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Dr. Ir. Dedy Kristanto, M.

Sc

WATERFLOODING

What is Waterflooding?
Injection
Well

Water
Injection
Pump

Separation and
Storage Facilities

Oil Zone

Production Well

Injection Water
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What is Waterflooding?
Description
y Most widely used post-primary recovery method
y Water injected in patterns or along periphery of reservoir
Mechanisms That Improve Recovery Efficiency
y Water drive
Limitations
y High oil viscosities / higher (more adverse) mobility ratios
y Heterogeneity such as stratification, permeability
contrast, and fracturing reduce sweep efficiency
Challenges
y Poor compatibility between injected water and reservoir
may cause formation damage
y Subsurface fluid control to divert injected water and shut
off undesirable produced fluids
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Waterflood Mechanisms
Injector

Producer

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Waterflood Mechanisms
Injector

Producer

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Waterflood Mechanisms
Injector

Producer

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Waterflood Mechanisms
Injector

Producer

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Waterflood Mechanisms
Injector

Producer

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Waterflood Mechanisms
Injector

Producer

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Waterflood Mechanisms
Injector

Producer

DK - 10 -

Waterflood Mechanisms
Injector

Producer

DK - 11 -

Flood Pattern Requirements


y The pattern chosen for any injection project should:
1. Provide optimum oil production capacity
2. Provide sufficient injection capacity to support oil
production
3. Maximize oil recovery with minimum of water
production
4. Use reservoir heterogeneity to best advantage and
avoid factors which could reduce sweep
efficiency
5. Use existing wells to minimize number of new wells
required
6. Be compatible with nearby operations
y Choose the best pattern based on first four characteristics and modify
chosen pattern to conform to fifth & sixth - goal should be efficiently
processing reservoir, not minimizing cost to install waterflood
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Waterflood Pattern Characteristics


y Patterns are generally classified as normal or
inverted
-

In normal waterflood patterns, the producing well is in the


center of the pattern

Inverted patterns have the injection well in the pattern


center
Pattern
4-Spot
Skewed 4-Spot
5-Spot
7-Spot
Inverted 7-Spot
9-Spot

Ratio of
Producers to
Injectors

Required
Drilling Pattern

2:1
Triangular
2:1
Square
1:1
Square
1:2
Triangular
2:1
Triangular
1:3
Square
Inverted 9-Spot
3:1
Square
Direct Line Drive
1:1
Rectangle
Staggered Line Drive 1:1
Offset lines
of wells

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Line Drive Patterns

a
d

Direct Line Drive

Staggered Line Drive

y Efficiency of line drive patterns is generally high - it


increases as distance between the producing row
and injector row (d) increases, and distance
between adjacent producers (a) decreases
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5-Spot Pattern
y A special case of the staggered
line drive where d/a ratio is 0.5
y Most common pattern resulting
from primary well spacing
y Drilling pattern is square
y Other pattern configurations
generated by simply rearranging
position of injectors & producers
flexible
y Number of producers = number of
injectors
y Highly conductive pattern since
shortest flow path is a straight
line between injector & producerprovides good sweep behavior

a
d

Normal 5-Spot Pattern

DK - 15 -

7-Spot Pattern

Normal 7-Spot

Inverted 7-Spot
(4-Spot)

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9-Spot Pattern

Normal 9-Spot

Inverted 9-Spot

y Major advantage of the 9-spot is the flexibility


- Some other patterns are very difficult, and expensive to
convert, and may require extensive infill drilling
- The inverted 9-spot can be revised to result in a 1:1
injector-producer ratio patter, either 5-spot or line drive,
with minimum effort

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Peripheral and Line Floods


y In contrast to using repetitive patterns, a peripheral
flood utilizes edge wells along reservoir boundary
as injectors
y If a single line of wells along one side, or down the
middle of a field is used, it is called a line flood

Peripheral Flood
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Selecting a Waterflood Pattern


