CHAPTER 1

DEFINITION OF ECONOMICS:

PRELUDE:

Economics is a social science; a classified body of knowledge concerning human relationships clustered about
man’s effort to earn a living.conomics is quite an old discipline. That is why Prof.Samuelson remarks that
Economics is the “Oldest of the arts, newest of the sciences, indeed the Queen of the social sciences”.

The origin of the subject could be traced to the works of the Greek philosopher, Aristotle who confines the study
of economics to household management and acquiring and making proper use of wealth. It is important to note
that the word ‘Economics’ has been derived from the Greek words ‘Oikos’ (a house) and ‘nemine’ (to manage).
Thus economics means managing a household with limited funds. Adam Smith’s magnum opus book “ An
enquiry into the nature and causes of wealth of Nations” published in the year 1776, laid a strong foundation for
the growth of economics. So Adam Smith is rightly called as the “Father of Economics”. Although there is a
plethora of definitions, there is no concord among economists about a precise definition.

1. DEFINITION OF ECONOMICS:
The Various definitions can be classified broadly into three categories:

1. A science of wealth

2. A science of material welfare and

3. A science of scarcity

1.1 A SCIENCE OF WEALTH:

Adam smith, J.B.say, F.A. Walker and other economists of the 18th and 19th centuries have defined economics as
that part of knowledge which relates to wealth. Adam smith considered that the main aim of all economic
activities is to amass as much wealth as possible. It is, therefore, necessary to analyse how wealth is produced
and consumed. Most classical economists supported the Smithian definition of economics.
Wealth definition gave rise to serious misconceptions at the hands of some literary writers of the 19th century
like Ruskin, Thomas Carlye, Charles Dickens,William Morris and Mathew Arnold. Economics was branded as
the ‘ bread and butter science’ , ‘The Gospel of Mammon’ , “ a science that taught ‘ selfishness and love for
money’ , ‘ a dark and dismal science’ , a bastard science, a pig science” and so on.

1.2 A SCIENCE OF MATERIAL WELFARE:

Adam Smith’s wealth definition made economics a dismal science. Alfred Marshall was the first neo-classical
economist to rescue economics from ridicule, condemnation and misunderstanding. Marshall reoriented
economics and placed it on the pedestal of glory, in his classic work ‘ principles of Economics’ published in
1890.

Marshall in his definition, shifted the emphasis from wealth to human welfare. According to him. Wealth is
simply a means to an end in all activities, the end being human welfare.

In Marshall’s own words, “political Economy or Economics, is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of
life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and
with the use of the material requisites of well being”. He adds that economics “is on the one side a study of
wealth; and the other the more important side, a part of the study of man”.

Lionel Robbins led a frontal attack on the welfare definition in his immortal work, “An essay on the Nature and
significance of economic science” published in 1932.In the words of Robbins, “The material list definition of
economics misrepresents the science as we know it”.

1.3 A SCIENCE OF SCARCITY:

After rejecting the materialist definition of Marshall, Robbins formulated his own conception of economics .In
the words of Robbins, “Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends
and scarce means which have alternative uses”. This definition is based on four fundamentals characteristics of
human existence.
1.3.1 HUMAN WANTS ARE UNLIMITED

“Ends” refer to human wants which are unlimited but the resources available to satisfy them are unlimited.

1.3.2SCARCITY OF MEANS

The resources(time or money or both) at the disposal of a person to satisfy his wants are limited. If things are
available in abundance just like free goods, the economic problem will not arise. But as Prof.Meyers says,
“Alladins lamps” exist only in Arabian fairy tales.

1.3.3ALTERNATIVE USES

Economic resources are scarce, but they can be put to alternayive uses. If we choose one thing, we must give up
others.

1.3.4THE ECONOMIC PROBLEM

When the means at the disposal of a person are limited and the resources can be put to several uses, and when
wants can be graded on the basis of intensity, human behavior necessarily takes the form of choice.

Recently, Prof.Samuelson has given a definition based on Growth aspects which is known as the “Growth
Definition”.

MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

MEANING

Managerial economics lies on the borderline of management and economics.It is a hybrid of the two disciplines
and is primarilyan applied branch of knowledge.The development of the science of managerial economics is of
recent origin. After the Second World War and particularly after 1950, with rapid expansion of international
trade, the Business Managers faced numerous delicate problems. As Professor Ansoff says, “since the early
1950s confronted with the growing variability and unpredictability of the business environment, business
managers have become increasingly concerned with rational and foresightful ways of adjusting to an exploiting
environmental change.”

