LB Notes (M.farran)

LB160
Analysing Business Cases

Book 1
Session 1: Mapping the Case
A group of words is considered a text. A text can be anything, from a mobile phone message,
to newspapers, websites and magazines. But for this course, the texts we will look at will be in
the form of paragraphs, essays, reports, emails and proposals. These texts are referred to as
case studies in this course. The words in any text have meaning because the text is in a
situation. If you dont know the situation, it can be very difficult to understand the text. For
example, keep out of reach of children on a medicine bottle makes sense, but on a birthday
card is confusing.
To know what type of text you are dealing with (or one way to analyze a text) is to understand
the 6 features [C.O.L.W.R.P] about the text.
a) Content is it about a person, a company or an industry?
b) Organization is it a story with sequence or a description?
c) Language is the language formal or informal, personal or impersonal?
d) Writer is the writer a lecturer or a journalist?
e) Reader is the writer writing for students or for the general public?
f ) Purpose is it for education, entertainment or information?
What is analysis?
Analysis is when you take a case study and you read it, think about it and write about it. The
output is called a case study analysis.
INPUT
(case
study)
Transformatio
n
Process
(reading, thinking,
writing)
OUTPUT
(case
study
analysis)
What is mind mapping?

Mind mapping means putting what youve read and understood in a text into a visual diagram.
It is a reading skill we use to highlight the main ideas in the text we read by using key words.
Booking
Kuwait
Airways
Luggage
handling
Online
Complaints
Lost &
found
Analyzing a business case study requires six main skills [M.F.R.I.P.E]:

1. Mapping the case read the case to get the general idea.
2. Framing the case read the case using business concepts to categorize it.
3. Recognizing influences & impacts this is the skill of explaining why events turn out the
way they do or will do in the future.
4. Identifying problems
5. Proposing solutions
6. Evaluating the analysis You give convincing reasons for the readers to accept your
solutions and recommend alternatives in case of failure.
So how do we map a case?

Mapping a case is a reading skill you must practise to develop. With practice, you will develop
strategies for effective reading. You will find the techniques you need on page 16.
When reading long difficult texts, it is normal to find difficult words you dont understand.
However, it is not necessary to understand all the words in a text to understand it. A good
reader only has to understand enough words.
When reading a text with many paragraphs, the first sentence in each paragraph is important
to understand the whole paragraph. The first sentence usually gives you the idea of the
paragraph.
Texts usually have two main levels: high levels and low levels. The high level of the text is
information about the general situation. The low level gives particular examples and details
of this general situation.
For example:
Overall, Kuwait Airways is in big financial trouble. Last month alone, they lost more than 2
million dinars.
The text moves from a high level to a low level in the sentence above.
These sentences which give a general idea of the situation are called generalizations. When
you see the high-level generalizations in a text, you have a good overview of what the text is
about.
In a paragraph, the first sentence is the high level generalization and in a text with many
paragraphs, the first paragraph is the high level generalization.
Sometimes we can have more than two levels in a text as in the example below:
It has been a difficult year for travelers. Security checks and increased ticket prices have
made passengers complain. Ticket prices for example have increased almost 50%.
Writing notes
When it comes to note making, we will look at single words, word groups and sentences.
Writing notes means turning a larger unit of language (sentence) in a smaller unit (a group of
words).
Sentences are made up of nouns and verbs. When you are making notes, its better to use
nouns because nouns contain a large amount of information.
Summarizing the case study:
When you write an analysis of the case, you have to turn your notes into sentences and
paragraphs.
Mapping the case is only the first step in analyzing a business case study. Next time we will
look at framing the case study.
Session 2: Framing the case

Remember that framing a case is a reading strategy that requires reading a case using
business concepts to categorize it (or putting a case in a certain framework).
Mapping the case is reading normally to get the general idea, while framing the case is
reading to search for information (search-reading) using business studies concepts (criteria)
needed to analyze and detail the case.
Framing the case depends on using the following techniques while reading:
1. Think of a question that the text is going to answer for you before you read.
2. Keep asking more questions during reading.
There are two ways to frame a case study:
1. STEP analysis
2. Stakeholder analysis
1. Framing a case with a STEP framework

STEP is an acronym (like AOU, LOL, UFO). So what do the letters in STEP stand for?
Social
Technological
Economic
Political
When we analyze a case using the STEP framework, we use four criteria mentioned above.
Lets say for example you had to analyze the Gulf War using the STEP framework, what could
you say about each criterion?
In the exam, you might get a question like this:
Carry out a STEP analysis outlining the main factors in the external environment influencing
the US airlines industry.
Before you do anything, you must look for two things:
a) Instructions (examine, show, outline, write, compare, contrast, highlight, discuss, describe)
b) Key concepts (external environment, outsourcing policy, costs & benefits, selection process)
What are the instructions & key concepts in the above example?
Answer:
a) Instructions =
Carry out a STEP analysis outlining the main factors in the external environment
influencing the US airlines industry.
b) Key concepts =
Carry out a STEP analysis outlining the main factors in the external environment
influencing the US airlines industry.
~ Look at the task on the top of page 45 ~

The word environment in everyday use has a clear meaning. But in business studies it has
a specialized meaning.
~ Read Extract A on page 45 and do Activity 2.4 ~

The STEP framework is based on 4 key concepts which you use to frame the case. When
you analyze a case using the STEP framework, the concepts you use come from outside the
case. You use the STEP concepts to turn the case from a story into an analysis.
~ Go to page 25 in the Resource Book and look at Text 2.9 ~

When you search-read for a STEP analysis you are reading with the following question in
mind:
Is this event economic, social, political or technological?
In the STEP analysis when taking notes, sentences can be turned into word groups.
~ Look at Activity 2.11 on page 55 ~