Factors Influencing Selection of Waterflood Pattern:
y Well spacing often dictates selection of waterflood
pattern. Proper well spacing planning is important:
-

With regular well spacing, efficient pattern


waterflooding is possible

Once field is fully developed, pattern options


become somewhat fixed

y Existing well pattern


-

Pick patterns to minimize drilling infill wells

y Injection & production objectives


-

Choose pattern which provides enough injectors


to provide adequate injection capacity to support
anticipated withdrawals from reservoir
DK - 19 -

Selecting a Waterflood Pattern


Factors Influencing Selection of Waterflood Pattern:
y Geology of reservoir
-

Significant heterogeneities such as fractures or


permeability trends should be major factors

Prevent adjacent injectors & producers from lying


along a line parallel to direction of maximum
permeability or fracture orientation

Optimum pattern where line connecting adjacent


injectors is parallel to direction of permeability or
fracture trend

y If possible, a field should be developed using a


pattern ultimately suitable for subsequent
waterflooding/EOR operations

DK - 20 -

Selecting Wells and Spacing


Irregular Patterns
y Modify pattern as needed to fit conditions of
specific field
y The existing drilling pattern may be highly irregular
& may tempt engineer to abandon use of a regular
waterflood pattern - dont be tempted
-

Not necessary for all patterns to be perfectly


shaped or have exact well count to obtain the
benefits of a pattern waterflood

A regular pattern arrangement can be


approximated to create an appropriate ratio of
producers to injectors by strategically locating
injectors & infill wells

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Selecting Wells and Spacing

Irregular Shaped
5-spot Development

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Selecting a Waterflood Pattern


y Calculating sweep
efficiency using a
reservoir simulator
is sometimes the
most practical
method, especially
when patterns do
not conform to the
exact geometry
used in the
published charts

5
9
Base

y Also practical
when directional
permeability exists
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Mobility Ratio
y Favorable mobility ratios (M<1) produce higher
vertical sweep efficiencies
- Injectivity into high permeability zones will
decrease as flood front advances - retards
injection in high injectivity zones
y For unfavorable mobility ratios (M>1)
- Injectivity in the high injection zones increases as
waterflooding occurs
- This causes even earlier water breakthrough &
decreases vertical sweep efficiency

DK - 24 -

Mobility Ratio
y For mobility ratios less than 1.0, the relative
injectivity will decrease as flood front advances
y For mobility ratios greater than 1.0, the relative
injectivity will increase

Relative
Injectivity
with
Various
Mobility
Ratios

DK - 25 -

Gravity Segregation
y Effects of gravity segregation:
-

Reduces sweep efficiency

Requires vertical permeability

Water flows under oil

Rate effect minimal


Oil in unswept
reservoir

Injected water

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Reservoir Heterogeneities
y Understand directional permeability & vertical
fractures to achieve high sweep efficiencies &
successful waterflooding

If design for directional trends, a very high


sweep efficiency can occur

If not, producing wells can water out very rapidly,


& waterflood can fail

Directional permeability trends can be predicted by


regional geological studies, directionally oriented
cores & analogy to offset fields

y Infill drilling is common in helping to improve


reservoir recovery
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Reservoir Heterogeneities
y Reservoir heterogeneities which can have impact
on waterflood recovery:
-

Pay discontinuities/pinchouts

Faults

Permeability variations/anisotropy

Porosity variations

Horizontal fractures

Vertical fractures

Vertical flow barriers (shales, etc.)