There was a gap between economic theory and the correct procedure they have to employ to problems. The
problems of the business world attracted the attention of academicians and gave rise to a special treatment of
business problems. As a result managerial economics came into being.

2. DEFINITION OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

Managerial economics has meant different things to different people. In simple terms managerial economic
means the application of economic theory to the problems of management.

Prof. Spencer and Siegelman defined managerial economics as “the integration of economic theory with
business practice for the purpose of facilitating decision making and forward planning by the management.”

It is clear from this definition that the problems of management are two fold. They are (i) decision making (ii)
forward planning. Decision making is a process of selecting a particular course of action from among a number
of alternative options. Forward planning means preparing plans for the future. Forward planning and decision
making goes hand in hand.
We may define managerial economics as application of economic theory and decision science tools to problem
of managerial decision.

The following chart will make the concept clear.

3. DISTINCTION BETWEEN ECONOMICS AND MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

Economics has both micro and macro analysis. The roots of managerial economics spring from micro
 economic theory.
Economics is both positive and normative in character. Managerial economics is basically normative in
character.
Economics mainly deals with the theoretical aspects of Managerial economics is concerned with practical
the firm. problems of the firm.
Micro economics, as part of economics deals with Managerial economics deals with firms and not with
individual and firms. individuals.
Economics studies principles underlying wage, rent, Managerial economics studies mainly the principles of
interest and profit. profit only.
Economics deals only with economic aspects of the Managerial economics deals with both the economic
problem. and non-economic aspects of the problem.
The scope of economics is wide. The scope of managerial economics is narrow.

4. SCOPE OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

4.1 DEMAND ANALYSIS AND FORECASTING

It analyses the various types of demand which enable the manager to arrive at a reasonable estimate of the
demand for the products of his firm. When the current demand is estimated, the next logical step is to ascertain
the future demand for his products. The main areas cover under demand analysis is demand determinants
demand distinctions and demand forecasting.

4.1.1 COST AND PRODUCTION FUNCTION

Cost and production analysis is vital for the efficient allocation of scare resources. This analysis is also useful for
profit planning, project planning, cost control and pricing of products. While cost analysis is done in monetary
terms, production analysis is done in physical units. The major areas cover under cost and production analysis
are cost concepts, and classification, cost output relationships, economies and diseconomies of scale and cost
control.

4.1.2 PRICING DECISIONS, POLICIES AND PRACTICES

Pricing is an important area in managerial economics. While fixing the price of a commodity, a complete
knowledge of the price system is essential. The success or failure of a firm mainly depends upon its accurate
price decisions. Pricing policy has considerable significance for the management only when there is a
considerable degree of imperfection in the market. The main areas covered are price determination in various
market structures, pricing methods and price forecasting.

4.1.3 PROFIT MANAGEMENT

Profit is the life blood of any organization. An element of uncertainty exists about profit due to variations in cost
and revenues. If knowledge about the future were perfect, profit analysis would be much easier. The important
areas covered are profit planning, profit management, profit forecast and profit measurement.

4.1.4 CAPITAL MANAGEMENT

Capital management means planning and control of capital expenditure. Capital measurement is done through
capital budgeting. Cost of capital, rate of return and selection of project are the important areas covered under
the capital management.

4.1.5 DECISION MAKING

It is the process of selecting a particular course of action from among a number of alternatives. In arriving at a
decision, the alternative courses of action available have to be weighted for acceptance or rejection. Operational
research have developed many techniques which are frequently used in managerial economics for this purpose.

5. NATURE OF MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS

5.1 SPECIAL BRANCH OF ECONOMICS

Managerial economics is a special branch of economics bridging the gap between theory and practice.”The
relation of managerial economics to economic theory is much like that of engineering to physics or of medicine
to biology or bacteriology”.

5.1.1. MICRO ECONOMIC IN CHARACTER

Managerial economics draws heavily on the propositions of micro economic theory. For eg., demand concepts
and theories of market structure are elements of micro economics which managerial economics uses. The other
concepts widely used are (i) elasticity of demand ,(ii) marginal cost,(iii) marginal revenue,(iv) opportunity cost
etc. But some of these concepts however provide only the necessary logical base and have to be modified in
actual practice to suit special circumstances.

