Research Methodology

The study of conducting research is Research Methodology.

Research: The word research is composed of two syllables Re and Search.
Re is the prefix meaning Again or over again or a new and Search is the latter
meaning to examine closely and carefully or to test and try.
Together they form, a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of
knowledge undertaken to establish principles / policies.
Research can also be defined as
1. Search for knowledge
2. Systematic and scientific search for getting relevant answers on any taken up specific
topic.
3. Scientific enquiry into a subject.
4. Research is a movement from the unknown to the known.
5. It is the voyage of discovery
According to Bulmer,
Research is primarily committed to establishing systematic, reliable and valid knowledge
about the social world.
According to Clifford Woody, Research comprises of

Defining
problems.

and

redefining

Evaluating datas

Making decisions

Formulating hypothesis (basic

idea)

Suggesting solutions

Collecting

Reaching conclusions

Organizing

Finally, carefully
conclusions

testing

the

To determine whether they fit the formulated Hypothesis.

Research Methods: May be understood as all those methods or techniques that are used by a
researcher for conducting a Research depending upon the methods.
(1) Library Research: Analysis of historical records and documents.
-

Statistical compilation, references, abstracts, guides manipulation (handle with skill)

(2) Field Research: Observation, questionnaires, personal, Group or telephonic interviews,

case study.
(3) Laboratory Research: Group (team) study, use of audio visual tools.

Research Methodology: is the way do systematically solve the research problem.

In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his
research problem logically.
When we talk of Research Methodology, we not only talk of research methods but also
consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain
why we are using a particular method or we are not using a particular method or technique so
that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher or others.
Steps:
1) Why a particular research study has been undertaken?
2) How the Research problem has been defined?
3) What way and why the hypothesis (basic idea) has been formulated?
4) Why a particular technique of analyzing data is used? (or) How the data were collected?
5) How the collected data were interpreted?
6) What deletion was made?
7) What was the conclusion?
Finally what was the solution for the Research problem?
Importance of knowing the subject research Methodology:
1) A student preparing himself for a career of carrying out research as his profession
-

Will be trained better to do research

Will help him develop disciplined thinking

Will help him observe the field objectively.

Will enable thoroughly to understand the logic behind the research problem.

Will increase the ability to evaluate the results.

Face the evaluated results with confidence.

Useful in various fields such as Govt. Business, administration, community

development & social work.

To qualify a Research or study:

To be a Good or perfect one, The Research adapted should process certain characteristics,
It must as far as possible be
1) Controlled
2) Rigorous
3) Systematic
4) Valid

5) Verifiable
6) Empirical
7) Critical

1. Controlled:The research problem should not be affected or influenced by external factors (i.e.
variables other than the participating facts).
2. Rigorous: The procedures followed to find answers to questions should be relevant,
appropriate & justified. But the degree of rigiour may vary from one problem to another
problem.
3. Systematic:The investigation should follow a certain logical sequence (Not in a haphazard
manner)
4. Valid & Verifiable:
any time.

The findings should be valid & can be verified by you or others at

5. Empirical: The conclusions drawn should be based on hard evidence, gathered from real life
experiences or observations.
6. Critical: The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The
process adapted and the procedures used must be able to withstand any critical scrutiny.

Types of Research
Research can be classified from the view point or perspectives as, from the view point

Application

Objective

Inquiry mode

1) Pure Research

1) Descriptive

1) Quantitative Research

2) Applied Research

2) Correlative

2) Qualitative Research

3) Exploratory
4) Explanatory
1) Pure Research:

(Basic or Fundamental Research)

Gathering, knowledge is termed as pure or basic research. Just to gather knowledge in

order to formulate or generalize theories or policies.
Eg) Research on mathematics.
This types of research adds knowledge to the already existing organized body.
Applied Research:

To find an immediate solution for a pressing practical problem.

Eg: Social, economical and political trends prevailing in a country.

Applied Vs Fundamental Based on the objectives of Research:
1) Descriptive Research:

Survey or fact finding enquires of different kinds. It describes the actual

prevailing state of affairs, existing at present.

Otherwise known as ex post facts means existing position of facts / issues.

Here the variable influencing the research has no control or the researcher
has no control over the variables.

Eg: Frequency of shopping, customer preference etc.

2) Correlative Research:

Goes on to discover the existing relationship or interdependence between

two or more aspects / variables.

Otherwise known as comparative study.

Investigates association between variables.

Eg: Sum of humour and job satisfaction, (related variable)
Research problem is workers turnover

Analytical Research:
The researcher has to use facts / information already existing and analyze these data to
make a critical evaluation.
Eg: document study / historical evidence.
Descriptive Vs Analytical Research:
Explanatory Research:
Attempts to clarify or explain why and how, any particular research problem arises and
can be solved.
4. Exploratory Research:

Study undertake to explore a new area or an unknown destination.

III. Based on the Inquiry Mode:

1) Quantitative Research:

Relates to aspects that can be quantified and expressed in terms of quantity.

Otherwise known as structured Research.

In this type of Research, the objectives, design, sample and all the other factors
influencing the research is pre determined.

The research problem and its solution will be expressed in terms of quantity and hence
statistical and economic analysis is adapted in this type of Research.
Quantitative Research:

Otherwise known as unstructured research.

The aspects related to quality / kind or texture.

Eg: Behaviour science

Apart from the above, other types of Research are,

Conceptual Research: Research related to some abstract idea or theory

Used by philosophers or thinkers for developing new concepts.

Empirical research
(based on experiments or experience)

Otherwise known as experimental type of Research.

The result obtained by adapting Empirical Research is considered to be most powerful

(evidence enclosed)

Based on the time consumed to complete a particular research,

a) one time Research: restricted to a single time period.
b) Longitudinal Research:

Conducted over several time period.

Qualities of a Researcher
Top 10 qualities of a Researcher
1) An analytical mind: Constant analysis on a variety of factors.
2) A people person: For respondents to get the best out of interviews / focus groups.
3) The ability to stay calm: Especially when you have pressing deadlines. Keep well
focused and think logically there will always be an end point.
4) Intelligence: Researcher requires critical analysis, but most of all common sense.
5) Curiosity: Have curiosity and be passionate about developing deeper to unearth more
insight.
6) Quick thinker: Things dont always go as you plan, so you need to be able to think fast.
7) Commitment:

Research is a tough job, the hours may be long, the deadlines short.

8) Excellent written and verbal communication skills: So that different audience can
clearly understand the findings.
9) Sympathetic: Having a sympathetic ear when listening to some respondents (cry etc) is
a good skill, to have.
10) Systematic:Check, check and check again. Spending a proper amount of time for
checking always pays.

