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Exercises 5.1
n+1 n+1
an+1
2
x
/(n + 1)
2n
= lim
1. lim
lim
|x| = 2|x|
= n
n
an n
2n xn /n
n+1
The series is absolutely convergent for 2|x| < 1 or |x| < 1/2. At x = 1/2, the series
the alternating series test. At x = 1/2, the series
(1)n
converges by
n
n=1
1
is the harmonic series which diverges. Thus, the given
n
n=1
(1)k 10k
=
1 diverges by the k-th term test. At x = 15, the series
=
(1)k
10k
(1)k (10)k
k=1
10k
k=1
k=1
k=1
diverges by the k-th term test. Thus, the series converges on (5, 15).
k+1
ak+1
= lim (k + 1)!(x 1)
= lim (k + 1)|x 1| = ,
4. lim
k
k
ak k
k!(x 1)k
x = 1
6. e
7.
cos x =
x3
x5
x7
x2
x4
x6
2x3
2x5
4x7
+
+
1
+
+ = x
+
+
6
120 5040
2
24 720
3
15
315
x2
x3
x4
x2
x4
x3
x4
1x+
+
1
+
= 1 x +
+
2
6
24
2
24
3
6
1
1
5x4
61x6
x2
=
+
+
+
=1+
2
4
6
cos x
2
4!
6!
1 x2 + x x +
4!
6!
Since cos(/2) = cos(/2) = 0, the series converges on (/2, /2).
8.
1x
3
1 3
3
= x + x2 x3 +
2+x
2 4
8
16
Since the function is undened at x = 2, the series converges on (2, 2).
212
Exercises 5.1
9.
2ncn xn1 +
n=1
6cn xn+1 = 2 1 c1 x0 +
n=0
2ncn xn1 +
n=2
n=0
k=n1
= 2c1 +
= 2c1 +
k=n+1
2(k + 1)ck+1 xk +
k=1
6cn xn+1
6ck1 xk
k=1
k=1
10.
n(n 1)cn xn + 2
n=2
n=2
ncn xn
n=1
= 2 2 1c2 x0 + 2 3 2c3 x + 3 1 c1 x +
n(n 1)cn xn +2
n=2
n=4
k=n
k(k 1)ck xk + 2
n=2
n=2
n=2
k=n2
y =
(1)n+1 xn1 ,
n=1
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk + 3
n=2
n=2
[k(k 1) + 3k]ck + 2(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk
k(k + 2)ck + 2(k + 1)(k + 2)ck+2 xk
(1)n+1 (n 1)xn2
n=2
(x + 1)y + y = (x + 1)
n+1
(1)
(n 1)x
n2
n=2
(1)n+1 xn1
n=1
(1)n+1 (n 1)xn1 +
n=2
(1)n+1 (n 1)xn2 +
n=2
= x + x +
0
n+1
(1)
n=2
n1
n+1
(1)
n=3
k=n1
k=1
(1)k+2 kxk +
(1)n+1 xn1
n=1
(n 1)x
(n 1)x
n2
(1)n+1 xn1
n=2
k=n2
(1)k+3 (k + 1)xk +
k=1
k=1
(1)k+2 k (1)k+2 k (1)k+2 + (1)k+2 xk = 0
k=1
12. y =
(1)n 2n 2n1
x
,
22n (n!)2
n=1
xy + y + xy =
y =
(1)n 2n(2n 1) 2n2
x
22n (n!)2
n=1
(1)n 2n(2n 1) 2n1 (1)n 2n 2n1 (1)n 2n+1
x
+
x
+
x
22n (n!)2
22n (n!)2
22n (n!)2
n=1
n=1
n=0
k=n
k=n
213
k=n1
(1)k+2 xk
k=n+1
ncn xn
k=n
n=2
11. y =
kck xk
Exercises 5.1
(1)k 2k(2k 1)
(1)k 2k
(1)k1
x2k1
=
+ 2k
+ 2k2
22k (k!)2
2 (k!)2
2
[(k 1)!]2
k=1
(1)k (2k)2
(1)k
x2k1
=
22k (k!)2
22k2 [(k 1)!]2
k=1
2
2 2
k (2k) 2 k
x2k1 = 0
=
(1)
22k (k!)2
k=1
13. Substituting y =
n=0
y xy =
n(n 1)cn x
n2
n=2
cn x
n=0
k=n2
= 2c2 +
n+1
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 x
k=0
ck1 xk
k=1
k=n+1
k=1
Thus
c2 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 ck1 = 0
and
1
ck1 ,
(k + 2)(k + 1)
ck+2 =
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
1
6
c4 = c5 = 0
1
c6 =
180
c3 =
y +x y =
n=2
n(n 1)cn x
n2
k=n2
= 2c2 + 6c3 x +
n=0
n+2
cn x
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 x +
k=0
k=n+2
k=2
214
k=2
ck2 xk
Exercises 5.1
Thus
c2 = c3 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + ck2 = 0
and
ck+2 =
1
ck2 ,
(k + 2)(k + 1)
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
1
12
c5 = c6 = c7 = 0
1
c8 =
672
c4 =
c5 =
n=0
1 4
1 8
x +
x
12
672
and
y2 = x
1 5
1 9
x +
x .
20
1440
y 2xy + y =
n=2
n=1
k=n2
ncn xn +
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk 2
k=0
= 2c2 + c0 +
k=n
n=0
k=n
kck xk +
k=1
cn xn
ck xk
k=0
k=1
Thus
2c2 + c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 (2k 1)ck = 0
and
1
c2 = c0
2
2k 1
ck ,
ck+2 =
(k + 2)(k + 1)
215
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Exercises 5.1
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
1
2
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
1
c4 =
8
7
c6 =
336
c2 =
n=0
1
1
1 7
x + .
y2 = x + x3 + x5 +
6
24
112
and
y xy + 2y =
n=2
n=1
k=n2
ncn xn + 2
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk
k=0
n=0
k=n
kck xk + 2
k=1
= 2c2 + 2c0 +
ck xk
k=0
k=1
Thus
2c2 + 2c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 (k 2)ck = 0
and
c2 = c0
ck+2 =
cn xn
k2
ck ,
(k + 2)(k + 1)
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
c2 = 1
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
c4 = 0
c6 = c8 = c10 = = 0.
216
Exercises 5.1
For c0 = 0 and c1 = 1 we obtain
c2 = c4 = c6 = = 0
1
c3 =
6
1
c5 =
120
and so on. Thus, two solutions are
y1 = 1 x2
17. Substituting y =
n=0
and
1
1 5
x .
y2 = x x3
6
120
y + x2 y + xy =
n=2
n=1
k=n2
ncn xn+1 +
k=n+1
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk +
k=0
n=0
cn xn+1
(k 1)ck1 xk +
k=2
= 2c2 + (6c3 + c0 )x +
k=n+1
ck1 xk
k=1
k=2
Thus
c2 = 06c3 + c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + kck1 = 0
and
1
c3 = c0
6
ck+2 =
k
ck1 ,
(k + 2)(k + 1)
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
1
6
c4 = c5 = 0
1
c6 =
45
c3 =
c4 =
and
217
1
5 7
y2 = x x4 +
x .
6
232
Exercises 5.1
18. Substituting y =
n=0
y + 2xy + 2y =
n=2
n=1
k=n2
ncn xn + 2
k=0
k=n
kck xk + 2
k=1
= 2c2 + 2c0 +
cn xn
n=0
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk + 2
ck xk
k=0
k=1
Thus
2c2 + 2c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + 2(k + 1)ck = 0
and
c2 = c0
ck+2 =
2
ck ,
k+2
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
c2 = 1
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
c4 =
1
2
c6 =
1
6
n=2
n=2
k=n1
= 2c2 + c1 +
k=n2
(k + 1)kck+1 xk
k=1
n=1
ncn xn1
k=n1
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk +
k=0
(k + 1)ck+1 xk
k=0
k=1
218
Exercises 5.1
Thus
2c2 + c1 = 0
(k + 1)2 ck+1 (k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 = 0
and
1
c1
2
k+1
ck+1 ,
=
k+2
c2 =
ck+2
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
c2 =
1
,
3
c3 =
c4 =
1
,
4
n=0
1
1
1
y2 = x + x2 + x3 + x4 + .
2
3
4
and
(x + 2)y + xy y =
n=2
n=2
k=n1
k=n2
(k + 1)kck+1 xk +
k=1
n=1
ncn xn
n=0
k=n
k=0
cn xn
k=n
kck xk
k=1
ck xk
k=0
(k + 1)kck+1 + 2(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + (k 1)ck xk = 0.
