Term 1_1 Notes: Periodic Table, Atomic Structure

Name: _______________________ (

) Class: 2 ___ Date: _________

Atomic structure
What is an atom?
An atom is the smallest unit of an element, having the properties of that element.
Are there particles smaller than the atom?
Atoms are not like solid balls (Figure 1) as proposed by Dalton in 1803.

Figure 1: Dalton's model of the atom

A century ago, scientists thought that atoms were hard solid particles like incredibly small
marbles. In the e part of the 20th century, experiments led to a clearer picture for the structure
of atoms.

All atoms are built from just three particles protons, neutrons and electrons.
The centre of an atom is called the nucleus and this contains the protons and neutrons.
The nucleus takes up less than 1% of the volume of an atom.
Protons and neutrons have virtually the same mass. The proton and neutron are each
assigned a relative mass of one.
Protons have a positive charge, but neutrons are neutral.
More than 99% of an atom is empty space occupied by moving electrons.
Electrons have a mass about 2 000 times less that of a proton or a neutron.
Electrons have a negative charge. The negative charge on one electron just cancels the
positive charge on one proton.
Electrons move around very rapidly. They tend to occupy layers or shells at different
distances from the nucleus.

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The key points about atomic structure are summarised below:

Thinking Time!
Why is the term "relative mass" used in the Table 1 rather than just mass?

The Atomic Model

With reference to the diagram on the left:
(a) The centre of an atom is called the
nucleus which contains the protons and
neutrons.
(b) The electrons in an atom are arranged in
shells (orbits) at different distances from the
nucleus. The shell nearest to the nucleus is
numbered 1, the second nearest is numbered
2 and so on.
Note: Shells are also called energy levels.

(c) Each shell can hold a certain maximum number of electrons.

(i) 1st shell - 2 electrons
(ii) 2nd shell - 8 electrons
For the 1st 20 elements, the maximum number of electrons that can go into the third shell is 8.

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Advanced: For elements after calcium in the 4th period, their third shell can hold up to 18
electrons.
Some interesting facts...
The nucleus takes up less than 1% of the volume of a nucleus.
More than 99% of an atom is empty space occupied by rapid moving electrons.
Protons, neutrons and electrons are the building blocks for all atoms. Hydrogen atoms are the
simplest atoms. Each hydrogen atom has only one proton and one electron. The next
simplest atoms are those of helium with two protons, two electrons and two neutrons. After
helium comes lithium, with three protons, three electrons and four neutrons.

Some of the heaviest atoms have large numbers

of protons, neutrons and electrons. For example,
uranium atoms have 92 protons, 92 electrons and
143 neutrons.
Notice in all these examples, that an atom
always has the same number of protons and
electrons. This ensures that the positive charges
on the protons balance the negative charges on
the electrons and the atom is overall neutral.

If the nucleus of an atom was enlarged to the size

of a pea and placed on the top of Nelson's
Column, the electrons furthest away would be on
the pavement

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Atomic number and mass number

The only atoms with one proton are those of hydrogen. The only atoms with two protons are
those of helium. The only atoms with three protons are those of lithium and so on.
This shows that the number of protons in an atom decides which element it is. Because of
this, the number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number or proton number. Thus,
hydrogen has an atomic number of one, helium has an atomic number of two, lithium three,
and so on. Remember also that the order of the element in the periodic table tells you its
atomic number. So, chlorine, the seventeenth element in the periodic table with 17 protons
and 17 electrons has an atomic number of 17.
The mass of the electrons in an atom is negligible compared to that of the protons and
neutrons. In fact, the mass of an atom depends on the number of protons and neutrons added
together. This number is called the mass number or nucleon number of the atom.
So,
atomic number = number of protons
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

So, aluminium atoms, with 13 protons and 14 neutrons, have an atomic number of 13 and a mass
number of 27. Sometimes the symbol Z is used for atomic number and the symbol A for mass
number. So, for aluminium, Z = 13 and A = 27.
The figure below shows how the mass number and atomic number are often shown with the symbol
of an element.

The mass number and the atomic number for gold (Au).
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are there in a gold atom?
________________________________________________________

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Thinking Time!
An atom can be described as an electrically neutral entity made up of a positively charged
nucleus at its centre with negatively charged electrons moving around the nucleus.
(a)

Why is the atom electrically neutral?

(b)

Why is the nucleus positively charged?

Isotopes and Relative Atomic Mass

Several elements have relative atomic masses which are whole numbers. For example, the
relative atomic mass of carbon is 12.0, that of fluorine is 19.0 and that of sodium is 23.0. This
is not surprising, as the mass of an atom depends on the mass of its protons and neutrons, both of
which have a relative mass of 1.0. For example, we could calculate the relative mass of
fluorine as follows.
19

9F

atoms have: 9 protons relative mass = 9.0

9 electrons relative mass = 0.0
10 neutrons relative mass = 10.0
Therefore, relative atomic mass of 199F = 19.0
Unlike fluorine, carbon and sodium, some elements
have relative atomic masses that are nowhere near
whole numbers. For example, the relative atomic
mass of chlorine is 35.5 and that of copper is 63.5.
These unexpected results were explained in 1919
when W.F. Aston built the first mass spectrometer.
Using his mass spectrometer, Aston found that one
element could have atoms with different masses.
These atoms of the same element with different
masses are called isotopes. Isotopes are atoms
with the same atomic number, but different
mass numbers.