These word groups are useful when writing notes for a STEP analysis table when you searchread.
The first stage in STEP analysis is to identify STEP factors and organize them into groups.
For example:
The threat of war could cause a significant rise in oil prices.
Political = threat of war
Economic = rise in oil prices
The second stage is to write an analysis which shows how these factors influence
businesses.
So how do you write a STEP analysis?
1. Write an introduction in which you introduce the topic you want to analyze and some
brief information on the STEP analysis itself.
2. Write a paragraph about the SOCIAL factor
3. Write a paragraph about the TECHNOLOGICAL factor
4. Write a paragraph about the ECONOMIC factor
5. Write a paragraph about the POLITICAL factor
6. Write a conclusion to summarize the importance of STEP analysis in analyzing
information.
~ Look at the example on page 51 ~
Definitions:
1. Concept general notion or abstract idea
2. Framework system or structure
3. Search reading when you read to find specific information
4. Factor circumstance contributing to a result (A number of factors were responsible for the failure)
5. Influence affect (Commercials can have a strong influence on the public)
6. Impact effect on something (The increased salaries had a minimal impact on the workers)
If you remember from last class, we said that there are two ways to frame a case:
1. STEP analysis
2. Stakeholder analysis
We talked about the STEP analysis last time; let us look at the stakeholder analysis now.
What is a stakeholder?
A stakeholder is a person, group or organization who can have an influence on or will be
influenced by the business and its outcomes. Stakeholders are people or groups that have an
interest in a business including customers, owners, employees, employees families,
shareholders, the community and suppliers.
Note: Please dont confuse stakeholder with shareholder or stockholder. A shareholder is a

holder of shares in a company. Shares of stock represent partial ownership in a company.
When you own a share of stock, you actually own a part of the company. This means that you
have a say in how the company is run and that you have a claim on the company's profits if
they are paid out. The more shares of the company that you own, the more say you have in
how the company is run and the greater your claim on the company's profits.
All companies and organizations have stakeholders, but not all companies and organizations
have shareholders. AOU for example is a non-profit institution and therefore does not have
stock.
Stakeholder analysis
Both STEP and stakeholder analyses are used to categorize information about the
environment of a business. The questions used when applying the stakeholder analysis are:
1. Does this organization or person have an interest in the business?
2. Does this organization or person have power in relation to the business?
So, this analysis is based on two factors: interest and power.
~ Look at page 59 Activity 2.17 ~
So power basically refers to authority and decision making.
And interest basically refers to profit, income and revenue.
When we talk about power and interest, we also have to discuss what is meant by high and
low power and interest.
Stakeholders with high power are those who can do most to affect the organization
Stakeholders with high interest are those who will be most affected by the actions that the
organization does.
~ Look at page 32 in the Resource Book to get a better idea of power & interest and do task
3 on page 61 in the Text Book ~
There are 3 steps that need to be taken for the Stakeholder Analysis
1. The first step in Stakeholder Analysis is to identify who your stakeholders are.
2. The next step is to work out their power, influence and interest, so you know who you
should focus on.
3. The final step is to develop a good understanding of the most important stakeholders
so that you can work out how to win their support.
1. Identifying Stakeholders:
The first step in your stakeholder analysis is to identify who the stakeholders are. As part of
this, think of all the people who are affected by the business, who have influence or power
over it, or have an interest in its successful or unsuccessful conclusion. (managers,
shareholders, government, senior executives, partners, trades associations, coworkers,
suppliers, the press, customers, analysts, the public, future recruits, the community, family
members, banks)
2. Prioritize the Stakeholders:

You may now have a long list of people and organizations that are affected by the business.
Some may be interested in the business, others may not care.
Map out the stakeholders on a power/interest basis and classify them by their power over the
business and by their interest in it. For example, if you are talking about a project in the
company where you work, your boss is likely to have high power and influence over your
project and high interest. Your family may have high interest, but are unlikely to have power
over it.
There are 4 categories of stakeholders:

1. High power, high interest (category D)
The owners, CEOs, shareholders and the decision makers. The greatest efforts are exerted
here to satisfy them.
2. High power, low interest (category C)
Managers and heads of departments for example. Keep these people satisfied as they have
high power due to their positions.
3. Low power, high interest (category B)
Employees and shareholders for example. Keep these people informed, and talk to them to
ensure that no major issues are arising.
4. Low power, low interest (category A)
Competitors for example. Monitor these people.
~ Look at Extract 2.15 on page 34 in the Resource Book~
3. Understanding the key stakeholders:

You now need to know more about the key stakeholders. You need to know how they are
likely to feel about and react to the business. You also need to know how best to engage them
into it, and how best to communicate with them.
To produce a stakeholder analysis, you need to reorganize the structure of the case study
text. The original text is usually in the story structure with time sequence words organizing the
events, however, the new structure is organized into 4 categories using the key concept
words (power and interest).
~ Look at the text on page 33 in the Resource Book and compare that with the analysis on
page 36 ~
Why are stakeholder and STEP analyses important?

They help to reorganize information from the case study. This process of reorganization is
called categorizing. Those two frameworks were chosen because they are strong examples
of categorizing in business case analysis. They show how business analysis groups people,
organizations and events.
Session 3: Recognizing influences and impacts

This unit will look at the relationship between events that take place in different cases. By
understanding the relationship between events and actions you get a better insight into the
organization.
We will look at the factors that influence the organization and what their impacts are.
Influence and impact is very similar to cause and effect.
Examples:
a) When oil was discovered in Kuwait, people no longer depended on pearl diving.
b) Security was increased in all airports after the September 11th attacks.
Which event is the cause and which one is an effect in the above examples?
What will I learn from this session?

-
Identify cause-and-effect relationships between events and actions.

Understand different types of cause and effect relationships.
Analyze cause-and-effect relationships in a business case analysis.

As we mentioned above, all your actions cause some kind of effect or they are effects of
some other actions in everyday life. The same applies to a company or a business. What a
company decides to do is caused by other events or actions and its decision is likely to bring
about changes. For example, when there is a political crisis in the Middle East, petroleum
retailers increase their oil prices. When that happens or as a result, other retailers increase
the price of their products.
Business cases are stories about what a company does, how it does what it does and why it
does what it does. To understand all this, we need to understand the cause and effect
relationships to give us a better insight into the business world.
The cause answers the question Why does something happen?
The effect answers the question What happens as a result?
We have 3 types of cause and effect relationships:

1. Simple relation: one thing causes something to happen
2. Chain relation: one thing leads to an effect which causes a second effect and so on
3. Multi relation: one cause may have several effects or one effect may have several
causes
1. Simple relation
Cause
Effect
Cause
Effect / cause
2. Chain relation
3. Multi relation
Type 1
Effect
Cause
Effect
Effect
OR
Type 2
Cause
Cause
Cause
Effect
Effect / cause
Below you will find examples for each relationship.

