CPE406/6060 Energy from Biomass and Waste

Lecture 1 handout Prof V Sharifi

1 - Characteristics of Waste Composition
The following properties are important in the assessment of waste as a fuel:

Moisture content is obviously important since ignition will not occur if the
material is wet. Moisture diminishes the gross CV value of a fuel.

Volatile matter contains the combustible fraction of the waste and consists of
gases such as hydrogen, CO, CO2, CH4 etc

Ash content is important since a high ash percentage will lower the calorific
value of the waste and must be removed/disposed of after combustion. Waste
ash is highly heterogeneous and contains inert packaging material such as
glass and metal cans.
Most organic wastes hold significant stored energy. There is considerable variation in
the calorific value of municipal waste. Clinical waste would show an even wider
variation in calorific value, but has a higher value on average than municipal waste
because of its plastics content. In general the higher the calorific value, the greater
the net benefit in energy terms, and the more attractive the case for investment to
recover the energy. But other factors may also be important. Although scrap tyres, for
example, have a high calorific value, there are problems in handling and shredding
them. General industrial waste is more attractive than municipal waste as a source of
energy, not only because of its higher calorific value (about 16 GJth/tonne) but also
because it has a lower moisture content (about 10%) and leaves less ash (6-10% of
the original volume).

2 - Waste types maybe classified into 4 broad categories:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Municipal solid waste

Industrial waste
Sewage Sludges
Special waste (e.g. clinical waste)

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

Typical composition: paper & card, plastic film, textile, glass, ferrous metals,
miscellaneous combustibles and non-combustibles
Typical CV: 7 to 11 MJ/kg
Typical Moisture content: 30-35%

MSW may be incinerated directly or shredded

Production of RDF pellets (refuse derived fuel) where the CV is approx twice
that of raw MSW

RDF pellets are used in conventional boilers with thermal efficiencies up to

80%
Currently MSW waste is segregated at source or at dedicated facilities. The main
categories of segregated wastes are paper, cardboard, plastics, textile, glass and

metals. The residue of segregation includes dirty paper, mixed plastics and fine
dusts, which are disposed by incineration and/or landfilled.
Industrial waste
Composition and CV depend on the original process

CVs are often much higher than MSW (up to 30 MJ/kg)

Waste quantities and feed rates have to be limited to avoid excessive

temperatures in the incinerator

Sewage Sludge
Sewage sludge maybe incinerated after being de-watered!

Primary sludges from settling tanks have from 90- 97% water content! The
sludge must be dried before use and levels of moisture below 65% are
required before incineration can be self-sustaining without the addition of an
auxiliary fuel system.
Sludges maybe considered as having a useful CV only when the heat
released by combustion exceeds the latent heat of evaporation of the water
content.
Incineration of sewage sludge is an energy consuming operation, hence there
is much interest in co-incineration with coal and/or other wastes.

Special Waste
is defined as waste containing hazardous materials such as
flammables, explosives, toxic, radioactive, pathogenic or clinical waste.
Requires special incinerator design and handling procedures because
of its toxic nature
Has higher CV compared to MSW, e.g hospital waste CV is approx.
17 MJ/kg (higher plastic content), hence potential for a cost effective
energy recovery scheme with incineration
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF)
There are two main forms of refuse-derived fuel (RDF):
1) Coarse refuse-derived fuel (cRDF) is typically produced by separating from
municipal waste its bulky and noncombustible fractions (glass, tins, rubble) and
chopping the rest to a consistent size. The moisture content is not substantially
reduced.
2) To produce densified refuse-derived fuel (dRDF), separation of bulky and noncombustible fractions is followed by substantial reduction of moisture content. The
material is then formed into pellets.
Of the two types, dRDF has the virtue that it can be stored, whereas cRDF starts to
rot immediately. From the technical point of view it is possible to sell dRDF to
industrial users; in practice it has not been an attractive form of fuel, and has not
overcome the cost penalty imposed by the dewatering part of the process.
The refuse-derived fuel option - The advantages of using cRDF are summarised as
follows:
a) cRDF has a higher calorific value than raw municipal waste, and is more uniform
in its combustion characteristics
b) cRDF has a lower heavy metal content than raw municipal waste, so reducing the
demands on the gas-cleaning equipment

c) cRDF has a much lower proportion of non-combustible materials than raw

municipal waste, so there is less ash to be handled
d) efficiency is increased because the combustion conditions can be tailored more
precisely to the feedstock specification.
Sweden and the USA have considerable experience of using cRDF. The USA has in
the past tended to mix cRDF with coal (typically 1:4); but newer incinerators,
integrated with the waste processing plant, run efficiently on 100% RDF. Sweden has
carried out trials of fluidised bed incinerators fuelled entirely with cRDF at Sundsvall
and Lidkoping, and regards this technology as largely proven.
Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) Solid recovered fuel (SRF) contains a large proportion (up to 68%) of
biomass/organic material found in the commercial/municipal solid wastes. Industry
uses SRF for the production of power and heat. SRF contains smaller proportion of
ash (compared to other wastes) and has a CV of approx 11 to 14 MJ/kg.

Municipal solid waste (MSW)

Source-segregated

Unsorted
MRF material recovery facility
MBT mechanical/biological treatment
SRF solid recovered fuel

Segregation

Co-mingled
MRF

MBT

Residue
T L

Thermal/Biological Processes

Composting

Compost

Anaerobic
digestion

Digestate
Methane
(Soil conditioner)

to landfill

Biodegradable SRF or Unsorted

shredded
B
T L
T

Biological Processes
Food/garden waste,
Biodegradable in MBT

to thermal process

B to biological process

Recyclate

Recyclate
Food/garden waste

Final disposal

T
Residue

Thermal Processes
Unsorted MSW,
Residue from MRF

SRF or shredded waste

Combustion

Co-combustion
(fossil, biomass)

Gasification

Pyrolysis

Energy

Energy

Fuel Gas

Char, Oil, Gas

Unsorted MSW,
Ash from thermal processes
Residue from treatment processes
Ferrous metals
Feedstock (construction industry)
Landfill

Waste flows and available treatment technologies.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Waste Materials Handling
Major functions of an incinerating plant include:
1 - receiving,

