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CHAPTER - I
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BRAKE TORQUE AND POWER: Engine torque is normally measured with a dynamometer. The
engine is clamped on a test bed and the shaft is connected to the dynamometer rotor. Figure illustrates the
operating principle of a dynamometer. The rotor is coupled electromagnetically, hydraulically, or by
mechanical friction to a stator, which is supported in low friction bearings. The stator is balanced with the
rotor stationary. The torque exerted on the stator with the rotor turning is measured by balancing the stator
with weights, springs, or pneumatic means.
INDICATED WORK PER CYCLE: The indicated work per cycle Wc,i (per cylinder) is obtained by
integrating the curve to obtain the area enclosed on the diagram:
(1)
Fig: Examples of pV diagrams for (a) a two stroke cycle engine, (b) a four-stroke cycle engine
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For two-stroke cycles the application of Eq (1) is straightforward. For the four-stroke cycle, indicated output
is defined as:
Gross indicated work per cycle Wc, ig: Work delivered to the piston over the compression and expansion
strokes only.
Net indicated work per cycle Wc, in: Work delivered to the piston over the entire four-stroke cycle.
Wc, ig = area (A + C) and
Wc, in = area (A + C) - area (B + C),
Wc, in = area (A - B)
Area B + area C is the work transfer between the piston and the cylinder gases during the inlet and exhaust
strokes and is called the pumping work W. If the pressure during the intake stroke is less than the pressure
during the exhaust stroke it is called naturally aspirated engines. If the exhaust stroke pressure is lower than
the intake pressure, it is called turbocharged engines.
The power per cylinder is related to the indicated work per cycle by
This power is the indicated power; i.e., the rate of work transfers from the gas within the cylinder to the
piston. It differs from the brake power by the power absorbed in overcoming engine friction.
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY: Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered
power) to the indicated power (power provided to the piston).
fp = ip - bp
To measure frictional power (fp) Motoring test is done:
In this test engine is first run up to the desired speed and allowed to remain under the given speed and load
conditions for sometime so that oil, water and engine component temperatures reach stable conditions. The
power of the engine during this period is absorbed by a dynamometer (usually of electrical type). The fuel
supply is then cut off and by suitable electric switching devices the dynamometer is converted to run as a
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motor to drive the engine at the same speed at which it was previously running. The power supply to the
motor is measured which is a measure of F.P of the engine.
m = 90% at full throttle open, N = 1800 2400 rpm
m = 75% at full throttle open, high speed engines
m = 0 at idle operation.
ROAD-LOAD POWER: The power required to drive a vehicle on a level road at a steady speed Called
road-load power. This power overcomes the rolling resistance which arises from the friction of the tires and
the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle. Rolling resistance and drag coefficients, CR and CD respectively, are
determined empirically. Formula for road-load power Pr is
Where,
CR = coefficient of rolling resistance (0.012 < CR < 0.015)3
Mv = mass of vehicle kg
g = acceleration due to gravity
a = ambient air density
CD = drag coefficient (for cars: 0.3 < CD 0.5)3
Av = frontal area of vehicle
Sv = vehicle speed
Mean Effective Pressure (Pm): Mean effective pressure is the average pressure inside the cylinders of an
internal combustion engine based on the calculated or measured power output. It increases as manifold
pressure increases. For any particular engine, operating at a given speed and power output, there will be a
specific indicated mean effective pressure, imep, and a corresponding brake mean effective pressure, bmep.
The indicated mean effective pressure can be written as;
Where,
ip = indicated power (kW)
K = number of cylinders
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Pim, may be defined as
Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (rel): Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio is the ratio of
thermal efficiency of an actual cycle to that of the ideal cycle. The efficiency ratio is a very useful criterion
which indicates the degree of development of the engine.
Specific Power Output (Ps): Specific power output of an engine is defined as the power output per unit
piston area and is a measure available piston area regardless of cylinder size. The specific power can be
shown to be proportional to the product of the mean effective pressure and mean piston speed.
Specific power output = constant pbm sp
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION AND EFFICIENCY: The specific fuel consumption (sfc) is the
fuel flow rate per unit power output. It measures how efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to
produce work:
Brake specific fuel consumption for SI engines = 270 g/kWh, for CI engines = 200 g/kW h.
Fuel conversion efficiency f is given by
(1)
Where mf is the mass of fuel inducted per cycle. Substitution for P/mf from Eq (1)
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Typical heating values (QHV) for the commercial hydrocarbon fuels used in engines are in the range 42 to 44
MJ/kg. Thus, specific fuel consumption is inversely proportional to fuel conversion efficiency for normal
hydrocarbon fuels.
Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air -Fuel Ratio (A/ F): In the SI engine the fuel-air ratio practically remains constant
over a wide range of operation. In CI engines at a given speed the air flow does not vary with load; the fuel
flow that varies directly with load. Therefore, the term fuel-air ratio is generally used instead of air-fuel
ratio. A mixture that contains enough air for complete combustion of the fuel is called a chemically correct
or stoichiometric fuel air ratio. A mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically correct mixture is
termed as rich mixture and a mixture that contains less fuel is called a lean mixture.
Air / fuel ratio (A / F) = ma / mf: 12 18 for SI engine, 18 70 for CI engine,
Fuel / air ratio (F/A) = mf / ma: 0.056 - 0.083 for SI engine, 0.014 - 0.056 for CI engine
Volumetric Efficiency (v): This is one of the important parameters which decide the performance of
four-stroke engines. The intake system-the air filter, carburetor, and throttle plate (in a spark ignition
engine), intake manifold, intake port, intake valve restricts the amount of air which an engine displacement
can induct. The parameter used to measure the effectiveness of an engine's induction process is the
volumetric efficiency. It is defined as the volume flow rate of air into the intake system divided by the rate
at which volume is displaced by the piston.
Where, a,i is the inlet air density. An alternative equivalent definition for volumetric efficiency is
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The indicated power at full throttle ip will be proportional to ma the dry air flow rate. Thus if
Pi,s = CF Pi,m
The correction factor CF is given by;
-------------------------------- (1)
Where,
ps,d = standard dry-air absolute pressure
pm = measured ambient-air absolute pressure
pv,m = measured ambient-water vapour partial pressure
Tm = measured ambient temperature, K
Ts = standard ambient temperature, K
The rated brake power is corrected by using Eq. (1) to correct the indicated power and making the
assumption that friction power is unchanged. Thus
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operating characteristics. The concentrations of gaseous emissions in the engine exhaust gases are usually
measured in parts per million or percent by volume (mole fraction multiplied by l06 or by l02). Specific
emissions are the mass flow rate of pollutant per unit power output:
With similar expressions for CO, HC, and particulates can be obtained.
For torque T:
Specific power is thus proportional to the product of mean effective pressure and mean piston speed.
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Engine should have the following factors:
High fuel conversion efficiency
High volumetric efficiency
Increasing the output of a given displacement engine by increasing the inlet air density
Maximum fuel / air ratio that can be usefully burned in the engine
High mean piston speed
1.
2. At all speeds at which the engine will be used with full throttle or with maximum fuel-pump setting:
3. Brake mean effective pressure measures ability to obtain/provide high air flow and use it effectively over
the full range.
4.The maximum brake mean effective pressure for turbocharged and supercharged engines is higher than for
naturally aspirated engines. Because the maximum fuel/air ratio for spark-ignition engines is higher than
diesel engine.
5. As engine size increases, brake specific fuel consumption decreases and fuel conversion efficiency
increases, due to reduced heat losses and friction.
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Table: Typical Design and Performance Data for Modern Internal Combustion Engines
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CHAPTER-II
ALTERNATE FUELS
ALCOHOL: Alcohols are an attractive alternate fuel because they can be obtained from both natural and
manufactured sources. Methanol (methyl alcohol) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol) are two kinds of alcohols used
as alternating fuel .The advantages of alcohol as a fuel are:
1. It can be obtained from a number of sources, both natural and manufactured.
2. It is a high octane fuel with anti-knock index numbers (octane number) of over 100. Engines using
high-octane fuel can run more efficiently by using higher compression ratios. Alcohols have higher
flame speed.
3. It produces less emission compared to gasoline.
4. When alcohols are burned, it forms more moles of exhaust gases, which gives higher pressure and
more power in the expansion stroke.
5. It has high latent heat of vaporization (hfg) which results in cooler intake process. This raises the
volumetric efficiency of the engine and reduces the required work input in the compression stroke.
6. Alcohols have low sulphur content in the fuel.
The disadvantages of alcohol as a fuel are:
1. Alcohols have low energy content or in other words the calorific value of the fuel is almost half.
Even with the lower energy content of alcohol, engine power for a given displacement would be
about the same. This is because of the lower air-fuel ratio needed by alcohol. Alcohol contains
oxygen and thus requires less air for stoichiometric combustion. More fuel can be burned with the
same amount of air.