This photo shows evidence for the two isotopes in neon, neon-20 and neon-22. The trace for neon-20
is much thicker than that for neon-22. What does this tell you about the two isotopes? What does
CO represent?
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Each isotope has a relative atomic mass which is a whole number, but the average relative atomic
mass for the mixture of isotopes is not always a whole number.
Chlorine is a good example of an element with isotopes. Naturally occurring chlorine contains two
isotopes 3517 C1 called chlorine-35 and 3717 C1 called chlorine-37. Each of these isotopes has 17 protons
and 17 electrons. Therefore, both isotopes have the same atomic number and the same chemical
properties because these are determined by the number of electrons.
However, one isotope (3517 C1 ) has 18 neutrons and the other (3717 C1) has 20 neutrons. Therefore,
they have different mass numbers, different masses and hence different physical properties because
these depend on the masses of atoms and molecules.
The similarities and differences between isotopes of the same element are summarised in the table
below.

The similarities and differences between isotopes of the same element

Isotopes can be divided into two types. One type is radioactive; the other is non-radioactive.
Radioactive isotopes give out radiation. This radiation is invisible but it can be detected
with special instruments. Radiation is harmful to life, and in large amounts, can kill people.
It was radioactive isotopes from the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident that caused the
pollution in 1986. Workers handling radioactive isotopes must take precautions to shield
themselves from radiation.
Most isotopes in the air and the ground are non-radioactive and they do not produce
radiation. Most radioactive isotopes are made artificially.
Radioactive isotopes have important uses.
The cobalt isotope, 60Co, is used in
hospitals to treat cancer patients. The
intense radiation from this isotope destroys
the cancer cells. Cobalt-60 is also used to
sterilise surgical instruments used in
hospital operations. The powerful radiation
kills germs.

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Radioactive isotopes produce heat which can be

used to produce electrical energy. Small amounts
of radioactive isotopes are used to supply energy
in remote places. Radioactive isotopes provide
energy for spacecraft exploring the outer planets,
such as Jupiter and Saturn.
Some people have irregular heartbeats. They need
to have a heart pacemaker implanted inside their
chest. This instrument provides a tiny electrical
shock to ensure a steady heartbeat. Pacemakers
can be powered by radioactive isotopes. Such a
pacemaker can work reliably for over 20 years. An
ordinary battery would have to be replaced every
10 years.

Nuclear Energy (Optional)

Radioactive isotopes are used to
produce large amounts of energy ii
nuclear fission. This is done in a
controlled way in a nuclei reactor.
The fuel is an isotope of uranium,
uranium-235. In the reactor, the
uranium atoms are bombarded with
neutrons. When E neutron hits a
uranium nucleus, the nucleus breaks
up into two smaller nuclei. This is
called nuclear fission. An example
is shown.
During fission, more neutrons are produced. These neutrons cause fission in other
uranium atoms. This is repeated over and over again. This repeated process is called a
chain reaction. A lot of heat energy is produced in a nuclear fission chain reaction. This
heat energy is used to produce steam which is then used to drive a turbine and dynamo
to generate electricity.
When the chain reaction in nuclear fission is allowed to get out of control, an explosion
can occur. This is done deliberately in explosions produced by nuclear weapons. The
explosion is produced by uncontrolled fission of about 10 kg of uranium-235 or
plutonium-239.

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Calculating relative atomic masses (Optional)

The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of one atom. This can be
calculated from the relative masses of its isotopes and their relative proportions.
Look closely at the figure below which shows a mass spectrometer trace for chlorine. The trace
shows that chlorine contains two isotopes, with mass numbers of 35 and 37.

A mass spectrometer trace for chlorine.

What are the relative amounts of isotopes 35 17 C1 and

37

17 C1?

If chlorine contained 100% 35 17 C1 , its relative atomic mass would be 35.

If it contained 100% 37 17 C1 its relative atomic mass would be 37.
If it contained 50% 35 17 C1 and 50% 37 17 C1 , the relative atomic mass would be:

Now, the previous graphical figure shows that chlorine contains three times as much 35 17 C1 as
37
17 C1 i.e. the percentages of the two isotopes are 75% to 25%. Therefore the atomic mass of
chlorine

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Electronic Structure & Electronic Configuration

Nitrogen-14 atom has 7 electrons. Two of its electrons will go into the 1st shell; the
remaining electrons will go into the 2nd shell (Figure 2). With 7 electrons, nitrogen has the
electronic configuration of 2.5
Argon-40 atom has 18 electrons. Two of its electrons will go into the 1st shell, 8 electrons
will go into the 2nd shell, and the remaining 8 electrons will go into the 3rd shell (Figure 3).
With 18 electrons, argon has the electronic configuration of 2.8.8

Figure 2: Electronic Structure (Full

Electronic Configuration) of Nitrogen-14
atom
(b)

Figure 3: Electronic Structure (Full

Electronic Configuration) of Argon-40
atom

Valence Shell (Outer Shell)

The shell which is farthest from the nucleus and occupied by electrons is called the valence
shell (outer shell). The electrons in the valence shell are known as valence electrons (outer
electrons). In a chemical reaction, only these valence electrons are involved in chemical
bonding between atoms.