2 - handling,
3 - storing,
4 - blending,
5 - feeding waste.
Materials-handling systems are specific to waste type (solid, liquid, sludge, etc.), and
to the mode of generation of that stream.
Bulk Liquids Unloading
Typically, liquids and other pumpable materials are delivered to incineration facility in
bulk by tank trucks or rail tank cars. Liquids from bulk systems are normally
transferred through a piping system by pumps, gravity flow, or compressed gas
systems. Pumping systems, using positive displacement or centrifugal pumps are
most commonly used for moving liquid wastes. Positive displacement pumps are
generally preferred over centrifugal pumps because their construction prevents
siphoning when not in use. Gravity unloading may be preferred when liquids have a
relatively high vapour pressure.
Container Unloading
Containers, such as steel or fiber drums, barrels and special bulk units loaded on rail
box cars or semi-trailer trucks, are used to transport waste to an incineration facility.
The containers can be unloaded from the trailers and rail cars manually with special
drum-handling equipment. Forklift tracks are normally used to unload drums on
pallets. Once a container has been unloaded it can be placed in storage, and the
contents can be transferred to other storage.
Bulk Solids Unloading
Three mechanisms are used to unload bulk solids transported by truck or rail: gravity,
pressure differential, and fluidized systems. Gravity systems are typically used with
discharge pits for unloading. They are also used with mechanical conveyors (screw
conveyor, belt conveyor, bucket elevator, etc.) to transfer the solid waste to storage
or directly to the incinerator. Pressure differential (pneumatic) systems are commonly
used to transfer dry powdered materials or granular solids up to approximately inch mean particle size. Pneumatic conveyors require that the materials must move
through piping as well as auxiliary equipment (valves) without clogging, degradation,
or segregation, and must be easily separated from the conveying air stream.
Waste Liquid-Storage Systems
Three types of tanks are commonly used for liquid-waste storage. Temporary
holding tanks provide initial storage of liquid wastes, allowing the transport vehicle to
leave the facility. Batching tanks allow preparation of wastes prior to feeding to the
incinerator. Preparation might include blending for viscosity control or mixing to
reduce the net chloride content of the waste feed. Main storage tanks are used to
store wastes that have been accepted by the facility. There may be a number of
storage tanks in a single facility to hold wastes segregated by heating content,
moisture content, viscosity, reactivity, etc.
Bulk-Solids Storage
Bulk solids received at an incineration facility can be stored in enclosed bins or silos;
concrete pits or below-grade stockpiles; and stockpiles on grade. Materials with
potential toxicity problems or wastes with explosive, flammable, or corrosive
properties, are generally stored in totally enclosed units, such as single-outlet bins,
multiple-outlet silos, and portable bins. Concrete hoppers are normally not used for
storage of hazardous materials.
Solids Processing and Feeding
Available systems for charging solid wastes into an incinerator make use of
pneumatic, mechanical, or gravity techniques. Heterogeneous solid wastes are
generally subject to some form of size reduction (shredding or pulverizing, for
instance) to meet feed-system requirements and to facilitate proper injection,
distribution, combustion within the incinerator. Conveyors are often used for solidwaste transport. The three most common type of conveying systems are:

1 - the belt conveyor,

2 - the apron conveyor,
3 - the flight conveyor.
A belt conveyor, utilizes a neoprene, synthetic, or metal belt to move materials. It is
usually limited in incline to no more than 15 from the horizontal. Variations of this
conveyor have intermediate flights or rib, which allow higher belt inclination.
The apron conveyor, consists of a series of metal pans moving along a track. These
pans move more slowly than the belt in a belt conveyor; however, they can withstand
greater impact from dropped waste than can belt system. A drag (or flight) conveyor
system is used for ash disposal, and, occasionally for solid-waste transfer.
Sludge Handling
Generally, sludges are generated at the incinerator location and extensive storage
facilities are not required. Vacuum filters, belt-filter presses, and centrifuges are
common sludge-dewatering devices, and each of these generate a continuous
sludge feed to an incinerator.Another common method of sludge dewatering is the
plate-and-frame press, which generates sludge in batches, one 15 to 30 minute
batch every 2 or 3 hours. The feed to an incinerator should be constant and
consistent. To even out this batch generation, sludge storage must be provided
between a plate-and-frame press and an incinerator. This storage can be in a
hopper beneath the press or it can be in a separate silo.
Sludge handling can be a difficult problem. Sludge can adhere to conveyor and
feeder surfaces and the physical sludges characteristics are sensitive to changes in
moisture content. Normally, sludges are moved with belt conveyors, screw
conveyors, plunger pumps or progressive-cavity pumps.
Belt and screw conveyors are used when gravity feedings of an incinerator is
possible. An incinerator that is under positive internal pressure, such as a fluid-bed
incinerator, requires that sludge be injected at positive pressure. The plunger pump
and progressive-cavity pump will inject sludge into pressurized systems. The
distance limit for sludge pumping is normally 50 feet. The longer the pipeline, the
greater the load on the pump will be. By reducing the distances to the incinerator,
the feed system can be simplified.
Waste pre-processing operations are:
1. Size reduction
2. Compaction
3. Baling
4. Separartion
Densification of wastes may be achieved by size reduction (pulverisation), bulky
waste shredding, compression and high density baling, screening and separation into
relatively homogeneous components , baling of waste paper , crushing of glass and
bottle containers for use as cullet, compaction and shredding or baling of metal
containers, compaction and crushing of plastic containers, grinding of organism
putrescibles for composting.
Pulverisation is the mechanical shredding and size reduction of solid wastes to
particles of approx 5 to 10 cc top size. It helps in reducing space requirements at
storage area, in transportation and at the ultimate disposal site. Pulverising plant is
available in continuous feed pulverisers or batch fed units. Commercially available
pulversiers fall into 3 main groups: hammer-mill pulverisers, rotary drum pulverisers
and impact breakers and bulky waste-shears.
Main benefits:
Increased material recovery for recycling
Remove non-combustible materials :
Landfill diversion

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Waste Incineration vs Landfill

Advantages:
Incineration is a fast method of disposal. The stabilisation of waste in a landfill
takes many years, whereas incineration in a grate takes a matter of hours.

Incinerators yield a more complete reduction in volume typically the residue of

incineration is about 25 40% by weight and only 8 12% by volume of the
original waste.

The residue of combustion is dense.

Option of energy recovery to reduce costs (production of steam, electricity

and heat)

Current incineration capacity is low and incineration with energy recovery can
still provide significant environmental benefits.

The markets for recycled materials are uncertain, and may become quickly
saturated as material is diverted from landfills.