2. Combustion of alcohols produces more aldehydes in the exhaust, aldehyde emissions would be a
serious exhaust pollution problem.
3. Alcohol is much more corrosive than gasoline on copper, brass, aluminum, rubber, and many
plastics.
4. It has poor cold weather starting characteristics due to low vapor pressure and evaporation. Alcoholfuelled engines generally have difficulty in starting at temperatures below 100C.
5. Alcohols have poor ignition characteristics in general.
6. Alcohols have almost invisible flames, which are considered dangerous when handling fuel.
7. There is the danger of storage tank flammability due to low vapor pressure. Air can leak into storage
tanks and create a combustible mixture.
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8. There will be less NOx emissions because of low flame temperatures. However, the resulting lower
exhaust temperatures take longer time to heat the catalytic converter to an efficient operating
temperature.
9. There is a possibility of vapor lock in fuel delivery systems.
METHANOL
Methanol (CH3OH) is an alcohol fuel formed from natural gas, coal, or biomass feed stock.
Methanol is also called wood alcohol. It is a liquid at ambient conditions. Its chemical structure is a
hydrocarbon molecule with a single hydroxyl (OH) radical. Since oxygen is part of the chemical
structure, less air is required for complete combustion.
Pure methanol and mixtures of methanol and gasoline in various percentages have been extensively
tested in engines. The most common mixtures are M85 (85% methanol and 15% gasoline) and M10
(10% methanol and 90% gasoline).
Some smart flexible fuel (or variable fuel) engines are capable of using any random mixture
combination of methanol and gasoline ranging from pure methanol to pure gasoline.
Using information from sensors in the intake and exhaust, the electronic monitoring system (EMS)
adjusts to the proper air-fuel ratio, ignition timing, injection timing, and valve timing for the fuel
mixture being used.
One problem with gasoline-alcohol mixtures as a fuel is the tendency for alcohol to combine with
any water present. When this happens the alcohol separates locally from the gasoline, resulting in a
non-homogeneous mixture. This causes the engine to run erratically due to the large air-fuel ratio
differences between the two fuels.
Relatively high enthalpy of evaporation (1215 kJ/kg) of methanol relative to gasoline (310 kJ/kg)
produces greater intake air-cooling and a corresponding increase in volumetric efficiency relative to
gasoline.
The energy density by volume of methanol is about half that of gasoline. However, because of its
oxygen content, it has a higher stoichiometric energy density (3.09 MJ/kg air) relative to gasoline
(2.96 MJ/kg air). For maximum power, a rich equivalence ratio of 1.6 is used.
Emissions from an engine using MI0 fuel are about the same as those using gasoline. The advantage
of using this fuel is mainly the 10% decrease in gasoline use. With M85 fuel there is a measurable
decrease in HC and CO exhaust emissions. However, there is an increase in NOx and a large (
500%) increase in formaldehyde emissions.
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Methanol is used in some dual-fuel CI engines. Methanol by itself is not a good CI engine fuel
because of its high octane number, but if a small amount of diesel oil is used for ignition, it can be
used with good results.
MANUFACTURE OF METHANOL:
(a) Methanol from lignite or coal: A schematic diagram of a plant for producing methanol from lignite
or coal is shown in Fig. Pulverized lignite or coal is fed to steam /oxygen-blown gasifies (partial
combustors)to produce a synthesis gas consisting of CO and H2.
H2O + C C O + H
Gasification also produces acidic contaminants such as H2S and CO2. All H2S and most of the CO2 are
removed by scrubbing the synthesis gas with an amine solution. The H2S is later recovered as elemental
sulphur. This conversion produces additional CO2, which is partly removed by amine scrubbing, and then
the shifted gas is mixed with the remainder of the synthesis gas. Methanol synthesis, via the low pressure
process with a Cu/Zn/Cr catalyst, is the final step. The theoretical reaction is
CO + 2 H2 CH3OH
The raw methanol is then purified to remove water. Currently, aldehydes and higher alcohols are also
removed after methanol synthesis, but this is not necessary for methanol to be used as a motor fuel.
(b) Methanol from Municipal Solid Wastes: The waste can be converted to methanol. Fig. shows a
schematic diagram. The wastes are first shredded and then passed under a magnet to remove ferrous
materials. The iron free wastes are then gasified with oxygen. The product synthesis gas is cleaned by water
scrubbing and other means to remove any particulates, entrained oils, H2S and CO2. CO-shift conversion for
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H2 / CO/ CO2 ratio adjustment, methanol synthesis, and methanol purification are accomplished in a manner
similar to that for lignite feed.
Fig: Schematic diagram for methanol production, from municipal solid wastes.
ETHANOL
Ethanol (C2H5OH) is an alcohol fuel formed from the fermentation of sugar and grain stocks,
primarily sugar cane and com, which are renewable energy sources. Its properties and combustion
characteristics are very similar to those of methanol. Ethanol is also called "grain" alcohol. It is a
liquid at ambient conditions, and nontoxic at low concentrations.
Gasohol (EI0) is a gasoline-ethanol blend with about 10% ethanol by volume. Two mixture
combinations that are important are E85 (85% ethanol) and EI0 (gasohol).
E85 is basically an alcohol fuel with 15% gasoline added to eliminate some of the problems of pure
alcohol (ie., cold starting, tank flammability, etc.).
El0 reduces the use of gasoline with no modification needed to the automobile engine.
The energy density by volume of ethanol is relatively high for an alternative fuel, about two-thirds
that of gasoline. The octane rating of ethanol of 111 (RON) allows use of an increased compression
ratio. The cetane number of ethanol is low, at about 8, but like methanol, it can be used in
compression ignition engines with diesel fuel pilot ignition,
The present cost of ethanol is high due to the manufacturing and processing required. This would be
reduced if larger amounts of this fuel were used. However, very high production would create a
food-fuel competition, with resulting higher costs for both.
Ethanol has less HC emissions than gasoline but more than methanol. With E85, the NOx, emissions
decreased by 29%, and the CO emissions increased by 8%. Acetaldehyde is the dominant air toxic
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MANUFACTURE OF ETHANOL
Ethanol from Grains: Ethanol can be manufactured from any feed stock containing carbohydrates such as
corn, wheat, sugar-beets, potatoes, sugarcane and other grains. Production of ethanol from grains such as
corn is shown schematically in Fig. The grain is first ground and cooked with water to convert the starch to
sugar with the enzyme analysis. The sugar is then fermented with yeast to produce raw ethanol and a high
protein material commonly known as distillers dried grain (DDG). Ethanol with 5 per cent water, in
producing anhydrous ethanol is an extrative distillation with benzene. The raw ethanol is distilled to remove
impurities such as higher alcohols and to remove most of the water. The DDG is dried and recovered for
sale as a cattle feed. The optimum capacity of an ethanol fermentation plant is small because of the
difficulties in controlling and storing raw materials and typically would be about 1.4 million barrel per
stream day.
(b) Ethanol from Sugarcane: Production of ethanol from sugarcane requires only simple, well
established processes since the fermentable sugar is obtained directly from the sugarcane. The cane is first
cut and ground, and the cane juice is extracted by maceration. After clarification by filtration and
concentration through evaporation, the juice is fermented with yeast to yield raw ethanol. A series of
distillation steps, including a final extractive distillation with benzene are used to obtain anhydrous ethanol.
Ethanol is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO
Fig (a) shows schematically the conversion of sugarcane to ethanol in a sugar factory via the molasses route
and Fig (b) by direct fermentation of cane juice.
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Octane Quality: The octane number of methanol and ethanol is higher than gasoline. Hence higher
compression ratios can be used with alcohols resulting in higher thermal efficiency.
Water Tolerance of Alcohol Blends: Gasoline and water-free alcohol are used in all proportions over a
wide range of temperatures. However, even small addition of water to this blended fuel causes separation of
the alcohol and gasoline. The separation of alcohol and gasoline in presence of water can be one of the most
difficult problems attending to use these blends as motor fuels.
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Increase in the Volumetric Fuel Consumption: For 15% methanol blends the volumetric fuel
consumption is 9% greater than conventional gasoline.
Separation: Separation is liable to happen in the case of methanol-blended S.I. fuels with high water content
and at low temperatures. Aromatics are useful in preventing separation.
Fuel Vapour Lock: Methanol blends are more volatile than normal gasoline. In order to avoid hot start
problems and pick-up problems caused by fuel-vapour locks, intensive fuel circulation may be resorted. The
choke and warm-up devices have to be adapted for higher vaporization heat of the blended fuel.
Leaning Effect: Fig: gives the leaning effect of alcohol admixture to gasoline. Admixture up to 15-20%
methanol may be tolerated in engines otherwise using rich mixture.