= 4c2 c0 +
k=1
Thus
4c2 c0 = 0
(k + 1)kck+1 + 2(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + (k 1)ck = 0,
k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
and
1
c0
4
(k + 1)kck+1 + (k 1)ck
=
,
2(k + 2)(k + 1)
c2 =
ck+2
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
c1 = 0,
c2 =
1
,
4
c3 =
1
,
24
c4 = 0,
c5 =
1
480
1
1 5
1
y1 = c0 1 + x2 x3 +
x +
4
24
480
219
and
y2 = c1 x.
Exercises 5.1
21. Substituting y =
n=0
y (x + 1)y y =
n=2
n=1
k=n2
ncn xn
n=1
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk
k=0
ncn xn1
kck xk
= 2c2 c1 c0 +
cn xn
n=0
k=n1
k=1
k=n
(k + 1)ck+1 xk
k=0
ck xk
k=0
k=1
Thus
2c2 c1 c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 (k 1)(ck+1 + ck ) = 0
and
c1 + c0
2
ck+1 + ck
=
ck ,
k+2
c2 =
ck+2
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
c2 =
1
,
2
c3 =
1
,
6
c4 =
1
6
1
,
2
c3 =
1
,
2
c4 =
1
4
x2 + 1 y 6y =
n(n 1)cn xn +
n(n 1)cn xn2 6
cn xn
n=2
n=2
k=n
k=2
k(k 1)ck xk +
k=n2
n=0
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk 6
k=0
ck xk
k=0
k 2 k 6 ck + (k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk = 0.
k=2
Thus
2c2 6c0 = 0
6c3 6c1 = 0
(k 3)(k + 2)ck + (k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 = 0
220
Exercises 5.1
and
c2 = 3c0
c3 = c1
ck+2 =
k3
ck ,
k+1
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
c2 = 3
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
c4 = 1
c6 =
1
5
n=0
and
y2 = x + x3 .
x2 + 2 y + 3xy y =
n(n 1)cn xn + 2
n(n 1)cn xn2 + 3
ncn xn
cn xn
n=2
n=2
k=n
k(k 1)ck xk + 2
k=2
n=1
k=n2
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk + 3
k=0
k=n
kck xk
k=1
n=0
k=n
ck xk
k=0
2(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + k 2 + 2k 1 ck xk = 0.
k=2
Thus
4c2 c0 = 0
12c3 + 2c1 = 0
2(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + k 2 + 2k 1 ck = 0
and
1
c0
4
1
c3 = c1
6
k 2 + 2k 1
ck ,
ck+2 =
2(k + 2)(k + 1)
c2 =
221
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Exercises 5.1
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
1
4
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
7
c4 =
96
c2 =
24. Substituting y =
n=0
1
7 5
x .
y2 = x x3 +
6
120
and
x2 1 y + xy y =
n(n 1)cn xn
n(n 1)cn xn2 +
ncn xn
cn xn
n=2
n=2
k=n
n=1
k=n2
k(k 1)ck xk
k=2
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk +
k=0
k=1
n=0
k=n
kck xk
ck xk
k=0
= (2c2 c0 ) 6c3 x +
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + k 2 1 ck xk = 0.
k=2
Thus
2c2 c0 = 0
6c3 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + (k 1)(k + 1)ck = 0
and
1
c2 = c0
2
c3 = 0
ck+2 =
k1
ck ,
k+2
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
1
2
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
1
c4 =
8
c2 =
222
Exercises 5.1
Thus, two solutions are
1
1
y1 = 1 x2 x4
2
8
25. Substituting y =
n=0
and
(x 1)y xy + y =
n=2
n=2
k=n1
y2 = x.
(k + 1)kck+1 xk
k=1
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk
= 2c2 + c0 +
ncn xn +
n=1
k=n2
k=0
n=0
k=n
kck xk +
k=1
cn xn
k=n
ck xk
k=0
k=1
Thus
2c2 + c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + (k 1)kck+1 (k 1)ck = 0
and
1
c0
2
(k 1)ck
kck+1
,
=
k+2
(k + 2)(k + 1)
c2 =
ck+2
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
c2 =
1
,
2
c3 =
1
,
6
c4 = 0
n=2
n=2
k=n1
k=n2
(k + 1)kck+1 xk +
k=1
= 2c2 2c1 + c0 +
n=1
ncn xn1 +
k=n1
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk 2
k=0
k=0
n=1
ncn xn +
k=n
(k + 1)ck+1 xk +
223
cn xn
n=0
k=n
k=1
k=1
kck xk +
k=0
ck xk
Exercises 5.1
Thus
2c2 2c1 + c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 (k + 1)ck+1 + (k + 1)ck = 0
and
1
c2 = c1 c0
2
1
1
ck+2 =
ck+1
ck ,
k+2
k+2
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
1
c2 = ,
2
1
c3 = ,
6
1
12
c4 =
c4 =
c3 = 0,
1
4
1 2 1 3
1 4
1 4
2
y = C1 1 x x + x + + C2 x + x x +
2
6
12
4
1
1
y = C1 x x2 + x3 + + C2 1 + 2x x3 + .
2
3
and
n=0
y 2xy + 8y =
n(n 1)cn x
n=2
n2
n=1
k=n2
ncn x + 8
n=0
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk 2
k=0
k=n
kck xk + 8
k=1
= 2c2 + 8c0 +
ck xk
k=0
k=1
Thus
2c2 + 8c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + (8 2k)ck = 0
and
c2 = 4c0
ck+2 =
cn xn
2k 8
ck ,
(k + 2)(k + 1)
224
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Exercises 5.1
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
c2 = 4
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
4
c4 =
3
c6 = c8 = c10 = = 0.
For c0 = 0 and c1 = 1 we obtain
c2 = c4 = c6 = = 0
c3 = 1
1
c5 =
10
and
4
1
y = C1 1 4x2 + x4 + C2 x x3 + x5 +
3
10
16
1
y = C1 8x + x3 + C2 1 3x2 + x4 + .
3
2
n=2
n(n 1)cn xn +
n=2
k=n
k=n2
k(k 1)ck xk +
k=2
2ncn xn
n=1
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk +
k=0
k=n
2kck xk
k=1
k(k + 1)ck + (k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk = 0.
k=2
Thus
2c2 = 0
6c3 + 2c1 = 0
k(k + 1)ck + (k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 = 0
and
c2 = 0
1
c3 = c1
3
k
ck ,
ck+2 =
k+2
225
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Exercises 5.1
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd c3 = c4 = c5 = = 0. For c0 = 0 and c1 = 1 we obtain
1
3
c4 = c6 = c8 = = 0
1
c5 =
5
1
c7 =
7
c3 =
1
1
1
y = c0 + c1 x x3 + x5 x7 +
3
5
7
and
y = c1 1 x2 + x4 x6 + .
1 3
1 5
n2
y + (sin x)y =
x c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 +
n(n 1)cn x
+ x x +
6
120
n=2
1
= 2c2 + 6c3 x + 12c4 x2 + 20c5 x3 + + c0 x + c1 x2 + c2 c0 x3 +
6
1
= 2c2 + (6c3 + c0 )x + (12c4 + c1 )x2 + 20c5 + c2 c0 x3 + = 0.
6
29. Substituting y =
n=0
Thus
2c2 = 0
6c3 + c0 = 0
12c4 + c1 = 0
1
20c5 + c2 c0 = 0
6
c2 = 0
and
1
c3 = c0
6
1
c4 = c1
12
1
1
c0 .
c5 = c2 +
20
120
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
c2 = 0,
1
c3 = ,
6
c4 = 0,
c5 =
1
120
c3 = 0,
c4 =
226
1
,
12
c5 = 0
Exercises 5.1
and so on. Thus, two solutions are
1
1 5
y1 = 1 x3 +
x +
6
120
30. Substituting y =
n=0
y2 = x
and
1 4
x + .
12
y + ex y y =
n=2
1 2 1 3
+ 1 + x + x + x + c1 + 2c2 x + 3c3 x2 + 4c4 x3 +
cn xn
2
6
n=0
2
3
= 2c2 + 6c3 x + 12c4 x + 20c5 x +
1
+ c1 + (2c2 + c1 )x + 3c3 + 2c2 + c1 x2 + [c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + ]
2
1
= (2c2 + c1 c0 ) + (6c3 + 2c2 )x + 12c4 + 3c3 + c2 + c1 x2 + = 0.
2
Thus
2c2 + c1 c0 = 0
6c3 + 2c2 = 0
1
12c4 + 3c3 + c2 + c1 = 0
2
and
1
1
c0 c1
2
2
1
c3 = c2
3
1
1
1
c4 = c3 + c2 c1 .