Often, only the valence electrons are drawn in the

electronic structure. This is called the outer electronic
structure. An example is shown in Figure 4 for the
Nitrogen-14 atom.

Figure 4

Formation of Ions
During chemical reactions, some atoms might lose/gain electron(s). Atom becomes an ion
(charged particle) when it gains or loses electron(s).
Question: Why does an atom become a charged particle when it gains or loses electron(s)?

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(a)

Formation of cations

When an atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a positively charged particle called
cation.

Lithium atom (Li)

3 electrons
3 protons
Net charge: 0

Lithium ion (Li+)

2 electrons
3 protons
Net charge: +1

In a lithium atom, there are 3 protons and 3 electrons. In a lithium ion, there are 3 protons
and 2 electrons. Therefore, the lithium ion carries an overall positive charge of 1+ and is
written as Li+.
(b)

Formation of anions

When an atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes a negatively charged particle called
anion.

Fluorine atom (F)

9 electrons
9 protons
Net charge: 0

Fluoride ion (F-)

10 electrons
9 protons
Net charge: -1

In a fluorine atom, there are 9 protons and 9 electrons. In a fluoride ion, there are 9 protons
and 10 electrons. Therefore, the fluoride ion carries an overall positive charge of 1- and is
written as F-.
Thinking Time!
Why do atoms become ions? (Note: this will be covered under chemical bonding)

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The Periodic Table

During the 19th century, several chemists looked for patterns in the properties of elements. The
most successful of these approaches was by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869.

Mendeleev arranged all the known elements in order of their relative atomic masses.
He also arranged the elements in horizontal rows so that elements with similar properties
were in the same vertical column.

Because of the periodic repetition of elements with similar properties, Mendeleev called his
arrangement a periodic table.
The figure below shows part of Mendeleev's periodic table. Notice that elements with similar
properties, such as sodium and potassium, fall in the same vertical column. Which other pairs or
trios of similar elements appear in the same vertical column of Mendeleevs table?

In the periodic table

The vertical
columns
of similar elements
are called groups.
The horizontal rows
of elements are
called periods.

Mendeleev had some brilliant and successful ideas in connection with his periodic table.
He left gaps in his table so that similar elements were in the same vertical group. Three of these
gaps are shown as asterisks in the figure above.
He predicted the properties of the missing elements from the properties of elements above and
below them in his table. Within 15 years of his predictions, the missing elements had been
discovered. They were called scandium, gallium and germanium. Their properties were very
similar to Mendeleev's predictions.
The success of Mendeleev's predictions showed that his ideas were probably correct. His periodic
table was quickly accepted as an important summary of the properties of elements.

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Mendeleev was the first

chemist
to
successfully
arrange the elements into a
pattern
linking
their
properties
arc
relative
atomic masses

In the periodic table, the elements are arranged in order of increasing proton (atomic)
number, and are classified according to Groups and Periods.

Group - a vertical set of elements

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Period - a horizontal row of elements

(a)

Group

The groups in the Periodic Table are numbered from I to VII and then Group 0. Some of
these groups have names:
Group number
Group
I
Alkali metals
II
Alkaline earth metals
VII
Halogens
0
Noble gases
Elements between Group II and III are known as transition metals or transition elements.
Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties and will undergo the same
type of chemical reactions.

(b)

Period

Each period is numbered, 1, 2, 3, etc.

Elements in the 1st period will only have their 1st shell fully/partially occupied with
electrons.
Elements in the 2nd period will have their 1st shell fully occupied with electrons, and their
2nd shell fully/partially occupied with electrons.
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Element

Proton
number

H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

(c)

Number of electrons in
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
shell
shell
shell shell
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
2
8
2
8
1
2
8
2
2
8
3
2
8
4
2
8
5
2
8
6
2
8
7
2
8
8
2
8
8
1
2
8
8
2

Electronic
Period Group
configuration
1
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.8.1
2.8.2
2.8.3
2.8.4
2.8.5
2.8.6
2.8.7
2.8.8
2.8.8.1
2.8.8.2

1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4

0
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
0
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
0
I
II

Patterns in the Periodic Table

One useful way of classifying elements is as metals and non-metals. Unfortunately, it is not easy
to classify some elements in this way. Take, for example, graphite and silicon. These two elements
have high melting points and high boiling points (like metals) but they have low densities (like
non-metals).

The graphite nose cone of a space

shuttle being tested in a furnace. Why
is graphite used for the nose cone?

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They conduct electricity better than non-metals but not as well as metals. Elements with some
properties like metals and other properties like non-metals are called metalloids. Because of this
difficulty in classifying elements neatly as metals and non-metals, chemists looked for patterns
in the properties and reactions of smaller groups of elements.