Attack on Rubber and Plastic Parts: The alcohol components in blended gasoline attack some of the
rubber and plastic parts. This can be prevented by using resistant materials.
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Power and Efficiency Curves: Fig (a): shows the increase in power over gasoline by using M 15 blend
(gasoline with 15% methanol) and methanol. Fig (b): shows the increase in efficiency, when using methanol
instead of gasoline.
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6. Alcohol burns at about half the speed of gasoline. Therefore, ignition timing must be changed, so
that more spark advance is provided. Due to this slow burning of alcohol and more time is required
to develop the pressure and power in the cylinder.
7. Moreover, corrosion resistant materials are required for fuel system since alcohols are corrosive in
nature.
1. Both ethyl and methyl alcohols have high self ignition temperatures. Hence, very high compression
ratios (2.5-27) will be required to self ignite. Since this would make the engine extremely heavy and
expensive so better method is to be utilized in dual fuel operation.
2. In the dual fuel engine, alcohol is carburetted or injected into the inducted air. Due to high self
ignition temperature of alcohols there will be no combustion with the usual diesel compression ratios
of 16 to 18.
3. A little before the end of compression stroke, a small quantity of diesel oil is injected into the
combustion chamber through the normal diesel pump and spray nozzle.
4. Several methods are adopted for induction of alcohol into the intake manifold. They are micro fog
unit, pneumatic spray nozzle, vaporizer, carburetor and fuel injector.
5. In the dual fuel engines major portion of the heat release is by the alcohol supplied and this alcohol
is ignited by a pilot spray of diesel oil injection. The performance of the dual fuel engine is
influenced by the following properties of alcohols:
The calorific value of alcohols is lower than diesel oil and hence, a larger quantity of alcohol
has to be used for producing the same amount of power output.
Air requirement for combustion is lower, and hence, the energy content of the mixture is
roughly the same. Since their latent heat of vapourization is very high, the temperature and
pressure at the end of compression come down due to their evaporation.
If the alcohol induction rate exceeds a limit, the injected diesel will not be able to ignite and
hence, engine will fail to function.
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HYDROGEN: A number of automobile manufacturers have built with prototype or modified engines
which operate on hydrogen fuel. The advantages of hydrogen as an IC engine fuel include:
1. Low emissions: Essentially no CO or HC in the exhaust as there is no carbon in the fuel. Most
exhaust would be H2O and N2 and NOx.
2. Fuel availability: There are a number of different ways of making hydrogen, including electrolysis
of water.
3. Fuel leakage to environment is not a pollutant.
4. High energy content per volume when stored as a liquid. This would give a large vehicle range for a
given fuel tank capacity.
The disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel include:
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1. Requirement of heavy bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service stations. Hydrogen can be
stored either as a cryogenic liquid or as a compressed gas. If stored as a liquid, it would have to be
kept under pressure at a very low temperature requiring a thermally super-insulated fuel tank.
Storing in a gas phase would require a high pressure vessel with limited capacity.
2. Difficult to refuel and the possibility of detonation.
3. Poor engine volumetric efficiency. When a gaseous fuel is used in an engine, the fuel will displace
some of the inlet air and poorer volumetric efficiency will result.
4. Fuel Cost would be high at present-day technology and availability.
5. High NOx emissions because of high flame temperature.
HYDROGEN ENGINES:
1. Hydrogen (H2) can be produced from many different feed stocks, including natural gas, coal,
biomass, and water. The production processes include steam refining of natural gas, presently the
most economical method, electrolysis of water, and gasification of coal, which also produces CO2.
2. Hydrogen is colorless, odorless, and nontoxic, and hydrogen flames are invisible and smokeless. The
global warming potential of hydrogen is insignificant in comparison to hydrocarbon based fuels
since combustion of hydrogen produces no carbon-based compounds such as HC, CO, and CO2,
3. Hydrogen has very low density both as gas and as liquid. Hence, in spite of its high calorific value
on mass basis its energy density as a liquid is only one fourth that of gasoline. As a gas it has less
than one tenth the density of air and its heating value per unit volume is less than one third that of
methane.
4. Hydrogen has extremely wide ignition limits. This allows a spark ignition engine to operate on
hydrogen with very little throttling.
5. Stoichiometric hydrogen air mixture burns seven times as fast as the corresponding gasoline air
mixture. This is a great advantage in IC engines, leading to higher engine speeds and greater thermal
efficiency.
6. Hydrogen has a high self-ignition temperature but requires very little energy to ignite it. Hence, it is
highly prone to preignition and back firing in SI engines.
7. Adiabatic flame temperature for hydrogen is a little lower than for gasoline but the rapid combustion
allows very little heat loss to the surroundings and hence, high, instantaneous, local temperatures are
produced. This leads to high nitric oxide formation.
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NATURAL GAS:
1. Natural gas is a naturally occurring fuel found in oil fields. It is primarily composed of about 90 to
95% methane (CH4), with small amounts of additional compounds such as 0-4% nitrogen, 4%
ethane, and 1 to 2% propane.
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2. Its sulphur content ranges from very little (sweet) to larger amounts (sour). It is stored as compressed
natural gas (CNG) at pressures of 16 to 25 bar, or as liquid natural gas (LNG) at pressures of 70 to
210 bar and a temperature around -160C.
3. Natural gas has been used in stationary engines for gas compression and electric power generation.
An extensive distribution network of natural gas pipelines exists to meet the need for natural gas for
industrial processes and heating applications.
4. Natural gas is delivered to the engine through a pressure regulator, either through a mixing valve
located in the intake manifold, port fuel injection at about 750 kPa, or direct injection into the
cylinder.
5. With intake manifold mixing or port fuel injection, the engine's volumetric efficiency and power is
reduced due to the displacement of about 10% of the intake air by the natural gas, and the loss of
evaporative charge cooling.
6. Natural gas does not require mixture enrichment for cold starting, thus reducing the cold start HC
and CO emissions.
7. The combustion of methane is different from that of liquid hydrocarbon combustion since only
carbon-hydrogen bonds are involved, and no carbon-carbon bonds, so the combustion process is
completed and producing less non-methane hydrocarbons.
8. To meet vehicular emission standards, catalytic converters are used with natural gas fueled engines.
Since three way catalytic converters are most effective at stoichiometric conditions, natural gas
combustion is maintained at stoichiometric, and exhaust gas recirculation is used to reduce the peak
combustion temperatures and thus the nitrogen oxide levels,
9. The particulate emissions of natural gas are very low relative to diesel fuel. Natural gas has a lower
adiabatic flame temperature (approx. 2240 K) than gasoline (approx. 2310 K).
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Inconsistent fuel properties.
Re-fuelling is a slow process.
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In multi-cylinder engines a uniform mixture can be supplied to all cylinders.
Since the fuel is in the form of vapour, there is no crankcase dilution.
Automobile engines can use propane; they have high compression ratios (10:1).
LPG has high antiknock characteristics.
Its heat energy is about 80 percent of gasoline, but its high octane value compensates the thermal
efficiency of the engine.
The engine may have a 50 percent longer life
Disadvantages:
Engines ace normally designed to take in a fixed volume of the mixture of fuel and air. Therefore
LPG will produce 10 per cent less horse power for a given engine, at full throttle.
The ignition temperature of LPG is somewhat higher than petrol. Therefore running on LPG could
lead to a five percent reduction in valve life.
A good cooling system is quite necessary, because LPG vaporizer uses engine coolant to provide the
heat to convert the liquid LPG to gas.
The vehicle weight is increased due to the use of heavy pressure cylinders for storing LPG.
A special fuel feed system is required for liquid petroleum gas.
Future Scenario for LPG Vehicles: Cost saving, longer life of the engine and less emission will
attract the public for making use of LPG to run vehicles.
At present, in many countries LPG cylinders are used in the vehicles. The weight of the cylinders is
a disadvantage. Some amount of power is wasted in carrying these cylinders along with the vehicles.
However in developed countries most LPG cars use LPG tanks. The tank is usually the same size as
the spare wheel and fits correctly into the space provided for the spare wheel.
Effort must be made to have more LPG filling stations at convenient locations, so that LPG tanks
can be filled up easily.
Safety devices are to be introduced to prevent accident due to explosion of gas cylinders or leakage
in the gas pipes.
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LPG (Propane) fuel feed system is shown in Fig. This fuel feed system has a storage tank placed in the rear
portion of the vehicle. Vacuum filter fuel lock, the converter-regulator, and the LPG propane carburetor are
in front side of the system. In the fuel feed system, liquid LPG is pushed through the fuel pipe line to the
converter. The liquid is converted into vapour by the converter. A large temperature drop occurs, as LPG
changes from liquid to vapour. LPG should be prevented from freezing within the converter. For this
purpose, the engine cooling water is passed close to the converter which prevents the gas from freezing.