4
12
24
c2 =
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
c2 =
1
,
2
1
c3 = ,
6
c4 = 0
c3 =
1
,
6
c4 =
1
24
y xy =
n(n 1)cn x
n=2
n2
k=n2
= 2c2 +
n=0
n+1
cn x
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 x
k=0
k=n+1
k=1
227
k=1
ck1 xk
Exercises 5.1
Thus
2c2 = 1
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 ck1 = 0
and
1
2
c2 =
ck1
,
(k + 2)(k + 1)
ck+2 =
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
c2 =
n=0
y 4xy 4y =
n=2
n=1
k=n2
4ncn xn
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk
k=0
n=0
4cn xn
k=n
4kck xk
k=1
4ck xk
k=0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 4(k + 1)ck xk
= 2c2 4c0 +
k=1
1 k
= ex = 1 +
x .
k!
k=1
Thus
2c2 4c0 = 1
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 4(k + 1)ck =
1
k!
and
1
+ 2c0
2
4
1
+
ck ,
=
(k + 2)! k + 2
c2 =
ck+2
228
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Exercises 5.1
Let c0 and c1 be arbitrary and iterate to nd
1
+ 2c0
2
4
4
1
1
+ c1 =
+ c1
c3 =
3! 3
3! 3
c2 =
c4 =
1
1
13
4
1
+ c2 =
+ + 2c0 =
+ 2c0
4! 4
4! 2
4!
c5 =
1
1
17 16
4
4
16
+ c3 =
+
+ c1 =
+ c1
5! 5
5! 5 3! 15
5!
15
c6 =
1
1
261 4
4
4 13 8
+ c4 =
+
+ c0 =
+ c0
6! 6
6!
6 4!
6
6!
3
c7 =
4
4 17
64
64
1
1
409
+ c5 =
+
+
c1 =
+
c1
7! 7
7!
7 5!
105
7!
105
4
1
1
13
17 16
2
3
4
y = c0 + c1 x +
+ 2c0 x +
+ c1 x
+ 2c0 x +
+ c1 x5
2
3! 3
4!
5!
15
261 4
409
64
+
+ c0 x6 +
+
c1 x7 +
6!
3
7!
105
4 3 16 5
4 6
64 7
2
4
= c0 1 + 2x + 2x + x + + c1 x + x + x +
x +
3
3
15
105
1
1
13
17
261 6 409 7
+ x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 +
x +
x + .
2
3!
4!
5!
6!
7!
32. We identify P (x) = 0 and Q(x) = sin x/x. The Taylor series representation for sin x/x is 1 x2 /3! + x4 /5! ,
for |x| < . Thus, Q(x) is analytic at x = 0 and x = 0 is an ordinary point of the dierential equation.
33. (a) Substituting y = n=0 cn xn into the dierential equation we have
y + xy + y =
n=2
n=1
k=n2
ncn xn +
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk +
k=0
cn xn
n=0
k=n
kck xk +
k=1
ck xk
k=0
= (2c2 + c0 ) +
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + (k + 1)ck xk = 0.
k=1
Thus
2c2 + c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + (k + 1)ck = 0
and
1
c2 = c0
2
1
ck+2 =
ck .
k+2
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
229
Exercises 5.1
1
2
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
1 1
1
c4 =
= 2
4
2
2 2
1 1
1
c6 =
= 3
6 22 2
2 3!
c2 =
(1)k
k=0
2k k!
x2k
and
y2 =
(1)k 2k k!
k=0
(2k + 1)!
x2k+1 .
2
-4 -2
-2
N=2
2 4
-4
-4 -2
-2
2 4
N=4
-4
N=6
-4 -2
-2
2 4
-4 -2
-2
-4
2 4
-4 -2
-2
N=8
-4
N=10
2 4
2 4
-4
-4 -2
-2
-4
2 4
N=2
-4 -2
-2
-4
N=4
2 4
-4 -2
-2
2 4
N=6
-4 -2
-2
-4
N=8
2
x
2 4
-4 -2
-2
-4
230
-4
N=10
-4
y1
y2
-2
-4
-2
-2
-2
-4
-4
Exercises 5.1
34. (a) We have
y + (cos x)y = 2c2 + 6c3 x + 12c4 x2 + 20c5 x3 + 30c6 x4 + 42c7 x5
x4
x6
x2
+
+ (c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + c4 x4 + c5 x5 + )
+ 1
2!
4!
6!
1
1
= (2c2 + c0 ) + (6c3 + c1 )x + 12c4 + c2 c0 x2 + 20c5 + c3 c1 x3
2
2
1
1 4
1
1 5
+ 30c6 + c4 + c0 c2 x + 42c7 + c5 + c1 c3 x + .
24
2
24
2
Then
1
1
1
1
and
42c7 + c5 + c1 c3 = 0,
c0 c2 = 0
24
2
24
2
which gives c6 = c0 /80 and c7 = 19c1 /5040. Thus
1
1
1
y1 (x) = 1 x2 + x4 x6 +
2
12
80
and
1
1
19 7
y2 (x) = x x3 + x5
x + .
6
30
5040
(b) From part (a) the general solution of the dierential equation is y = c1 y1 + c2 y2 . Then y(0) = c1 + c2 0 = c1
and y (0) = c1 0 + c2 = c2 , so the solution of the initial-value problem is
1
1
1
1
1
19 7
y = y1 + y2 = 1 + x x2 x3 + x4 + x5 x6
x + .
2
6
12
30
80
5040
(c)
30c6 + c4 +
-6 -4 -2
-6 -4 -2
-6 -4 -2
-2
-2
-2
-4
-4
-4
y
4
-6 -4 -2
-6 -4 -2
-2
-2
-2
-4
-4
-4
y
6
4
2
-6 -4 -2
-2
-6 -4 -2
(d)
-4
-6
231
Exercises 5.1
35. From ex =
3.2 we have
k=0
/2
2
k
k=0 (x /2) /k!
k 2k
k
k=0 (1) x /2 k! .
x2 /2
2
2
ex /2
e
x2 /2
x2 /2
y2 = y 1
ex /2 dx
dx = e
dx = e
dx = e
y12
ex2
(ex2 /2 )2
(1)k
1
(1)k 2k 1
2k
2k
2k
=
x
x dx =
x
x dx
2k k!
2k k!
2k k!
2k k!
k=0
k=0
k=0
k=0
(1)k
1
2k
2k+1
=
x
x
2k k!
(2k + 1)2k k!
x dx
x2 /2
k=0
k=0
1
1
1
1 3
1
1
5
7
= 1 x2 + 2 x4 3
x6 + x +
x +
x
x
+
+
2
2 2
2 3!
32
5 22 2
7 23 3!
(1)k 2k k!
2
42 5 642 7
= x x3 +
x
x + =
x2k+1 .
3!
5!
7!
(2k + 1)!
k=0
36. If x > 0 and y > 0, then y = xy < 0 and the graph of a solution curve is concave down. Thus, whatever
portion of a solution curve lies in the rst quadrant is concave down. When x > 0 and y < 0, y = xy > 0,
so whatever portion of a solution curve lies in the fourth quadrant is concave up.
Exercises 5.2
1. Irregular singular point: x = 0
2. Regular singular points: x = 0, 3
3. Irregular singular point: x = 3; regular singular point: x = 3
4. Irregular singular point: x = 1; regular singular point: x = 0
5. Regular singular points: x = 0, 2i
6. Irregular singular point: x = 5; regular singular point: x = 0
7. Regular singular points: x = 3, 2
8. Regular singular points: x = 0, i
9. Irregular singular point: x = 0; regular singular points: x = 2, 5
10. Irregular singular point: x = 1; regular singular points: x = 0, 3
11. Writing the dierential equation in the form
y +
5
x
y +
y=0
x1
x+1
we see that x0 = 1 and x0 = 1 are regular singular points. For x0 = 1 the dierential equation can be put in
the form
x(x 1)2
(x 1)2 y + 5(x 1)y +
y = 0.
x+1
In this case p(x) = 5 and q(x) = x(x 1)2 /(x + 1). For x0 = 1 the dierential equation can be put in the form
(x + 1)2 y + 5(x + 1)
x+1
y + x(x + 1)y = 0.
x1
232
Exercises 5.2
12. Writing the dierential equation in the form
y +
x+3
y + 7xy = 0
x
we see that x0 = 0 is a regular singular point. Multiplying by x2 , the dierential equation can be put in the
form
x2 y + x(x + 3)y + 7x3 y = 0.
We identify p(x) = x + 3 and q(x) = 7x3 .
13. We identify P (x) = 5/3x + 1 and Q(x) = 1/3x2 , so that p(x) = xP (x) =
Then a0 = 53 , b0 = 13 , and the indicial equation is
5
3
5
2
1
1
1
1
r(r 1) + r = r2 + r = (3r2 + 2r 1) = (3r 1)(r + 1) = 0.