5.1.2 RELATED TO MACRO ECONOMICS ALSO

Though, basically managerial economics is micro economics in nature, it uses macro economics forecasting. A
proper understanding of the functioning of the economic system is of immense importance to the managerial
economist in framing suitable policies. Concepts like business cycles, national income accounting etc are widely
used in managerial economics.

5.1.3 PRAGMATIC

Managerial economics is pragmatic and essentially an applied branch of knowledge. In economic theory many
abstract issues are analyzed on the basis of assumptions which are highly unrealistic. Managerial economics,
avoids difficult abstract issues. It is mainly concerned with analytical tools that are useful to firms.

5.1.4 ELECTIVE IN NATURE

Managerial economics is integrative or elective in nature. It combines and synthesizes ideas and methods from
various functional fields of business administration like accounting, production management, marketing and
finance. Thus it is multi-disciplinary in dimension.

5.1.5 NORMATIVE

Managerial economics is prescriptive in character. It recommends what should be done under various alternative
conditions. Managerial economists are generally preoccupied with the optimum allocation of resources among
completing ends wit h a view to obtaining the maximum benefit according to pre-determined criteria. To achieve
these objectives, they do not assume that all other things would remain equal,but try to introduce policies which
if implemented would achieve the desired results. Thus managerial economics is both light giving and a fruit-
bearing one.

Managerial economics and other disciplines

Managerial economics is closely related to other disciplines and frequently impinges upon their fields.

Managerial economics and economics

Micro economics is also known as partial equilibrium analysis deals with the problem of individuals, firms and
industries and is the main source of inspiration to managerial economics. Concepts like elasticity, marginal
revenue, marginal cost, and models, like price leadership, kinked demand curve and price discrimination are
made use of in managerial economics spring from micro economic theory.

Macro economics aids managerial economics in the area of forecasting. The aggregates of the economics system
such as Gross National Product, General Price Index and level of employment serve as a useful guide for
devising relevant business policies.

Managerial economics and Statistics

Statistics provides many tools to Managerial economics. It is highly useful in demand forecasting. A correct
estimate of demand is vital for the management in framing a suitable inventory policy. Statistical tools like
averages, dispersion, correlation, regression, time series etc are extensively applied in various managerial
aspects.

Managerial economics and Mathematics

Operations research is the ‘’ application of mathematical techniques in solving business theory, input-output
analysis, queuing and simulation are some of the techniques developed by operational researchers. These
techniques are applied in Managerial economics.

Managerial economics and Accounting

Managerial economics is also related to accounting. For example, the profit and loss statement of a firm will
furnish necessary information to the manager to identify the specific areas of loss and arrive at suitable
decisions. It is very much useful in cost control.

Managerial economics and decision making

The theory of decision making too, has a significant place in managerial economics. It deals with the selection of
a particular course of action among the various alternatives. In order to choose a particular course of action,
many factors are taken into accounts. Sociological and psychological factors are considered and weighted
against economic factor in arriving at a decision.

7. ROLE OF A MANAGERIAL ECONOMIST IN BUSINESS

A managerial economist has a significant role to play in business by assisting the managements in their
successful decision making and forward planning goals. The factors which influence the business over a period
may lie within the firm or outside the firm. In general, these factors can be divided into two categories. (1)
External and (2) Internal
The external factors lie outside the control of the management because they are external to the firm and are said
to constitute the business environment. The internal factors lie within the scope and operations of a firm and
hence within the control of the management and they are known as business operations.

EXTERNAL FACTORS

The function of a managerial economist is to analyze the environmental factors and recommend suitable
policies. The following are the important external factors affecting the firm.

General Economic Conditions

The most important external factor is the general economic conditions of the economy such as business cycles,
competitive conditions of the market, size and the rate of growth of the national income, the regional pattern of
income distribution, influence of globalization on the domestic economy etc. it is the duty of the managerial
economist to gather and analyze information with regard to these changes, and advise the management regarding
their likely effects on the operations of the firm and recommend suitable ways to pursue the organizational
goals.