LPG vapours move to the LPG propane carburetor. This carburetor supplies the air-fuel mixture to the
engine for combustion.
PETROL
1.Fuel consumption in petrol engine is less when
compared to LPG.
2.Petrol has odour.
3.Octane rating of petrol is 81.
4.Petrol engine is not as smooth as LPG engine.
5.In order to increase octane number petrol
required lead additives.
6.The mixture of petrol and air always leaks past
the piston rings and washes away the lubricating
oil from the upper cylinder wall surfaces in the
process. This results in lack of lubricant which
causes more wear. It also carries unburnt fuel
components and falls into the engine oil. Thus
the life of petrol engine is shorter.
7.Due to formation of carbon deposits on the spark
plugs, the life of the spark plugs is shortened.
8.Carburetor supplies the mixture of petrol and air
in the proper ratio to the engine cylinders for
combustion.
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Producer Gas: Producer gas is made by flowing air and steam through a thick coal or coke bed which
ranges in temperature from red hot to low temperature. The oxygen in the air burns the carbon to CO2. This
CO2 gets reduced to CO by contacting with carbon above the combustion zone. Steam gets dissociated,
which introduces H2 and the freed O2 combines with the carbon. Producer gas has a high percentage of N2,
since air is used. Thus, it has a low heat value.
Coke Oven Gas: Coke oven gas is obtained as a byproduct when making coke. Its analysis depends upon
the coal used and also upon the method of operating the oven. The volatile portion of coal is driven off by
the application of heat, and the heavier hydrocarbons are cracked, which results in a gas having high H2 and
CH4. Its heat value per cubic meter is only about one half that of natural gas.
Benzol: Benzol is a coal tar distillate that consists of about 70% benzene (C6H6), 20 percent toluene (C7H8)
and 10% xylene (C8Hl0) and trace of sulphur burning compounds. It has high antiknock characteristic. It has
freezing point of 6C, which eliminates it as a fuel in cold climates. It is considerably less detonating than
gasoline. As such compression ratio up to 6.9 can be used. When added to gasoline it improves the
antiknock effect. About 20% of benzol addition is found to stop knocking in most gasoline engines.
Acetone: Acetone (C3H6O) is more volatile than methanol. This may be used as a fuel without blending
with other volatile fuels. Its antiknock quality is higher than that of butanol. Hence, it is a desirable fuel to
blend with butanol.
Diethyl Ether: Diethyl ether (C4H10O) is a very volatile fuel. It is used with other fuels to increase the
volatility of the blend.
VEGETABLE OILS AS DIESEL FUELS: Vegetable oils have better ignition qualities for diesel
engines than light alcohols, their cetane number being over 30. There are many vegetable oils which can be
used in diesel engines like peanut oil, linseed oil, rape seed methyl ester (RME), and soybean methyl ester
(SME), but the most important is sunflower oil. RME and SME are produced through a catalyzed reaction
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between a vegetable oil and methanol. The methyl ester is obtained through a process in which the use of
methyl alcohol and the presence of a catalyst (such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide)
chemically break down the oil molecule into methyl esters of the oil and a glycerin byproduct. RME had
about 40% lower HC emissions, 35% lower CO, 35% lower PM, but about 15% greater NOx emissions.
The difference in properties of sunflower oil and diesel oil leads to the following problems in the use of
vegetable oils in diesel engines.
1. The viscosity of vegetable oils is much higher than that of diesel. It can cause problems in fuel
handling, pumping, atomization and fuel jet penetration. This would require modifications in the
engine fuel system.
2. Vegetable oils are slower burning. It can give rise to exhaust smoke, fuel impingement on cylinder
walls and lubricating oil contamination.
3. To overcome this combustion system must be modified to speed up air-fuel mixing. The indirect
injection (IDI) engines are more suitable than direct injection (DI) engines for vegetable oils because
of a single relative large size nozzle hole.
4. Sunflower oil can be blended with diesel oil, 80% diesel and 20%sunflower oil, to extend the
availability of diesel oil.
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CHAPTER-III
IDEAL MODELS OF ENGINE PROCESSES: The cycle can be divided into compression
combustion, expansion, exhaust, and intake processes. Sets of assumptions are made for analysis:
Fig: Pressure - volume diagrams of ideal cycles. Unthrottled operation: (a) constant-volume combustion;
(b) constant-pressure combustion; (c) limited- Pressure combustion. (4 Throttled constant-volume
Cycle; (e) supercharged constant-volume cycle
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Process
assumptions
Compression (1-2):
Combustion (2-3):
1. Adiabatic
2. Combustion occurs at:
Constant volume
Constant pressure
Part at constant volume and part at constant pressure (limited pressure)
3. Combustion is complete (c= 1)
Expansion (3-4):
1. Adiabatic
Intake (6-7-1)
The most critical assumption in determining the ideal cycles are as indicators of engine performance is the
form of the combustion process. The real engine combustion process occupies a finite crank angle period
(between about 20 and 70 crank angle degrees). The constant volume cycle is the limiting case of infinitely
fast combustion at TDC; the constant pressure cycle would correspond to slow and late combustion; the
limited pressure cycle lies in between.
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Where Qs is the heat supplied in the Otto cycle and is equal to the area under the curve 2-3 on the T-s
diagram. The efficiency of Diesel cycle is given by
Where Q's is heat supplied in the Diesel cycle and is equal to the area under the curve 2-3' on the T-s
diagram
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The Diesel cycle efficiency is greater than the efficiency of the Otto cycle when both engines are built to
withstand the same thermal and mechanical stresses. Diesel.> Dual > Otto
For same work output of Otto cycle the area 1234 and area 12'3'4' of Diesel cycle are same. To achieve this,
the entropy at 3 should be greater than entropy at 3'. It is clear that the heat rejection for Otto cycle is more
than that of Diesel cycle. Hence, Diesel cycle is more efficient than the Otto cycle. The efficiency of Dual
cycle lies between the two cycles. Hence, for the same maximum pressure and work output,
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FUEL-AIR CYCLE ANALYSIS: By air- standard cycle analysis, the efficiency is improved by
increasing the compression ratio. But analysis cannot bring out the effect of air-fuel ratio on the thermal
efficiency because the working medium was assumed to be air. By fuel-air cycle analysis it will be possible
to bring out the effect of fuel-air ratio on thermal efficiency and also study how the peak pressures and
temperatures during the cycle will vary with respect to fuel-air ratio. The engine operating variables on the
pressures and temperatures within the engine cylinder may be better understood by the examination of the
fuel-air cycles.
The following assumptions are commonly made:
1. There is no chemical change in either fuel or air prior to combustion.
2. Subsequent to combustion, the charge is always in chemical equilibrium
3. There is no heat exchange between the gases and the cylinder walls in any process, i.e. they are
adiabatic. Also the compression and expansion processes are frictionless.
4. In case of reciprocating engines it is assumed that fluid motion can be ignored inside the cylinder.
5. The fuel is completely vaporized and perfectly mixed with the air,
6. The burning takes place instantaneously at top dead centre
Or
1. 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression of a mixture of air, fuel vapor, and residual gas without
change in chemical composition.
2. 2-3: Complete combustion (at constant volume or limited pressure or constant pressure), without
heat loss, to burned gases in chemical equilibrium.
3. 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion of the burned gases which remain in chemical equilibrium.
4. 4-5-6: Ideal adiabatic exhaust blow down and displacement processes with the burned gases fixed in
chemical composition.
5. 6-7-1: Ideal intake process with adiabatic mixing between residual gas and fresh mixture, both of
which are fixed in chemical composition
The fuel-air cycle takes following factors into account:
1. The actual composition of the cylinder gases: The cylinder gas contains fuel, air, water vapour and
residual gas. When fuel-air ratio changes during the operation of the engine which also changes the relative
amounts of CO2, water vapour, etc. The amount of exhaust gases in clearance space varies with speed and
load on the engine. Fuel-air cycle analysis takes into account this fact and the results are computed for
preparing the combustion charts. With the availability of fast digital computers, it is possible to analyze the
effect of cylinder gas composition on the performance of the engine.
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2. The variation in the specific heat with temperature: Specific heats increase with temperature except
for mono-atomic gases. Therefore, the value of also changes with temperature. The temperature range
generally encountered for gases in heat engines (300 K to 2000 K), the specific heat curve is nearly a
straight line which may be expressed in the form,
Cp= a1+ k1T
Cv= bl + klT
Where, a1, bl and kl are constants. Now, R = Cp Cv, where R is the characteristic gas constant.