3
3
3
3
3
3
and 1. Since these do not dier by an integer we expect to nd two series solutions
using the method of Frobenius.
The indicial roots are
1
3
14. We identify P (x) = 1/x and Q(x) = 10/x, so that p(x) = xP (x) = 1 and q(x) = x2 Q(x) = 10x. Then a0 = 1,
b0 = 0, and the indicial equation is
r(r 1) + r = r2 = 0.
The indicial roots are 0 and 0. Since these are equal, we expect the method of Frobenius to yield a single series
solution.
15. Substituting y = n=0 cn xn+r into the dierential equation and collecting terms, we obtain
2xy y + 2y = 2r2 3r c0 xr1 +
[2(k + r 1)(k + r)ck (k + r)ck + 2ck1 ]xk+r1 = 0,
k=1
which implies
2r2 3r = r(2r 3) = 0
and
(k + r)(2k + 2r 3)ck + 2ck1 = 0.
The indicial roots are r = 0 and r = 3/2. For r = 0 the recurrence relation is
ck =
2ck1
,
k(2k 3)
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
and
c1 = 2c0 ,
c2 = 2c0 ,
c3 =
4
c0 .
9
2ck1
,
(2k + 3)k
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
and
2
2
c1 = c0 ,
c0 ,
c2 =
c3
5
35
The general solution on (0, ) is
4
y = C1 1 + 2x 2x2 + x3 + + C2 x3/2 1
9
233
4
c0 .
945
4 3
2
2
x + x2
x + .
5
35
945
Exercises 5.2
16. Substituting y =
2xy + 5y + xy = 2r2 + 3r c0 xr1 + 2r2 + 7r + 5 c1 xr
n=0
k=2
= 0,
which implies
2r2 + 3r = r(2r + 3) = 0,
2
2r + 7r + 5 c1 = 0,
and
(k + r)(2k + 2r + 3)ck + ck2 = 0.
The indicial roots are r = 3/2 and r = 0, so c1 = 0 . For r = 3/2 the recurrence relation is
ck =
ck2
,
(2k 3)k
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
and
1
c2 = c0 ,
2
c3 = 0,
c4 =
1
c0 .
40
ck2
,
k(2k + 3)
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
and
c2 =
1
c0 ,
14
c3 = 0,
c4 =
1
c0 .
616
= 0,
which implies
7
7
4r2 r = r 4r
=0
2
2
and
1
(k + r)(8k + 8r 7)ck + ck1 = 0.
2
The indicial roots are r = 0 and r = 7/8. For r = 0 the recurrence relation is
ck =
2ck1
,
k(8k 7)
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
and
c1 = 2c0 ,
c2 =
2
c0 ,
9
234
c3 =
4
c0 .
459
Exercises 5.2
For r = 7/8 the recurrence relation is
ck =
2ck1
,
(8k + 7)k
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
and
c1 =
2
c0 ,
15
c2 =
2
c0 ,
345
c3 =
4
c0 .
32,085
2x2 y xy + x2 + 1 y = 2r2 3r + 1 c0 xr + 2r2 + r c1 xr+1
18. Substituting y =
n=0
k=2
= 0,
which implies
2r2 3r + 1 = (2r 1)(r 1) = 0,
2
2r + r c1 = 0,
and
[(k + r)(2k + 2r 3) + 1]ck + ck2 = 0.
The indicial roots are r = 1/2 and r = 1, so c1 = 0. For r = 1/2 the recurrence relation is
ck =
ck2
,
k(2k 1)
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
and
1
c2 = c0 ,
6
c3 = 0,
c4 =
1
c0 .
168
ck2
,
k(2k + 1)
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
and
c2 =
1
c0 ,
10
c3 = 0,
c4 =
1
c0 .
360
3xy + (2 x)y y = 3r2 r c0 xr1
19. Substituting y =
n=0
k=1
= 0,
235
Exercises 5.2
which implies
3r2 r = r(3r 1) = 0
and
(k + r)(3k + 3r 1)ck (k + r)ck1 = 0.
The indicial roots are r = 0 and r = 1/3. For r = 0 the recurrence relation is
ck1
ck =
, k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
(3k 1)
and
c1 =
1
c0 ,
2
c2 =
1
c0 ,
10
c3 =
1
c0 .
80
1
c0 ,
3
ck1
,
3k
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
c2 =
1
c0 ,
18
c3 =
1
c0 .
162
= 0,
which implies
r2 r +
and
2
=
9
r
2
3
r
1
3
=0
2
(k + r)(k + r 1) +
ck ck1 = 0.
9
The indicial roots are r = 2/3 and r = 1/3. For r = 2/3 the recurrence relation is
and
c1 =
ck =
3ck1
,
3k 2 + k
3
c0 ,
4
c2 =
ck =
3ck1
,
3k 2 k
3
c0 ,
2
c2 =
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
9
c0 ,
56
c3 =
9
c0 .
560
and
c1 =
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
9
c0 ,
20
c3 =
9
c0 .
160
236
Exercises 5.2
21. Substituting y =
n=0
2xy (3 + 2x)y + y = 2r2 5r c0 xr1 +
[2(k + r)(k + r 1)ck
k=1
(2k 3)ck1
,
k(2k 5)
1
c0 ,
3
c1 =
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
1
c2 = c0 ,
6
1
c3 = c0 .
6
2(k + 1)ck1
,
k(2k + 5)
4
c0 ,
7
c2 =
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
4
c0 ,
21
c3 =
32
c0 .
693
= 0,
which implies
2
2
4
r = r+
r
= 0,
9
3
3
5
2
r + 2r +
c1 = 0,
9
2
and
4
2
(k + r)
ck + ck2 = 0.
9
The indicial roots are r = 2/3 and r = 2/3, so c1 = 0. For r = 2/3 the recurrence relation is
ck =
9ck2
,
3k(3k 4)
237
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
Exercises 5.2
and
3
c2 = c0 ,
4
For r = 2/3 the recurrence relation is
ck =
and
c2 =
c3 = 0,
9ck2
,
3k(3k + 4)
3
c0 ,
20
c4 =
9
c0 .
128
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
c3 = 0,
c4 =
9
c0 .
1,280
9x2 y + 9x2 y + 2y = 9r2 9r + 2 c0 xr
+
k=1
= 0,
which implies
9r2 9r + 2 = (3r 1)(3r 2) = 0
and
[9(k + r)(k + r 1) + 2]ck + 9(k + r 1)ck1 = 0.
The indicial roots are r = 1/3 and r = 2/3. For r = 1/3 the recurrence relation is
ck =
(3k 2)ck1
,
k(3k 1)
and
1
c1 = c0 ,
2
For r = 2/3 the recurrence relation is
ck =
and
c2 =
1
c0 ,
5
(3k 1)ck1
,
k(3k + 1)
1
c1 = c0 ,
2
c2 =
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
c3 =
7
c0 .
120
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
5
c0 ,
28
c3 =
1
c0 .
21
2x2 y + 3xy + (2x 1)y = 2r2 + r 1 c0 xr
+
k=1
= 0,
238
Exercises 5.2
which implies
2r2 + r 1 = (2r 1)(r + 1) = 0
and
[(k + r)(2k + 2r + 1) 1]ck + 2ck1 = 0.
The indicial roots are r = 1 and r = 1/2. For r = 1 the recurrence relation is
ck =
2ck1
,
k(2k 3)
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
and
c2 = 2c0 ,
c1 = 2c0 ,
c3 =
4
c0 .
9
2ck1
,
k(2k + 3)
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
and
2
2
4
c1 = c0 ,
c2 =
c3 =
c0 ,
c0 .
5
35
945
The general solution on (0, ) is
2
2
4
4 3
y = C1 x1 1 + 2x 2x2 + x3 + + C2 x1/2 1 x + x2
x + .
9
5
35
945
25. Substituting y =
xy + 2y xy = r2 + r c0 xr1 + r2 + 3r + 2 c1 xr
n=0
k=2
= 0,
which implies
r2 + r = r(r + 1) = 0,
2
r + 3r + 2 c1 = 0,
and
(k + r)(k + r + 1)ck ck2 = 0.
The indicial roots are r1 = 0 and r2 = 1, so c1 = 0. For r1 = 0 the recurrence relation is
ck =
ck2
,
k(k + 1)
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
and
1
c0
3!
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
1
c4 = c0
5!
1
c0 .
c2n =
(2n + 1)!
c2 =
239
Exercises 5.2
For r2 = 1 the recurrence relation is
ck =
and
ck2
,
k(k 1)
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
1
c0
2!
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
1
c4 = c0
4!
1
c0 .
c2n =
(2n)!
c2 =
1
1
x2n + C2 x1
x2n
(2n
+
1)!