This will lead to a significant expansion in incineration with energy recovery

over the next 10 15 years as a contribution to a more sustainable waste
management system

Disadvantages
High construction costs

High operation and maintenance costs

MSW management Impacts

option
Incineration
Emissions of toxic substances to air;
Emissions from transport;
Production of hazardous waste (fly ash);
Contaminated waste water;
Combustion produces carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas;
Odours and possible vermin at waste storage prior to
incineration.
Landfill
Leachate of toxic substances, nutrients, etc to surface
and ground waters;
Methane and carbon dioxide as greenhouse gases;
Combustion products from flaring/utilisation, eg nitrogen
oxides;
Emissions from transport of waste;
Health risk from vermin;
Explosions;
Dust;
Odour.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Incineration Technologies

The primary function of an incinerator is to burn waste to an inert residue, the thermal
efficiency and quality of heat transfer for heat recovery are secondary to their primary
function. Incineration plants may be classified on a variety of criteria, for example,
their capacity, the nature of the waste to be combusted, the type of grate system etc.
However, a broad classification may be:1.

Single stage combustion

A single chamber unit in which complete combustion or oxidation occurs. Typical

examples of single stage combustion are the large municipal incinerator systems,
fluidised bed combustors and cyclonic combustors. Single stage type of combustion
systems require gas clean up systems of some form.
2.

Two stage combustion

Two stage combustion is also known as starved air combustion. The two stages
involved are gasification of the waste where semi-pyrolysis occurs and secondary
combustion where complete oxidation of the formed gases occurs. Two stage
combustors include the pyrolytic combustor with static hearth, the rotary kiln and
rocking kiln.
1.

Single stage combustion

a)

Travelling grate (mass burn) Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators (MSW)

A typical municipal waste incineration plant may be divided into four main areas:1. Bunker and feeding system
2. Furnace and combustion chamber
3. Heat recovery
4. Gas cleaning

Example of travelling grate incineration plant

1. Collection vehicle, 2. Waste bunker, 3. Crane, 4. Hopper,5. Ram feeder, 6. Grate

7. Combustion chamber/boiler, 8. Acidic gas removal, 9. Particulate removal, 10.
Bottom ash, 11. Control room, 14. stack

1.

Bunker and Feeding System

The bunker and feeding system includes the provision for storing the waste to allow
continuous operation of the plant. A crane transfers the waste to the feeding system.
The feeding system is a steel hopper where the waste is allowed to flow into the
incinerator under its own weight.
2.

Furnace and Combustion Chamber

The waste is fed into the furnace and combustion chamber either by an
independently controlled ram or by the action of the first part of the stoker.
Incineration of waste takes place broadly in three stages; drying, ignition and
combustion. The gases and vapours formed are also burned out to control air
pollution. In practice the various stages merge, since the components of the waste
stream differ in moisture and ignition temperature. Complete combustion of the
waste and gases generated during drying and thermal decomposition requires
sufficient residence time, temperature and turbulent mixing. To ensure complete
combustion the temperature in the combustion chamber should be at least 850 C. It
should not exceed 1000 C as above this temperature ash fusion is likely to occur
leading to a build up of slag on refractory material. Typical mean residence times for
gases are 2-4s and 30-60 minutes for solids. Control of the air supply to the furnace
and combustion chamber is essential for combustion. Primary air is fed evenly
through the fuel bed via the underside of the grate which assists in combustion and
cooling of the grate. Secondary air is introduced through nozzles above the fuel bed
and has the purpose of creating turbulence in the combustion chamber gases and
thus ensuring complete combustion and avoiding local reducing conditions which are
responsible for boiler tube corrosion. Tertiary air in some plants is added to cool the
flue gases before gas cleaning treatment.
A number of different types of furnace grate exist for municipal waste incineration, for
example the roller (Dusseldorf) system, reciprocating systems, reverse reciprocating
(Martin) systems, rocker (Nichols) system and continuous (L. Stoker) systems. The
grates are automatic and serve to move the waste from the charging and to the
discharge end, whilst providing agitation or tumbling of the fuel bed. The grate has a
variable speed drive to adjust the residence of time of the waste in the combustion
zone to allow for changes in composition. The grates are generally arranged in
sections which assist the distribution and control of primary air.
The combustion residue, ash, metals and charred material is discharged
continuously at the end of the last grate section into a water trough and quenched.
3.

Heat Recovery

i) Heat Recovery
The potential for heat recovery from the incineration process is due to the fact that
the combustion gases must be cooled before they can be discharged through the flue
gas cleaning system. The temperature of the gases leaving the combustion chamber,
between 800-1100 C is too high for direct discharge since gas temperature of 250300 C are required for gas cleaning such as electrostatic precipitators.

The hot water or steam produced in the boiler may be used to provide power for
driving auxiliary plants, for example soot blowers, space or district heating or in large
plants for electricity production. The design of the boiler has to ensure a reasonably
good heat transfer without the occurrence of excessive fouling, allow for the cleaning
of the boiler surfaces using soot blowers etc., allow for optimum circulation of the
boiler feed water, be mechanically stable at the operation conditions and be
produced at the lowest cost. A large number of different boiler design exist but may
be divided into two main types, those with vertical flues and those with horizontal
flues.
In large scale waste incineration the boiler efficiency is adversely affected by a series
of factors :a) the large amount of excess air required to complete the combustion and cool the
combustion chamber, increases the losses of sensible heat in the flue gases.
b) the ash content of municipal waste is high which increases the losses of sensible
heat and unburnt carbon in the residue.
c) the boiler is large and massive and increases the heat losses of the plant.
d) the boiler operates with short term and long term fluctuations in load.
ii)

Boiler Tube fouling

The flue gases contain flyash, charred paper, volatised salts etc and these materials
gradually form a layer of deposits on the boiler tubes. The rate at which tube fouling
builds up depends on the dust loading of the flue gases, stickiness of the flyash
which depends on temperature, flue gas velocity and tube bank geometry. The
adherence of flyash to boiler tubes is mainly determined by the presence of molten
salts such as calcium, magnesium and sodium, sulphates, oxides, bisulphates,
chlorides, pyrosulphates etc in the flyash. Tube fouling is increased in the presence
of SO3 and HCl. Tube fouling gradually increases the pressure drop over the tube
banks and decreases the rate of heat transfer and hence the steam generation and
flue gas cooling. Scale deposits can be partially removed by means of soot blowers
(using superheated steam), shot cleaning (dropping cast iron shot on the tubes to
knock off the deposit) or by rapping the tubes (rapping the tube banks to knock off
the deposits). Soot blowers are the most common and are usually operated once per
shift.
iii)

