43] Note that an unnamed editor of the respected Loeb Classical Library translation stated the twin snakes mentioned
in the text are simply a symbol of death.Virgil, Aeneid,
VIII 696697

[15] So dramatic is the report of Plutarch (Caesar 49.13), that

it is doubted by some scholars. Cleopatra had to be smuggled in secretly, because Ptolemy XIII had blocked all entries to Alexandria, making it impossible for his half-sister
to come into the city.

[44] Horace, Odes, I 37

[16] De Bello Alexandrino2832

[47] Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, II 87

[17] Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.43

[48] For a possible poetic allusion to the asp, see Wallace

Stevenss In the Carolinas

[18] De Bello Alexandrino 33

[19] Cassius Dio, Roman History 42.44
[20] Suetonius, Caesar 35.1
[21] Suetonius, Caesar 76.3
[22] Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.27.3
[23] Cicero, Letters to Atticus 15.15.2

[45] Sextus Propertius, Elegies, III 11

[46] Florus, Epitome of Roman History, II 21

[49] Everitt, Anthony (2007), Augustus: The Life of Romes

First Emperor, New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks, pp. 194195, ISBN 0-8129-7058-6
[50] Melissa Gray (2010-06-30). Poison, not snake, killed
Cleopatra, scholar says - Cleopatra died a quiet and pain
free death, historian alleges.. CNN. Retrieved 2015-1011.

[24] Appian, Civil Wars 2.102.424

[51] Plutarch, Life of Antony 79.6 and 85.46; Cassius Dio,

Roman History 51.11.45 and 51.13.35

[25] Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.22.3

[52] Plutarch, Parallel Lives, LXXXV 23 (Life of Antony)

[26] Cicero, Letters to Atticus 14.8.1 (written on 16 April 44

BC) says that he was very glad that the Queen ed

[53] Plutarch, ibid., LXXXVI 3. See also Cassius Dio, Roman

History, LI 21

[27] Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 15.89

[54] Suetonius, On the Life of the Caesars, Augustus, XVII 4

[28] Porphyry, Fragmente der griechischen Historiker (FGrH)

260 F 2, 16-17

[55] Plutarch, loc. cit.

[29] stele BM 377 (15 February 42 BC) and others

[30] Appian, Civil Wars 4.61.262263

[56] Cassius Dio, op. cit., LI 14

[57] Galen, De Theriaca ad Pisonem, CCXXXVII, who says
she bit herself, rather than an asp biting her.

[58] Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra, V ii

[59] Cleopatra. The Walters Art Museum.
[60] Plutarch, ibid.
[61] Dig 'may reveal' Cleopatras tomb. BBC News. 200904-15. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
[62] Plutarch, Life of Antony 81.4 82.1; Cassius Dio, Roman
History 51.15.5; Suetonius, Augustus 17.5

Modern sources
Bradford, Ernle Dusgate Selby (2000), Cleopatra,
Penguin Group, ISBN 978-0-14-139014-7
Burstein, Stanley M. (2004), The reign of Cleopatra, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, ISBN 0-31332527-8

[63] Plutarch, Life of Antony 87.12; Cassius Dio, Roman History 51.15.6; Suetonius, Augustus 17.5 and Caligula 26.1

Flamarion, Edith; Bonfante-Warren, Alexandra

(1997), Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a
Pharaoh, Harry Abrams, ISBN 978-0-8109-28053

[64] The Beauty of Cleopatra. University of Chicago. Retrieved 2008-05-28.

Foss, Michael (1999), The Search for Cleopatra, Arcade Publishing, ISBN 978-1-55970-503-5

[65] she could pass from one language to another; so that

there were few of the barbarian nations that she answered
by an interpreter; to most of them she spoke herself, as
to the Ethiopians, Troglodytes, Hebrews, Arabians, Syrians, Medes, Parthians, and many others, whose language
she had learnt; which was all the more surprising because
most of the kings, her predecessors, scarcely gave themselves the trouble to acquire the Egyptian tongue, and several of them quite abandoned the Macedonian. Plutarch,
Antony, 27.3-4

Fraser, P.M. (1972), Ptolemaic Alexandria, Oxford:

Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-814278-1

[66] Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal

Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004.
ISBN 0-500-05128-3 The family tree and short discussions of the individuals can be found on pages 268-281.
The authors refer to Cleopatra V as Cleopatra VI and
Cleopatra Selene I is called Cleopatra V Selene.
[67] Stacy Schi, Cleopatra: A Life, Hachette Digital, Inc.,
2010, ISBN 978-0-316-00192-2 Google Books

References

Primary sources
Hegesippus, Historiae i.2932.
Lucan, Bellum civile ix.909911, x.
Macrobius, Saturnalia iii.17.1418.
Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos vi.16.12,
19.418.
Pliny, Naturalis historia vii.2.14, ix.58.119121,
xxi.9.12.