Above 1500 K the specific heat increases much more rapidly and may be expressed in the form
Cp = al + k1T + k2T2
Cv = b1 + k1T + k2T2
The physical explanation for increase in specific heat is that as the temperature is raised, larger fractions of
the heat would be required to produce motion of the atoms within the molecules. Since temperature is the
result of motion of the molecules, the energy which is required in moving the atoms does not contribute to
proportional rise in temperature. Hence, more heat is required to raise the temperature of unit mass through
one degree at higher levels. This heat by definition is the specific heat. For air, the values are
Cp = 1.005 kJ /kg K at 300 K; Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg K at 300 K
Cp = 1.345 kJ/kg K at 2000K; Cv = 1.057kJ/kg K at 2000K
The value of, decreases with increase in temperature, thus, if the variation of specific heats is taken into
account during the compression stroke, the final temperature and pressure would be lower than if constant
values of specific heat are used. This point is illustrated in Fig.
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3. The effect of dissociation: The fuel and air do not completely combine chemically at high temperatures
(above 1600 K) and this leads to the .presence of CO, H2, H and O2 at equilibrium conditions. Dissociation
process can be considered as the disintegration of combustion products at high temperature. During
dissociation the heat is absorbed where as during combustion the heat is liberated.
The dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 starts around 1000 C and the reaction can be written as
2CO2 2CO + O2 + Heat
Similarly, the dissociation of H2O occurs at temperatures above 1300 c and is written as
2H2O 2H + O2 + Heat
Maximum dissociation occurs in the burnt gases of the chemically correct fuel-air mixture when the
temperatures are high but decreases with the leaner and richer mixtures. Figure (a) shows a typical curve
that indicates the reduction in the temperature of the exhaust gas mixtures due to dissociation with respect to
air-fuel ratio. Dissociation reduces the maximum temperature by about 300C even at the chemically correct
air-fuel ratio. The effect of dissociation on output power is shown in Fig (b). If there is no dissociation, the
brake power output is maximum when the mixture ratio is stoichiometric. The shaded area shows the loss of
power due to dissociation.
Dissociation effects are not so pronounced in a CI engine as in an SI engine. This is mainly due to
The presence of a heterogeneous mixture and
Excess air to ensure complete combustion.
4. The variation in the number of molecules: The number of molecules present after combustion
depends upon fuel-air ratio and upon the pressure and temperature after the combustion.
pV = N RT
This has direct effect on the amount of work the cylinder gases can impart on the piston.
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7. Efficiency: As the mixture is made lean (less fuel) the temperature rise due to combustion will be lowered
as a result of reduced energy input. This will result in lower specific heat. It will also lower the losses due to
dissociation and variation in specific heat. The efficiency is therefore, higher and, approaches the air-cycle
efficiency as the fuel-air ratio is reduced shown in Fig (c)
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8. Maximum Power: As the mixture becomes richer, both efficiency and power output decreases as shown
in fig (d). This is because in addition to higher specific heats and chemical equilibrium losses, there is
insufficient air which will result in formation of CO and H2 during combustion, which represents a direct
wastage of fuel.
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Maximum temperature: At a given compression ratio the temperature after combustion reaches a maximum
when the mixture is slightly rich, around 6% or so (F/A = 0.072 or A/F = 14: 1) as shown in Fig (c). At
chemically correct ratio there is still some oxygen present because of chemical equilibrium effects a rich
mixture will cause more fuel to combine with oxygen, thereby raising the temperature
Maximum Pressure: The pressure of a gas in a given space depends upon its temperature and the number of
molecules.
Exhaust Temperature: The exhaust gas temperature T4 is maximum at chemically correct mixture as shown
in Fig (d). At this point the fuel and oxygen are completely used. At lean mixtures, because of less fuel T3 is
less and hence T4 is less. At rich mixtures less energy developed and hence T4 is less. the exhaust gas
temperature, T4 is lower at high compression ratios, because the increased expansion causes the gas to do
more work on the piston, hence less heat is rejected at the end of the stroke.
Mean Effective Pressure (mep): The mean effective pressure increases with compression ratio. It follows
the trend of P3 and P4 and hence it is maximum at a fuel-air ratio slightly richer than the chemically correct
ratio as shown in Fig (e)
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CI Engine Cycle Simulation: For diesel engine calculation, additional factors must be taken into
account; the mixture during compression is air plus a small amount of residual gas. At point 2 liquid fuels is
injected into the hot compressed air at temperature T2; as the fuel vaporizes and heats up, the air is cooled.
For a constant volume mixing process which is adiabatic, the mixture internal energy is unchanged, i.e.:
Substitution of typical values for fuel and air properties gives (T2 T2') 70 K at full load. Localized
cooling in a real engine will be greater. The limited-pressure cycle is a better approximation to the diesel
engine than the constant - pressure cycle and constant-volume cycles.
Note that because non-uniformities in the fuel/air ratio exist during and after combustion in the CI engine,
the burned gas charts which assume uniform composition will not be as accurate an approximation to
working fluid properties as they are for SI engines.
Results of Cycle Calculations: The two important factors that affect the performance of engine are
compression ratio rc, and equivalence ratio : From the available results, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
1. The effect of increasing the compression ratio on efficiency at a constant equivalence ratio is similar
to constant volume cycle.
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2. As the equivalence ratio is decreased below unity (leaner than stoichiometric), the efficiency
increases. This occurs because the burned gas temperatures after combustion decrease, decreasing
the burned gas specific heats and there by increasing value over the expansion stroke (1.4).
3. The efficiency increases because, for a given volume-expansion ratio, the burned gases expand
through a larger temperature ratio prior to exhaust; therefore expansion stroke work is increased.
4. As the equivalence ratio increases above unity (richer than stoichiometric), the efficiency decreases
because lack of sufficient air for complete oxidation of the fuel which also offsets the effect of
decreasing burned gas temperatures which decrease the mixture's specific heats.
5. The maximum power is exhibited between = 1.0 and 1.1, i.e., slightly rich.
6.
Variations in initial pressure, inlet temperature, residual gas fraction, and atmospheric moisture
fraction have only a modest effect on the fuel conversion efficiency.
7. The effects of variations in these variables on imep are more substantial, however, because imep
depends directly on the initial charge density.
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Where
r = r e / rc
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The effect of overexpansion on fuel conversion efficiency is shown in Fig (b). Significant increases in
efficiency can be achieved, especially at low compression ratios. One major disadvantage of this cycle is
that imep and power density decrease significantly because only part of the total displaced volume is filled
with fresh charge. The relations Vd = V1 (re - l)/rc and p1 V1 = mRT1, it follows the imep for over expanded
cycle & is given by;
Availability Relationships: Engine performance analysis is the amount of useful work that can be
extracted from the gases within the cylinder at each point in the operating cycle. The first and second laws
of thermodynamics together define the maximum or minimum work, and expressed in terms of the property
system-environment combination called availability or exergy.
Consider the system-atmosphere combination shown in Fig. In the absence of mass flow across the system
boundary, the system changes from state 1 to state 2, then from first and second laws we have;
The availability transfer dAQ associated with a heat transfer Q occurring when the system temperature is T
is given by
The unavailability energy is: Adestoryed = ToS irrev
Where, Sirrev is the entropy increase associated with the irreversibility occurring within the system boundary
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Entropy Changes in Ideal Cycles: consider the variation in the entropy of the cylinder gases as they
proceed through ideal operating cycles. For an adiabatic reversible compression process, the entropy is
constant. For the combustion process in each of the ideal gas cycles, the entropy increase can be calculated
from the relations,
Since the expansion process, after combustion is complete, is adiabatic and reversible, there is no further
change in entropy. Figure shows the entropy changes that occur during each process of the three ideal
engine operating cycles. Since the combustion process was assumed to be adiabatic, the increase in entropy
during combustion clearly shows the irreversible nature of the process.
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COMPARISON WITH REAL ENGINE CYCLES: A comparison of a real engine p-V diagram
over the compression and expansion strokes with an equivalent fuel-air cycle analysis is shown in Fig. The
real engine and the fuel-air cycle have the same geometric compression ratio, fuel chemical composition and
equivalence ratio, residual fraction and mixture density before compression. In real engine intake valve
closes 40 to 600 before BDC. In expansion stroke pressures fall below the fuel-air cycle due to the following
reasons:
Heat transfer from the burned gases to the walls;
Finite time required to burn the charge;
Exhaust blow down loss due to opening the exhaust valve before BC;
Gas flow into crevice regions and leakage past the piston rings;
Incomplete combustion of the charge.
The indicated fuel conversion efficiency of the actual engine is 0.8 times the efficiency of the fuel-air cycle.
Heat transfer: Heat transfer from the unburned mixture to the cylinder walls has a negligible effect on the
p-V line for the compression process. Heat transfer from the burned gases is much more important. During
expansion, heat transfer will cause the gas pressure in the real cycle to fall below an isentropic expansion
line as the volume increases. A decrease in efficiency results from this heat loss.