Corrosion

Corrosion is another primary consideration in the design and operation of incinerator

boilers. The formation of HCl by the combustion of PVC may cause serious
corrosion of tubes due to low temperature acid corrosion. Critical control of
temperature is required to prevent high temperature and low temperature corrosion
of the boiler. High temperature corrosion involves superheater tubes, and of
evaporator in the combustion chamber and in the first flues. High temperature
corrosion involves a series of interactions between tube metal, tube scale deposits,
slag deposits and flue gases. The rate of corrosion is influenced by temperature, the
presence of low melting phases such as alkali bisulphates and pyrosulphates and
HCl and SO3, the nature of the tube metal and the periodic occurrence of reducing
conditions. The low melting phases are eutectic mixtures formed between metal
salts and the metal surface,

Low temperature corrosion is due to condensation of acid gases as temperature falls

below the dew point. Therefore gas temperatures of more than 200 C and metal
temperatures of more than 140 C are required. The corrosion due to acid gases is
most pronounced for HCl which occurs in high concentration in the flue and is due to
dew point corrosion and is most likely to occur in the air pre-heater, electrostatic
precipitator, ducts and stack. The dew point of HCl is low, falling in the range of
27 C to 60 C, depending on the HCl concentration and the water content of the flue
gas.
Boiler tube Fouling The flue gases contain fly ash , charred paper, volatilised
salts and these materials gradually form a layer of deposits on the boiler tubes. The
rate at which tube fouling builds up depends on the:

Dust loading of flue gases

Stickiness of the flyash which depends on temperature

Flue gas velocity

Tube bank geometry

The adherence of fly ash to boiler tubes is mainly determined by the presence of
molten salts such as calcium, magnesium and sodium sulphates, oxides chlorides
and pyrosulphates in the fly ash. Tube fouling is increased in the presence of SOx
and HCl.
Tube fouling gradually increases the pressure drop over the tube banks and
decreases the rate of heat transfer and hence the steam generation and flue gas
cooling. Scale deposits can be partially removed by means of:

4.

Soot blowers (using superheated steam)

Shot cleaning (dropping cast iron shot on the tubes to knock off the deposit)

Or by rapping the tubes (rapping the tube banks to knock off the deposits)

Soot blowers are the most common and are usually operated once per shift
Gas Cleaning

Finally the emissions from the incinerator are passed to the chimney which serves to
disperse the combustion products to be surrounding environment within acceptable
levels. The chimney also provides a draught to drive the combustion gases through
the furnace.
a) Other types of single stage combustors
There are several types of furnaces that are used primarily for the incineration of
sludge waste. Sludges are those materials with semi-liquid consistency that
comprise small particles within a liquid mixture, as opposed to slurries, which are
large particles in a liquid medium (usually water).
1.

Fluidised Bed Incinerators

10

This consists of a bed of sand particles contained in a refractory lined chamber

through which the primary combustion air is blown from below, the sand particles are
hence fluidised by adjusting the air flow. The fluidised bed reactor promotes the
dispersion of incoming solid fluid particles, heats them rapidly to ignition temperature
and promotes sufficient residence time in the reactor for their complete combustion.
Secondary functions include the uniform heating of excess air, good heat transfer for
heat exchange surfaces within the bed, and the ability to reduce gaseous emissions
by control of temperature, or the addition of pollutant absorbing material directly to
the bed.
The fluidised bed reactor greatly increases the burning rate of waste since the rate of
pyrolysis of the solid waste material is increased by direct contact with the hot inert
bed material; also gases in the bed are continuously mixed by the bed material, thus
enhancing the flow of gases to and from the burning solid surface and enhancing the
completeness and rate of gas phase combustion reactions; finally the charred
surface of the burning solid material is continuously abraded by the bed material,
enhancing the rate of new char formation and the rate of char oxidation.
The fluid bed may be used to incinerate solid, liquid or gaseous waste streams and
those with difficult combustion properties such as acid tars and sewage sludge.
Fluidised bed Incinerator
Three main types:
Bubbling fluidised bed (BFB) : Low air velocity ( 1- 3 m/sec), Intense mixing, Near
isothermal conditions in bed
Circulating fluidised bed (CFB) : High air velocities ( 5 6 m/sec), Recirculation of
solid particles via hot cyclone,
Revolving turbulent Fluidised bed: Internal geometry provides greater solid mixing
than BFB
Fluidised bed Systems (main features):
Rapid mixing of solids creates isothermal conditions throughout the reactor

Thermal flywheel effect limits temperature variations

Minimisation of hot spots when combusting high CV materials

Heat & mass transfer between gas and solids is very high

In-situ removal of acid gases by addition of limestone

Reduced corrosion risk allows for higher steam temp giving increased thermal
efficiency

Typical operating temp creates low level of NOx

Can handle low CV and high CV wastes

Can handle high moisture and high ash wastes

11

12

Rotary Kiln
The rotary-kiln incinerator can handle solid, liquid gaseous and sludge wastes.
Throughout the world, more rotary-kiln incinerators are used for the destruction of
non-liquid hazardous wastes than any other incinerator. A source of heat (gas
burner) is required to bring the kiln up to operating temperature and to maintain its
temperature during incineration of waste.
Kiln Application
The rotary-kiln can incinerate a wide variety of wastes; however, its application has
limitations. Advantages and disadvantages in the use of a rotary kiln as an
incinerator can be summarised as follows:
Advantages:
Ability to incinerate a variety of waste streams
Minimal waste pre-processing
Direct disposal of wastes in metal drums
Ability to incinerate varied types of wastes (solids, liquids, sludges, etc.) at the
same time
Availability of many types of feed mechanisms (ram, feeder, screw, direct injection,
etc.)
Readily controlled residence time of waste in kiln
High turbulence and effective contact with air within kiln
Disadvantages

Relatively high particulate carryover to the gas stream

Separate afterburner normally required for destruction of volatiles

Conditions along kiln length are difficult to control

Relatively high amount of excess air, normally 100 percent of stoichiometric,

required

Effective kiln seal difficult to obtain

Significant amount of heat is lost in the ash discharge

Operation in a slagging mode to process inorganic wastes or metal drums

increases kiln maintenance requirements

There are a number of variations in kiln design, including the following: Parallel or
counterflow, Slagging or non-slagging, Refractory or bare-wall
The most commonly used kiln design, referred to as the conventional kiln, is a
parallel-flow, non-slagging, refractory-lined system.