1. Simple relation: A new company opens in Kuwait and jobs are created.
2. Chain relation: Expired food could lead to food poisoning which could lead to
sickness.
3. Multi relation:
Type 1 War leads to death, destruction and the immigration of people.
Type 2 If you eat too much, and the food you eat is unhealthy and you dont exercise,
you will become overweight.
For example the words debt and credit could be explained using the cause and effect
relationship.
Cause:
Credit
Effect: Debt
So because people are spending money they dont have (credit) they are in debt (amount of
money you owe)
In this course you will come across a lot of words which are known as key words. Knowing
what these words mean will give you a better understanding of business texts.
~ Look at page 82 Part A ~
We also have 4 different types of cause and effect relationship words.

1.
2.
3.
4.
Cause verbs (affecting, causing, influencing)

Cause nouns (influences, factors, forces, causes)
Effect nouns (impacts, effects, consequences, products)
Causal linking words (because of, as a result of, due to, therefore, consequently)
Remember that when you read a case study, you always have to ask yourself: Is there a
relationship between these two events? If so, what is the relationship? Which is a cause and
which is an effect?
Sometimes if you take a close look at the causal linking word, you can tell whether that clause
is a cause or an effect.
For example:
1. Because the company decided to lower the workers wages, many of them have left.
2. The company lost a lot of money and as a result it shut down.
So because of the causal linking words above (underlined words) we can automatically tell
that the first part of sentence 1 is the cause and the second part of sentence 2 is the effect.
The words in the table below will help you distinguish between words for a cause and words
for an effect.
Cause
Effect

When using STEP analysis, you look for the four factors: Social, Technological, Economic and
Political. It is not necessary to find them all and it is not necessary to find them in the same
order. Look for each factor and its effect or impact on the case.
When analyzing a business case using the stakeholder analysis, you need to identify who the
stakeholders are and how they influence the organization, based on their power and interest
in it. If the power of a stakeholder is high, their influence on the organization is high. If the
interest of a stakeholder is high, the impacts of the organizations actions on them will be
high. This means, there is a cause-and-effect relationship between what happens in the
company or what decisions it makes and its stakeholders reactions.
Session 4: Identifying problems
We all know that businesses large and small are regularly faced with problems from a range
of sources (internal and external). Actually, problem solving is the key to a businesss
success. But before you can solve a problem, you must be able to identify it first.
When you are doing a study case analysis, you need to examine a particular business
situation, use the skills you have been developing to identify the key problems, to identify their
causes, to propose appropriate solutions and to evaluate whether these are effective.
Before we go into more detail, we must understand what we mean by a problem. So what
exactly is a problem? How do we define a problem?
A problem is a negative situation where the situation threatens or challenges an individual, a
group or an organization.
~ Look at page 109 Text A ~
Problems are a matter of perception (how you perceive things). You might perceive a situation
as a problem while someone else might be quite satisfied with the same situation. So whether
a situation is considered a problem really depends on how it is interpreted (how you see
things). A problem therefore only exists if a person or an organization views it as such.
A problem-solution text consists of 5 steps (as mentioned above).
1. Situation What is the text about?
2. Problem What is the problem?
3. Cause
What caused it?
4. Solution What is the solution?
5. Evaluation How successful is the solution?

~ Look at page 112 read Text C ~
Remember that a problem depends on how you interpret it or how you see it. The words you
use to describe your situation, will show us how you see things.
In any problem-solution text you read, you will always find problem-signaling words such as
struggling, unfamiliar, increased pressure, unable to cope, impossible, demotivated,
undervalued, anxiety and much more. Words as such show you that there is a problem
somewhere. All of those words and phrases suggest a negative, difficult or challenging
situation for the people involved.
Usually, a single problem is often part of a bigger problem area consisting of several possibly
interrelated problems. Sometimes it is hard to distinguish between the problem itself and the
effects of that problem. What is sometimes seen as the source or the main problem may in
fact be the effect of a more serious problem (Text D p.115 for example). Problems therefore
are closely related to influences and impacts (session 3).
So far we have only looked at how to notice problems and map them, but what kind of
framework can we use to categorize and organize these problems?
A STEP framework is concerned with influences which impact a business, a STEP framework
can therefore be useful (to a certain degree) in identifying the problems in a case study. But
the problem is that STEP is only concerned with the problems that are caused by the
external factors to a business. Not all problems are caused by external factors, sometimes
problems may be caused by internal factors. So we need to apply another framework to
identify all problems (internally and externally).
~ Please note: Sometimes you will have to apply more than one framework to a problem situation to get several
perspectives on the case ~
The SWOT framework

SWOT is an acronym (remember AOU, LOL). So what do the letters in SWOT stand for?
Strengths
Weaknesses
Opportunities
Threats
So basically a SWOT analysis is a means of getting an overview of how an organization is
functioning at a particular point in time.
There are two main uses for SWOT. First it can be applied to any regular business or
company you are familiar with. For example at work, you can hold a meeting and brainstorm
and list what you think are the SWOT.
SWOT can also be used to analyze a written case study.
~ Briefly look at page 56 in the Resource Book Text 4.3 to get an idea of a SWOT analysis ~
(take a look at the first sentence of each paragraph)
~ Look at the grid on page 124 ~

The grid above shows us that the forces inside an organization are easier to control than
those outside. Therefore a business will have more success in trying to address its internal
weaknesses than its external threats. So when it comes to prioritizing problems, the problems
in the weaknesses section should be dealt with first.
When working with longer texts that have multiple problems, there are 4 steps that need to be
taken for a problem analysis. Always do the following:
1. First reading: Use the strategies you learned in Session 1.
2. Listing problems: Here you read the text more than once and make a list of all the
problems (problem signaling words)
3. Organizing problems: cause and effect
After reading and listing the problems, you need to organize them by looking at the
cause and effect factors.
4. Organizing problems: SWOT
You need to do a SWOT analysis of the case study text.
The final stage in identifying and organizing problems is to produce a write-up of your problem
analysis. (page 57 in the Resource Book Text 4.4 is an example of a students answer to the following
question: What factors have contributed to the decline in Gaps business profits?)
Session 5: Proposing Solutions

In session 4, we looked at the problems, in this session; we will look at how to propose
solutions for these problems.
~ Look at Task 2 on page 140 ~
When we write a solution text, we are looking at a situation which is not in the case study. You
are proposing something new.
The process of problem-solution model is as follows:
PROCESS:
Problem
solving
INPUT:
Problem
OUTPUT:
Solutions
There are two types of solutions:

1. Reported solution which is found in the case study.
2. Proposed solution is where you need to suggest a solution for the problem based
on your understanding of the situation.
The language of RS is different from PS; the main difference between them is in the verbs.
With RS we usually use the past or present tense (examples: The company had to reduce
its expenses. They organized a staff training)
With PS we deal with future or imagined time (examples: It may be beneficial to...Should
be looking for.)
The difference between RS and PS is in the verbs.