(2n)!
n=0
n=0
1
1
1
2n+1
2n
C1
x
x
=
+ C2
x
(2n + 1)!
(2n)!
n=0
n=0
=
1
[C1 sinh x + C2 cosh x].
x
26. Substituting y =
n=0
k=2
= 0,
which implies
1
1
1
r = r
r+
= 0,
4
2
2
3
r2 + 2r +
c1 = 0,
4
2
and
1
2
(k + r)
ck + ck2 = 0.
4
The indicial roots are r1 = 1/2 and r2 = 1/2, so c1 = 0. For r1 = 1/2 the recurrence relation is
ck2
ck =
, k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
k(k + 1)
and
1
c0
3!
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
1
c4 = c0
5!
(1)n
c0 .
c2n =
(2n + 1)!
c2 =
240
Exercises 5.2
For r2 = 1/2 the recurrence relation is
ck =
ck2
,
k(k 1)
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
and
1
c0
2!
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
1
c4 = c0
4!
(1)n
c0 .
c2n =
(2n)!
c2 =
(1)n 2n
(1)n 2n
x + C2 x1/2
x
(2n + 1)!
(2n)!
n=0
n=0
= C1 x1/2
(1)n 2n+1
(1)n 2n
+ C2 x1/2
x
x
(2n + 1)!
(2n)!
n=0
n=0
n=0
xy xy + y = r2 r c0 xr1 +
[(k + r + 1)(k + r)ck+1 (k + r)ck + ck ]xk+r = 0
k=0
which implies
r2 r = r(r 1) = 0
and
(k + r + 1)(k + r)ck+1 (k + r 1)ck = 0.
The indicial roots are r1 = 1 and r2 = 0. For r1 = 1 the recurrence relation is
ck+1 =
kck
,
(k + 2)(k + 1)
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
dx
x
x
x2
x2
x2
2
3!
1
1 1
1
1 3
1
1 2
1
1 2
=x
+ + + x + x + dx = x + ln x + x + x + x +
x2
x 2 3!
4!
x
2
12
72
1
1
1
= x ln x 1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + .
2
12
72
The general solution on (0, ) is
y = C1 x + C2 y2 (x).
241
Exercises 5.2
28. Substituting y =
n=0
y +
3
y 2y = r2 + 2r c0 xr2 + r2 + 4r + 3 c1 xr1
x
+
k=2
= 0,
which implies
r2 + 2r = r(r + 2) = 0
r2 + 4r + 3 c1 = 0
ck =
and
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
1
c0
4
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
1
c4 =
c0
48
1
c0 .
c6 =
1,152
c2 =
1
1
1
y1 = c0 1 + x2 + x4 +
c6 + .
4
48
1,152
The result is
A second solution is
(3/x)dx
e
dx
y2 = y 1
dx
=
y
2
1
1 2
1 4
3
y12
x 1 + 4 x + 48
x +
dx
1
1 2
7 4
19 6
x
x
x
1
= y1
+
+
+
=
y
1
5 4
7
x3
2
48
576
x3 1 + 12 x2 + 48
x + 576
x6 +
1
1
7
19 3
7 2
1
1
19 4
= y1
+
x
x
ln
x
+
x
x
=
y
1
x3
2x 48
576
2x2
2
96
2,304
1
1
7
19 4
= y1 ln x + y 2 + x2
x + .
2
2x
96
2,304
The general solution on (0, ) is
y = C1 y1 (x) + C2 y2 (x).
29. Substituting y =
n=0
xy + (1 x)y y = r2 c0 xr1 +
k=0
2
242
Exercises 5.2
The indicial roots are r1 = r2 = 0 and the recurrence relation is
ck1
ck =
, k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
k
One solution is
1 2
1 3
y1 = c0 1 + x + x + x + = c0 ex .
2
3!
A second solution is
ex /x
1 x
x
y2 = y 1
dx = e
dx = e
e dx
e2x
e2x
x
1
1
1 3
1 2
1
1 2
x
x
=e
1 x + x x + dx = e
1 + x x + dx
x
2
3!
x
2
3!
1 2
(1)n+1 n
1 3
= ex ln x x +
x
x + = ex ln x ex
x .
22
3 3!
n n!
n=1
e
(1/x1)dx
x
y = C1 e + C2 e
30. Substituting y =
n=0
(1)n+1 n
ln x
x
n n!
n=1
.
xy + y + y = r2 c0 xr1 +
k=1
2
1
(1)n n
1 3
1 4
y1 = c0 1 x + 2 x2
x
+
x
=
c
x .
0
2
2
2
(3!)
(4!)
(n!)2
n=0
A second solution is
y2 = y 1
y12
dx = y1
x 1x+
dx
59 x3 +
dx
1 2
4x
1 3
36 x
35 4
x 1 2x +
288 x
1
5 2 23 3 677 4
= y1
1 + 2x + x + x +
x + dx
x
2
9
288
1
5
23 2 677 3
= y1
+2+ x+ x +
x + dx
x
2
9
288
23
677 4
5
= y1 ln x + 2x + x2 + x3 +
x +
4
27
1,152
23
677 4
5
= y1 ln x + y1 2x + x2 + x3 +
x + .
4
27
1,152
= y1
(1/x)dx
3 2
2x
243
2
+
Exercises 5.2
The general solution on (0, ) is
y = C1 y1 (x) + C2 y2 (x).
31. Substituting y =
n+r
n=0 cn x
(k + r)(k + r 1)ck + (k + r 1)ck1
k=1
6(k + r)ck 3ck1 xk+r1 = 0,
which implies
r2 7r = r(r 7) = 0
and
(k + r)(k + r 7)ck + (k + r 4)ck1 = 0.
The indicial roots are r1 = 7 and r2 = 0. For r1 = 7 the recurrence relation is
(k + 7)kck + (k + 3)ck1 = 0,
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
or
ck =
k+3
ck1 ,
k+7
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Taking c0 = 0 we obtain
1
c1 = c0
2
5
c2 =
c0
18
1
c3 = c0 ,
6
and so on. Thus, the indicial root r1 = 7 yields a single solution. Now, for r2 = 0 the recurrence relation is
k(k 7)ck + (k 4)ck1 = 0,
Then
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
6c1 3c0 = 0
10c2 2c1 = 0
12c3 c2 = 0
12c4 + 0c3 = 0 = c4 = 0
10c5 + c4 = 0 = c5 = 0
6c6 + 2c5 = 0 = c6 = 0
0c7 + 3c6 = 0 = c7 is arbitrary
and
ck =
Taking c0 = 0 and c7 = 0 we obtain
k4
ck1 ,
k(k 7)
k = 8, 9, 10, . . . .
1
c1 = c0
2
1
c2 =
c0
10
1
c3 =
c0
120
c4 = c5 = c6 = = 0.
244
Exercises 5.2
Taking c0 = 0 and c7 = 0 we obtain
c1 = c2 = c3 = c4 = c5 = c6 = 0
1
c8 = c7
2
5
c9 =
c7
36
1
c10 = c7 .
36
In this case we obtain the two solutions
1
1 3
1
5
1
1
y1 = 1 x + x2
and
y2 = x7 x8 + x9 x10 + .
x
2
10
120
2
36
36
32. Substituting y = n=0 cn xn+r into the dierential equation and collecting terms, we obtain
x(x 1)y + 3y 2y
= 4r r2 c0 xr1 +
[(k + r 1)(k + r 12)ck1 (k + r)(k + r 1)ck
k=1
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Taking c0 = 0 we obtain
c1 = 2c0
c2 = 3!c0
c3 = 4!c0 ,
and so on. Thus, the indicial root r1 = 4 yields a single solution. For r2 = 0 the recurrence relation is
k(k 4)ck + k(k 3)ck1 = 0,
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
(k 4)ck + (k 3)ck1 = 0,
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
or
Then
3c1 2c0 = 0
2c2 c1 = 0
c3 + 0c2 = 0 c3 = 0
0c4 + c3 = 0 c4 is arbitrary
245
Exercises 5.2
and
(k 3)ck1
,
c4
ck =
Taking c0 = 0 and c4 = 0 we obtain
k = 5, 6, 7, . . . .
2
c0
3
1
c2 = c0
3
c3 = c4 = c5 = = 0.
c1 =
and
d2 y
d
=
2
dx
dx
Now
dy
dx
=
d
dx
t2
d2 y
1
x
+ y = 4
2
dx
t
dy
dt
n=0 cn t
n+r
d2 y dt
dy
2
dt dx
dt
d2 y
dy
t
+ 2t3
2
dt
dt
t
= t2
becomes
(b) Substituting y =
+ y =
2t
dt
dx
= t4
d2 y
dy
.