13

When gas flow through the kiln is in the same direction as the waste flow, the kiln is
said to have parallel or co-current flow. With counter-current flow, the gas flow
opposite the flow of waste.
Slagging mode At temperature in the range of 1000 to 1200 C ash will start to
deform and as the temperature increases, the ash will melt. A kiln can be designed
to generate and maintain molten ash during operation. Operation in a slagging mode
provides a number of advantages over non-slagging operation. The construction of a
slagging kiln is more complex than that of a non-slagging kiln, requiring a lip at the
kiln exit to contain the molten material. A non-slagging kiln will normally operate at
temperatures below 1000C. The destruction of organic compounds is achieved by a
combination of high temperature and residence time. Generally the higher the
temperature, the shorter residence time required for destruction. Conversely, the
higher the residence time, the lower the required temperature will be. The use of
higher temperatures in the slagging kiln reduces the residence time requirements for
the off-gas. The after-burner associated with a slagging kiln can often be much
smaller than that required for a non-slagging kiln.
A danger in a slagging kiln operation is that the slag will solidify. When this happens
the kiln will be off balance. One reason for the slag freezing besides a drop in the
temperature, is a change in the feed quantity. To assure the maintenance of
adequate eutectic parameters, additives may have to be employed. These additives
may include CaO, Al2O, SiO2 depending upon the nature of the waste. Additives will
help maintain the eutectic point to assure that the slag will remain molten.
The waste residence time in a kiln can vary. It is a function of kiln geometry and kiln
speed as shown below:
T = 2.28 x (L/D) / (SxN)
Where t = mean residence time (minutes)
L/D = internal length to diameter ratio (m/m)
N = rotational speed (revolution per minute)
S = kiln rake (cm per meter of length).
For a given L/D ratio and rake, the solids residence time within the unit is inversely
proportional to the kiln speed. By doubling the speed, one halves the residence time.
Multiple Hearth Furnace/Incinerator
The multiple hearth furnace is the most prevalent furnace used for sludge
incineration. There are over 400 of these furnaces in operation in UK today, the
majority of which are used for sludge incineration at waste water treatment plants.
They are also used for carbon regeneration and lime recalcining.
The multiple hearth furnace is a vertical steel shell , lined internally with refractory.
Sludge cake is fed by gravity at the top of the furnace. Sludge can also be fed to the
furnace from side, through a screw type feeder. The furnace interior is composed of a
series of circular refractory hearths, one above the other. The hearths are selfsupporting, each acting as an arch supported from the refractory lining the furnace
shell. The hearths are designated with number 1 as the top hearth, number 2 next to
the top, etc. There are from 5 to 9 hearths in a typical furnace, and they are normally
built in diameters of from 3 to 8 m.

14

A vertical shaft is positioned in the centre of the furnace. Rabble arms are attached to
the centre shaft above each hearth. The centre shaft rotates and drives the rabble
arms. A series of rabble teeth on each rabble arm wipes sludge across each hearth.
The shaft is driven at a speed of to 2 revolutions per minute by a variable speed
drive at the bottom of furnace. Sludge combustion air is introduced at the bottom of
the furnace. It rises through the furnace, passing over each hearth, picking up the
products of combustion and elutriated ash particles with it. Additional combustion air
is often supplied above additional hearths within the furnace. Generally centre shaft
cooling air id recycled as sludge combustion air in the furnace. The temperature of
this air stream ranges from 130 C to 230 C. It suse in the furnace represents waste
heat energy reclamation. Off gas exists from the top of furnace. Approx 10 to 20 % of
non-combustible (ash) component of the sludge will be airborne and will exit with the
off gas. The upper hearths of the furnace comprise the drying zone, where the sludge
cake gives up moisture while cooling the hot flue gas. Approx 5 kg of moisture are
released per square meter of hearth area per hour. When the moisture content of
sludge within the furnace is reduced to 30%, the sludge begins to burn. The burning
rate is approx 6 kg of combustibles per m2 of hearth area per hour, applied above the
burning hearths.
In a typical six hearth furnace, the upper two hearths will normally be the drying
hearths, where sludge loses most of its moisture. The two middle hearths are the
burning hearths, where both the air and other gases passing through the furnace and
the sludge are heated to combustion temperature. The sludge residual (ash) will burn
out to a sterile ash on the two lowest hearths. The ash cools , heating the air passing
over it. All sludge off gas must pass through the afterburner.

Schematic diagram of a multiple hearth incinerator

2.

Two Stage Combustion

Starved air waste incinerator

Starved air incinerator is a two stage combustion type incinerator which is widely
used for toxic solid wastes from industry. The two stages consist of a pyrolytic stage
and a combustion stage. The advantages of the starved air incinerator are a more
controlled combustion processes leading to lower releases of volatile organic
compounds and carbon monoxide. In addition, the low combustion air flow results in
low entrainment of particulate in the flue gases which also reduces other particulate
bourne pollutants such as heavy metals.

15

1st stage: the waste is combusted under sub-stoichiometric conditions, i.e. where
there is insufficient air to provide complete combustion and therefore there is a high
proportion of the products of incomplete combustion which pass through to the
second stage e.g soot, higher hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane.
The temperature of the gases leaving the pyrolytic section is of the order of 700
800 C
2nd stage: These gases will then pass to the secondary section where secondary
excess air approx 200% stoichiometric is added, to give a temperature of 1000-1200
C which completes the combustion process.
The gases entering the secondary chamber have a sufficient calorific value to be self
sustaining in combustion. Secondary air is introduced to provide the excess air
conditions with a high degree of turbulence to create sufficient mixing to sustain
combustion without the use of support fuel at typical operating temperatures of
between 1000 and 1200 C
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Alternative Waste Treatment Technologies