The modern periodic table

The modern periodic table, shown over the next page, is based on Mendeleev's. It shows all the
known elements numbered along each period, starting with period 1, then period 2, etc. The number
given to each element is called its atomic number. Thus, hydrogen has an atomic number of 1,
helium 2, lithium 3, etc.
The periodic table shows all the elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
(i)

Electronic Structure

Down each group, the number of valence electrons is the same for each element and is equal
to the group number.
Example: Group I Elements
Element
Li
Na
K

Electronic configuration
2.1
2.8.1
2.8.8.1

Group I elements are very reactive. Since elements with similar electronic configurations
have similar chemical properties, elements in the same group have similar chemical
properties.

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(ii)

Metals and non-metals

Across the period, the properties of elements change from metallic to nonmetallic.

Generally, elements with small number of electrons in the valence shell (e.g. Group I and II)
are metals. Elements with large number of electrons in the valence shell (e.g. Group VII and
0) are non-metals.
The line that divides metals from non-metals runs run diagonally through the Periodic Table.
Elements found beside this dividing line (zigzag line) are known as metalloids. Metalloids
have some properties of non-metals and metals.
Apart from noble gases, the most reactive elements are near the left and right-hand sides of the periodic
table. The least reactive elements are in the centre. Sodium and potassium, two very reactive metals,
are at the left-hand side. The next most reactive metals, like calcium and magnesium, are in group II,
whereas less reactive metals (like iron and copper) are in the centre of the table. Carbon and silicon,
unreactive non-metals, are in the centre of the periodic table. Sulfur and oxygen, which are nearer
the right-hand edge, are more reactive. Fluorine and chlorine, the most reactive non-metals, are very
close to the right-hand edge.
(d)

Charges on ions

Charges on the ions formed are related to the group number and number of valence
electrons.
Elements on the left side of the Periodic Table lose their valence electrons to form cations
with charges corresponding to their group number. Elements on the right side of the
Periodic Table gain electrons to form anions. The charges on the anions corresponding to
the number of electrons gained to fill their valence shells with eight electrons.
Element
Group number
Formula of ion

Na
I
Na+

Mg
II
Mg2+

Al
III
Al3+

Si
IV
-

P
V
P3-

S
VI
S2-

Cl
VII
Cl-

Ar
0
-

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Electron structure and chemical bonding

We have previously looked at the first twenty elements in the periodic table.
When elements react we now know that they try to gain, lose or share electrons in order
to get a more stable electron structure. In many cases, this more stable electron
structure is the same as that of a noble gas.
When elements react we now know that they try to gain, lose or share electrons in order to
get a more stable electron structure. In many cases, this more stable electron structure is the
same as that of a noble gas.
The simple ideas expressed in this statement form the basis of the electronic theory of
chemical bonding.
Look carefully at the table below. This shows the electron structures of the atoms and ions of
elements in period 3.

Notice three important points from the above table

1. The first three elements in period 3 (sodium, magnesium and aluminium) lose the
electrons in their outer shell to form positive ions (Na+, Mg2+, Al3+) with an electron
structure like the previous noble gas, neon.
2. Elements in groups VI and VII (sulphur and chlorine), which are near the end of period 3,
gain electrons to form negative ions (S2-, Cl-) with an electron structure like the next
noble gas, argon.
3. Elements in the middle of the period (silicon and phosphorus) do not usually form ions.
They get stable electron structures when they react by sharing electrons with other atoms
instead of gaining them or losing them. This sharing of electrons results in covalent bonds
between atoms which is the usual type of bonding in compounds of non-metals.

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Why do atoms bond?

Noble gases, such as helium, neon and argon, are monoatomic because their valence shells
are fully occupied by electrons. Thus, noble gases are stable and do not undergo bonding
with other atoms.
Since atoms with electronic configurations of noble gases are stable, atoms bond to achieve
electronic configuration of a noble gas. Atoms do so by transfer or sharing of electrons
with other atoms.
By having an electronic configuration of a noble gas, an atom will achieve stability.
- When you have 2 electrons in the 1st shell, you have a duplet structure.
- When you have 8 electrons in the rest of the shells, you have an octet structure.

Chemical bonds
There are three ways of forming chemical bonds between atoms:
(i)
Ionic bonding
(ii)
Covalent bonding
(iii) Metallic bonding (to be covered in Sec. 3)
i.

Ionic bonding

Ionic bonding is usually formed between metals and non-metals.

Ionic (electrovalent) bonds result from the transfer of electrons from metal atoms to
non-metal atoms forming positive and negative ions. The electrical forces between these
oppositely charged ions produce strong ionic bonds.
Naming of ionic compounds:
[name of cation] [space] [name of anion]
(a)

Formation of ionic bonds

Using the formation of sodium chloride (Figure 1) as an example:

The sodium atom loses one electron to form a positive ion (cation) in order to obtain an octet
structure. The chlorine atom gains the electron from sodium atom to form a negative ion
(anion) in order to obtain an octet structure. The ions have opposite charges and therefore
attract each other to form an ionic compound known as sodium chloride. This attraction
force is called ionic bond.
In a sodium atom, there are 11 protons and 11 electrons. In a sodium ion, there are 11
protons and 10 electrons. Therefore, the sodium ion carries an overall positive charge of 1+
and is written as Na+.