According to Micheal Foster,

1) Truthful data / facts desire for accuracy of observation.
2) No expressions like approximately, almost or nearly.
3) Should poccess alert mind. Nature is constantly changing, be keen and watchful to
notice such changes, no matter how small or insignificant they may.
4) Scientific inquiry desire for knowledge it requires moral courage, Steadfast
(constant / not changing) endurance (to tolerate the difficulty, suffer patiently)
-

When a research scientist feel defeated or completely lost, he needs immense courage
and the sense of conviction (found guilty)

Significance or Importance of Search

1) Doubt is better than over confidence for it leads to inquiry, inquiry leads to invention.
Process or the three stages of research to bring out economic policies.
1) Investigation of prevailing economic structure with the available
facts.
2) Analyse or diagnose the data.
3) Prediction for future developments.
2) Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking.
Eg:- Role of Research in :
1) Econ omics:
Researches done on applied (production and sales of goods in a profitable manner)
economics is increasing in modern days. Govt. & business sectors have become more
complex, they face several operational problems to solve these problems, and
Research is carried on.
To frame Govt. economic policies.
Govt. budget a formulation depends on the analysis of needs & desires of the
people, available of revenues needs research.
Decision making requires proper research.
Allocation of a countries scarce resource also needs research.
2) Business Decisions:
In business sectors there are both planning and operational problems.

a) Problems Research: Investigation of the present structure and

development of the market relating to purchase, production, promotion
and sales.
b) Operational Research: Relates to application of logical, mathematical and
analytical techniques to solve market problems there by minimize cost
and profit maximization.
c) Motivational Research: Helps to determine people behavior or consumer
response.
All the above three are responsible for business decision making.
3) Social sectors: To gain knowledge on unknown aspects and do something better and
more efficiently.
Social scientist gains their knowledge for their own sake and for the development of the
society.
1.

Formulating the Research problem:-

a) The formulation of a general topic into a specific Research problem thus constitutes
the first step in a scientific inquiry.
Two steps are involved in formulating the Research problem,
a) Understanding the problem thoroughly.
b) Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
1. Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
2. Dissect the broad area into small area.
3. Select what is of most interest to you.
4. Raise Research questions.
5. Formulate objectives
6. Assess your objectives
7. Double check
The best way to understand the problem is to discuss with his own colleague
or guide.
Examine all available literatures to get himself acquainted (get used to ) with
the selected problem.
Review two types of literature
Conceptual literature: Concerning concepts & theories
Empirical Literature: Concerning studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed.

 Outcome of the review will be the knowledge so as to pre determine what data or
materials are available for operational purposes.
Next step the Researcher rephrases the problem into Analytical or operational terms.
PUT THE PROBLEM INTO SPECIFIC TERMS
This step is of greatest importance in the entire research process.
The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously or clearly.
Prof W.A. Neiswanger States,
The statement of the objective of the Research problem is of basic importance because,
(i)

It determines the data which are to be collected

(ii)

Characteristics of the relevant data

(iii)

Choice of techniques to be used in these explorations

(iv)

Frame a Final report

Step II
Extensive Literature Survey:
A brief summary of the problem should be written down.
Make extensive literature survey
Sources of survey can be, journals, bio-graphics, Govt. reports, books, conference
proceedings etc.
Based on the nature of the problem.
Earlier study if any which is similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied.
A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
Stage III:
Developing Hypothesis :

(Development of working Hypothesis)

State in clear terms the working hypothesis (Basic Idea of the Research problem)
It is a tentative assumption in order to test to logical or empirical consequences.
Provide the focal point for research.
Hypothesis should be very specific and very well limited to the place of research in hand
because it has to be tested.
Hypothesis guides the researched by limiting the area of Research and keep him on the
right track.

 It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on important facets of the problem.
It indicates the type of data required for the study.
Type of methods of data analysis done.

How to develop working Hypothesis?

1) Discuss with collogues / experts, about the problems, its origin, its objectives and
solutions.
2) Examination of data/ records if available.
3) Review similar studies / similar problems.
4) To secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem conduct personnel
investigation or field interviews.
STEP IV:
Preparing the Research Design:
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conduction. It
constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
The function of the Research design is to provide relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. It provides an outline of what the researcher is going to
do in terms of 1) Framing the hypothesis, 2) its operational implications and 3) finally data
analysis
The Research design highlights certain decision,
1) The nature of the study
2) Purpose of the study
3) Location where the study would be conducted
4) The nature of data required
5) From where the data would be collected
6) The techniques of data collection that would be used
7) What time period the study would cover
8) The type of sample design that would be used
9) The method of data analysis that would be adapted
10) The manner in which the report would be prepared
Type of Research Design:

4 types

1) Sampling Research Design : Deal with selection of relevant items

2) Observational Research Design: Deals with the observations (field observations) that is
to be made.
3) Statistical Research design: Deals with the information on the data collected &
analysed.
4) Operational Research Design: How the above three are carried out.
Determining sample Design:
All the items considered in any field of inquiry constitutes a universe or population.
Study of the entire population without leaving out a single item is known as Census
Study
This type of census study is practically not possible.
So we select few items from the entire population for our study purpose. The items so
selected constitute what is technically called sample.
The way of selecting such a sample is known as the Sample Design.
These samples can be either probability samples or non probability samples.
Probability: Each item in the population has on equal chance of being selected for the study.
1) Simple random sampling
2) Systematic random sampling
3) Stratified random sampling
4) Cluster / area random sampling.
Non Probability sampling: All the items do not have an equal chance of being selected for the
study.
The selection depends upon the convenience & judgment of the Researcher.
Mixed sampling: When more than one type of sampling technique is used for a study, it is
mixed sampling.
The sample design to be used in a Research study must be decided by the researcher
considering the nature of the study.
6.

Collecting the Data:

Gathering appropriate data which are made use in Research study.
Data can be collected in several ways either through (1) Experiment (or) (2) through
surveys.
In experimental means, when a researcher conducts a research, some quantitative
measurements are observed, based on which, he examines the truth of the
underlying hypothesis.
In case of surveys, data are collected by

1) By observations
2) Through personnel interview
3) Through telephone interviews
4) By mailing of questionnaires
5) Through schedules / enumerators
The Researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking in
account the
1) Nature of investigation
2) Objective & scope of Inquiry
3) Financial Resources
4) Time frame
5) Desired degree of Accuracy.
6) Execution of the Project: (Putting a plan)
Important step in Research study.
See that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time.
Eg) If the survey done in a project is via Questionnaire the answers can be
machine coded / processed
If interview were conducted, make sure that the interviewers are well trained to
keep the survey as much as realistic as possible.
8. Analysis of Data :
After the data are collected the researcher turns to the task of analyzing the data the
analysis of data require closely related operations, like coding, Editing &
Tabulation.
The wide data collected should be condensed into small manageable groups, for easy
analysis.
Coding: The collected data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated or
counted.
Editing: Unwanted & irrelevant data will be removed.
Tabulation: Technical procedure where the data are put in the form of tables.
Research Design:
The most important step after defining the Research problem is preparing the Research
Design