Finite combustion time: In an SI engine combustion starts 10 - 400 before TDC. Peak pressure occurs at
about 150 after TDC. In a diesel engine, the burning process starts shortly before TC. The pressure rises
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rapidly to a peak of 5- 100 after TC, since the initial rate of burning is fast. However, the final stages of
burning are much slower, and combustion continues until 40 -500 after TC. Thus, the peak pressure in the
engine is substantially below the fuel-air cycle peak pressure value, because combustion continues after TC,
when the cylinder volume is much greater than the clearance volume. Due to this less work has been
extracted from the cylinder. For spark or fuel-injection timing which is retarded from the optimum for
maximum efficiency.
Exhaust blow down loss: In the real engine cycle, the exhaust valve opens 600 before BDC to reduce the
pressure during the first part of the exhaust stroke. The gas pressure at the end of the expansion stroke is
therefore reduced below the isentropic line. Decrease expansion- work transfer
Crevice effects and leakage: As the cylinder pressure increases, gas flows into the regions between the
piston, piston rings, and cylinder wall. These regions have few percent of the clearance volume. This flow
reduces the mass in the volume above the piston crown, and this flow is cooled by heat transfer to the
crevice walls. Some of this gas is unburned and some of it will not burn. Though much of this gas returns to
the cylinder later in the expansion stroke leads to after burning. Some of this gas between the piston rings
flows into the crankcase. All these effects reduce the cylinder pressure during compression, combustion, and
expansion, thus reducing work.
Incomplete combustion: Losses do to incomplete combustion; the exhaust gases contain hydrocarbon
emissions from a warmed-up engine are 2 - 3 % of the fuel mass under normal operating conditions; carbon
monoxide and hydrogen in the exhaust contain 1 -2 % or more of the fuel energy. Hence, the chemical
energy of the fuel which is released in the actual engine is about 5 % less than the chemical energy of the
fuel inducted. The fuel-air cycle pressures after combustion will be higher because complete combustion is
assumed. In diesel engines, the combustion inefficiency is usually less, about 1- 2 %, so this effect is
smaller.
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CHAPTER-IV
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that the best power mixture is much richer than the chemically correct mixture and the best economy
mixture is slightly leaner than the chemically correct.
The A/F ratios for the best power and best economy at part throttle are not the same as at full throttle. In
practical spark-ignition engine induction systems, the fuel and air distribution between engine cylinders is
not uniform. A spread of one or more air/fuel ratios between the leanest and richest cylinders over the
engine load and speed range is not common. The average mixture composition must be chosen to avoid
excessive combustion variability in the leanest operating cylinder. Thus, as the spread in mixture increases,
the mean equivalence ratio must be move toward stoichiometric and away from the equivalence ratio which
gives minimum fuel consumption.
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Idling Range: An idling engine is one which operates at no load and with nearly closed throttle. Under
idling conditions, the engine requires a rich mixture, as indicated by point A. This is due to the existing
pressure conditions within the combustion chamber and the intake manifold which cause exhaust gas
dilution of the fresh charge. During idling, the air supply is restricted by closed throttle and the suction
pressure is very low. This condition of low pressure gives rise to backflow of exhaust gases and air leakage
from the various parts of the engine intake system.
At idling and during part load operation backflow during the valve overlap period occurs since the exhaust
pressure is higher than the intake pressure. This increases the amount of residual gases. During the suction
process the residual gases expand, thereby, reducing the fresh mixture inhaled. Increase dilution causes the
combustion to be erratic or even impossible. The problem of dilution by residual gases becomes more
pronounced at low loads and idling because the exhaust temperature reduces with decreasing load, i.e. the
density and mass of the residual gases increases. The air-fuel ratios used for idling and low loads, is about
20 per cent of full load, should be rich for smooth engine operation (F/A ratio 0.08 or A/F ratio = 12:5:1).
Up to this point the amount of fuel burned is quite small.
Normal power range or cruising range As the load is increased above 20% of rated load the dilution by
residual gases as well as leakage decreases and therefore in the normal power range the prime consideration
is usually the fuel economy. Maximum fuel economy occurs at A/F ratio of about 17:1 (F/A = 0.06)
Due to manufacturing tolerances provided in the carburetor the air-fuel ratio supplied by it varies during
operation.
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Maximum power range Mixture requirement for maximum power is a rich mixture, of A/F about 14:1 0r
(F/A = 0.07). Besides providing maximum power, a rich mixture also prevents overheating of exhaust valve
at high load and inhibits detonation. At high load there is greater heat, transfer to engine parts. Enriching the
mixture reduces the flame temperature and the cylinder temperature, thereby reducing the cooling problem
and lessening the chances of damaging the exhaust valves. Also, reduced temperature tends to reduce
detonation.
CARBURETOR FUNDAMENTALS:
In a carburetor the air flows through a converging-diverging nozzle called a venturi. The pressure difference
set up between the carburetor inlet and the throat of the nozzle is used to meter the fuel flow for that air
flow. The fuel enters the air stream through the fuel discharge tube or ports in the carburetor body and is
atomized and the air stream past the throttle plate and into the intake manifold. Fuel evaporation starts
within the carburetor and continues in the manifold Figure shows the essential components of an elementary
carburetor. The air enters the intake section of the carburetor from the air cleaner which removes suspended
dust particles. The air then flows into the carburetor venturi where the air velocity increases and the pressure
decreases. The fuel level is maintained at a constant height in the float chamber which is connected via an
air duct to the carburetor intake section. The fuel flows through the main jet as a result of the pressure
difference between the float chamber and the venturi throat and through the fuel discharge nozzle into the
venturi throat where the air stream atomizes the liquid fuel. The fuel-air mixture flows through the diverging
section of the venturi where the flow decelerates and some pressure recovery occurs. The flow then passes
the throttle valve and enters the intake manifold.
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The induction time, 1/ (2N) (20ms at 1500 Rev/min), is the characteristic time of this periodic cylinder
filling process. Therefore it takes several engines operating cycles to reestablish steady-state engine
operation after a sudden change in throttle position.
Flow through the Venturi: The mass flow rate of a gas through a flow restriction to the upstream stagnation
pressure and temperature.
Where, CDT and AT are the discharge coefficient and area of the venturi throat respectively.
Flow Through the fuel Orifice: The fuel flow rate through the main fuel jet is given by
Modern-Carburetor Design: The changes required in the elementary carburetor so that it provides
the equivalence ratio versus air flow distribution shown in Fig.
The main metering system must be compensated to provide essentially constant lean or
stoichiometric mixtures over the 20 to 80 percent air flow range.
An idle system must be added to meter the fuel flow at idle and light loads.
An enrichment system must be added so the engine can provide its maximum power as wide-open
throttle is approached.
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An accelerator pump which injects additional fuel when the throttle is opened rapidly is required to
maintain constant equivalence ratio delivered to the engine cylinder.
A choke must be added to enrich the mixture during engine starting and warm-up to ensure a
combustible mixture within each cylinder at the time of ignition.
Altitude compensation is required to adjust the fuel flow to changes in air density.
In addition, to increase the magnitude of the pressure drop available for controlling the fuel flow two
common methods are used
BOOST VENTURIS: The carburetor venturi should give as large a vacuum at the throat for maximum
air flow, within the constraints of a low pressure. A higher vacuum signal at the venturi throat and higher
velocities for improved atomization can be obtained without increasing the overall pressure loss through the
use of multiple venturis. Figure shows the geometry and the pressure distribution in a typical double-venturi
system. A boost venturi is positioned upstream of the throat of the larger main venturi, with its discharge at
the location of maximum velocity in the main venturi. Only a fraction of the air flows through the boost
venturi. Since the pressure at the boost venturi exit equals the pressure at the main venturi throat, a higher
vacuum (Pb= mghb) is obtained at the boost venturi throat which can be used to obtain more precise
metering of the fuel. The fuel is better atomized in the smaller boost venturi with its higher air velocity, a
more homogeneous mixture results. The vacuum developed at the venturi throat of a typical double-venturi
system is about twice the theoretical vacuum of a single venturi of the same flow area.
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The Main Metering and Idling System: The main metering system of the carburetor controls the fuel
feed for cruising and full throttle operations it consists of three principal units:
The fuel metering orifice through which fuel is drawn from the float chamber.