Formation dip
DK - 28 -

Vertical Sweep Efficiency


y Fraction of injection going
into each zone is proportional
to permeability thickness
Injection

Production
Water front at breakthrough

10md, 5 ft

- 100-md zone would take 1/2


the water
- 50-md zone would take 3/8
of the water
- 10-md zone would take 1/8

50md, 3ft

100md, 2 ft

Schematic of Stratified Reservoir

y Since velocities in each zone


would be somewhat
proportional to permeability,
when the 100-md zone
experienced water
breakthrough, the 50-md zone
would be only 50 % swept &
the 10-md zone would be only
10 % swept

DK - 29 -

Vertical Sweep Efficiency


y Stratification behavior such as this exists, even in
reservoirs with little evidence of vertical
stratification
- This stratification reduces vertical sweep
efficiency
- In many stratified reservoirs, water never
completely sweeps the tighter zones before
abandonment. This results in a reduced value of
EI because moveable oil is left unrecovered. The
abandonment is caused by an uneconomical
oilcut

DK - 30 -

Permeability Variation
Layer
Number

Permeability
md

Porosity
%

Cumulative
md-ft

Cumulative
porosity-ft

252.8

15.9

253

16

116.0

13.6

369

30

83.1

13.8

452

43

65.4

13.4

517

57

51.8

13.8

569

71

43.0

12.6

612

83

36.3

11.9

648

95

31.5

11.1

680

106

27.8

12.3

708

118

10

21.2

10.3

729

129

11

18.9

11.1

748

140

12

17.3

11.6

765

151

13

15.8

11.2

781

163

14

14.2

11.0

795

174

15

13.0

11.4

808

185

DK - 31 -

Permeability Variation
y The Lorenz coefficient is calculated using the
areas designated in the figure below as:

area ABCA
Lorenz Coefficien t =
area ADCA
y The value of the Lorenz
coefficient ranges from
zero to 1. A uniform
permeability reservoir will
have a coefficient of 0. A
reservoir with a high
permeability variation will
have a coefficient of 0.9 or
greater

DK - 32 -

Dykstra-Parsons Method
Basic procedure for determining the permeability variation using
Dykstra-Parsons method:
1. Divide the permeability samples into layers of equal
thickness, usually 1 foot
2. Arrange the permeability data in decreasing order
3. Calculate for each sample the percentage of samples that
have a greater permeability & express this number as
"percent greater than
4. Plot data on log-probability paper with permeability on the
log scale & "percent greater than" on the probability scale
5. From the best straight line fit of the data, determine the
permeability at 84.1 % probability and 50 percent probability.
The best fit straight line should be weighted toward the
middle points
6. Compute the permeability variation, V, as: V = k50 - k84.1

k50

DK - 33 -

Dykstra-Parsons Method
y The value of V is a quantitative indicator of the
degree of reservoir heterogeneity
- A value of zero indicates a homogeneous
system
- Increasing
degrees of
heterogeneity
will have
higher values
of V

DykstraParsons
Probability
Plot

DK - 34 -

Dykstra-Parsons Method
Dykstra-Parsons Waterflood Recovery Prediction
WC = 50%
ER= (1-Sw ) = 0.01

WC = 83.3%

WC = 96.2%
ER= (1- 0.52Sw ) =
0.01

WC = 99.0%

ER= (1- 0.72Sw ) =


0.01

ER= (1- 0.40Sw ) = 0.5

DK - 35 -

What Is Production / Injection Control?


Mechanical
Cement
Liners
Mechanical Isolation
Packers

Chemical

Completions

Gelled Foam
In-Depth Gel
Lignosulfonate HighTemperature Gel
Relative Permeability
Modifiers
Resin
Ringing Gel

Stimulation
Dual String
Production /
Injection
Recompletions
Selective Injection
Equipment
Slimhole
Completions

Separation
Downhole Oil / Water
Separators
- Conventional
- Reverse coning

Other
Microbial EOR

y The goal of production / injection control methods is


to improve reservoir recovery efficiency by:
- Opening up unproductive intervals
- Shutting off swept intervals
DK - 36 -

What Is Production / Injection Control?


y Primarily impact vertical sweep efficiency, because
they can be applied to one or more flow unit layers
y Primarily applicable in the near wellbore area of
specific wells
y Several methods may affect areal sweep efficiency,
but are limited because of the significant cost to
apply them extensively through a large, complex
reservoir
y Several of these methods may apply to either
producers or injectors

DK - 37 -

Production / Injection Control


y While remedial actions can usually be performed
on either producers or injectors, it is usually
preferable to attack poor conformance at the
source - the injectors
y A good injection profile is the best starting point to
a successful waterflood
y Before considering remedial options, you might
want to go back and review the Waterflood Best
Practices

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What Is Production / Injection Control?