 Research design is the conceptual structure within which the research is conducted.
It constitutes the BLUE PRINT for collection, measurement and analysis of data.
Research design provides an answer to the question, what the Researcher is going to do
with regards to framing hypothesis, its operational implications and how to analyse the
data?
Research Design: - Decisions
Highlights certain decisions,
1) Nature of the study
2) Purpose of the study
3) Location where the study would be conducted
4) Nature of DATA required
5) From where the DATA can be collected
6) Time period of the study
7) Type of sample design to be used
8) Techniques of data collection
9) Methods of Data Analysis
10) Preparation of Report.
Research Design
May be sub divided into,
1) Sampling design: Deals with, the method of selecting items for the study.
2) Observational design: Relates to the condition under which the observations are to be made.
3) Statistical Design: Deals with the no of items selected or the study and how the selected
data will be analysed.
4) Operation design: The technique by which the sampling, observational and statistical designs
can be carried out.
Research Design Features:
1) Helps to identify the type and source of information needed for the study.
2) Specifies the methods to be adopted in collecting & analyzing data.
3) Specifies the time schedule of the research and the monetary budget involved.
Concepts Relating to Research Design
1) Dependent and Independent variables :

Variables :A magnitude that varies is known as variable

Continuous variable :Values that can be expressed even in decimal poins are known as
continuous variables
Eg:

age (4 years 3 months)

Height (5.2 cm)

Weight (45.3 kg)

Non continuous Variables: Value that can be expressed only in integer values are called Non
continuous variables
Eg:

No. of students in a class ( 45)

No. of children in a family (3)

Statistically known as discrete variables

Dependent or Endogenous variables :
When the change in one variable depends on the change in other variable, it is known as
dependent or Endogenous variable.
Demand

-----

Price (independent)

Independent or Exogenous variable

The variable that causes the change in the dependent variable is known as independent or
exogenous variable.
Demand (Dependent) ------- Price ,Income
Here demand is a dependent variable while price / income is an independent variable.
Extraneous variable :
The independent variable which is not directly related to the purpose of the study but
affects the dependent variable is known as extraneous variables.
The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent value is technically
known as Experimental Error
A research study or a Research design should always be framed in such a manner that the
influence of Extraneous variables on the dependent variable is completely controlled
and the influence of the independent variable is clearly evident.
Control:
Good Research design should minimize the effect for extraneous variables.
Confounded Relationship
The relationship between dependent and independent variable is said to be confounded by
an extraneous variables.
Research Hypothesis:

When the formulated hypothesis is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known as

Research Hypothesis.

Experimental & Non Experimental Hypothesis testing:

When the objective of the Research is to test the hypothesis, it is Research hypothesis.
Research in which the independent variable are (handled with skill) manipulated, it is
experimental hypothesis testing.
When the variables are not manipulated, it is non experimental hypothesis testing.
Experimental & Control Groups:
When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis, research it is
control Groups.
When the group is exposed to special or certain new conditions, it is experimental groups.
8. Treatments:
The different conditions to which the experimental & control groups are subject to is
known as treatments.
9. Experiment:

Fertilizers and crops)

Process of verifying the truth.

Absolute Experiment:
Determine the fact
Comparative Experiment:
Determine the impact in comparison with another fact.
10. Experimental units
Pre-determined block to which different treatments are applied.
Eg : animal testing

Types of Research Design

There are three different types of Research design,
1) Exploratory Research Design:
Is a Formulative Research design
Main purpose is the discovery of ideas & insights

 Should be flexible enough considering different dimensions of the problem under

study.
2) Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design:
Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a
particular individual or a group.
Study concerned with narration of facts or characters related to an individual,
group or institution is descriptive research studies.
Diagnostic Research design determines the frequency with which a variable
occurs or its relationship with another variables.
Both the Research designs should be planned carefully.
Research design should be Rigid (No flexibility)
3) Hypothesis testing Research Design:
Test the hypothesis of causal relationship between two or more variables.
Adopt procedure that not only reduce bias but enhance reliability and facilitates
deriving Inferences (results) about the Research problem.
Importance of Research Design:
Facilitates the smooth flow of the various stages of Research.
Helps yield maximum information with minimum effort, time and money.
Helps to plan in advance data collecting and analysis techniques.
Prepare with utmost care to avoid errors.
Attain reliability
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
Posses the qualities of being flexible, suitable efficient & economical.
Should minimize bias and maximize reliability of data collection & Analysis.
No experimental error should be allowed
Should yield maximum information
Research problem should be viewed from different angles or dimensions.
The choice of Research design depends on,
Nature of the Research problem
Objectives of the Research problem

 Skills / ability of the Researcher

Methods of gathering information
Availability of monetary support
Time schedule

HYPOTHESIS
A Research hypothesis is a predictive statement, which is capable of being tested using
scientific methods, which involves independent and dependent valuables. (eg) the female
students perform as well as the male students.
This statement is a hypothesis that can be objectively tested and verified.
It is a proposition that can be put to test in order to examine its validity.
Characteristics of Hypothesis
1) A hypothesis should be precise and clear. If not clear, the inferences will not be reliable.
2) It must be capable of being put to test.
3) It should state the relationship between the variables, in case relational hypothesis.
4) It should be stated in a simple language.
5) It should be consistant and derived from all known facts.
6) Hypothesis must be amenable to testing within a reasonable period of time
7) Hypothesis should explain what it actually to explain. (the solution for the Research
problem). The explanation should be on empirical reference.
Concepts Relating to Testing of Hypothesis
1) Null Hypothesis & Alternative
Hypothesis (Statistical Analysis)
Null Hypothesis: Denoted by H0. If both the variables (say male or female) or (Head or Tail) are
equally good, it is Null Hypothesis.
Alternative Hypothesis: Denoted by Ha or H1. If one variable is considered superior to other or
vice versa or if there is a difference, it is alternative hypothesis.
Mean Population (u) or (p)
Total / No. of variables
Null Hypothesis

Ho :

u = 100

Alternative Hypothesis
Ha

u = 100

Ha

u > 100

Ha

u < 100

Aspects to be considered while formulating Null Hypothesis

1) The researcher always tries to reject Null hypothesis since Alternative Hypothesis should
be proved.
2) Null hypothesis when it is actually true, when rejected involves great risk, the level of
significance should be considered.
3) Null hypothesis should be very specific (No approximation)
The level of significance:

Important concept of hypothesis testing.

It is a certain percentage chosen with great care, reason and thought

(eg) let us consider the level of significance to be 5%. It means the Researcher takes a
risk of rejecting Null hypothesis (Ho) by 5% when Ho is actually true.

3.

Decision Rule

The researcher should make a decision, if to accept or Reject Ho.

The decision rule should be decided on the number of items to be tested and the basic of
which to accept or reject.

4.

Type I and Type II Errors

(i)

Researcher may reject Ho, when it is true Type I Error (which must have been
accepted).

(ii)

Researcher may accept Ho, when it is false Type II Error (which must have been
rejected)

5.

One tailed and Two tailed Tests:

(i)

One tailed test rejects the Null hypothesis when the sample mean is either greater or
lower than the hypothesized value of the population mean.