The main discharge nozzle
The passage leading to the idling system
The functions of the main metering system are
To proportion the fuel-air mixture
To decrease the pressure at the discharge nozzle exit
To limit the air flow at full throttle
Usually air-fuel ratio of about 12:1 is required for idling. In order to provide such rich mixture, during
idling, most of the modern carburetors incorporate special idling system is their construction. This consists
of idling fuel passage and idling ports as shown in Fig. This system gets operational at starting, idling and
very low speed running of the vehicle engine and is non-operational when throttle is opened beyond 15% to
20%. When the throttle is practically closed or marginally open, then very small quantity of air creates very
little depression at the throat of the venturi, and that is not enough to suck any fuel from the nozzle. But very
low pressure caused on the down stream side of the throttle due to suction stroke of piston makes the fuel
rise in the idling tube and the same is discharge through the idling discharge port, directly into the engine
intake manifold. Due to the low pressure through idling air-bleed a small amount of air also is sucked. The
idling air-bleed mixes air with gasoline drawn from float chamber and helps it to vaporize and atomize it
and pass through the idle passage.
Hot Idling Compensator: The hot idling compensator system (HIC) incorporates bi-metallic valve which
admits air directly into the manifold and correct quantity when needed. Thus the mixture richness is
adjusted stable idling is ensured.
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The Choke and the Throttle: When the vehicle is kept stationary for a long period during cool winter
seasons, starting becomes more difficult. At low cranking speeds and intake temperatures a very rich
mixture is required to initiate combustion. Some times air-fuel ratio as rich as 9:1 is required. The most
popular method of providing such mixture is by the Use of choke valve. A simple butterfly valve located
between the entrance to the carburetor and the venturi throat as shown in Fig. When the choke is partly
closed, large pressure drop occurs at the venturi throat that would normally result from the quantity of air
passing through the venturi throat. The very large depression at the throat inducts large amount of fuel from
the main nozzle and provides a very rich mixture so that the ratio of the evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder
is within the combustible limits. Sometimes, the choke valves are spring loaded to ensure that large
carburetor depression and excessive choking does not persist after the engine has started, and reached a
desired speed. This choke can be made to operate automatically by means of a thermostat so that the choke
is closed when engine is cold and goes out of operation when engine warms up after starting.
Throttle Valve: The speed and the output of an engine is controlled by the use of the throttle valve, which is
located on the downstream side of the venturi. The more the throttle is closed the greater is the obstruction
to the flow of mixture placed in the passage and the less is the quantity of mixture delivered to the cylinders.
The decreased quantity of mixture gives less powerful impulse to the pistons and the output of the engine is
reduced accordingly. As the throttle is opened, the output of the engine is increased.
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COMPENSATING DEVICES:
The tendency of a simple carburetor is to richen the mixture as the throttle starts opening. The main
metering system alone will not be sufficient to take care of the needs of the engine. Therefore, certain
compensating devices are usually added in the carburetor along with the main metering system so as to
supply a mixture with the required air-fuel ratio. A number of compensating devices are:
air-bleed jet
compensating jet
emulsion tube
back suction control mechanism
auxiliary air valve
auxiliary air port
Air-bleed jet: Figure illustrates a principle of an air-bleed system in a typical modern carburetor. The flow
of air through this bleed is restricted by an orifice and therefore it is called restricted air-bleed jet. When the
engine is not operating the main jet and the air bleed jet will be filled with fuel. When the engine starts,
initially the fuel starts coming through the main as well as the air bleed jet (A). As the engine picks up, only
air starts coming through the air bleed and mixes with fuel at B making air-fuel emulsion. Thus the fluid
stream which has become an emulsion of air and liquid has negligible viscosity and surface tension. Thus
the flow rate of fuel is augmented and more fuel is sucked at low suctions.
Compensating Jet: The principle of compensating jet device is to make the mixture leaner as the throttle
opens progressively. The compensating jet is connected to the compensation well.
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The compensating well is also vented to atmosphere like the main
float chamber. The compensating well is supplied with fuel
from the main float chamber through a restricting orifice. With
the increase in air flow rate, there is decrease of fuel level in
the compensating well, which results that fuel supply
through the compensating jet decreases. The compensating
jet thus progressively makes the mixture leaner as the main
jet progressively makes the mixture richer. The sum of the
two tends to keep the fuel-air mixture more or less constant as shown in Fig.
Emulsion Tube: The main metering jet is kept at a level of about 25 mm below the fuel level in the float
chamber. Therefore, it is also called submerged jet. The jet is located at the bottom of a well. In the
beginning the level of petrol in the float chamber and in the well is the same. When the throttle is opened the
pressure at the venturi throat decrease and petrol is drawn into the air stream. This results in progressively
uncovering the holes in the central tube leading to increasing air-fuel ratios or decreasing richness of
mixture when all holes have been uncovered. The air is drawn through these holes in the well, and the fuel is
emulsified and the pressure differential across the column of fuel is not as high as that in simple carburetor.
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Back Suction Control Mechanism: In this device, the top of the fuel float chamber is connected to air
entry by means of a large vent line fitted with a control valve. Another line with a small orifice connects the
top of the fuel float chamber with the venturi throat. When the control valve is completely open, the vent
line is unrestricted and the pressure (P1) in the float chamber is atmospheric and the throat pressure will be
P2. SO the pressure differential acting on the orifice is (P1 - P2). If the valve is closed, the float chamber
pressure will equalize with the pressure at the venturi throat and no fuel can flow. By proper adjustment of
the control valve, the required pressure differential can be obtained in the float chamber. Thus altering the
quantity of fuel discharged from the nozzle the required air-fuel ratio mixture can be achieved.
Auxiliary Valve: When the engine is not operating the pressure, P1 acting on the top of the auxiliary valve
is atmospheric. The vacuum at the venturi throat increases with increase in load. This pressure differential
(P1 - P2) lifts the valve against the tension of the spring. And as a result, more air is admitted and the mixture
is prevented from becoming rich.
Auxiliary Port: If the butterfly valve is opened, additional air passes through this port reducing the flow of
air through the venturi. This means that P will be comparatively smaller. As a result fuel drawn is reduced.
This method was used in aircraft carburetors to compensate for the loss in density of air
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Acceleration Pump System: In order to accelerate the vehicle and consequently its engine, the mixture
required is very rich and the richness of the mixture has to be obtained quickly and very rapidly. In
automobile engines situations arise when it is necessary to accelerate the vehicle. This requires an increased
output from the engine in a very short time. If the throttle is suddenly opened there is a corresponding
increase in the air flow. However, because of the inertia of the liquid fuel, the fuel flow does not increase in
proportion to the increase in air flow. This results in a temporary lean mixture causing the engine to misfire
and a temporary reduction in power output. To prevent this condition, all modern carburetors are equipped
with an accelerating system as shown in Figure. The pump comprises of a spring loaded plunger which
takes care of the situation with the rapid opening of the throttle valve. The plunger moves into the cylinder
and forces an additional jet of fuel at the venturi throat. When the throttle is partly open, the spring sets the
plunger back
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operation. The mixture strength delivered by the carburetor becomes richer at a rate inversely proportional
to the square root of the density ratio as given by the Eq.
If the pressure remains constant, the density of the air will vary according to temperature, increasing as the
temperature drops. This will cause a leaning of the fuel-air mixture in the carburetor because the denser air
contains more oxygen. The change in air pressure due to altitude is considerably more of a problem than the
change in density due to temperature changes. At 6,000 m altitude, the air pressure is one-half the Pressure
at sea level. Hence, in order to provide a correct mixture, the fuel flow would have to be reduced to almost
one-half that of at sea level.
A number of methods can be used to compensate for changes in ambient pressure with altitude:
1. Venturi by pass method: To keep the air volume flow rate through the venturi equal to what it was
at sea-level atmospheric pressure, a bypass circuit around the venturi for the additional volume flow
is provided.
2. Auxiliary jet method: An auxiliary fuel metering orifice with a pressure controlled tapered metering
rod connects the fuel bowl to the main well in parallel with the main metering orifice.
3. Fuel bowl back suction method: As altitude increases, bellows moves a tapered rod from an orifice
near the venturi throat, increasing amount of the vacuum at the throat.
4. Compensated air-bleed method: The orifices in the bleed circuits to each carburetor system are
fitted with tapered metering pins actuated by a single bellows.
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FUEL-INJECTION SYSTEMS:
Multipoint Port Injection: There are both mechanical injection systems and electronically controlled
injection systems. The advantages of port fuel injection are increased power and torque through improved
volumetric efficiency and more uniform fuel distribution, more rapid engine response to changes in throttle
position, and more precise control of the equivalence ratio during cold-start and engine warm-up. Fuel
injection allows the amount of fuel injected per cycle, for each cylinder, to be varied in response to inputs
derived from sensors which define actual engine operating conditions.
Speed density electronic multipoint port fuel-injection system: Figure 7-9 shows a schematic of
a speed-density system, where engine speed and manifold pressure and air temperature are used to calculate
the engine air flow. The electrically driven fuel pump delivers the fuel through a filter to the fuel line. A
pressure regulator maintains the pressure in the line at a fixed value 270kN/m2, excess fuel returns to the
tank. The inducted air flows through the air filter, past the throttle plate to the intake manifold. .An electromagnetically actuated fuel-injection valve is located either in the intake manifold tube or the intake port of
each cylinder. When the solenoid is not excited, the solenoid plunger of the magnetic circuit is forced, with
its seal, against the valve seat by the helical spring and closes the fuel passage. When the solenoid coil is
excited, the plunger is attracted and lifts the spindle about 0.15 mm so that fuel can flow through the
calibrated annular passage around the valve stem.