Mechanical

y Cement
y Liners
y Mechanical isolation
y Packers

DK - 39 -

What Is Production / Injection Control?

Chemical
y Gelled foam
y In-depth gel
y Lignosulfonate high-temperature gel
y Relative permeability modifiers
y Resin
y Ringing gel
DK - 40 -

What Is Production / Injection Control?

Completions
y Stimulation
y Dual string production / injection
y Recompletions
y Selective injection equipment
y Slimhole completions
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What Is Production / Injection Control?

Separation

y Downhole oil / water separators


- Conventional
- Reverse coning

DK - 42 -

What Is Production / Injection Control?

Other

y Microbial EOR

DK - 43 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


y Is it better to convert existing producing wells or to
drill new wells for injection purposes?
- Sometimes it is necessary to drill replacement
wells for injection because the old wells are in
poor mechanical condition
- The old wells are then plugged and abandoned
- However, in this section new wells will refer to
new locations that are added to complete
waterflood patterns.
- These wells reduce the spacing that existed
between the old wells
DK - 44 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


y Many operators consider injectors as secondary in
importance to producers
y Therefore, old producers are usually converted to
injection, and any new wells become producers
- In fact, usually the worst producers are
converted to injection
- These may include the producers with the
highest WORs, lowest production rates, and
even dry holes
y Poor producers usually make poor injectors
DK - 45 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


y The decision whether to convert existing wells to
injection or drill new injectors should be based upon
economics, not just a philosophy
y The decision should be part of an overall waterflood
plan which yields the maximum economic oil
recovery
y Other factors should be considered in making a
decision concerning conversion of existing wells
versus drilling new wells:
- Well bottom hole location
- Casing size
- Casing condition
- Completion technique

DK - 46 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Well Bottom hole Location
y The surface location is many times thought to
reflect an accurate bottom hole location but due to
natural drift while drilling and past drilling practices,
the bottom hole location may be some distance
from the surface location
- May have a bottom hole location out of pattern
- Conversion to injection will impact the recovery of
that pattern
y Thus drilling a new injection well could place the
bottom hole location in the center of the pattern
DK - 47 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Well Bottom hole Location
y The proper injection pattern should take advantage
of the existing well patterns and require a minimum
number of new wells
y Injection patterns should accommodate known
geological features such as natural fracture trends
and directional matrix permeability
y New injection wells may need to be drilled in order
to take advantage of these geological features, and
to maximize oil recovery
DK - 48 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Casing Size
y The casing size of existing wells should be of
sufficient size to allow the desired pattern injection
rate
y Casing should be large enough to permit the
installation of the proper size tubing string
y If dual tubing strings are planned, the casing must
be large enough to accommodate them
y If subsurface injection control devices are planned
to be installed, such as side-pocket mandrels, the
casing should be large enough to permit the proper
size of subsurface devices
DK - 49 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Casing Size
y Another consideration as to casing size of existing
wells, concerns corrosion
y An existing well with small casing may prevent the
installation of a liner in the future - a liner may be
necessary if the casing becomes badly corroded
from the injection of corrosive fluids
y Drilling new injection wells would permit the proper
size and weight of casing to be installed, along with
the proper metallurgy for a longer wellbore life