- With RS we usually use the past or present tense, examples:
a) The company had to reduce its expenses.
b) They organized a staff meeting.
- With PS we deal with future or imagined time, examples:
a) It may be beneficial to ..
b) The company should be looking for.
Here are more examples of expressions for proposing solutions:
-
If they want..they should/could.

It may be better / effective / profitable to
They ought to / should / must ..
It is advisable / preferable that .
It is recommended
It is essential / vital to ..

When writing a solution text, it is important to first mention the high-level concept (general
solution) and explain what actions are involved (details). Look at the example on page 153.
Justifying a proposed solution

A solution text is an answer to 3 questions:
1. What is the problem?
2. What is your solution?
3. Why do you think so? (Justification)
Justification refers to the benefits and is an important part of the solution. There are 8 ways of
justifying a proposed solution when you write your analysis.
1. Mention another business where the solution was successful
(Example: This approach has proved profitable in.)
2. Explain that a good result depends on the proposed solution

(Example: If VIVA wants to be successful in Kuwait, they will have to adapt to the local needs.)
3. Explain that the proposal is logical (using signal words like so and therefore)
(Example: Clients do not prefer out-of-town shopping centers, so . should find a way to move into the town)
4. Explain that the proposal is logical (by organizing the sentences to show this, but not using
signal words)
(Example: The company is slipping into bankruptcy. It should ask its shareholders for more money)
5. Explain what the purpose of the proposed solution is

(Example: The company should take out a loan to renew its equipment)
6. Describe the benefits of the proposed solution

(Example: Offering a new service would increase the number of customers)
7. Compare the proposed solution with a different course of action

(Example: I suggest .. because if we did .. this would happen)
8. Quote an authority figure

(Example: The director of Toyota has stated that, .)
You can use different concepts to frame your proposed solutions. There are business-based
and individual-based solutions. Business-based solutions include:
a) Partnership sourcing
b) Supply chain management
c) Corporate responsibility
a) Partnership sourcing (supplier-buyer relationship)
Partnership sourcing represents a collaborative approach in which a buying organization and
a small number of its suppliers work closely together, sharing the risks and rewards of a
cooperative relationship that focuses on continuous improvement.
b) Supply chain management
The supply chain is the network of organizations that are involved in the different processes
and activities that deliver products and services to the customer. A shirt manufacturer is a part
of a supply chain that includes the weavers of fabrics, the manufacturers of fabrics, the
distributors and retailers. Each organization in the chain is dependent on the other.
c) Corporate responsibility
Corporate responsibility is the ethics of a business. Each company has its own set of values,
but the companys values also touch everyone that the business deals with. It is vital for
businesses to be aware of the social issues of the world, such as labor laws and the
exploitation of workers in addition to the environmental issues, such as the rainforests
disappearing. Corporations are now held accountable not just by the government, but also by
the public.
A company does not make good business sense to be seen as a company that is damaging
the world that we live in or abusing its workers. Huge penalties and fines also await
corporations that break ethical and environmental laws. Most Investors are now more likely to
invest in a company that has shown corporate responsibility because they are aware that
customers nowadays are not willing to deal with unethical companies.
Finally
How to produce an output text that proposes solutions
1. Read the case study to identify the problem(s).
2. Search for solution(s)
3. Write a text that responds to the assignment title and instructions.
How to write a solution text

1. Introduction that refers to the assignment title and establishes the problem.
2. Identify the solution (high level of generalization)
3. Detail the solution (low-level) in separate paragraphs.
4. Conclusion generalizes the benefits of the solution.
Session 6: Evaluating the analysis

By now, I hope that you have all developed the skills of analyzing business cases. The
previous 5 sessions have focused on one of the skills needed to produce a successful
analysis. This final session will bring together all the skills you have studied before.
A few important things you must know

There are many types of case studies. A case study can be about:
a) a sector (private or public)
b) an industry (film industry, food industry)
c) an organization (Starbucks, Toyota)
d) or people (head of sales, director)
A case study can be about different areas of business: organizational structure, environment
and process, human resources, finance, or marketing.
Case analysis tasks may ask you to: summarize, describe, outline, explain, evaluate,
compare and contrast, suggest, or recommend.
Analyses can be framed by a range of business concepts including:

STEP, Stakeholder, SWOT, market performance, vendor selection, external environment,
Outline
outsourcing policy and many more.
Evaluate
Summarize
A case study is transformed into an analysis
you use the processes and business
Describewhen
/ explain
concepts you studied from sessions 1 Compare
5.
/ contrast
Suggest / recommend
INPUTS
Case study
Business Concepts
Assignment task
TRANSFORMATION
PROCESSES
Mapping
Framing
Recognizing influences
Identifying problems
Proposing solutions
Evaluating analysis
OUTPUTS
Case study
Analysis
This session on evaluation, the focus is on how persuasive your output text is.
In a business system, the outputs are goods or services which have to appeal to the
consumers (or else it wont succeed).
Its the same for a business case analysis, the success of the analysis depends on the whole
analysis process: which input texts you have processed, how effectively youve processed
them and how well your output text is.
The focus of this session will be on the three following skills: persuasion, judgment &
explanation.
Persuasion
Persuasion is all around us in our daily life, when you watch TV, read newspapers, or even
when you talk to people, everybody wants to persuade you to do something. Commercials on
the TV and radio, magazine ads and billboard advertisements on the road all are trying to
persuade you to do something.
When selling a product, salespeople use the unique selling points (USPs) to persuade their
customers to buy the product. Likewise, when you write your case study make sure the USPs
are there to persuade your tutor.
Evaluation in business studies