+ 2t3
2
dt
dt
d2 y 2 dy
+
+ y = 0
dt2
t dt
d2 y
dy
+2
+ ty = 0.
dt2
dt
d2 y
dy
+2
+ ty = (r2 + r)c0 tr1 + (r2 + 3r + 2)c1 tr
dt2
dt
+
k=2
= 0,
which implies
r2 + r = r(r + 1) = 0,
2
r + 3r + 2 c1 = 0,
and
(k + r)(k + r + 1)ck + ck2 = 0.
The indicial roots are r1 = 0 and r2 = 1, so c1 = 0. For r1 = 0 the recurrence relation is
ck =
ck2
,
k(k + 1)
246
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
Exercises 5.2
and
c0
3!
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
c2 =
c4 =
2
c0
5!
c2n = (1)n
n
c0 .
(2n + 1)!
ck2
,
k(k 1)
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . ,
and
c0
2!
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
c2 =
c4 =
2
c0
4!
c2n = (1)n
n
c0 .
(2n)!
(1)n
(1)n
( t)2n + C2 t1
( t)2n
(2n
+
1)!
(2n)!
n=0
n=0
(1)n
(1)n
1
2n+1
2n
C1
( t)
( t)
=
+ C2
t
(2n + 1)!
(2n)!
n=0
n=0
=
1
[C1 sin t + C2 cos t ].
t
y(x)C1 x sin
+ C2 x cos
.
x
x
34. (a) From the boundary conditions y(a) = 0, y(b) = 0 we nd
C1 sin
+ C2 cos
=0
a
a
C1 sin
+ C2 cos
= 0.
b
b
Since this is a homogeneous system of linear equations, it will have nontrivial solutions if
sin
cos
a
a
cos
cos
sin
= sin
a
b
a
b
sin
cos
b
b
ba
= sin
= sin
= 0.
a
b
ab
This will be the case if
ba
= n
ab
or
247
nab
nab
=
, n = 1, 2, . . . ,
ba
L
Exercises 5.2
or, if
n2 2 a2 b2
Pn b 4
=
.
L2
EI
n =
The critical loads are then Pn = n2 2 (a/b)2 EI0 /L2 . Using C2 = C1 sin( /a)/ cos( /a) we have
sin( /a)
y = C1 x sin
cos
x
x
cos( /a)
= C3 x sin
cos
cos
sin
x
a
x
a
1
1
= C3 x sin
,
x a
and
nab
yn (x) = C3 x sin
L
1
1
x a
= C4 x sin
nab
a
1
.
L
x
y
2
1
x
Exercises 5.3
1. Since 2 = 1/9 the general solution is y = c1 J1/3 (x) + c2 J1/3 (x).
2. Since 2 = 1 the general solution is y = c1 J1 (x) + c2 Y1 (x).
3. Since 2 = 25/4 the general solution is y = c1 J5/2 (x) + c2 J5/2 (x).
4. Since 2 = 1/16 the general solution is y = c1 J1/4 (x) + c2 J1/4 (x).
5. Since 2 = 0 the general solution is y = c1 J0 (x) + c2 Y0 (x).
6. Since 2 = 4 the general solution is y = c1 J2 (x) + c2 Y2 (x).
7. Since 2 = 2 the general solution is y = c1 J2 (3x) + c2 Y2 (3x).
8. Since 2 = 1/4 the general solution is y = c1 J1/2 (6x) + c2 J1/2 (6x).
9. If y = x1/2 v(x) then
1
y = x1/2 v (x) x3/2 v(x),
2
3
y = x1/2 v (x) x3/2 v (x) + x5/2 v(x),
4
and
2
2 2
3/2
x y + 2xy + x y = x
Multiplying by x1/2 we obtain
1/2
v +x
2 3/2
v + x
1
x2 v + xv + 2 x2
v = 0,
4
248
1 1/2
v.
x
4
Exercises 5.3
whose solution is v = c1 J1/2 (x) + c2 J1/2 (x). Then y = c1 x1/2 J1/2 (x) + c2 x1/2 J1/2 (x).
10. From y = xn Jn (x) we nd
y = xn Jn + nxn1 Jn
and
= 0.
Therefore, xn Jn is a solution of the original equation.
11. From y = xn Jn we nd
y = xn Jn nxn1 Jn
xy + (1 + 2n)y + xy = xn1 x2 Jn + xJn + x2 n2 Jn
= xn1 0
= 0.
Therefore, xn Jn is a solution of the original equation.
1
y = x J (x) + x1/2 J (x)
2
and
1
y = 2 x J (x) + x1/2 J (x) x3/2 J (x).
4
1
x2 y + 2 x2 2 +
y = x 2 x2 J (x) + xJ (x) + 2 x2 2 J (x)
4
= x0
(since Jn is a solution of Bessels equation)
= 0.
Therefore,
13. From Problem 10 with n = 1/2 we nd y = x1/2 J1/2 (x). From Problem 11 with n = 1/2 we nd y =
x1/2 J1/2 (x).
14. From Problem 10 with n = 1 we nd y = xJ1 (x). From Problem 11 with n = 1 we nd y = xJ1 (x) = xJ1 (x).
15. From Problem 10 with n = 1 we nd y = x1 J1 (x). From Problem 11 with n = 1 we nd y = x1 J1 (x) =
x1 J1 (x).
17. From Problem 12 with = 1 and = 3/2 we nd y = x J3/2 (x) and y = x J3/2 (x).
249
Exercises 5.3
18. From Problem 10 with n = 3 we nd y = x3 J3 (x). From Problem 11 with n = 3 we nd y = x3 J3 (x) =
x3 J3 (x).
19. (a) The recurrence relation follows from
J (x) + xJ1 (x) =
x 2n+
(1)n
(1)n x 2n+1
+x
n!(1 + + n) 2
n!( + n) 2
n=0
n=0
x 2n+ (1)n ( + n)
x x 2n+1
(1)n
+
2
n!(1 + + n) 2
n!(1 + + n)
2
2
n=0
n=0
(1)n (2n + ) x 2n+
= xJ (x).
n!(1
+
+
n)
2
n=0
(b) The formula in part (a) is a linear rst-order dierential equation in J (x). An integrating factor for this
equation is x , so
d
[x J (x)] = x J1 (x).
dx
20. Subtracting the formula in part (a) of Problem 19 from the formula in Example 4 we obtain
0 = 2J (x) xJ+1 (x) xJ1 (x)
or
d
xJ0 (x) =
[xJ1 (x)]
dx
so
r=x
rJ0 (r) dr = rJ1 (r)
= xJ1 (x).
r=0
22. From (14) we obtain J0 (x) = J1 (x), and from (15) we obtain J0 (x) = J1 (x). Thus J0 (x) = J1 (x) = J1 (x).
23. Since
1
(2n 1)!
1 +n =
2
(n 1)!22n1
we obtain
(1)n 21/2 x1/2 2n
x =
J1/2 (x) =
2n(2n 1)!
n=0
2
cos x.
x
24. (a) By Problem 20, with = 1/2, we obtain J1/2 (x) = xJ3/2 (x) + xJ1/2 (x) so that
J3/2 (x) =
2
x
sin x
cos x ;
x
with = 1/2 we obtain J1/2 (x) = xJ1/2 (x) + xJ3/2 (x) so that
J3/2 (x) =
2 cos x
+ sin x ;
x
x
and with = 3/2 we obtain 3J3/2 (x) = xJ5/2 (x) + xJ1/2 (x) so that
J5/2 (x) =
2
x
3 sin x 3 cos x
sin
x
.
x2
x
250
Exercises 5.3
y
1
0.5
y
1
0.5
= 1/2
5
10
15
20 x
= 1/2
5
-0.5
-1
y
1
0.5
10
15
20 x
y
1
0.5
= 3/2
5
10
15
20 x
15
20 x
= 5/2
5
-0.5
-1
10
-0.5
-1
-0.5
-1
y
1
0.5
= 3/2
10
15
20 x
-0.5
-1
25. Rolles theorem states that for a dierentiable function f (x), for which f (a) = f (b) = 0, there exists a number
c between a and b such that f (c) = 0. From Problem 20 with = 0 we have J0 (x) = J1 (x). Thus, if a and b
are successive zeros of J0 (x), then there exists a c between a and b for which J1 (x) = J0 (x) = 0.
b
b
26. Since a f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx, we have
|Jn (x)|
27. Letting
2
s=
we have
1 dt = 1.