NMIT
In the speed-density system, the primary inputs to the ECU are the outputs from the manifold pressure
sensor, the engine speed sensor and the temperature sensors installed in the intake manifold to monitor air
temperature and engine block to monitor the water-jacket temperature, latter being used to indicate fuelenrichment requirements during cold-start and warm-up. The electronic control unit forms the pulse which
excites the injector solenoids. The pulse width depends on the manifold pressure; it also depends on the
variation in volumetric efficiency with speed N and variations in air density due to variations in air
temperature. The control unit also initiates mixture enrichment during cold-engine operation and during
accelerations that are detected by the throttle sensor.
NMIT
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS:
1. The engine operating air/fuel ratio is maintained close to stoichiometric through the use of a sensor
in the exhaust system, which provides a voltage signal dependent on the oxygen concentration in the
exhaust gas stream. This signal is the input to a feedback system which controls the fuel feed to the
intake.
2. The sensor is an oxygen concentration cell with a solid electrolyte through which the current is
carried by oxygen ions. The electrolyte is yttria (Y2O3)-stabilized zirconia (ZrO2) ceramic which
separates two gas chambers which have different oxygen partial pressures.
3. Equilibrium is established in the exhaust gases by the catalytic activity of the platinum metal
electrodes. The oxygen-partial pressures exhaust gases decreases by many orders of magnitude as
the equivalence ratio changes from 0.99 to 1.01, as shown in Fig: (a)
4. Thus the sensor output voltage increases rapidly in this transition from a lean to a rich mixture at the
stoichiometric point, as shown in Fig: (b
5. The sensor body is made of ZrO2 ceramic stabilized with Y2O3 to give adequate low-temperature
electrical conductivity.
6. The inner and outer electrodes are 10m thick porous platinum layers to provide the required
catalytic equilibrium. The outer electrode which is exposed to the exhaust gases is protected against
corrosion and erosion by an l00m spinal coat and a slotted shield.
7. For closed-loop feedback control use is made of the sensor's low-voltage output for lean mixtures
and a high-voltage output for rich mixtures.
8. The comparator output is then integrated in the integral controller whose output varies the fuel
quantity linearly in the opposite direction to the sign of the comparator signal.
9. Because of the time lag, the controller continues to influence the fuel flow rate in the same direction,
although the reference point = 1.0 has been passed.
10. Thus, oscillations in the equivalence ratio delivered to the engine exist even under steady-state
conditions of closed-loop control. This behavior of the control system is called the limit cycle.
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6. The pressure loss across the throttle plate under the actual flow conditions may be less than under
steady flow conditions.
The throttle plate open area Ath as a function of angle
Where, a = d/D, d is the throttle shaft diameter, D is the throttle bore diameter, and o is the throttle plate
angle when tightly closed against the throttle bore. When = cos-1 (a coso), the throttle open area reaches
its maximum value.
For pressure ratios across the throttle less than the critical value (PT / Po = o.528)the mass flow rate is given
by
Where, Ath is the throttle plate open area Po and To are the upstream pressure and temperature, PT is the
pressure downstream of the throttle plate and CD is the coefficient of discharge.
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Air-Flow Phenomena: The air flow to each of a multi cylinders engine, even under steady Operating
conditions, is not identical. This is due to differences in runner and branch length and other geometric. Also,
as each cylinder's intake flow commences, air is drawn from the branch and runner leading to the Cylinder,
the plenum, and the other runners and branches feeding the plenum as well as past the throttle. This drawing
down of other parts of the intake manifold depends on the arrangement of the plenum, runners, and
branches, and the firing order of the cylinders. Thus the air flow to each individual cylinder is affected by its
own branch, how that branch connects to the rest of the intake manifold, and the cylinder firing order. The
differences between the air flows to individual cylinders have been measured. Variations in the average air
mass flow rate to each individual cylinder of up to 5%. The air flow into each cylinder depends on the
pressure in the manifold, so this lags the throttle air flow. This transient air-flow phenomenon affects fuel
metering.
Several models of the flow in an intake manifold describe the phenomena of filling and emptying the
plenum. It is based on the assumption:
1. The intake (or exhaust) system can be modeled as a combination of pipes, junctions, and plenums.
2. Flow in the pipes is one dimensional and no axial heat conduction occurs.
3. States in the engine cylinders and plenums are uniform in space.
4. Boundary conditions are considered quasi steady.
5. Coefficients of discharge, heat transfer, pipe friction, and bend losses for steady flow are also valid
for unsteady flow.
6. The gases can be modeled as ideal gases.
The continuity equation for air flow into and out of the intake manifold is
Where ma, m is the mass of air in the manifold, and ma, th and ma, cyl are the air mass flow rates past the
throttle and into each cylinder, respectively. The air flow through the valve to each cylinder can be
computed from the valve area, discharge coefficient, and pressure difference across the valve.
Fuel-Flow Phenomena
Transport Processes: In spark-ignition engine the fuel enters the air stream as a liquid jet. The liquid jet
atomizes into droplets. These mix with the air and also deposit on the walls of the intake system.
1. The droplets vaporize; vaporization of the liquid fuel on the walls occurs. The flow of liquid fuel
along the walls can be significant.
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2. The transport of fuel as vapor, droplets, and liquid streams or films can all important. The fuel
transport processes in the intake system are extremely complex.
3. The liquid fuel is injected in the inlet port, toward the back of the intake valve; The quality of the
mixture entering the engine is imperfect
4. The fuel, air, recycled exhaust, mixture is not homogeneous; the fuel may not be fully vaporized as it
enters the engine.
5. The charge going to each cylinder is not usually uniform in fuel/air ratio throughout its volume, and
the distribution of fuel between the different engine cylinders is not exactly equal.
6. Thus, in addition to the transient non-quasi-steady air-flow phenomena there are transient fuel-flow
phenomena.
7. Fuel is a mixture of a large number of individual hydrocarbons it has a boiling temperature range
from 30 to 200C.
8. Lower the molecular weight, higher will be the saturated vapor pressure at a given temperature. The
boiling point of hydrocarbons depends on their molecular weight: the vapor pressure also depends on
molecular structure.
9. Lower pressures increase the relative amount of fuel vaporized and charge heating is usually
required to vaporize a substantial fraction of the fuel.
10. Vaporized fuel and liquid droplets which remain suspended in the air stream will be transported with
the air stream. However, droplet deposition on the manifold walls may occur due to gravitational
settling.
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6. Because the drop is smaller, a substantial fraction of the drops may stay entrained in the air flow.
Secondary atomization at the throttle at part-load operating conditions is important to the fuel
transport process.
7. Only drops of size less than about 10m will evaporate at the maximum speed; 100m droplets will
not vaporize fully at any speed.
Fuel-Film Behavior:
1. If the vaporization rate off the wall is sufficiently high, then a liquid film will not build up. Any
liquid film or pool on the manifold floor or walls is important because it introduces additional fuel
transport processes.
2. Thus changes in the air and the fuel flow into each engine cylinder, during a change in engine load,
will not occur in phase with each other unless compensation is made for the slower fuel transport.
3. A more extensive analysis of both fuel droplet and film evaporation in a complete carburetor,
throttle, manifold system, with a multi component model for gasoline is based on its distillation
curve.
4. Secondary atomization of the liquid fuel at the throttle, which produces the smallest droplet sizes
when the throttle open angle is small, significantly increases the fraction of fuel evaporation in the
manifold.
5. Increasing inlet air temperature increases the fraction of fuel vaporized; this effect is larger at lower
loads since secondary atomization under these conditions increases the liquid fuel surface area
significantly.
6. Heating the wall, which heats the liquid film on the wall directly, provides a greater increase in
fraction evaporated than equivalent heating of the air flow upstream of the carburetor.
7. One set of measurements of the fraction of fuel vaporized in the manifold of a warmed-up four
cylinder engine showed that 70 to 80 percent of the fuel had vaporized, confirming that under these
operating conditions most but not necessarily all the fuel enters the cylinder in vapor form.
8. At light load, secondary atomization at the throttle and the lower manifold pressure would reduce the
amount of liquid fuel impinging on the manifold plenum floor.
9. Also, typical manifold heating at light load substantially exceeds the heat required to vaporize the
fuel completely, and manifold floor temperatures are of order 15C higher than at full load.
10. At high speed, drop sizes produced in the carburetor are much smaller, so impingement on the walls
is much reduced.
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