In order to write a persuasive analysis, make sure your analysis:
- is based on evidence from the case study
- has been processed using appropriate concepts
- shows the importance of any proposed solution
- is clearly organized
In a simple problem-solution text, evaluation comes at the end to answer the question How
successful is the solution? however, in a business case analysis, evaluation happens in a
cycle throughout the whole analysis process. In other words, you evaluate all proposed
solutions one by one, which means you identify problems as stated in the text, propose
solutions, and evaluate those solutions immediately.
~ Figure 6.2 on page 174 is a good example ~
We can also use summarizing as a form of evaluation. When you summarize, make sure you
select the right information to include in your summary and you reduce the information using
key concepts.
The language of evaluation

Evaluation language is a language for judging, explaining, and persuading.
~ Page 174 at the bottom of the page provides some examples ~
The language for explaining degrees of possibility

Sometimes its not easy to be 100% certain in an analysis. So, its more persuasive if you
make it clear that you know this. It is more persuasive not to claim certainty when evidence is
not certain. (could lead to, might be)
Organization of compare and contrast text

A text that compares or contrasts two things can be organized in the following way:
Comparison & Contrast of A and B
Item A
Feature 1
Feature 2
Item B
Feature 1
Feature 2
Similarities
Item A
Feature 1
Feature 2
Item B
Feature 1
Feature 2
Differences
Item A
Feature 3
Feature 4
Item B
Feature 3
Feature 4
Conclusion
Dont forget that: Evaluation = judgment + explanation + persuasion

When you apply any business concept to analyze a case study, you have to:
1. Explain this concept
2. Demonstrate why it is a proposed solution
3. Persuade the readers that you understand the issues
Remember that there isnt a single correct way to do an analysis which means different
students can produce different analyses from the same assignment title.
Referencing Case Studies and course books

If you are using information from the case study as evidence, the tutor expects to see where
the information comes from.
There are three main skills in referencing:
1. Deciding what to reference.
2. Making sure the reference fits into the analysis.
3. Making it clear that it is a reference.
When you reference, you do it for three main reasons:
1. To include facts and figures
2. To define or explain a concept
3. To justify framing a case using a concept
When you reference it should look like this:
(Authors name or name of text, year of publication, page number)
So for example:
According to Capon, the external environment is the entire context in which a company
operates (Capon, 2004, p.278)
The sentence above is paraphrased, which means the reader understood Capons writing and
wrote it in his own words. If you take the authors exact words then you have to use quotation
marks ( )
Homework
a) Page 172, Activity 6.2
b) Page 175, Activity 6.3
c) Page 176, Activity 6.4
d) Page 187, Activity 6.10
Concepts you must know

Vendor Selection
The following process can be used in any selection process
Gather your vendor requirements
Determine your selection criteria
Create vendor long list / short list
Evaluate vendor proposals: compare vendors capabilities with your requirements to
see which vendor closely meets your needs.
Make final selection and negotiate contracts or licenses.
Outsourcing policy
Outsourcing occurs when a company purchases products or services from an outside
supplier, rather than performing the same work within its own facilities, in order to cut costs.
The decision to outsource is a major strategic one for most companies, since it involves
weighing the potential cost savings against the consequences of a loss in control over the
product or service.
Staff management policy

This policy is designed to assist individual staff and businesses to improve performance by
providing a clear basis for the development of individual accountabilities, reviewing
performance, determining training and skill development needs as well as promoting
excellence.
The staff performance management system has a number of purposes including:
- maximizing the performance and contribution of staff
- encouraging excellence of performance;
- ensuring staff are aware of their key tasks
- promoting constructive communication to identify job related strengths and weaknesses,
- acknowledge accomplishments
- initiating appropriate action, including rewards and sanctions;
- identifying staff development needs and implement appropriate action, e.g. staff training
~ End of Book 1 ~
Book 2
Session 1: What is an essay?
Essays are text. They consist of words, organized in a particular way to fulfill certain purposes
in certain situations.
Remember that we have many types of texts such as newspaper articles, course textbooks,
websites, and financial statements but they are organized in different ways to fulfill different
purposes in different situations.
Different texts have different features. The six features of the text will help you decide what
type of text it is.
Content
Organization
Purposes
Determined
by
Language
Writers
Readers
Essays are written by students for study purposes as a way of learning. Their purposes can
be for communication, for learning and for being assessed.
Spoken and written language

Spoken and written language are different in many ways.
Spoken language
Spoken language adapts itself to the feedback from the listener.

Spoken language can contain corrections, hesitation and contradictions.
The grammatical structure of spoken language is less complex than that of writing.
Speech is spontaneous whereas writing is not.
When telling a story, speakers tend to link clauses with the conjunction and. As a
result, it would be impossible to determine the boundaries of sentences.
Speakers tend to repeat certain words or phrases either for linking, confirming, or
correcting.
Written language
Sentences in written language are longer and more complex.

Written language is more planned.
It is more concise and tightly organized.
It is more structured.
Sentences are marked off by punctuation marks.
Some of the features in the spoken language are not appropriate for the written
language, such as use of slang words, frequent repetition of some words and phrases.
Spoken text has the following features:

- Context dependent
- Personal (I my me)
- Colloquial or informal language (everyday language)
- Short sentences and simple conjunctions
Written text has the following features:
- Context independent
- Impersonal
- Formal language
- Long sentences and complicated conjunctions
So what makes a great essay? What are the characteristics of a successful essay? What do
teachers look for in an essay?
Tutors look for the four following characteristics in an essay:
1. Relevance to the essay title / question
2. A reasoned argument
3. Use of source texts
4. Appropriate presentation
1. Relevance to the essay title / question
It is important to understand what the essay title (question) requires of you. Essay titles
include some or all of the following parts:
An introductory statement (sentence) about the topic
Instruction words
Key concepts
Guidelines about the scope of the essay
~ Look at Activity 1.5 on page 15 and Activity 1.6 on page 16 ~
Remember that there are many possible instruction words, each will require you to do
something different in your essay.
There are 3 lists of instruction words:
LIST 1
a) Analyze - Take apart an idea, concept or statement in order to consider all the factors it
consists of.
b) Compare - Look for similarities and differences
c) Contrast - Look for differences
d) Summarize - Write about the main points (not the details)
LIST 2
a) Define - State precisely whats meant by a particular issue, theory or concept
b) Describe - Give a detailed account of
c) Discuss - Give reasons for and against; investigate and examine by argument
d) Evaluate - Weigh up the arguments surrounding an issue using your own opinion and refer
to the work of others (if necessary)
LIST 3
a) Assess - Make comments about the value or importance of the concepts and ideas
b) Illustrate - Explain by giving examples
c) Explain - Make something clear or give reasons for something
Type of essay
Instruction word
What the essay is about
Summarize
Description
Define
Describe
What or how something is
Illustrate
Explanation
Explain
Analyze
How something works