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In a chlorine atom, there are 17 protons and 17 electrons. In a chloride ion, there are 17
protons and 18 electrons. Therefore, the chloride ion carries an overall positive charge of 1and is written as Cl-.

Figure 5: Formation of Sodium Chloride

In figure 6, the magnesium atom gives up two electrons to form a magnesium ion, Mg2+.
These two electrons are transferred to two chlorine atoms to form two chloride ions, Cl-. The
magnesium chloride has the formula MgCl2.

Figure 6: Formation of Magnesium Chloride

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(b)

Dot-and-cross diagrams of ionic compounds

Steps:
1.
Draw the valence electrons of the elements using Dot and Cross only.
2.
Electron(s) is/are transferred from the valence shell of the metal to the valence shell of
the non-metal.
3.
The anion that has gained electron(s) from the cation will now have two type of
electrons one originally from its valence shell, another one from the cation
differentiated by dots and crosses.
4.
Remember to indicate the charges of the ions.
Examples of Dot-and-cross diagram can be found in figure 7 and 8.

Figure 7: Dot-and-cross diagram showing the bonding in sodium chloride

Figure 8: Dot-and-cross diagram showing the bonding in magnesium chloride

ii.

Covalent bonding

Some atoms form bonds by sharing electrons to gain electronic configuration of a noble gas.
The bonds formed are known as covalent bonds.
A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms.
Each atom contributes one electron to the bond.

Generally, covalent bonds are formed between atoms of non-metal. Covalent bonds can be
formed between atoms of same elements or between atoms of different elements.
Compounds which contain covalent bonds are known as covalent compounds.
Single covalent bond - One pair of shared electrons between two atoms
Double covalent bond - Two pair of shared electrons between two atoms
Triple covalent bond - Three pair of shared electrons between two atoms
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(a)

Covalent bonds in elements

Hydrogen molecules, H2
A hydrogen atom has 1 valence electron.
electronic configuration of a noble gas.

It requires one more electron to obtain the

In order to obtain the electronic configuration of helium, two hydrogen atoms can share a pair
of electrons between themselves to form hydrogen molecules, H2 (figure 5). In order to
differentiate the two electrons, the electron of one atom is represented by a cross while the
other electron of another atom is represented by a dot.

Formation of hydrogen molecule

Oxygen molecules, O2
In order to obtain the electronic configuration of a noble gas, each oxygen atom requires two
more electrons. Instead of sharing a pair of electrons, two oxygen atoms can share two pairs
of electrons to form a double bond and obtain an octet structure.

Formation of oxygen molecule (showing of electrons in the outer shells only)

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(b)

Covalent bonds in compounds

Methane molecule, CH4

The carbon atom has four valence electrons and it needs four more electrons to gain an octet
structure. The carbon atom can share its four electrons with four other hydrogen atoms,
forming a single covalent bond with each of the hydrogen atom.

Formation of methane molecule (showing of electrons in the outer shells only)

Valency
The number of electrons an atom uses to form bonds is called its valency.
Element
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Aluminium
Carbon

Valency
1
2
3
4

Making and breaking chemical bonds

When a chemical reaction occurs, one substance changes to another. This means that bonds in
the reactants must first be broken and then new bonds must be made in the products.
Now breaking bonds involves pulling atoms apart and this requires energy. On the other
hand, making bonds helps to make atoms more stable and this gives out energy. So,
bond breaking is endothermic,
bond making is exothermic.

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Structure and Properties

Look at the crystals of sodium chloride in this
photograph. What do you notice about all the salt
crystals?
All the salt crystals are roughly the same cubic
shape. Further studies show that all the crystals of
one substance have similar shapes. This suggests
that the particles in the crystals are always packed
in a regular fashion to give the same overall shape.
Sometimes, crystals grow unevenly and their
shapes become distorted. Even so, it is usually easy
to see their general shape. Solid substances which
have a regular packing of particles are described as
crystalline. The particles may be atoms, ions or
molecules.
The figure below shows how cubic crystals and hexagonal crystals can form. If the particles
are always placed in parallel lines or at 90o to each other, the crystal will be cubic. If the
particles are placed at 120 in the shape of a hexagon, the final crystal will be hexagonal.

We can compare the way in which a crystal

grows to the way in which a bricklayer lays
bricks. If the bricklayer always places the bricks
in parallel lines or at 90 to each other, then the
final buildings will be like cubes or boxes.
However, if the bricks are laid at 120 to make
hexagons, then the final buildings will be
hexagonal.
The overall shape of a crystal can only give a
clue to the way in which the particles are
arranged. X-rays give much better evidence.