Lindsay, Jack (1972), Cleopatra, New York:

Coward-McCann
Nardo, Don (1994), Cleopatra, Lucent Books, ISBN
978-1-56006-023-9
Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1984), Women in Hellenistic
Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra, New York:
Schocken Books, ISBN 0-8052-3911-1
Roller, Duane W. (2010), Cleopatra: a biography,
Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19536553-5
Southern, Pat (2000), Cleopatra, Tempus, ISBN
978-0-7524-1494-2
Syme, Ronald (1962), The Roman Revolution, Oxford University Press
Volkmann, H. (1958), Cleopatra: A Study in Politics and Propaganda, T.J. Cadoux, trans, New York:
Sagamore Press
Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (2001), Cleopatra of
Egypt, From History to Myth, British Museum Press,
ISBN 978-0-7141-1943-4
Weigall, Arthur (1923), The Life and Times of
Cleopatra Queen of Egypt, London: Putnam

8 External links

Plutarch (1958), Caesar, in Warner, Rex, Fall of

the Roman Republic, London: Penguin Books, ISBN
0-14-044084-4

Cleopatra on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)

Plutarch (1965), Mark Antony, in Scott-Kilvert,

Ian, Makers of Rome, Baltimore: Penguin Books,
ISBN 0-14-044158-1

Mysterious Death of Cleopatra at the Discovery

Channel

Suetonius, De vita Caesarum Iul i.35.52, ii.17.

Cleopatra, a Victorian childrens book by Jacob Abbott, 1852, Project Gutenberg edition

Cleopatra VII at BBC History

10

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Cleopatra Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra?oldid=715849274 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Zundark, Rjstott, Ed Poor,

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9.2

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11

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9.2

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svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x,
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A0_mort.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://perso.orange.fr/verat/CABANEL.htm Original artist: Alexandre Cabanel
File:Cleopatra_VII_tetradrachm_Syria_mint.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Cleopatra_VII_
tetradrachm_Syria_mint.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, photographed at the British Museum Original artist: PHGCOM

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9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Cleopatra_and_Caesar_by_Jean-Leon-Gerome.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Cleopatra_

and_Caesar_by_Jean-Leon-Gerome.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mezzo-mondo.com/arts/mm/orientalist/
european/gerome/index_b.html Original artist: Jean-Lon Grme
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Denderah3_Cleopatra_Cesarion.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Denderah3_Cleopatra_
Cesarion.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright
claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Bradipus assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Female_icon_black.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Female_icon_black.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Abjiklam
File:Guido_Cagnacci_003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Guido_Cagnacci_003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Guido Cagnacci
File:Hiero_Ca1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Hiero_Ca1.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Bryan Derksen
File:Hiero_Ca2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Hiero_Ca2.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Bryan Derksen
File:Lawrence_Alma-Tadema-_Anthony_and_Cleopatra.JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/
Lawrence_Alma-Tadema-_Anthony_and_Cleopatra.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Lawrence Alma-Tadema
File:Ptolemaic_Queen_(Cleopatra_VII?),_50-30_B.C.E.,_71.12.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/
Ptolemaic_Queen_%28Cleopatra_VII%3F%29%2C_50-30_B.C.E.%2C_71.12.jpg License: No restrictions Contributors: Brooklyn Museum Original artist: Charles Edwin Wilbour Fund
File:Rmn-social-header-1-.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Rmn-social-header-1-.svg License: CC
BY 3.0 Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rmn-military-header.svg Original artist: member Amadscientist from a le
on Wikimedia Commons originaly created by Sonarpulse
File:Srxtail2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Srxtail2.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Srxtail2.GIF Original artist: Srxtail2.GIF: Je Dahl
File:The_Death_of_Cleopatra_arthur.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/The_Death_of_Cleopatra_
arthur.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Reginald Arthur (1871-1934)
File:The_Death_of_Cleopatra_by_Juan_Luna1881.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/The_Death_
of_Cleopatra_by_Juan_Luna1881.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://www.superstock.com/stock-photos-images/862-1127 Original artist: Juan Luna
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
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File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
File:_VII.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BE%
D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0_VII.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: George Shuklin

9.3

Content license

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