Nature of Demand

The second important external factor relates to the nature of demand for the product. Since purchasing power is
an important variable influencing demand, the managerial economist has to study the purchasing power trend in
general an din the region concerned in particular. Moreover, it is his function to observe whether fashions, tastes
and preferences undergo any change and whether it is likely to have an impact on the demand for the product.
Input Cost

The third external factor influencing the firm is the input cost of the firm. The managerial economist has to
advise the management on labour market conditions i.e., the cost of labour in different occupations. He also
studies the money market conditions, the changing scenario in government’scredit policy and possible ways of
achieving the least-cost combination of factors and so on.

Marketing

Buying of raw materials and selling of finished goods are two important aspects of marketing. The managerial
economist has to study the markets from where the firm is buying its raw materials and selling its finished
goods. The understanding helps him to evolve and frame a suitable price policy for the firm.

Market share

Market share refers to the share of a firm in the industry for a particular product. Expansion of market share is a
good symptom of growth. Therefore, the managerial economist has to examine the opportunities and strategies
which help in the expansion of the firm’s share in the regional and international markets.

Economic policies
Last, but not the least, the managerial economist must keep in touch with the government’s monetary policy,
fiscal policy, industrial policy, budgetary policy trends

etc. to advice the management.

INTERNAL FACTORS

A managerial economist can also be helpful to the management in making decisions relating to the internal
operations of the firm. The analysis of cost structure, and forecasting of demand are very essential. Moreover, it
is his responsibility to bring about a synthesis of policies relating to production, investment, inventories and
price.

SPECIFIC FUCTIONS

It involves

I. Sales forecasting
II. Industrial market research
III. Economic analysis of competing companies
IV. Pricing problems of industry
V. Capital projects
VI. Production programmes
VII. Security management analysis
VIII. Advice on trade and public relations
IX. Advice on primary commodities
X. Advice on foreign exchange management
 XI. Economic analysis of agriculture
XII. Analysis on underdeveloped countries
XIII. Environmental forecasting etc.

APPLICATION OF THE THEORIES OF ECONOMICS IN BUSINESS DECISIONS

The following are the main theories in economics that help the firm in decision-making process.

THEORY OF DEMAND
Demand theory explains the consumer’s behavior. The theory helps to understand the behavior of
consumers when the determinants of demand such as income, taste and fashion, prices of substitutes, etc
change. A knowledge of demand theory is vital in the choice of commodities for production.

THEORY OF PRODUCTION
The BASIC function of a firm is to produce goods and services and sell them in the market. Production
requires employment of various factors of production. The factors are substitute among themselves to a
certain extend. To maximize production and profit, it is necessary to achieve the least-cost combination
of factors. Production theory is of immense use in determining the size of the firm, the size of the total
output and the optimum factor combination.

THEORY OF PRICE
Price theory explains price determination under various different market structures like perfect
competition, monopoly, oligopoly, etc. It is also useful to determine the optimal advertisement budget
that is necessary to maximize sales.

THEORY OF PROFIT
Profit making is the basic objective of business concerns. But, making a satisfactory level of profit is not
always certain, due to the presence of risk and uncertainty in business operations. Some of the factors
which influence profit are (i) nature of demand for the product (ii) prices of the inputs in the factor market
 and (iii) the degree of competition in the factor market . An element of risk is always there, even if
business activities are systematically planned .Therefore, minimising risks is of paramount importance to
safeguard the welfare of the firms. Profit theory guides in the measurement of profit and in estimating a
reasonable return on the capital employed.

THEORY OF CAPITAL AND INVESTMENT

Capital like all other inputs, is scare and an expensive factor. Rational utilisation of scarce resources is
one of the important tasks of the managers. The major issues related to capital are (i) assessing the
efficiency of capital (ii) choice of investment projects(iii) the most efficiency allocation of capital
.Knowledge of capital theory can contribute a great deal in investment decisions ,choice of projects,
maintaining capital intact ,capital budgeting etc.

MACRO ECONOMIC THEORIES

Though managerial economics is basically micro in nature, macro theories are altogether irrelevant for
decision –making at the firm level. This is because, the macroeconomic environment, which includes the
behavior of national aggregates such as priced level , national income , unemployment, poverty and,
microeconomic policy aspects, such as economic policy aspects, such as economic policy ,industrial
policy subsidies ,administered prices and controls licensing policy ,etc affect firms decisions.

XIV.