How something influences something
Analyze
Discuss
Discussion
Evaluate
Assess
Compare
Contrast
What people think about something
Examples:
Description essay
From your understanding of the organizational context for management, define the terms
environment and structure.
Explanation essay
Explain why Nike is the biggest training shoe company in the world.
Discussion essay
Discuss how business processes might affect an organizations ability to compete effectively.
~ The instruction words tell you what to do. (analyze, discuss, explain)
~ The key concepts tell you what to do this about. (key concepts are usually abstract nouns
resource management, business processes)
2. A reasoned argument
An essay should consist of a reasoned argument. A reasoned argument logically supports
your view point on what you are saying.
Words which link back to the essay title, identify key concepts in the essay and state the
central argument are important as they ensure that your essay is relevant to the question.
A strong introduction provides a good foundation for an argument and the argument is usually
detailed in the body of the essay. The argument in an essay should also follow logically from
the title.
A successful essay must control the flow of the argument (topic you discuss) by using the first
sentence of each paragraph to link to the key concepts in the title and introduction, and the
central argument (thesis statement). Each of these first sentences is a high-level
generalization which links the reader back to the introduction and the paragraphs before. This
way, readers can see the development of the argument.
A successful essay writer controls both the flow of the argument between paragraphs and
also the flow of the argument within each paragraph by doing the following:
Repeating concepts from previous sentences
Organizing your data into cause-effect sequences
Using appropriate linking words
Evaluating ideas in previous sentences
3. Use of source texts

If you are using source material, your essay is based on other peoples ideas. However
teachers expect you to use other peoples ideas and that is what studying a subject is all
about. Its the key to a successful essay. There are 3 skills involved in using source materials:
1. Learning other peoples ideas through reading and note making
2. Turning these ideas into quotations, paraphrases, or summaries
3. Integrating these quotations, paraphrases, and summaries into your essay. This includes
linking them with the argument logically, making your opinion clear about them and using a
referencing method.
A teacher expects to see a critical and questioning attitude towards the source material. This
critical attitude will be shown by what you choose to include, how you quote, paraphrase, or
summarize it and the comments you make on it.
4. Appropriate presentation
Your essay must be written in an academic style and that both the grammar and spelling are
accurate. The language must be formal, specialized and precise. There are certain language
features you should learn for your essay writing. Each session we will discuss one of them.
Today, the first feature is called: subject-verb agreement.
Example:
Mohammad Farran________(has / have) developed a friendly classroom environment for his students
that________(allow / allows) them to perform and succeed at a high standard.
Homework
a) Page 13, Activity 1.4
b) Page 18, Activity 1.7
c) Page 21, Activity 1.11
d) Page 22, Activity 1.13
e) Page 28, Task 2
Session 2: The process of essay writing

In this session, we will focus on how to write essays.
INPUTS
Essay title
Reading course material

Processing concepts
Outlining the essay
OUTPUTS
PROCESSES
Essays
Course material
Personal
experience
Designing the essay

Thinking
Writing drafts
In this session, you will learn how to
Analyze an essay title

Brainstorm ideas for an essay
Learn how to select essay source materials
Practice note-making skills
Plan an essay
Write an essay outline
Step 1: Analyzing the essay title

The key to a successful essay is understanding the title.
Focus on the instructions (they tell you what to do)

Focus on the key concepts (they represent the foundation for writing your essay)
Step 2: Brainstorming
Remember that brainstorming is a means of organizing information in a visual way. Mind
maps can help you draw out and group the knowledge and ideas that you have about the
topic, while at the same time showing you any gaps that need to be followed up in your
reading.
Use the key concepts to brainstorm the main ideas on a certain topic. Draw a mind map and
collect as much information as you can.
Step 3: Reading for essay writing

Could be chapters from books, articles in journals or texts from the web. Usually, you will
need to read more than one text to write a strong essay. How do you know what text to
choose? Make sure the source is reliable and the text is relevant. Make sure the source is
not biased, and more recent publications are preferred.
Reading is not only done for finding information that is relevant to the essay requirements, it
will also help you build up the language associated with the subject area being discussed.
Step 4: Outlining the essay

An outline is a broad map of the content which shows you the order of ideas as they will
appear in the essay.
There are two types of outlining:
1. A concept-based outline in which the main focus is on the key concept.
2. A point-based outline in which the focus includes all the key points that are related to
the key concept (Resource Book pages 23 & 24 provide good examples)
A concept-based outline is what your essay is about. (One paragraph for everything)
A point-based outline is what you want to say about it. (One paragraph for each point)
After all that, you should write a first draft. This draft should present the points in your essay in
more detail using full sentences and paragraphs.
Primary and secondary sources

Primary sources are real world data which include original documents, recordings of
interviews and questionnaires.
Secondary sources are those that comment on those original documents or data.
An example of a primary source would be the transcripts of interviews with workers from a
factory. A secondary source would be a report which includes an analysis of the interviews.
So the primary source can be considered as evidence.
And the secondary source provides an explanation or interpretation of the data.
When teachers mark essays, they usually have a checklist which they will use to assess you.
This checklist will hopefully help you write a better essay because now you know what is
expected of you.
Essay writing checklist

a) Use of source material:
1. Use relevant information from your readings.
2. Interpret the information you collect correctly
3. Integrate the information with the essay correctly
4. Use a reference list.
b) Structure of the essay:
1. Structure should be appropriate to the task or question
2. Start your essay by introducing the argument
3. First sentence of each paragraph is related to the argument
4. Sentences in each paragraph are related to each other
5. Paragraphs are related to each other
6. Conclusion relates to the argument.
c) Academic writing style:
1. Appropriate choice of vocabulary
2. Appropriate use of business concept words
3. Appropriate combinations of words
d) Grammar
1. Correct subject-verb agreement
2. Appropriate choice of tense
3. Correct singular / plural use
4. Correct sentence structure
e) Presentation
1. Correct spelling
2. Correct capitalization
3. Correct punctuation
Session 3: The design of the essay