Two tailed Test:

When the sample mean is both greater and lower than the
hypothesized value of the population mean.
Procedure for Hypothesis Testing:
1. Testing hypothesis refers whether the formulated hypothesis is valid or not
2. Whether to Accept or Reject Null Hypothesis.

(i)

Making a formal statement:

(ii)

(iii)

Selecting a significant level of testing

A pre-determined level of significance should be specified.

Either 5% or 1% level can be considered for the purpose.

Deciding the Distribution to use:

(iv)

(v)

Choice should be made generally relates to Normal distribution or t-distribution.

Selection of random sample & computing an Appropriate value

Selection of Random sample

Computing suitable value

Drawing a sample for furnishing Empirical data.

Calculation of Probability:

(vi)

Making a formal statement of the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.

The diverged results from the expected results, when Ho is true.

Comparing the probability:

By making a comparison with the assumed significance level.

If the value is less than or equal to Ho, in case of one-tailed test, Ho is rejected. Here
type I error is committed.

If the value is greater than the mean, Ho is accepted. Were type-I error is committed.

compile, compare & compute the data and come out with the inference.

Null Hypothesis: The null hypothesis is the proposition or proposal that implies no effect on the
phenomena.

Alternative Hypothesis: Is the one predictive statement that implies some effect on the
phenomena.
Concepts Relating to Testing of Hypothesis:
SAMPLE SURVEY
Sampling Design:
An art of obtaining a sample from a given population. The technique or procedure the
researcher adopts for selecting items for the sample from the population or universe.

Steps in sampling Design

Type of Universe:
1) The first step in sampling design, is to clearly define the total number of items / cases to
be studied, which is technically known as UNIVERSE
Finite
Universe
Infinite
Finite Universe:
Eg:

The number of items is certain.

No. of students in a class.

No. of workers in a factory.

Infinite Universe:
Eg:

The number of items is infinite. (No idea about the number of items)

Chennai population, No. of stars

2) Sampling Unit:

A geographical area like a state, district or village.

Family, religious community or a school.

Individual (Researcher can select one or two such units).

3) Source List:

Otherwise known as Sampling Frame

Consists of names of all items of a universe.

If not available the researcher has to prepare a Source list.

It must be reliable, comprehensive, correct and appropriate.

It should be the representative of the population / universe.

4) Size of sample:

Refers to the number of items to be chosen from the universe.

Size of sample must be optimum. An optimum sample may defined as the one
that satisfies.

The requirements of representatives.

Flexibility

Efficiency

Reliability

Costs or budget should be considered.

Factors Influencing size of sample :

Parameters of Interest:
The items or parameters are selected based on the researchers own interest.
Budgetary constraint :
Cost consideration exercises a major influence.
a) Sampling Procedure:
The type or technique used by the researcher to select the items.
The technique should be selected so that for a given sample size & budget, the sampling
error must be very small or negligible.
Sampling Error: may be caused (In case of Non probability sampling) due to
(1) Interviewer Bias
(2) Mistakes
(3) Non response problems
(4) Questionnaire design flaws
(5) Data processing & analysis errors
In case of probability sampling, (homogenous items ) the sampling error is negligible
since the sample is more accurate.
Characteristics of a Good sample :
Should bind a truly representative sample.
Small sampling error

 Should fit into the budgetary constraints.

Result should be applicable in general.
Characteristics of sample techniques:
1) Much cheaper
2) Saves time
3) Much reliable
4) Suitable for carrying out different surveys
5) Scientific in Nature

Advantages of sampling:
1) Very accurate
2) Economical in Nature
3) Very reliable
4) Suitable for different surveys
5) Less time consumption
6) In case of large universe, sampling method is the only practical method for collecting
the data.
Different types of sample Design:
Classified under two general categories.
1) Probability sampling
2) Non Probability sampling.
Probability sampling:
Otherwise known as choice sampling or random sampling.
Every item has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Eg: Lotteries (or) subscribers
When done property, probability sampling ensures that the sample has a similar
composition and profile as that of the entire population.
7 different types of probability sampling,
1) Simple Random sampling

2) Stratified Random sampling

3) Cluster sampling
4) Systematic sampling
5) Area sampling
6) Multi stage sampling
7) Sampling with probability propotional to size
(1)

Sample Random Sampling

The sample is drawn so that each person or item has an equal chance of being drawn
during the selection.
Eg:

(2)

Lotteries (in a ball box)

Stratified Random sampling: (strata layers)

-

Stratified sampling technique is generally used when the population is heterogeneous.

The entire population is divided into sub population (sub groups) (i.e. the sub
population being homogenous).

Items are selected from each stratum.

This method is more reliable & accurate.

Eg: 50 students of a school having 1000 students on a total were selected &
interviewed on the interest in music.

The students were grouped based on their age, 7 years, 8 years, 9 years, 10 years & 11
years.
From each age group, 5 students were chosen and totally 50 students were interviewed.
(3)

Cluster sampling:

The entire population is sub divided into mutually exclusive groups or clusters

Simple Random sampling is applied and the need clusters are selected for the study.

If all the elements found in the selected cluster is taken for the study, then it is one stage
cluster sampling.

If random sampling is applied in selecting elements found within the clusters, it is two
stage cluster sampling.

(4)

Systematic sampling:
-

Selecting every nth element for the study.

1st, 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th .

(5)
Area sampling:
divisions.
(6)

when the clusters are in the form of some geographical sub

Multi stage sampling:

-

If the researcher selects elements or items at different stages, it is multi stage sampling.

Eg: Survey of work efficiency in nationalized baulks

Stage level

District level

Towns

Villages

Items are selected at four stages / levels.

(7)

Sampling with probability proportional to size:

-

The probability of inclusion into the study is directly proportional to the size of the
clusters.

This technique is used when the no. of elements present in each cluster varies.

Depending on requirement of the researcher the cluster which is more appropriate can be
selected for the study.

II.

Non Probability sampling:

-

Each item does not have an equal chance of being included in the sample.

3 types of non probability samplings are,

1) Convenience sampling
2) Quota sampling
3) Judgmental sampling

1)

Convenience sampling:
-

Choosing items at the convenience of the Researcher.

Eg: Street interviews (sampling of people who are at easy access)

Drawback: Lack of accuracy

2.

Quota sampling

The researcher simply assume quotas, with certain restrictions imposed on how they
should be selected.
Eg: Caste basic
Benefits: less expensive, very convenient

3.