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Using X-rays to study crystals (Optional)

Look through a piece of thin stretched cloth at a small bright light. The pattern you see is due
to the deflection of the light as it passes through the regularly spaced threads of the fabric.
This deflection of the light is called diffraction and the patterns produced are diffraction
patterns. If the cloth is stretched so that the threads in the fabric get closer, then the pattern
spreads further out. From the diffraction pattern which we can see, we can work out the
pattern of the threads in the fabric which we cannot see. The same idea is used to work out
how the particles are arranged in a crystal.
A narrow beam of X-rays is directed at a wellformed crystal. Some of the X-rays are diffracted
by particles in the crystal onto X-ray sensitive
film. When the film is developed, a regular
pattern of spots appears. This is the diffraction
pattern for the crystal. From the diffraction
pattern which we can see, it is possible to work
out the pattern of particles in the crystal which we
cannot see. A regular arrangement of spots on the
film indicates a regular arrangement of particles
in the crystal. This regular arrangement of
particles in the crystal is called a lattice.
X-rays have been used in this way to study the structure of thousands of different solids.
Beams of electrons can also be used, like X-rays, to study the way in which particles are
arranged in crystals.

The structure of Substances

All substances are made up of particles. If we
know how particles are arranged (the
structure) and how the particles are held
together (the bonding), then we can explain
the properties of a substance. For example,
copper is a good conductor because its
metallic bonding allows electrons to move
through the structure when it is connected to a
battery. It can be drawn into wires because
copper atoms can slide over each other in the
close-packed structure.
In turn, the properties of a substance lead to
its uses. Copper, for example is used for
electrical wires and cables because it is a good
conductor and it can be drawn into wires.

24
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

Notice that the structure and bonding of a substance determine its properties and, in
turn, the properties determine its uses.
So the links from structure and bonding to properties help us to explain the uses of materials why metals are used as conductors, why graphite is used in pencils and why clay is used to
make bricks.
Earlier, you have learnt that all substances are made up from only three different types of
particle - atoms, ions, and molecules.
These three particles give rise to four different solid structures.
giant metallic structures,
giant covalent structures,
giant ionic structures, and
simple molecular structures.

The table below shows the particles in these four structures, the types of substances formed
and examples of these substances.
The four types of solid structure and the particles they contain
Types of
structure
Giant
metallic
Giant
covalent
Giant ionic
Simple
molecular

Particles in the
structure
atoms
Very large molecule
containing thousands
of atoms
Ions
Small molecules
containing a few
atoms

Types of substance

Examples

Metals and alloys

(mixture of metals)
Non-metals or nonmetal compounds

Na, Fe, Cu, steel, brass

Compounds of metals
with non-metals
Non-metals of nonmetal compounds

Na+Cl- (salt), Ca2+O2- (lime

dioxide)
I2 (iodine), O2 (oxygen), H2O
(water), CO2 (carbon dioxide)

Diamond (carbon, C), polythene,

sand (silicon dioxide, SiO2)

If you look carefully at the surface of some

galvanised iron (iron coated with zinc), you will see
irregular shaped areas separated from each other by
clear boundaries. The irregular shaped areas are
called grains and the boundaries between them are
called grain boundaries. The grains in zinc are
usually easy to see, but the grains in most metals are
too small to see with the naked eye. The oxide
coating on many metals also makes it difficult to see
the grains. If, however. the metal surface is clean
and smooth, the grains can be seen through a
microscope.

25
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

X-ray analysis shows that the atoms in metal grains - packed in a regular fashion, but the
grains themselves are irregular-shaped crystals pushed tightly together.

Metals usually have a high density. This suggests that the atoms are packed close together. In
fact, X-ray studies show that the atoms of most metals are packed as close together as
possible. This arrangement is close packing. The figure above shows a few atoms in layer of
a metal crystal.
Notice that each atom in the middle of the
crystal touches six other atoms in the same
layer. When a second layer is placed on top of
the first layer, atoms in the second layer sink
into the dips between atoms in the first layer.
This means that any one atom in the first layer
can touch six atoms in its own layer, three
atoms in the layer above it and three atoms in
the layer below, i.e. a total of twelve atoms in
all.

The properties of metals

The typical properties of metals can be explained in
terms of their structure.
High density - The close packing of atoms
explains why most metals have a high density.
High melting points and boiling points suggest that there are strong forces holding the
atoms together in metals. Scientists think that
the outermost electrons in each metal atom can
move about freely in the whole structure.
So, metals consist of positive ions surrounded
by a 'sea of moving electrons'. The negative
'sea of electrons' attracts all the positive ions
and cements everything together. The strong
forces of attraction between the negative
electrons and the positive ions result in high
melting points and high boiling points.
The structures of metals are often described as
giant structures. In a giant structure, there are
strong bonds from one atom or ion to another
in a vast network throughout the whole
substance.

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Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

Good conductivity - When a metal is

connected in a circuit, freely moving electrons
in the metal move towards the positive
terminal. At the same time, electrons move into
the other end of the wire from the negative
terminal. This flow of electrons through the
wire forms the electric current.
Malleability - The bonds between atoms in a
metal are strong but they are not rigid. When a
force is applied to a metal crystal, the layers of
atoms can `slide' over each other. This is
known as slip. After slipping, the atoms settle
into position again and the close-packed
structure is restored.