All successful essays have a convincing and a coherent argument.
What is an argument?
Arguments are made up of two things: claims and basis.
A claim is what someone says about something. For example: I think that large companies
such as McDonalds influence the economy of a developing country.
To make this claim convincing to the reader, there needs to be a basis for it.
There are two types of basis:
1. Explanation
You need to explain or justify your claim by giving examples and reasons.
2. Evidence
You also need to support those reasons by evidence to show that your claim is objective and
based on facts.
Successful argument essays bring claims, evidence and explanations together in a

convincing text.
So how do you make sure that the argument in your essay is successful?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Essay structure is appropriate to the task

The introduction introduces the argument
Beginnings of paragraphs relate back to the argument
Argument is based on claims, explanations, and evidences
The information flow is well connected.
Introductions are important for readers. Good introductions tell the reader what to expect in
the essay and strongly influence how they understand the essay. The introduction will always
come at the beginning of the essay. It sets the scene and introduces the reader to the
argument of the essay. The introduction is sometimes also referred to as the theme.
A good introduction should:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Give general background information of the topic

Identify the key concepts in the question (what the paragraph is about)
Write the essays central argument (thesis statement)
Say how the essay will be organized
Remember, the introduction should tell us what the essay is about.
~ Look at Extract A on page 74 ~
Note: The units above dont have to come in that specific order
~ Look at the table on page 83 ~
After the introduction, your reader needs to be kept focused on your argument in each
paragraph. You can do that in the first line of each paragraph. Please also make sure that
your paragraphs are linked together and related to each other.
Homework
Page 82, Activity 3.10
Session 4: Writing a critical discussion

In this session, we will look at the argument in more detail and discuss what it means to be
critical in your writing.
Critical comes from the word criticize. This word is commonly seen as a negative word.
However in the context of academic writing, critical discussion is positive. When you are
critical, you are judging the strengths and weaknesses of an explanation, theory or idea
using an argument to support your points. (Criticizing is like evaluating)
Academic writing should be impersonal and objective.

Paraphrasing is a way of using source material. It means saying the same thing in different
words. When you paraphrase you should think of an alternative language to express the
same information.
When paraphrasing, students should use their own academic words. Sometimes it is not
appropriate to paraphrase business studies words, such as the market or social
responsibility.
The exercise above showed you how paraphrasing involves thinking about alternative
language to express the same meaning. Remember that if you write something that is too
close to the original, it will be considered plagiarized. It is also important to reference the
source text correctly or this will also be seen as plagiarism.
Checklist for using an academic style of writing

-
Appropriate choice of vocabulary (no slang)

Appropriate use of business concepts words
Appropriate combinations of words
Critical understanding of a reading text

Critical reading means you need to decide whether the writer presents information in the text
as facts that can be checked or opinions that can be argued about.
Data & evidence = facts

Claims & explanations = opinions
Academic writing differentiates between the language of facts and language of opinion.
To express facts, we usually use verbs like verb be.
Example 1: Kuwaits currency is the Kuwaiti dinar.
Example 2: Firms are only interested in profits. (This is actually an opinion but the writer says it
in a way where he doesnt seem to recognize that there may be people with other opinions)
To express opinions, we can use:

1. Opinion verbs like argue, assume, suggest, propose, claim, concludeetc
Example: The new manager claimed that firms are only interested in profits.
2. Modal verbs like can, could, may, might, shouldetc.
Example: Firms may only be interested in profits.
3. Adverbs like often
Example: Firms are often only interested in profits.
The Introduction
Remember that the introduction should:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Link back to the title

Give general background information of the topic
Identify the key concepts in the question (what the paragraph is about)
Write the essays central argument (thesis statement)
Say how the essay will be organized
So how do we write an introduction?

There are two ways to write an introduction:
1. One-way introduction
2. Two-way introduction
One-way introduction
1. One sentence to give background info of the topic.
2. Write two sentences to describe the situation.
3. Write a sentence (thesis statement) showing what youre going to talk about in your essay.
Example: Should dangerous sports be banned?

Every year, thousands of people are injured or killed in sports such as boxing, American football and
motor-racing. Because of this, many people are opposed to such sports, and want them to be stopped
or banned. This essay will look at some of the arguments for banning dangerous sports.
Two-way introduction
1. One sentence to give background info of the topic.
2. Write two sentences to express two different opinions about the situation (for & against).
3. Write a sentence (thesis statement) to show what youre going to talk about in your essay.
Example: Does space exploration benefit mankind?
Space, for many people, really is the final frontier. They are excited by the exploration and potential of
space. However, not everyone agrees that this money is well-spent. Many people feel that we should
solve problems here on earth before beginning our journey to space. This essay will look at some of
the arguments for and against space exploration.
So how do you write the body of your essay?

To decide how many paragraphs in the body, it depends on the number of ideas you want to
discuss. Remember, each idea should be discussed in a separate paragraph. However, it is
preferable:
1. To write one-body paragraph if you have a one-way introduction. You can use the
paragraph to describe, analyze, or discuss a certain situation.
2. To write a two-body paragraph if you have a two-way introduction (one paragraph for and
one paragraph against). In other words, you agree in one paragraph and disagree in the
second paragraph.
How do I organize a good body paragraph?

In your body paragraph, you need to have:
1. Topic sentence
2. Supporting sentence 1
3. Example, explanation, or details of support 1
Example:
Write a paragraph about the following topic.
Is education being devalued?
[TS] People have several arguments against the need for degrees. [SS1] They say that
having so many graduates devalues a degree. People lose respect for the degree holder.
[SS2] It is also claimed that education has become a rat race, since graduates have to
compete for jobs even after years of studying. [SS3] Another point is that studying for such a
long time leads to learners becoming inflexible. By that I mean that they know a lot about one
narrow subject, but are unable to apply their skills. Employers, on the other hand, prefer more
flexible and adaptable workers.
(Note: The topic sentence is written in bold, supporting sentences are underlined, and the rest is the details)
How do you write a conclusion?