Wet Air Oxidation Technology

Wet air oxidation is a process for oxidising organic contaminants in water. Wet
air oxidation refers to the aqueous phase oxidation of dissolved or suspended
organic substances at elevated temperatures and pressures. Water which
makes up the bulk of the aqueous phase serves to modify oxidation reactions
so that they proceed at relatively low temperatures i.e. 350 650 C and at the
same time serves to moderate the oxidation rates removing excess heat by
evaporation. Water also provides an excellent heat transfer medium which
enables the wet oxidation process to be thermally self sustaining with
relatively low organic feed concentrations.
An oxygen containing gas usually air is bubbled through the liquid phase in a
reactor used to contain the process, thus the commonly used term wet air
oxidation. The process pressure is maintained at a level high enough to
prevent excessive evaporation of the liquid phase, generally between 300 and
3000 psi.
A waste water stream containing oxidizable contaminants is pumped to the
system by means of a positive displacement type pump. The waste water
passes through a heat exchanger which preheats the waste by indirect heat
exchange with the hot oxidised effluent. The temperature of the incoming
waste feed is increased to a level necessary to support the oxidation reaction
in the reactor vessel. Air and the incoming liquid are injected into the reactor
where the oxidation begins to take place. As oxidation progresses up through
the reactor, the heat of combustion is liberated, increasing the temperature of
the reaction mixture. This heat of oxidation is recovered by a heat exchange
that utilizes the incoming feed. Thus it is thermally a self-sustaining operation.
After energy removal, the oxidised effluent consisted mainly of water, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen is reduced in pressure through a specially designed
automatic valve. Of all variables affecting wet air oxidation, temperature has
the greatest effect on reaction rates.
Molten salt Technology
The molten salt process is designed for solid and liquid waste streams. It is
especially applicable to highly toxic wastes and to highly halogenated waste
streams. Waste streams with high percentages of ash and non-combustibles

16

are not very good for the system since such waste makes it necessary to
replace the molten bed more often.
Molten salt process is a method of burning organic waste material while at the
same time scrubbing in-situ any toxic by products of that burning and thus
preventing their emission in the effluent gas stream. This process of
stimulating combustion and scrubbing is accomplished by injecting the waste
material to be burned with air or oxygen enriched air under the surface of a
pool of molten sodium carbonate. The melt is maintained at temperatures of
the order of 900 C causing the hydrocarbons of the organic waste material to
be immediately oxidised to carbon dioxide and water. The combustion by
products containing such elements such as phosphorous, sulphur, arsenic
and halogens react with sodium carbonate. These by products are terained in
the melt as inorganic salts rather than being released to the atmosphere as
volatile gases. In time inorganic products resulting from the reaction of organic
halogens, phosphorous sulphur etc build up and must be removed from the
molten bed to retain its ability to absorb acidic gases. Ash introduced by
waste must be removed to preserve the fluidity of the melt. An ash
concentration in the melt of about 20 % by weight provides an ample margin
of safety to maintain melt fluidity.
Plasma Arc Technology
Plasma Arc is a process using the extremely high temperatures of plasma to
destroy hazardous waste. A plasma is a substance consisting of charged and
neutral particles with an overall charge near zero. A plasma arc is generated
by electricity and can reach temperatures up to 27000 C! When applied to
waste disposal, the plasma arc can be considered as an energy conversion
and energy transfer device. The electrical energy is transformed into a plasma.
As the activated components of the plasma decay, their energy is transferred
to the waste materials exposed to the plasma. The wastes are ultimately
decayed and destroyed as they interact with the decaying plasma.
Supercritical Water Process
In the supercritical water process an aqueous waste stream is subjected to
temperatures and pressures above the critical point of water i.e. that point at
which the densities of the liquid and vapour phase are identical. For water
critical point is 379 C and 2018 atm. In this supercritical region, water exhibits
unusual properties that enhance its capacity as a waste destruction medium.
Because oxygen is completely miscible with supercritical water, the oxidation
rate for organics is greatly enhanced. Also inorganics are practically insoluble
in supercritical water. This factor allows the inorganics to be oxidised
extremely rapidly and the resultant stream is virtually free of inorganics.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Waste to Energy Legislation & Public Perception
PerceptionAll waste management options involve risks of pollution and releases of the
pollutants to air, land and water. Landfill for example can pose a significant potential
for causing pollution in the form of leachates into groundwater and methane gas
which is a greenhouse gas produced from the breakdown of waste in landfill sites.

17

Other forms of waste re-use and recycling options also emit by-products such as
waste sludge, which must be subsequently disposed of by incineration. At present,
the major public concern over emission from the waste incinerator plants are the
levels of dioxins in the solid residues and releases to air, particularly from municipal
solid waste incinerators.
The incineration of waste is a field that has been changing very rapidly in recent
times. The future of incineration seen from the present perspective will involve a
large increase in the number of incinerators primarily due to legislation banning the
disposal and re-use of wastes, such as spent cooking oil, via other routes. Releases
from waste incineration are expected to change in response to emissions legislation,
recycling initiatives and ash re-utilisation practices as well as other social factors
such as waste minimisation initiatives. Whilst technology can reduce emissions to
almost any level, this usually involves increased costs. Careful balance should be
struck between the level of pollution control required and environment and health
effects
Some key points of discussion:
- Public perception why is it important to understand?
- Public perception of risk different from experts?
- Highlights differences between opinions of experts scientists/engineers and of
general public TRUST!
- Importance to policy/decision makers including local level
- The need to win public acceptance can be a major constraint on how, and even
whether particular policies/decisions can be made, examples objections of local
residents and environmental groups to new waste to energy plants, opposition leads
to increased consultation, planning enquiries etc, all of which are costly and time
consuming creates a negative attitude !
-How do we address these perceptions? - Science & Engineering avoid confusion!
Legislation/Policies:
The operation of waste to energy plants is controlled by UK Environment Agency
using IPRs and applying the principles of BATNEEC (best available technology not
entailing the excessive costs). These regulations set out the maximum levels of each
pollutant permitted for any incinerator plant. The pollutants present in the various
effluents from the plant are specified separately. Applicants for an IPC authorisation
must be able to demonstrate that the process chosen represent BEPO (best
practicable environmental option).
Waste Strategy 2000

Need for change

Waste Hierarchy

Proximity Principle

Regigional self-sufficiency

Market based strategies

Policy on waste incineration

Targets for Local Waste Strategies

The Waste Hierarchy

- Related to full environmental cost of the waste, leads to a theoretical ranking as
follows
- Waste reduction
I) Recovery: Recycling/Composting

18

Energy recovery (incineration)

ii) Disposal : Incineration (without energy recovery)
Volume reduction
Landfill
Proximity Principle
Dispose or manage as close as practicable to origin
-

Encourage producers to take more responsibility

Sustainable reduces transportation and risk of environmental harm

Regional Self Sufficiency

Aim to treat in the Government region in which produced. WPAs should plan for at
least 10 years of production
But treat flexibly e.g proximity principle sometimes says treat in adjacent region.
Policy for Waste Incineration
-

Incineration with energy recovery should not be undertaken without

consideration first being given to the possibility of composting and material
recycling.