Judgment sampling : (otherwise known as purposive sampling)

Researcher employs his own Expert judgment about who to include in the sample

frame.
Disadvantages of sampling:
1) Inadequacy of samples
2) Chances of bias
3) Problems of accuracy
4) Difficulty of getting the representative sample.
5) Untrained Manpower.
6) Absence of Informants
7) Chances of committing errors.
Sampling Error: Sampling error is the deviation of the selected sample from the true
characteristics, traits, behavior, qualities or figures of the entire population.
Data Collection
Data Collection is the systematic gathering of information (data) for a particular purpose
from various sources. (Various sources can be questionnaires, interviews, observations existing
records and electronic devices).
Two Important sources of Information are,
(i)

Primary Data

(ii) Secondary Data

Primary Data:
Refers to the data collected for the first time (Original data)
Example: Proceedings from conferences meetings, Students records.
Secondary Data:
Refers to the data that have already been collected and used earlier by somebody or some
agency.
Example: Online database, Historical books etc.
Example: Taking census (total population) of Government of India Primary Data.
When research is done by some other scientist on the basis of this data, it is secondary
data.
Selecting A particular source of Data depends on,
(1) Purpose & Scope of the study.

(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

Availability of time.
Availability of Resources.
The degree of Accuracy desired.
Statistical tools to be used.
Sources of Information (data).

1. Purpose & Scope of Data Collection:

Should be clearly stated at the very beginning of the study.
A statement indicating the Research problem and the type of information needed for the
study in order to solve the Research Problem, is needed.
Its purpose is to establish a factual information for making decisions.
Scope of the enquiry means the coverage with regard to the type of information, the
subject matter and geographical area.

(b) Availability of Time: The investigation should be done within a reasonable period of time.
Taking which the information collected may become outdated.
Example: Demand of a new product launched is studied, if the result comes out after 2
years, by the time the producer may attain great lose.
So, make sure the investigation is carried out within a reasonable period of time.
(c) Availability of Resources:
Investigation or data collection greatly depends, on resources available like,
1. No. of skilled personnel
2. The Financial Position.
If the no.of skilled personnel to carry our the enquiry is sufficient and the availability of
funds is not a problem, the datas can be collected from a big area covering a good number
of samples.
(d) The desired/expected Degree of Accuracy: Deciding the degree of accuracy is a must for the investigator.
Because Absolute Accuracy is not possible in statistical works.
Since Statistics is based on estimates, tools used for measurements in not always
perfect & there may be unintentional bias on the part of the investigator, enumerator or
informant.
Generally the degree of accuracy depends upon the objections of the enquiry.
Example: During purchase of Gold, even 1/10th gram in its weight is significant.
But it is not the same in case of purchasing rice or wheat.
(e) Statistical Tools to be used:

 Well defined or identifiable object or group of objects that can be measured or counted in
a statistical investigation is called statistical Unit.
In the absence of a clear and precise Statistical Unit Serious errors may be committed
by collecting irrelevant data. This will ultimately lead to fallacious (Wrong) conclusions.
(f) Sources of Information:
The researcher has to decide about the source from which the information can be
obtained or collected.
1. First hand data.
2. The data from other published sources. (Publications, Journal, Magazines etc.)
(g) Method of Data Collection:1. Primary Data.
2. Secondary Data.

Primary Data: First hand data.

Either Census or Sample technique is to be used.
Census: Total no.of items have to be investigated.
Sample: Selected representatives from the total population have to be investigated.
CENSUS

SAMPLE

Total No. of items, 100% Accuracy Selected Representations, 100% Accuracy

attained, Time consuming, Expensive cannot be attained, Less time taken, Less
More Labour.
expensive, Less Laborious.
Should be very cautious and careful while choosing a particular method.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data:
May be obtained by applying any of the following methods,
1. Direct Personal Interviews.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews.
3. Information from Correspondents.
4. Mailed questionnaire methods,
5. Schedule sent through Enumerators.
1. Direct Personal Interviews:
A face to face contact is made with the informants.
Interviewer asks them questions regarding the study and tries to get the desired
information.

 The information thus collected is first hand and original.

Merits:
(i)
(ii)

Response is encouraging when personally contacted.

Information are more accurate (if not found accurate, he can be reexamined or Crossexamined, there by try to obtain the information).
Provides hope for getting supplementary information, which may be of greater use
latter.
A delicate situation (Some Personnel Questions) can usually be handled more
effectively by a personnel interview than other survey techniques.
The interviewer can adjust the language according to the status and educational level
of the person interviewed, thereby can avoid inconvenience and misinterpretation.

(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Demerits:
(i)
(ii)

Expensive when the no. of informants is large.

Greater chance of personnel bias and prejudice. (taking a decision before finding the
full facts).
(iii)
Interviewer should be thoroughly trained & experienced. (untrained personal will
spoil the work)
(iv)
Time consuming (Interviewers can be contacted only at the convenience of the
informants)
Conclusion:
Direct personal Interviews can be used in Intensive Field Survey rather than Extensive
Field Survey.
The present day of extreme advancement in communication system, a good number of
survey, can be conducted by News papers & television channels by replying through
e.mails & SMS.
They are less expensive & extremely quick.
Defects No Phone or Television, delicate & sensitive Questions cannot be asked, value
answers.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews:

The investigator contact a third party called Witnesses who is capable of supplying
necessary information.
Generally adopted when the information to be obtained is complex or the informer is not
willing to reveal the answers.
Example: When a drug addicted person is interviewed, he will not be willing to response directly,
so the information are gathered via agents (may be relatives).
The accuracy of this method depends on,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

The proven integrity of the Agency/Person.

Ability of the interviewer to act the right information from the witness.
Bribery or other reasons may twist the witness to give false information there by
bringing a wrong conclusion.
Conclusion:
(i) Let more care should be taken in the selection of Witness because it is on their views, the
final conclusion is reached.

3. Information From Correspondents:

The investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in different places to collect
information under this method.
These correspondents collect the information and transfer or transmit the information to
the central office where the data are processed.
Example: News paper Agencies.
Generally these Agencies are paid staff, sometimes honorary.
Advantages:
1. Cheap
2. Can be used to get regular information at regular intervals (daily, weekly or monthly).
Disadvantages:
(i)

Lacks Accuracy.

4. Mailed Questionnaire Method:

A list of questions pertaining to the survey is known as Questionnaire. It is prepared
and sent to various informants by post.
The questionnaire contains questions and provides space for answers.
A request is made to the informants through a covering letter to fill up the questionnaire
and sent it back within a specified time.
The questionnaire studied can be classified as,
1)
2)
3)
4)

The degree to which the questionnaire is formalized or structure.

The disguise/lack of disguise of the questionnaire.
The communication method used.
When no formal questionnaire is used, interviewers adopt other tactics like showing
pictures on which respondents comments.
When a research follows a prescribed sequence of Questions it is structured study.
When no prescribed sequence of Question exists, the study is Non-Structured.
When the questionnaire is constructed in such a way that the Objective is clear (the
questionnaire) it is known as Non-disguised.
When the objective is not clear, the questionnaire is a Disguised one.
On this basis, 4 types of studies can be distinguished,
(i)
Non-disguised Structured.
(ii)
Non-disguised Non-structured.
(iii)
Disguised Structured.
(iv)
Disguised Non-Structured.
Merits: Questionnaire Methods,
(1) Easily adopted in large populations and when the informants are wide spread over a large
geographical area.
(2) Relatively cheap & timely.