DK - 50 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Casing Condition
y The condition of the casing should be determined in
each well being considered for conversion
y This may require a pressure test of the casing using
tubing and packer, a casing inspection log, or other
methods of testing the casing integrity
y An injection well requires good casing for a proper
packer seating
y Existing wells with casing in poor condition may
require cement squeezing, casing patches, liner
installation, or other methods of casing repair - this
may greatly increase the cost of using such an
existing well
DK - 51 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Casing Condition
y Injectors require good packer seats and cement
behind pipe to provide segregation of zones otherwise, you cannot control where the injection
water will go
y Casing in poor condition must be repaired:
- Cement squeezing
- Casing patches
- Liners
DK - 52 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Completion Technique
y The techniques that were used to complete the existing wells
should be compared with current completion practices
y If the wells are very old, the primary cement job, perforations,
or productivity may be inadequate
y Past cementing should be evaluated for all wells being
considered for conversion to injection
y Channels behind pipe due to a faulty primary cement job may
cause cross-flow between injection intervals or injection into
other formations
y An inadequate amount of surface casing may require squeeze
cementing of the production casing in order to protect fresh
water formations
DK - 53 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Completion Technique
y If existing wells were originally completed openhole,
they may make very good injection wells as far as
rate is concerned
y Their injection rate may be greater than comparable
cased injectors due to the open hole's greater
surface area
y However, if a poor injection profile occurs, a liner
may need to be installed
y In large open holes a good cement job can be
difficult to obtain with a liner
DK - 54 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Completion Technique
y If the existing wells were cased and perforated,
evaluate the number, size, and location of the
perforations:
- Too few too small perforations could require
reperforating
- Too many or too close of spacing between
perforations can create problems in multiple zone
waterfloods making cement squeezing to improve
the injection profile difficult
- Perforations in gas caps or other formations may
require cement squeezing or isolation with packers
DK - 55 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Completion Technique
y If an existing well is converted to injection, proper
cleaning of the wellbore and stimulation can greatly
improve the injection rate and profile
y Existing producers may contain scale, corrosion
byproducts, oily sludge, and many other
substances which could hinder injection
y Therefore, the wellbore should be thoroughly
cleaned, the formation stimulated, and a clean
injection string installed prior to injection

DK - 56 -

Conversions from Producers to Injectors


Completion Technique
Recommended procedure for converting existing
producing wells to injection:
- Remove existing tubing and steam clean if will be rerun
- Clean out wellbore to PBTD using bit and casing
scraper
- Breakdown or circulate and wash perforations
- Treat perforations with acid/solvent mixture to remove
scale and oily deposits
- Stimulate formation matrix with acid/solvent mixture if
needed to remove deeper damage
- Pickle tubing string if bare tubing is used for injection
string
DK - 57 -

Slimhole Completion

< 5 casing
No tubing

DK - 58 -

DHOWS - Reverse Coning

O
W
DK - 59 -

Selective Injection Equipment (SIE)

DK - 60 -

Dual String / Completion


Injection or Production

DK - 61 -

Gel Treatment

DK - 62 -

Injection Well with Packer


& Tubing

DK - 63 -

Bridge Plug

DK - 64 -

Scab Liner

DK - 65 -

Improving Waterfloods
Selective Gel Blockage:
y If a waterflood is practical, one method to control
high water production is selective gel blockage.
y When the zone needing treatment is identified, a
mixture of a polymer and crosslinker is injected to
retain water in a Jello-like material.
y The treatment can work for years and is usually
very cost effective.

DK - 66 -

Improving Waterfloods
Polymer Flooding:
y Waterfloods can also be improved by polymer
flooding. Addition of polymer makes the water
more viscous so that oil is produced faster.
y Obviously, this is not an good idea in a low
permeability reservoir or one with a high clay
content that can adsorb the polymer.

DK - 67 -

Improving Waterfloods
Surfactant-Enhanced Waterfloods:
y These projects are only practical in sandstones
where adsorption of chemicals is not high or the
water is not so hard that the alkali precipitates.
y The projects are very profitable if injectivity of the
chemicals is high and oil recovery is rapid. This
means that projects are likely to be more profitable
if the permeabilityDepth/Pattern Area is greater
than 0.3.
y On the other hand, the projects with small well
spacing can be shallow, but that larger patterns
should be deeper and have higher permeability.
DK - 68 -

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