Current incineration capacity is low and incineration with energy recovery can
still provide significant environmental benefits.

The markets for recycled materials are uncertain, and may become quickly
saturated as material is diverted from landfills

This will lead to a significant expansion in incineration with energy recovery

over the next 10 15 years as a contribution to a more sustainable waste
management system

Waste Strategy 2007 EfW

Recovering energy from waste which cannot sensibly be recycled is an essential
component of a well-balanced energy policy. The UK Government plans to use PFI,
Enhanced Capital Allowances and/or ROCs to encourage a variety of energy
recovery technologies so that unavoidable residual waste provides the greatest
benefits to energy policy. EfW is expected to account for 25% of municipal waste by
2020!
There are a number of regulations that regulate the waste management industry,
such as the EU directives, landfill tax and some national targets as listed in Error!
Reference source not found.. The EU landfill directive (1999/31/EC) requires
diversion of bio-degradable municipal waste (BMW) from landfills. The targets set for
the UK include reduction in the amount of BMW sent to landfill to 75% of the total
weight of BMW in 1995 by 2010, and further 50% reduction by 2013. The Landfill Tax
was introduced in 1996 in the UK in order to reduce landfill of waste. It was 24/ton in
2007/8 but will continue to increase by 8/year to reach a level of 48/ton. The
penalty for exceeding the BMW landfill targets is a stronger driver to reduce landfill 150/ton. The new Waste Strategy introduces targets on the waste prevention as
presented in Error! Reference source not found..

19

Segregation residues of MSW have to be treated thermally to recover energy. The

energy can be fully recovered directly by incineration or by other thermal processes.
The potential electrical yield from the segregation residues (including commercial and
industrial wastes) could account for as much as 17% of total UK electricity
consumption in 2020 while meeting the recycling targets.

Regulations

Target values

BMW landfill targets in the Landfill Directive

75% of the amount produced in 1995 by 2010,

50% by 2013 and 30% by 2010

Penalty for exceeding the BMW landfill targets

in LATS

150/ton

Landfill tax

24/ton, to be increased by 8/ton a year to

reach a level of 48/ton
29% reduction from the level in 2000 in 2010,
35% in 2015 and 45% in 2020

Reduction of household waste in Waste Strategy

2007
Recycling/composting targets of household waste in
40% by 2010, 45% by 2015 and 50% by 2020
Waste Strategy 2007
Recovery (Recycling/composting/energy recovery) of
53% by 2010, 67% by 2015 and 75% by 2020.
MW in Waste Strategy 2007
BMW: Biodegradable municipal waste, LATS: Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme
Key national targets and tax for municipal waste management in England.

The major legislative influences on emissions from incineration plants in the UK are,
89/369/EEC Municipal Waste Incineration, 94/67/EC Hazardous Waste Incineration
and the 2000/76/EC Incineration of Waste. Waste incineration is categorised as a
Prescribed Process and as such requires an Authorisation from the Environment
Agency. Prescribed Processes are covered by Guidance Notes issued by the
Environment Agency which set out benchmark emission limits. Processes Subject to
Integrated Pollution Control IPC Guidance Notes S2 5.01: Waste Incineration was
published in 1996 under the system of Integrated Pollution Control. With the advent
of the concept of Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC), the
Environment Agency has issued an internal pre-consultation draft sector guidance
note (IPPC Sector Guidance Note S5.01: IPPC & IPC Interim Sector Guidance for
the incineration of waste and fuel manufactured from or including waste) which sets
out the benchmark limits for the incineration sector, taking into account the various
European Directives including the Waste Incineration Directive 2000/76/EU. The
present air pollution control technologies are normally capable of reducing the
releases of pollutants to within the limits imposed by the 2000/76/EC Waste
Incineration Directive.
UK legislation covering incineration involves the Environmental Protection Act (EPA)
and covers Schedule A process which are deemed larger and technically complex
and includes incineration of waste at throughputs of over 1 tonne per hour.
Therefore schedule A covers municipal solid waste incineration and chemical waste
incineration. Schedule A processes are under central control of Her Majestys
Inspectorate of Pollution (HMIP) and will be subject to integrated pollution control.
There will be a system of prior approval established, and it will be a general condition
of authorisations that the process must use BATNEEC (Best Available Techniques
Not Entailing Excessive Costs). Incineration processes with combustion rates of less
than 1 tonne per hour except chemical waste incineration will come under Schedule
B of the EPA and will come under Local Authority control and be subject to air

20

pollution control rather than integrated pollution control. Other incineration processes
such as sewage sludge, clinical waste and small packages incineration are also
subject to legislation and will come under HMIP control.
EU Directives covering municipal waste incineration covers new plants from
December 1 1990. These limits apply to existing plants from 1 December 1996 and
there are interim limits for plants under 6 tonnes per hour from 1 December 1995.
The Directives apply to plants incinerating domestic waste as well as commercial
trade waste of similar nature or composition and consequently apply to some
industrial incinerators. The Directives do not apply to incinerators specifically for
sewage sludge, hazardous waste, hospital waste or other special wastes even if
these plants incinerate municipal solid waste as well.
The Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO)
The Electricity Act of 1989 makes provision for the UK Government to place a NonFossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO) on any or all of the Regional Electricity Companies
(RECs). The obligation is a requirement on the RECs to take a certain proportion of
electricity generated from non-fossil fuel sources such as waste, but also including
other sources such as wind, wave and hydro-power. The obligation in the context of
waste applies to the recovery of energy from waste via , for example, incineration,
gasification, pyrolysis or landfill gas combustion via electricity generation or
combined heat and power schemes. The fossil fuel levy is placed on the fossil fuel
power generators as a percentage of their electricity sales revenue to compensate
the RECs for the higher electricity prices paid under the NFFO. An NFFO specifies a
period for which the RECs must make available a defined capacity of non-fossil
generating plant.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

District Heating/CHP (connected to Waste to Energy Plants)