0
k t/2
,
e
m
dx
dx
k t/2
dx ds
dx 2 k t/2
=
=
=
e
dt
ds dt
dt m
2
ds
m
d dx
dx
dx k t/2
k t/2
+
=
e
e
dt
ds 2 m
dt ds
m
dx k t/2
k t/2
d2 x ds
=
+ 2
e
e
ds 2 m
ds dt
m
dx k t/2
d2 x k t
=
+ 2
.
e
e
ds 2 m
ds
m
and
d2 x
d
=
2
dt
dt
Then
2
d2 x
m k t/2 dx
t
t d x
m 2 + ke x = ke
+
e
+ ket x = 0.
dt
ds2
2
m
dt
Multiplying by 22 /2 m we have
22 k t d2 x
2 k t
2 k t/2 dx
e
e
+ 2
e x=0
+
2
2
m
ds
m
dt
m
or, since s = (2/) k/m et/2 ,
d2 x
dx
s2 2 + s
+ s2 x = 0.
ds
ds
251
Exercises 5.3
Now x(0) = 1 and x (0) = 1/2 imply
c1 J0 (10) + c2 Y0 (10) = 1
c1 J0 (10) + c2 Y0 (10) = 1.
Using Cramers rule we obtain
c1 =
c2 =
and
Using Y0 = Y1 and J0 = J1 and Table 6.1 we nd c1 = 4.7860 and c2 = 3.1803. Thus
x(t) = 4.7860J0 (10e0.05t ) 3.1803Y0 (10e0.05t ).
x
(b)
10
5
5
50
and
100
150
200
3/2
3 x
t > 0.
t > 0.
1
2
252
Exercises 5.3
x
(b)
1
t
50
100
150
200
2 3/2
(t) = c2 t J1/3
.
t
3
From (L) = 0 we have
c2 L J1/3
2 3/2
L
3
= 0,
so either c2 = 0, in which case (t) = 0, or J1/3 ( 23 L3/2 ) = 0. The column will just start to bend when
L is the length corresponding to the smallest positive zero of J1/3 . Using Mathematica, the rst positive
root of J1/3 (x) is x1 1.86635. Thus 23 L3/2 = 1.86635 implies
2/3
1/3
3(1.86635)
9EI
2
L=
(1.86635)
=
2
4g
1/3
9(2.6 107 )(0.05)4 /4
2
=
(1.86635)
76.9 in.
4(0.28)(0.05)2
2
1
1
y = x J1 (2 x ) + J1 (2 x ) = J1 (2 x ) + J1 (2 x )
2 x 2 x
2 x
and
2
2
1
1
y = J1 (2 x ) + J1 (2 x ) 3/2 J1 (2 x )
2 x 2 x
2 x 4x
1
1
1
= J1 (2 x ) +
J (2 x ) 3/2 J1 (2 x ).
2x 1
x
4x
1
1
xy + y = x J1 (2 x ) + J1 (2 x ) J1 (2 x ) + x J1 (2 x )
2
4 x
1
x
1
= xJ1 (2 x ) +
J (2 x ) + x
J1 (2 x )
2 1
4
x
2
2 t2
1
t
t
=
J1 (t) + J1 (t) +
J1 (t)
t 4
4
4
4
1 2
=
[ t J1 (t) + tJ1 (t) + (t2 1)J1 (t)].
2t
253
Exercises 5.3
Since J1 (t) is a solution of t2 y +ty +(t2 1)y = 0, we see that the last expression above is 0 and y =
is a solution of xy + y = 0.
x J1 (2 x )
34. (a) Writing the dierential equation in the form xy + (P L/M )y = 0, we identify = P L/M . From
Problem 33 the solution of this dierential equation is
y = c1 x J1 2 P Lx/M + c2 x Y1 2 P Lx/M .
Now J1 (0) = 0, so y(0) = 0 implies c2 = 0 and
y = c1 x J1 2 P Lx/M .
(b) From y(L) = 0 we have y = J1 (2L P M ) = 0. The rst positive zero of J1 is 3.8317 so, solving 2L P1 /M =
3.8317, we nd P1 = 3.6705M/L2 . Therefore,
3.8317
3.6705x
y1 (x) = c1 x J1 2
x .
= c1 x J1
L
L
(c) For c1 = 1 and L = 1 the graph of y1 =
x J1 (3.8317 x ) is shown.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
35. (a) Using the expressions for the two linearly independent power series solutions, y1 (x) and y2 (x), given in the
text we obtain
1
P6 (x) =
231x6 315x4 + 105x2 5
16
and
1
P7 (x) =
429x7 693x5 + 315x3 35x .
16
(b) P6 (x) satises 1 x2 y 2xy + 42y = 0 and P7 (x) satises 1 x2 y 2xy + 56y = 0.
36. (a)
P2
1
P1
1
0.5
0.5
-1 -0.5
P3
1
0.5
1 x
-1 -0.5
P4
1
0.5
0.5
1 x
-1 -0.5
0.5
0.5
1 x
-1 -0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1
-1
P6
1
P5
1
0.5
0.5
-1 -0.5
P7
1
0.5
1 x
-1 -0.5
0.5
0.5
1 x
-1 -0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1
254
1 x
1 x
Exercises 5.3
(b) Zeros of Legendre polynomials
P1 (x) : 0
P2 (x) : 0.57735
P3 (x) : 0, 0.77460
P4 (x) : 0.33998, 0.86115
P5 (x) : 0, 0.53847, 0.90618
P6 (x) : 0.23862, 0.66121, 0.93247
P7 (x) : 0, 0.40585, 0.74153 , 0.94911
P10 (x) : 0.14887, 0.43340, 0.67941, 0.86506, 0.097391
The zeros of any Legendre polynomial are in the interval (1, 1) and are symmetric with respect to 0.
37. The recurrence relation can be written
Pk+1 (x) =
k = 1: P2 (x) =
k = 2: P3 (x) =
k = 3: P4 (x) =
k = 4: P5 (x) =
k = 5: P6 (x) =
k = 6: P7 (x) =
=
2k + 1
k
xPk (x)
Pk1 (x),
k+1
k+1
k = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
3 2 1
x
2
2
5
3
3 2 1
2
5
x
x
x = x3 x
3
2
2
3
2
2
7
5 3 3
3 3 2 1
35 4 30 2 3
x
x x
x
=
x x +
4
2
2
4 2
2
8
8
8
35 4 30 2 3
4 5 3 3
63 5 35 3 15
9
x
x x +
x x =
x x + x
5
8
8
8
5 2
2
8
4
8
63 5 35 3 15
5 35 4 30 2 3
231 6 315 4 105 2
11
5
x
x x + x
x x +
=
x
x +
x
6
8
4
8
6 8
8
8
16
16
16
16
13
5
231 6 315 4 105 2
5 63 5 35 3 15
x
x
x +
x
x x + x
7
16
16
16
16
6 8
4
8
429 7 693 5 315 3 35
x
x +
x x
16
16
16
16
d2 y
d2 y
dy
dy
2
sin 2 + cos
2 cos
+ n(n + 1)(sin )y = sin 1 cos
+ n(n + 1)y = 0.
d
d
dx2
dx
That is,
1 x2
d2 y
dy
+ n(n + 1)y = 0.
2x
dx2
dx
255
3. Solving x2 2x + 10 = 0 we obtain x = 1 11 , which are singular points. Thus, the minimum radius of
convergence is |1 11 | = 11 1.
x
4. Setting 1 sin x = 0 we see the singular points closest to 0 are 3/2 and /2. Thus, the minimum radius of
convergence is /2.
5. The dierential equation (x3 x2 )y + y + y = 0 has a regular singular point at x = 1 and an irregular singular
point at x = 1.
6. The dierential equation (x 1)(x + 3)y + y = 0 has regular singular points at x = 1 and x = 3.
7. Substituting y = n=0 cn xn+r into the dierential equation we obtain
2xy + y + y = 2r2 r c0 xr1 +
[2(k + r)(k + r 1)ck + (k + r)ck + ck1 ]xk+r1 = 0
k=1
which implies
2r2 r = r(2r 1) = 0
and
(k + r)(2k + 2r 1)ck + ck1 = 0.
The indicial roots are r = 0 and r = 1/2. For r = 0 the recurrence relation is
ck =
ck1
,
k(2k 1)
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
so
c1 = c0 ,
c2 =
1
c0 ,
6
c3 =
1
c0 .
90
ck1
,
k(2k + 1)
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
so
1
1
1
c1 = c0 ,
c0 ,
c0 .
c2 =
c3 =
3
30
630
Two linearly independent solutions are
1 2
1 3
y1 = C1 1 x + x x +
6
90
and
1 3
1
1
y2 = C2 x1/2 1 x + x2
x + .