This diagram shows the positions

of atoms before and after slip.
This is what happens when a
metal is bent or hammered into
different shapes.

Giant covalent structures

In giant covalent structures, like diamond,
polythene and sand (silicon dioxide), strong
covalent bonds join one atom to another in very
large molecules containing thousands or even
millions of atoms.
In diamond, each carbon atom is joined to four
other. Each carbon atom is at the centre of a
tetrahedron with four other carbon atoms at the
corners of the tetrahedron.
Every carbon atom shares its four outer electrons,
one with each of its four neighbours forming
strong covalent bonds. The covalent bonds extend
through the whole diamond forming a threedimensional giant covalent structure. Thus, a
27
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

diamond is a single giant molecule or a macromolecule. Only a small number of atoms are
shown in the model. In a real diamond, there are billions of atoms.
The properties of diamond
Diamond is very hard because its carbon atoms are linked by very strong covalent
bonds. Another reason for its hardness is that the atoms are not arranged in layers so they
cannot slide over one another like the atoms in metals. In fact, diamond is the hardest
known natural substance. Most of its industrial uses depend on this hardness.
Diamond has a very high melting point because of the strong covalent bonds linking
carbon atoms in a giant structure. This means that the atoms cannot vibrate fast enough to
break away from their neighbours until very high temperatures are reached.
Diamond does not conduct electricity. Unlike metals, diamond has no free electrons
because all four electrons in the outer shell of each carbon atom are held firmly in
covalent bonds. So in diamond there are no free electrons to form an electric current.

Giant Ionic Structures

Ionic compounds form when metals react with non-metals. For example, when sodium burns
in chlorine, sodium chloride is formed.
2Na
two sodium
atoms

+
C12

+ one chlorine
molecule

2Na+Cltwo sodium ions

two chloride ions

In solid ionic compounds, the ions are held together by the attraction between positive ions
and negative ions. The figures below show how the ions are arranged in one layer of sodium
chloride and a three-dimensional model of the structure of sodium chloride. Notice that Na+
ions are surrounded by Cl- ions and vice versa.

28
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

Simple molecular substances

Oxygen and water are good examples of simple
molecular substances. They are made of simple
molecules each containing a few atoms. Their
formulas and structures are shown near the top of
the table below. Most other non-metals and nonmetal compounds are also made of simple
molecules.

29
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

For example, hydrogen is H2, chlorine is Cl2, iodine is I2, carbon dioxide is CO2 and
tetrachloromethane is CCl4 . Sugar (C12H22O11) has much larger molecules than these
substances, but it still counts as a simple molecule.
In these simple molecular substances, the atoms are held together in each molecule by strong
covalent bonds. But there are only weak forces between the separate molecules. These weak
forces between the separate molecules are called intermolecular bonds or Van der Waals
forces.

The properties of simple molecular substances

The properties of simple molecular substances can be explained in terms of their structure.
The molecules in these substances have no electrical charge (unlike ions in ionic compounds
or electrons in metals). So there are no electrical forces holding them together. But some
simple molecular substances, like iodine, sugar. tetrachloromethane and water do exist as
liquids and solids so there must be some intermolecular forces holding their molecules
together.
Simple molecular substances are soft. The separate molecules in simple molecular
substances are usually further apart than atoms in metal structures and ions in ionic
structures. The forces between
the molecules are only weak and
the molecules are easy to
separate. Because of this, crystals
of these substances, like iodine
and sugar, are usually soft.
Simple molecular substances
have low melting points and
boiling points. It takes less
energy to separate the molecules
in simple molecular substances
than to separate ions in ionic
compounds, or atoms in metals.
So, simple molecular compounds
have lower melting points and
lower boiling points than ionic
compounds and metals.

30
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

Simple molecular substances do not conduct electricity. They have no mobile

electrons like metals. They do not have any ions either. This means that they cannot
conduct electricity as solids, as liquids or in aqueous solution.

Notice the following key points from the last four ions.

Substances with giant structures are often hard with high melting points and boiling
points.
Substances with simple molecular structures are usually soft with low melting points
and boiling points.
There are three types of strong force between particles in giant structures; metallic
bonds between metal atoms, covalent bonds between non-metal atoms, ionic bonds
between positive metal ions and negative non-metal ions.
In simple molecular substances there are relatively weak forces between the separate
molecules.

Ambook Resources
For more fun and interactivity of this topic, do refer to your amBook under the
unit: Interactions Atoms and Molecules.