(3) Information pertaining to personnel life or family or confidential matters will be revealed
in written rather than personal interviews or telephones.
Demerits:
(1) Applicable only among literate people.
(2) Uncertainty of the Respondents lacks co-operation.
(3) Lacks Accuracy because the information may not be correct.
Guideline to make this method more Effective:
(i)
Prepaid postage stamp should be affixed.
(ii)
Sample should be large.
(iii)
Questionnaire should be interesting.
(iv)
Legal Compulsion should be made to provide in formations.
5. Schedules sent through Enumerators:Sending Schedules through enumerators or interviewers.
The enumerators contacts the informants, gets replied to the questions contained in the
schedule and fill them in their own handwriting.
Here the questions are asked face to face and the response is papered.
Merits:
(1) Applicable among illiterates.
(2) Very little scope for Non-response, as the enumerators go personally.
(3) Information are more Reliable & Accurate.
Demerits:
(1) Expensive Since enumerators are paid personals.
(2) Success depends on the efficiency of the enumerators.
(3) Interviewer requires training and experience.
(4) Variations in answers must be removed to avoid variations.
Secondary Data:
Are those data which have already been collected and analyzed by some earlier agency
for its own use and later the same data is used by a different agency.
Sources of Secondary Data:
(1) Published Sources.
(2) Unpublished Sources.
1. Published Sources:
The Government, Inter National and local agencies publish statistical data.
Chief Among them,
(i) Inter National Publications:Inter National Institutions & bodies like I.M.J.(International Monetary Fund), I.B.R.D.
(International Bank of Reconstruction and Development), I.C.A.F.E. (International Conference
on Agriculture & Food Engineering) and U.N.O. United Nations Organization publish regular &
occasional reports on Economics & Statistical matters.

(ii) Official Publications of Central & State Governments:

Several departments of the Central and State Governments publish reports on different
subjects.
Example:- Publications are,
(a) Reserve Bank of India Bulletin.
(b) Census of India.
(c) Statistical Abstract of the states.
(d) Agricultural Statistics of India.
(e) Indian Trade Journal.
(iii) Semi Official Publications:
(a) Indian Statistical Institute (I.S.I)
(b) Indian Council of Agricultural Research (I.C.A.R.)
(c) Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (I.A.S.R.I.)
Publish the findings of their research programs.

(iv) Publications of various commercial and financial institutions.

(v) Reports of various committees & commissions appointed by the Government.
(a) Raj Committees Report on Agricultural Taxation.
(b) Wanchoo Committees Report on Taxation & Black Money.
(vi) Journals & News Papers: Powerful source of secondary data.
Current & important matter can be obtained.
From Journals & News papers like Economic Times, Commerce Capital, Indian Finance,
etc.,
Unpublished Sources:
Records maintained by Government & Private Offices.
Theses of Research Scholars from universities & institutions.
Precautions in the use of secondary Data:
Proper scrutiny is made before they are used by investigator.
Be Extra-Cautious while using secondary data.
Should not be accepted as such because the secondary data may process,
(Bias, Inadequate Size, Substitution, errors of definition or arithmetical errors)
Factors to be Considered before using the secondary Data:
(i) Suitability of Data:
make sure that the data available is suitable for the purpose of enquiry.
(ii) Adequacy of Data:

 Make sure that the data are sufficient or adequate for the present analysis.
(iii) Reliability of Data:
The reliability of data is must, without which there is no meaning in the research.
The reliability of data can be tested by finding the agency that has collected the data, if
the agency has used proper methods for collection the data.
EDITING:
Once data have been obtained from primary or secondary sources the next step in a
statistical investigation is to edit the data. (to Scrutinize).
Objective, editing is to detect possible errors and irregulations.
Editing needs great care and attention.
Editing Secondary data is simple but the data collected from survey (Primary Data) need
excessive editing.
Editing Primary Data,
(i)
The data should be complete in every respect.
(ii)
The data should be accurate.
(iii)
The data should be consistant.
(iv)
The data should be homogenous
1. Editing For Completeness:
The editor should see that each schedule or questionnaire is complete in all respects.
Answers to every questions is furnished.
If not answered, try to meet them in person to get the answers.
If not just mark No Answer.
2. Editing For Accuracy:
The reliability of conclusions depends on the correctness of in formations.
If the information is wrong, the conclusion can never be valid.
Editor should see that the in formations are accurate in all respects.
Arithmetic errors can be detected easily & corrected.
If the error is due to fault information supplied, it may be difficult to verify.
3. Editing For Consistency:
Editor should see that the answer to questions are not contradictory in nature.
Example: Are you a student? No which class do you study? X
The answers are contradictory and such answers should be classified.
4. Editing For Homogeneity:
Understand the questions in the same sense.
Check uniform interpretation and make sure the information supplied by the various
informants are homogenous & uniform.
Example: Income (Yearly, Monthly, Weekly, Daily)
Choice Between Primary & Secondary Data:

A proper choice between the type of data (Primary or Secondary) needed for a particular
statistical investigations is to be made by considering the nature, objective, scope of the study,
time frame & finances and the degree of precision aimed at, and the status of the Agency.
Now, Secondary data are generally used from fairly reliable published data by
Government, Private organizations and research agencies, periodicals magazines etc.,
In fact, primary data are collected only if there do not exist any secondary data.
In some cases both Primary & Secondary data may be used.
QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire can be defined as a group of questions designed to collect information
from a specific subject.
(or)
List of questions sent to a number of persons for getting answers and which obtains
standardized results that can be tabulated and treated statistically.
(or)
Media of communication between the investigator and the respondent.
Generally used in social research when the population is varied, large, diverse &
Scattered.
Should be designed with utmost care & caution so that all the needed information are
collected without any difficulty.
Drafting a Good questionnaire Requires Care, Skill, Wisdom, efficiency and
experience.
Points to Remember: While Drafting A Questionnaire
(1) Size of the Questionnaire:
(a) No. of questions should be as small as possible depending on the nature, objectives & scope
of the study.
(b) Large no.of questions may irritate the informants and may be difficult to Edit or Scrutinize by
the investigator.
(c) Avoid irrelevant and unimportant questions.
(d) Average No. of questions should be 15 to 25 (at the most).
(e) If it is more than 25, divide it into various sections.
2. The Questions should be Clear:
Should be Easy, Brief, Unambiguous(Clear in meaning), Non offending, courteous in
tone, corroborative (Supportive) in nature & to the point.
3. The Questions should be arranged in a Logical Sequence:

 When arranged Logically, the answers can be easily tabulated or coded and does not
leave any chance of omissions.
Example: To find if a person owns a television.
4. Questions should be simple to understand:
Vague & Double meaning words should be avoided.
Example: Price/Cost/Rate/ Capital Income/Salary.
5. Questions should be Comprehensive(Includes Everything) and Easily Answerable:
Questions should be comprehensive (i.e.) it should include all the needed in formations.
Easy to be answered. Avoid mathematical calculations like Ratios, Percentages etc.,
6. Questions of Personal And Sensitive Nature Should Not Be Asked:
Avoid personal questions which the respondent may feel shy or irritated to answer.
Example: Do do drink ?
If such questions are unavoidable, a highest amount of politeness should be used.
7. Types of Questionnaire:
(a) Shut Questions:
Where possible answers are suggested by the frames & the respondents are requested to
the tick one of them.
Two types of shut Questions.
(i) Simple Alternative Questions:
(Otherwise known as Dichotomous questions) Choose from two clear cut alternatives Yes
or No/ Right or Wrong.
(ii) Multiple Choice Questions:
When it is difficult to define a clear cut alternative, additional Questions between Yes &
No is inserted,
Example: To find if a person smokes? Do you smoke?
(a) Yes, Regularly

(b) No, Never

(c) Occasionally

(d) Seldom (rarely) (

Easy & Convenient to answer.