3
30
630
256
n
n=0 cn x
y xy y =
n=2
n=1
k=n2
ncn xn
n=0
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk
k=0
k=n
kck xk
k=1
= 2c2 c0 +
cn xn
ck xk
k=0
k=1
Thus
2c2 c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 (k + 1)ck = 0
and
1
c0
2
1
ck ,
=
k+2
c2 =
ck+2
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
1
2
c3 = c5 = c7 = = 0
1
c4 =
8
1
c6 =
48
c2 =
1
1
1 7
y2 = x + x3 + x5 +
x + .
3
15
105
9. Substituting y =
n=0
k=3
257
k = 3, 4, 5, . . . .
c3 =
1
,
2
c4 =
5
8
c2 = 0,
c3 =
1
,
2
c4 =
1
4
c2 =
and so on. For c0 = 0 and c1 = 1 we obtain
and
10. Substituting y =
n=0
3 2 1 3 5 4
y1 = C1 1 + x + x + x +
2
2
8
1 3 1 4
y2 = C2 x + x + x + .
2
4
y x2 y + xy = 2c2 + (6c3 + c0 )x +
k=1
k1
ck ,
(k + 3)(k + 2)
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Choosing c0 = 1 and c1 = 0 we nd
1
6
c4 = c7 = c10 = = 0
c3 =
c5 = c8 = c11 = = 0
1
c6 =
90
and so on. For c0 = 0 and c1 = 1 we obtain
c3 = c6 = c9 = = 0
c4 = c7 = c10 = = 0
c5 = c8 = c11 = = 0
and so on. Thus, two solutions are
1
1
y1 = c0 1 x3 x6
6
90
11. Substituting y =
n+r
n=0 cn x
and y2 = c1 x.
(k + r)(k + r 1)ck + (k + r 1)ck1
k=1
6(k + r)ck 3ck1 xk+r1 = 0,
which implies
r2 7r = r(r 7) = 0
and
(k + r)(k + r 7)ck + (k + r 4)ck1 = 0.
258
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
6c1 3c0 = 0
10c2 2c1 = 0
12c3 c2 = 0
12c4 + 0c3 = 0 = c4 = 0
10c5 + c4 = 0 = c5 = 0
6c6 + 2c5 = 0 = c6 = 0
0c7 + 3c6 = 0 = c7 is arbitrary
and
ck =
Taking c0 = 0 and c7 = 0 we obtain
k4
ck1
k(k 7)
k = 8, 9, 10, . . . .
1
c1 = c0
2
1
c0
c2 =
10
1
c3 =
c0
120
c4 = c5 = c6 = = 0.
+
cn xn
n=0
1
2
3
4
= 2c2 + 6c3 x + (12c4 c2 )x + (20c5 3c3 )x + 30c6 6c4 + c2 x +
12
+ [c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + c4 x4 + ]
1
= (c0 + 2c2 ) + (c1 + 6c3 )x + 12c4 x2 + (20c5 2c3 )x3 + 30c6 5c4 + c2 x4 +
12
= 0.
259
c3 = 0,
c4 = 0,
c5 = 0,
1
c3 = ,
6
c4 = 0,
c5 =
c6 =
1
720
1
,
60
c6 = 0
n
n=0 cn x
1
1
y2 = x x3 x5 + .
6
60
and
y + xy + 2y =
n=2
n(n 1)cn x
n2
k=n2
n=1
ncn x + 2
n=0
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk +
k=0
k=n
kck xk + 2
k=1
= 2c2 + 2c0 +
ck xk
k=0
k=1
Thus
2c2 + 2c0 = 0
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + (k + 2)ck = 0
and
c2 = c0
ck+2 =
cn xn
1
ck ,
k+1
260
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
n
n=0 cn x
(x + 2)y + 3y =
n=2
n=2
k=n1
(k + 1)kck+1 xk + 2
k=1
= 4c2 + 3c0 +
k=n2
cn xn
n=0
k=n
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk + 3
k=0
k=0
k=1
Thus
4c2 + 3c0 = 0
(k + 1)kck+1 + 2(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + 3ck = 0
and
3
c2 = c0
4
ck+2 =
ck xk
k
3
ck+1
ck ,
2(k + 2)
2(k + 2)(k + 1)
261
k = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
3
4
1
8
1
c4 =
16
c3 =
c5 =
9
320
1
4
1
16
c5 = 0
c4 =
1 cos x
y + xy = 0,
x
x
y=0
ex 1 x
x
2 2
x
x2
= +
+
1x
x 3 18 270
+
+
,
ex 1 x
3
18 270
we conclude that x = 0 is a regular singular point.
262
n
n=0 cn x
y + x2 y + 2xy =
n=2
n=1
k=n2
ncn xn+1 + 2
n=0
k=n+1
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 xk +
k=0
cn xn+1
(k 1)ck1 xk + 2
k=2
k=n+1
ck1 xk
k=1
k=2
Thus
2c2 = 5
6c3 + 2c0 = 2
12c4 + 3c1 = 0
20c5 + 4c2 = 10
(k + 2)(k + 1)ck+2 + (k + 1)ck1 = 0,
k = 4, 5, 6, . . . ,
and
c2 =
5
2
1
1
c3 = c0
3
3
1
c4 = c1
4
1 1
1 1 5
c5 = c2 =
=0
2 5
2 5 2
1
ck+2 =
ck1 .
k+2
Using the recurrence relation, we nd
1
1
1
1
c6 = c3 =
(c0 + 1) = 2
c0 + 2
6
36
3 2!
3 2!
1
1
c1
c7 = c4 =
7
47
c8 = c11 = c14 = = 0
1
1
1
c9 = c6 = 3
c0 3
9
3 3!
3 3!
1
1
c10 = c7 =
c1
10
4 7 10
1
1
1
c12 = c9 = 4
c0 + 4
12
3 4!
3 4!
1
1
c13 = c0 =
c1
13
4 7 10 13
263
1 3
1
1
1
6
9
12
y = c0 1 x + 2
x 3
x + 4
x
3
3 2!
3 3!
3 4!
1
1 7
1
1
+ c1 x x4 +
x
x10 +
x13
4
47
4 7 10
4 7 10 13
5
1
1
1
1
+ x2 x3 + 2
x6 3
x9 + 4
x12 .
2
3
3 2!
3 3!
3 4!
1 du
we obtain
u dx
dy
1
1 d2 u
+ 2
=
dx
u dx2
u
du
dx
2
.
so
1 d2 u
1
+ 2
2
u dx
u
du
dx
2
= x2 +
1
u2
du
dx
2
,
d2 u
+ x2 u = 0.
dx2
1 2
1 1/2
1 2
u =x w
w
x + x
x
2
2
2
1 3/2
1 2
1 2
1 2
5/2
1/2
u =x w
x + 2x w
x x
x ,
w
2
2
4
2
and
so
3/2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1
u + x2 u = x1/2 x2 w
x + 2w
x + x2 x2 w
x
= 0.
2
2
4
2
Letting t = 12 x2 we have
2t 2tw (t) + 2w (t) + 2t
or
1
4 2t
1
t w (t) + tw (t) + t
16
2
w(t) = 0
w(t) = 0.
y=
264
dw
d
+ w = 4t [c1 J1/4 (t) + c2 J1/4 (t)] + c1 J1/4 (t) + c2 J1/4 (t)
dt
dt
1
1
= 4t c1 J3/4 (t) J1/4 (t) + c2 J1/4 (t) J3/4 (t)
4t
4t
+ c1 J1/4 (t) + c2 J1/4 (t)
= 4c1 tJ3/4 (t) 4c2 tJ3/4 (t)
1 2
1 2
= 2c1 x2 J3/4
x 2c2 x2 J3/4
x ,
2
2
so
y=
=x
J3/4 ( 12 x2 ) cJ3/4 ( 12 x2 )
.
cJ1/4 ( 12 x2 ) + J1/4 ( 12 x2 )
1
x[ln(1 + x) ln(1 x)] 1
2
1
1
1
1
= x
+
+ [ln(1 + x) ln(1 x)]
2
1+x 1x
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
= x
+
+
+
+
2
(1 + x)2
(1 x)2
2 1+x 1x
2 1+x 1x
1
1
1
1
1
= x
+
.
+
+
2
(1 + x)2
(1 x)2
1+x 1x
Then
(1 x)(1 + x)y2 2xy2 + 2y2 = 0.
20. n = 0: P0 (x) = 1
n = 1: P1 (x) =
1 d
(x2 1) = x
2 dx
n = 2: P2 (x) =
1 d2
1 d2
1
3
1
2
2
(x
1)
=
(x4 2x2 + 1) = (12x2 4) = x2
2
2
8 dx
8 dx
8
2
2
n = 3: P3 (x) =
1 d3
1 d3
1
5
3
(120x3 72x) = x3 x
(x2 1)3 =
(x6 3x4 + 3x2 3) =
3
48 dx
48 dx3
48
2
2
265