31
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

MODERN CHEMICAL SYMBOLS

Listed below are the atomic numbers, names, and symbols of the most common elements. The
atomic number is used to determine the place of the element in the periodic table; it also has
other meaning as you will find out later in the course.
Become familiar with the names and symbols of these elements.
Atomic
Number

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

Name

hydrogen
helium
lithium
beryllium
boron
carbon
nitrogen
oxygen
fluorine
neon
sodium
magnesium
aluminum
silicon
phosphorus
sulfur
chlorine
argon
potassium
calcium
scandium
titanium
vanadium
chromium
manganese
iron
cobalt

Symbol

H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co

Number

28
29
30
33
35
36
37
38
47
48
50
51
53
54
55
56
74
78
79
80
82
83
86
87
88
92

Atomic
Name

nickel
copper
zinc
arsenic
bromine
krypton
rubidium
strontium
silver
cadmium
tin
antimony
iodine
xenon
cesium
barium
tungsten
platinum
gold
mercury
lead
bismuth
radon
francium
radium
uranium

Symbol

Ni
Cu
Zn
As
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr
Ag
Cd
Sn
Sb
1
Xe
Cs
Ba

w
Pt
Au
Hg
Pb
Bi
Rn
Fr
Ra
U

32
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

Common ions and formulae of ionic compounds

Symbols of common ions
You are not expected to know all the names and symbols of common ions, but you should be
able to work out the formulae of ionic compounds. The names and symbols of some ions are
shown below.

Formulae of ionic compounds

Ionic compounds contain positive and negative ions. The number of positive charges must
equal the number of negative charges so that the compound has no charge overall. When the
positive ion has the same number of charges as the negative ion, it is easy to work out the
formula of the compound formed. Sodium chloride contains sodium ions, Na+, and chloride
ions, Cl-. As both ions have single charges, the formula is simply written as NaCl, i.e. the
positive ion followed by the negative ion with no charges written.
Similarly, ammonium chloride is NH4Cl; magnesium oxide is MgO, and so on. The fun starts
when the number of charges is different, as in magnesium chloride. The cross-over method
may help:

33
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

Watch out for compound ions, e.g. ammonium, hydrogencarbonate, hydroxide, nitrate,
sulfate and carbonate. If you need more than one of them to balance the charges, put brackets
around their symbol at step (a) or (c). For example, sodium hydroxide is NaOH, but
magnesium hydroxide is Mg(OH)2; copper (II) sulfate is CuSO4, but ammonium sulfate is
(NH4)2SO4.

34
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI

Group
I

II

III

IV

VI

VII

He

Hydrogen

Helium

1
7

11

12

14

16

19

20

Ne

Li

Be

Lithium

Beryllium

Boron

Carbon

Nitrogen

Oxygen

Fluorine

23

24

27

28

31

32

Neon

10
35.5

40

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

Sodium

Magnesium

Aluminium

Silicon

Phosphorus

Sulphur

Chlorine

Argon

12

11
39

13
40

45

48

Ca

Sc

Potassium

Calcium

Scandium

19

20

Ti
Titanium

21

51

52

55

56

59

59

64

65

15

14
70

73

16
75

17
79

18
80

84

Cr

Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

Cu

Zn

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

Kr

Vanadium

Chromium

Manganese

Iron

Cobalt

Nickel

Copper

Zinc

Gallium

Germanium

Arsenic

Selenium

Bromine

Krypton

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

32

31

33

34

35

36

22
85

88

89

91

93

96

Rb

Sr

Zr

Nb

Mo

Rubidium

37

Strontium

38
133

Yttrium

Zirconium

39
137

40
139

Niobium

178

Molybdenum

42

41
181

Tc
Technetium

43
184

101

103

106

108

112

115

119

122

128

127

131

Ru

Rh

Pd

Ag

Cd

In

Sn

Sb

Te

Xe

Ruthenium

44
186

Rhodium

45
190

Palladium

46
192

Silver

47

Cadmium

48

195

197

Indium

49
201

Tin

50

Antimony

51

204

207

Tellurium

52

Iodine

53

Xenon

54

209

Cs

Ba

La

Hf

Ta

Re

Os

Ir

Pt

Au

Hg

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

Caesium

Barium

Lanthanium

Hafnium

Tantalum

Tungsten

Rhenium

Osmium

Iridium

Platinum

Gold

Mercury

Thallium

Lead

Bismuth

Polonium

Astatine

Radon

55

57

56
226

72

Fr

Ra

Ac

Francium

Radium

Actinium

87

88

73

74

89

140

141

144

Ce

Pr

Nd

Cerium

Praseodymium

59

58

Key

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

*58-71 Lanthanoid series

+90-103 Actinoid series

a
X

75

227

Neodymium

60

Pm
Promethium

61

150

152

157

159

162

165

167

169

173

175

Sm

Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm

Yb

Lu

Samarium

62

Europium

63

Gadolinium

64

Terbium

65

Dysprosium

66

Holmium

67

Erbium

68

Thulium

69

Ytterbium

70

Lutetium

71

a = relative atomic mass

232

X = atomic symbol
b = proton (atomic) number

Th

Pa

Np

Pu

Am

Cm

Bk

Cf

Es

Fm

Md

No

Lr

Thorium

Protactinium

Uranium

Neptunium

Plutonium

Americium

Curium

Berkelium

Californium

Einsteinium

Fermium

Mendelevium

Nobelium

Lawrencium

90

238

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.)
35
Notes compiled by Lower Sec Science department @HCI