District Heating/Cooling (DHC) provided by a CHP system offers an increase in
overall plant efficiency from approximately 55% for the best conventional electricity
generating plant to approximately 85% for a CHP plant, whilst reducing CO2 emission
by 30%. Furthermore, CHP can also be provided from MSW incineration, which can
represent almost 20% of the energy needs of a city, again contributing a major
reduction to net CO2 emissions.
The efficiency of electricity generation from an incineration by a steam turbine is
about 25%, which is significantly low compared to about 35% for coal-fired power
plant. However, combined heat and power (CHP) significantly increases the energy
efficiency, by using the low-grade steam/water from a steam turbine for domestic
heating and cooling (DHC). The overall energy efficiency of CHP using conventional
or waste-derived fuels can be more than 65%.
Combined heat and power (CHP) systems both generate electricity and make use of
the low grade heat. They are small scale units (compared to power stations). The
plant consists of a prime mover (usually an engine) which is used to drive a
generator from which electricity is produced. The heat recovery system extracts heat
from the exhaust gases, the engine jacket cooling system and from the engine
lubricating oil. Of the fuel input, around 25-35% is used to generate electrical power
and between 50-70% is used to produce heat. Thus the overall thermal efficiency of
the whole plant can be as high as 85% .

21

The heat may be delivered as :

- Hot air e.g waste or sludge drying
- Hot water e.g district heating, green houses etc
- Steam e.g tyre manufacturing, paper & pulp manufacturing etc
The potential benefits:
An additional revenue stream,
Greater favour in the planning process, because CHP is seen to be good
and the government has targets for CHP installations
Climate Change Levy exemption
The main disadvantages are:
Finding a long-term buyer for heat is exceedingly difficult because there is
reluctance to buy heat over the fence in the UK especially when the source
is an EFW plant,
The operating demands of the heat purchaser may be un-acceptable to the
EFW plant operator e.g heat may be required when EFW operator wishes to
shut down.
Plant controllability may be a significant issue because there will be different
demands on waste disposal, power generation and heat demand operations
The relative value of hot water and steam are low compared with power.
There are 4 alternative means of achieving a CHP system:
- Heat from Exhaust steam using a back pressure turbine
- Heat from Exhaust steam using a high pressure condenser
- Heat from Bled steam using a condensing turbine
- Heat from extracted steam using an extraction condensing turbine

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Example Heat & Mass Balances

Incineration generally operates at temperatures between 850oC and 1100oC with a
large excess of oxygen to convert waste materials into ashes and exhaust gas while
producing thermal/electrical energy from the chemical energy of waste. The overall
reaction for incineration can be written as:
w(H2O)
CxHyOz
Ash + (1+)a (O2+3.76 N2)
x CO2 + (w+2/y) H2O + a O2 + 3.76(1+)a N2 +Ash
where w(H2O)
CxHyOz
Ash: waste, : excess air ratio and a = x+y/4-z/2.
The chemical composition of waste varies significantly between seasons and
locations.

Ultimate and proximate analyses of MSW

Material
Water
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen

% by weight
31.2
24.0
3.2
15.9
0.7

22

Sulphur
Chlorine
Ash
Waste
1000 kg
8.6 GJ (100%)

0.1
0.7
24.2
Air
5377 kg

Incineration
(70% Excess Air,
25% Energy Efficiency)

Solid Residue
Bottom ash 227 kg
Filter ash
25 kg

Electricity
2.15 GJ (25%)

Exhaust Gas
O2
516 kg
N2
4124 kg
CO2
880 kg
H2O
600 kg

(a) electricity generation only

Waste
1000 kg
8.6 GJ (100%)

Air
5377 kg

Incineration + CHP
(70% Excess Air,
75% Energy Efficiency)

Solid Residue
Bottom ash 227 kg
Filter ash
25 kg

Electricity
1.29 GJ (15%)
Heat
5.16 GJ (60%)

Exhaust Gas
O2
516 kg
N2
4124 kg
CO2
880 kg
H2O
600 kg

(b) combined heat and power

Indicative mass and energy balance of incineration
Other Types of Waste/Biomass Thermal Technologies
Molten Salt Technology
Molten salt destruction is a method of burning organic waste material while at the
same time scrubbing in-situ any toxic by-products of that burning and thus preventing
their emission in the effluent gas stream. This process of stimulating combustion and
scrubbing is accomplished by injecting the waste material to be burned with air or
oxygen enriched air, under the surface of a pool of molten sodium carbonate. The
melt is maintained at temperatures of the order of 900 C , causing the hydrocarbons
of the organic waste material to be immediately oxidized to carbon dioxide and water.
The combustion by-products are entrained in the melt as inorganic salts rather than
being released to the atmosphere as volatile gases. The molten salt process is
designed for solid and liquid waste streams. It is especially applicable to highly toxic
wastes and to highly halogenated waste streams.

23

Plasma Arc Technology

This process uses the extremely high temperatures of plasma to destroy hazardous
waste. The plasma is a substance consisting of charged and neutral particles with an
overall charge near zero. A plasma arc is generated by electricity and can reach
temperatures of up to 27000 C! When applied to waste disposal, the plasma arc can
be considered as an energy conversion and energy transfer device. The electrical
energy is transformed into a plasma. As the activated components of the plasma
decay, their energy is transferred to the waste materials exposed to the plasma. The
wastes are ultimately decayed and destroyed as they interact with the decaying
plasma.
Molten Glass Incineration (Vitrification)
The integral part of this process is an electric furnace that has a pool of molten glass
covering the bottom. This type of furnace is used extensively in the glass
manufacturing industry to produce glass. When used as a waste incinerator the
extremely high temperatures in the combustion chamber destroy organic waste
streams. Waste materials are charged directly into the combustion chamber above
the pool of molten glass. Electrodes immersed in the pool maintain the temperature
of the pool of the molten glass above 1260 C. Combustible wastes are oxidized
above the pool, and inorganics and ash fall onto the pool where they are melted into
the glass. Combustion off-gases pass through ceramic filters which are themselves
charged into the molten glass when they are no longer effective.
Supercritical Water Process
In the supercritical water process, an aqueous waste stream is subjected to
temperatures and pressures above the critical point of water, i.e that point at which
the densities of the liquid and vapour phase are identical. For water, the critical point
is 379 C and 218 atm pressure. In this supercritical region, water exhibits unusual
properties that enhance its capacity as a waste destruction medium. Because oxygen
is completely miscible with supercritical water, the oxidation rate for organics is
greatly enhanced. Also inorganics are practically insoluble in supercritical water. This
factor allows the inorganics to be oxidised extremely rapidly and the resultant stream
is virtually free of inorganics.

24