Save Time.
Easy to tabulate.
8. Leading Questions should be Avoided:
Long Questions leading to several answers should be avoided. It should be framed into
short questions.

Example: Why do you use a particular type of car, say Maruti Car, Avoid this continuous
questions.
Instead ask,
Which car do you use ?
Why do you prefer it ?
9. Cross Checks:
Should be designed to provide internal checks on the accuracy of the in formations given
by the respondents.
10. Pre-Testing the Questionnaire:
Try out the Questionnaire on a small scale before using in a large scale.
The drawbacks, short comings and problems faced in the small scale informants can be
improved or modified when used in large scale.
11. A Covering Letter:
A Covering Letter should be enclosed for the purpose regarding definitions, concepts &
purpose.
Attach a self addressed envelope in case of mailed questionnaire.
Mentions about Awards or incentives for quick reply.
Promise to send a survey copy of the report.
SAMPLING
A carefully designed sample may actually be better than a poorly planned and executed
census.
Merits:
1. It saves time:
Saves time because fewer items are collected and processed.
2. It Reduces Cost:
Since only few items are studied, there is reduction in cost & reduction in man power.
3. More Reliable Results can be obtained:
Sampling is more Reliable because
(i) Fewer chance of sampling error.
(ii) Experience, Trained & Technical people can be employed to process & analyze the data.
4. It provides more detailed in formations:More detailed information can be obtained by sample survey.
5. Only Sampling Method to depend upon:

When the population is large and finite, the only method applicable is sampling.
6. Administration Convenience:
The organization and administration is easy in sample survey.
7. More Scientific:
Results can be tested since more scientific.
Shortcomings (or) Demerits
1. Illusory (False) Conclusion:
If sampling is not carefully planned & executed, the conclusions may be false.
2. Sample Not Representative:
If the sample taken from the population is not the right representative, the result may be
false or misleading.
3. Lack of Experts:
If there is a lack of experts to plan, execute and analyze the samples, the result would be
unsatisfactory.
4. Personal Bias:
There may be personal bias & prejudice in choosing the sampling techniques.
5. Size of Sample:
If the size of the sample is not appropriate, it leads to untrue conclusions.
Essentials of Sampling:
1. It must be the right representative:
The Sample selected should process the similar characteristics of the original universe.
2. Homogeneity:
Selected samples should be homogenous with the samples & the universe.
3. Adequate Samples:
A good number of items should be included for the study.
4. Optimization:
A proper size of sample should be maintained to have optimized results in terms of cost
& efficiency.
Statistical Laws:
Induction:

The logical process of drawing a general conclusion from the study of representative
items is called Induction.
Sampling is based on two fundamental principles of Statistics theory
(i) Law of Statistical Regularity
(ii) The Law of Inertia of Large Numbers.
The Law of Statistical:
Regularity: (Mathematical Theory of Probability), States,
A moderately large number of items chosen at random from a very large group are
almost sure to have the characteristics of the large group.
Proof:
1. Average income of 1,000 people is to be found out,
2. We take a sample of 100 people & find the average.
3. Another person takes 100 people & find the average.
The Average income found by both the persons will have least difference.
If the average income of the same 1000 people is found out by census, the result will be
more or less the same.

2. Law of Inertia of Large Numbers:

It States, Other Using being equal, as the sample size increases, the results tend to be
more accurate & reliable.
Sampling Error:
The deviations or difference between the actual population and the sample representative.
Reasons For Sampling Error:
1. Faulty Selection of Sample
2. Substitution
3. Faulty Demarcation (Demographic limit) of sampling Unit:
In case of Area sampling the sampling units at the borders should be decided if to take it
or reject it.
4. Faulty estimation techniques:
Wrong selection of sampling techniques.
Types of Sampling Errors:
(i) Bias Error:

Caused due to bias or prejudice on the part of the informant.

(ii) Unbias Error:
Error caused due to the Normal Course of investigation.
Reducing Sampling Error:
Sampling Error can be reduced by increasing the size of the sample.

EXPERIMENTS
Experiment is the process of examining the truth of a statistical Hypothesis related to
some research problem.
Experiments are of two types,
1. Absolute Experiment.
2. Comparative Experiment.
Absolute Experiment:
When a researcher wants to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is
a case of Absolute Experiment.
Comparative Experiment:
When a researcher wants to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the
impact of some other fertilizer, it will be called as Comparative Experiment.
Research Design are of three types,
1. Research design in case of descriptive & diagnostic studies.
2. Research design in case of exploratory Research studies.
3. Research design in case of Hypothesis Testing Research Studies.
Research Design In case of Hypothesis Testing Research Studies:
Hypothesis testing research studies are generally known as Experimental studies.
The researcher test the casual relationship between the variables.
Professor Fisher is considered as the pioneer of this type of studies. (Experimental
Studies)
He performed this study when he was working at a Agricultural Research Station in
London.
His found out that, by dividing plots into different blocks and then by conducting
experiments in each of these blocks, whatever in formations is collected and inference
drawn from them can be more reliable Professor Fisher laid three principles of
Experimental Designs,
1. The Principal of Replication

2. The Principal of Randomization.

3. The Principal of Local Control.
The Principal of Replication:
The Experiment should be repeated more than once.
The treatment is applied to many experimental units.
The information collected and the inference drawn from these experimental units will be
more reliable and statistically accruable.
Aim: To examine the effect of two varieties of paddy.
Example: A paddy field is divided into 2 parts. Grow one variety in one part and the other
variety in the other. Then we compare the yield of the two parts.
Draw conclusion on that basis.
No Principle of Replication is
Field
Part I
Treatment

rrrrr
rrrrr
rr

rrrrr
rrrrr
rr

Part I
Compare the yield of the two parts.

rrrrr rrrrr
One variety
Another
r

of Paddy

Variety of Paddy.

When Principle of Replication is used:

First divide the field into several parts.
Grow one variety in half of the parts and the other variety in the remaining parts.
Collect the information of the two varieties and draw the conclusion by comparing both.
The Results so obtained will be more reliable and accurate compared to the results drawn
without using the principle of Replication.
The Experiment can be repeated several times.
Field

Treated

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

Conclusion drawn.

Parts
2. The Principle of Randomization:

 Principle of Randomization Provides us a protection against the effects of Extraneous

Variables.
The variations or effects caused by these extraneous variables can be combined under the
heading Chance.
Example: When the researcher grows one variety of paddy in the first half of the field and the
other variety in the next half of the field, there may be a possibility or chance that the soil
fertility of the first half of the field may be different in comparison to the next half.
In this case, he may go on to cultivate the two varieties of paddy in different parts of the
field on the basis of some random sampling technique.
(i.e.) He may apply Randomization principle and protect himself from the effects of the
Extraneous Factors.
By using Randomization Principle a better estimate can be drawn.

When

treated

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

rr

Conclusion drawn is more

accurate.
(Can protect Effects of Extraneous Variables)

3. The Principle of Local Control:

The extraneous variable which is a known source of variability can be made to vary
extensively or deliberately over a wide range.
Now the variability it causes can be measured and eliminated.
In short, through the principle of Local Control, we can eliminate the variability due to
extraneous factors from the experimental error.
The extraneous variable is brought to a control.
Kinds of Experimental Design:
Experimental Design refers to the framework of the structure of an experiment.
Classified into 2 Broad Categories,
1. Informal Experimental designs.
2. Formal Experimental designs,
Informal Experimental Designs:

Designed based only on the difference between the magnitudes or performance.

Three Types,
1. Before and after without control design.
2. After Only with Control design.
3. Before and after with control design.
Before and after without control design:
Consider a test group,
Step.1: The dependent variable is measured before introduction of the treatment.
Step.2: The treatment is introduced.
Step.3: The dependent variable is measured after the treatment has been introduced.
Step.4: Inference:
The effect of the Treatment : The level o the phenomenon after the treatment.
The level of the phenomenon before the treatment.
Test Area Level of Phenomenon Treatment Level of Phenomenon
Introduced
Before Treatment (X)

After Treatment (Y)

Effect of the Treatment = (Y) (X)

Demerit:
With the passage of time, several extraneous variable may be there in the treatment effect.
(2) After only with control Design:

Step.1:
test

Two Areas are selected, the control Area & the

area.

Step.2:
alone.

The treatment is introduced in the test area

Step.3: The dependent variable in both the areas are measured, at the same time.
Step.4: Treatment Effect is calculated by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in the
control area from its value in the test area.
Treatment: 1

Effect = Value of dependent variable in the

control Area Value of Dependent Variable in the test area.
Test Area
Control Area

Treatment Introduced
No

Level of Phenomenon (Y)

Level of Phenomenon (Z)

Treatment
(3) Before And After with Control Design:
Step.1: In this design, two areas are selected and the dependent variables in both the areas are
measured for an identical time period before treatment.
Step.2: Treatment is introduced only in the test area.
Step 3 : The dependent valuable is measured on both the areas (control
area & test area) for an identical time period.
Setp4 : The effect of the treatment is determined by subtracting the change in the dependent
valuable in the control area with the charge in the dependent valuable of the test area.

Treatment :Effect =
((Z)-(A))
Merits: Avoids Extraneous variables resulting from passage of time and non

((Y) (X))

comparability of control and test areas.

II Formal Experimental Design:
Offer relatively more control and use specific statistical procedures for analysis types,
1) Complete Randomized design (Generally called C.R. Design)
2) Randomized Block Design (R.B. Design)
3) Latin Square Design (L.S. Design)
4) Factorial Designs .
(1) Completely Randomized Design : Involves two principals, the principle of replication and the principle of Randomized of the
experimental designs.
The items are randomly assigned do experimental treatments.
This design is simpler and easier.
Example: It the research has 2 items of 20 parts and if he wishes to test to under treatment B, this
completely randomized design gives every possible group of 10 items selected from a set of 20,
an equal chance of being assigned to treatment A & treatment B.
One way analysis of variance (one way ANOVA) is used to analyze such a design.

2. Randomizes Block

Design:-

The subjects or
items are first divided into groups, known as
Blocks
See that, the items in each group or black is homogenous.
Randomly select items from each given block and assign treatment.
Extraneous variables can be fixed and can be measured.
The main feature of this study is, each treatment appears the same no of times in each block.
This design is analyzed two way analyses of variance (two way ANOVA) technique.
3. Latin Square Design: Used in Agricultural Research.
L.S Design is used when two or more extraneous variables is found.
Example: Effect of fertilizer on the field of wheat is do be determined.
Here along with the effect of fertilizer, the fertility of the soil must be considered.
If the facility of the soil is not considered along with the fertilizer the result obtained may be
dependable.

 Similarly the impact of the various seeds used many also vary the yield.
To over come this difficulty L.S design is used.
Each fertilizer (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5) will appear 5 items but will be used only once in each
row and in each coloumn.
Example: No treatment occurs more than once.
I

II

III

IV

X1

A B C D E

X2

B C D E A

X3

C D E A B

X4

D E A B C

X5

E A B C D

Conclusion :
The field is divided into several blocks (I, II, III, IV & V) and there are variety of fertilizer (X1,
X2, X3,

X4, X5).
But each fertilizer is used in each block only once.
a two way ANOVA technique.
4. Factorial Design :
Are used in experiments where the effect of the depended variable, when affected by more than
one variable is to be determined.
Used in social & economic studies where usually large no of factors affect a particular problem.
Factorial design are of two types:
I . Simple Factorial design
II. Complex Factorial designs.
Simple Factorial Design :
When the effect of the dependent variable is affect by only two factors, it is simple factorial
designs.
Otherwise known as TWO factors Factorial Design.
Complex Factorial Design :
This design is used when more than two factors at a time affects the dependent variable.
Or the design considers three or more independent variable.
The greater the no of independent variable, the higher the order of interaction, analysis possible.
Advantage :
Accuracy

 Can determine the effects of more variable in a single experiment.

OBSERVATION
Observation is defined as a planned method of watching that involves constraints (steps) to
improve accuracy.
Characteristics of Observation :
i. Observation are direct
ii. takes place in natural situations
iii. Less Structured.
iv. Makes only quantitative study.
Applicable in :
1. Life styles
2. Encounters / Settlement.
3. Relationships
4. Groups / Organization.
Acc. to Block & Camion :
1. Observed in natural surroundings
2. Understands events affecting social relations.
3. Identifies regulatives in social life.

4. Hypothesis free enquiry.

5. Avoids manipulations of independent variable.
6. Recording is not selective.
Differentiate Experimental Technique & Observation Technique :
Experimental Technique

Observation Technique

No such controls

Few Controls.

Not Always

Observation is natural conducted in large

unit. Fewer subjects are watched for long
period .Study is directed towards
sensitizing the observer / events.

Conducted in smaller units

No so. Study is towards sharpening the
judgment.
No so.

Behavior observed is more different.