The introduction answered the question What is this essay about? the conclusion answers
the question What was the point of this essay?
A good conclusion should do the following:
1. Rephrase the thesis statement
2. Summarize the main ideas
3. Give your opinion (if you havent given it already)
4. Look to the future (say what will happen if the situation continues or changes)
5. Avoid adding new information in the conclusion.
Write a conclusion for the following question:

Should dangerous sports be banned?
In conclusion, our society would be healthier if more people took part in sports; however,
sports that cause accidents and injuries should be prevented because of their bad impact on
individuals and families. We should also ensure that sports are challenging, exciting, and
above all, fun.
Remember that essay writing is a series of stages and processes, which you work through in
order to produce a completed text (output). The more you practice, the better you will be.
Homework
Page 118, Activity 4.13
Session 5: Writing a costs and benefits essay

The purpose of sessions 5 and 6 is to help you produce a successful essay.
To write a good costs and benefits essay you should read texts 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 of your RB
page 43 - 62
The reason for these readings is to provide you with the information, knowledge as well as the
language you might need to write your business essay.
1. MNCs or Multinational Corporations.
MNCs are firms that own or control productive assets in more than one country, such as IBM,
SHELL, and General Motors. It is this ownership or control or foreign assets that distinguishes
multinationals from firms that do business overseas by simply exporting goods or services.
Reasons for going multinational:
-
Reduction of costs, such as labor cost, raw materials cost, and transport cost.
Market competition
Challenging import restriction on some products.
Problems of going multinational:

-
Operating in a new and unfamiliar environment

Coordination among subsidiaries located in different parts of the world
Cross-cultural issues
2. Takeover
In business, a takeover is the purchase of one company (the target) by another (the acquirer,
or bidder).
Expressions you can use to express agreement with a certain idea.

-
Some people believe / think

Many people feel strongly that
Its popularly believed that .
People often claim that .
It is often alleged that .
Some people argue that ..
Some people are totally in favor of / opposed of
There is no doubt that
Expressions you can use to express disagreement with a certain idea.

-
It is true that some people agree with However,..

It may be true that supporters of . Believe . But.
Although some people..
In contrast ..
On the other hand ..
It seems obvious that , but
It is not clear whether .
To express your opinion, you can say:

-
It seems to me that ..
In my opinion, .
My personal view is that .
As far as I understand / know,
I think / believe that ..
Im convinced that .
Im of mixed opinions about / on ..
I have no opinion in this matter
Useful vocabulary For and against
FOR
AGAINST
Supporters
Proponents
Those in favor of
Defenders of
Advocates of
opponents
opponents
those opposed to
critics of
objectors of
Session 6: Quality control in essay writing
In this session, we will go over the essay-writing checklist and talk about quoting, reporting
and referencing.
Word combinations (usually a verb with a noun group) are found in a lot of business texts.
(please read Text 6.1 & Text 6.2 in the Resource Book)

Quoting, reporting (paraphrasing) and referencing
Quoting is when you use the exact words that someone has said or written as support or
evidence to the points that you make in your essay.
Reporting is paraphrasing which means using different words to express the same ideas.
Referencing There are two parts to the referencing process:
a) In-text referencing
b) Making a list of references.
In-text referencing
In-text references are written inside the essay. They need to be used each time you include
someone elses ideas in your writing, whether you do this by summarizing, paraphrasing or
quoting. (Authors surname, date of publication, page number)
List of references
This is a detailed list of all the sources of information that you refer to in your essay. It should
be under the heading References or Bibliography at the end of the essay. This list is usually
presented in alphabetical order of the authors surnames.
(Authors surname, authors first name, title of book or journal, place of publication, publisher, date of
publication)
There are several different acceptable formats for presenting in-texts referencing and list of
referencing. They generally contain the same type of information but vary in how this is
ordered and punctuated. Each individual institution is free to choose which format it prefers.
The referencing system used in this session is called Harvard System. The one used at
AOU is called MLA (Modern Language Association).
Editing your essay

When you finish writing your essay, you have to go back to edit it. When you do that, please
make sure you have checked the following:
1. At the sentence level
a) Spelling
b) Capitalization
c) Punctuation
d) Subject-verb agreement
2. At the paragraph level

a) Topic sentence
b) Supporting sentences
c) Supporting details
d) Concluding sentence
e) Variety of sentences
f) Transitional words
g) Coherence
3. At the essay level

a) Organization
b) Introduction
c) Thesis statement
d) Body
e) Conclusion
f) Variety of sentences
g) Variety of words
h) Transitional words
i ) Coherence
~ End of Book 2 ~
Book 3
Producing Influential Documents
Session 1: What is an influential document?
Any document you write can be an influential document, from a short email to a long essay.
You will know whether it is influential by the way your readers respond to it.
The term influential documents refers to reports and any other text which is not an essay.
The book deals with 2 types of report: academic reports and workplace reports.
Academic reports are written to develop a students understanding of business.

Workplace reports are usually designed to influence business colleagues and prompt
them into taking some kind of action.
How does writing influence people? What is the secret? The secret is to understand your
audience and to know what they know and to communicate in a style which fits with their
style.
Documents differ in appearance, organization, style of language and production process.
They are designed differently because they have different purposes and audiences. If the
document is designed well, it will have an effect on the audience like the writer intended and it
will be influential.
There are some similarities and differences between workplace reports and academic reports
and between reports and essays. (please check page 28)
How does the structure of a report differ from the structure of an essay?
Reports are organized into separate sections according to the specific requirements of
the given task. While it is important that paragraphs are structured and there is unity,
coherence and logical development to the report, it is not a continuous piece of writing
like an essay. Each type of report serves a very specific purpose and is aimed at a very
particular audience.
Report writing may seem repetitive to us, but this is because reports are not usually
read from cover-to-cover by one person. For example, a manager may read only the
synopsis or abstract and act on the advice it contains while a technical officer may read
only the section that explains how things work. On the other hand, a personnel officer
may look at only the conclusions and recommendations that directly affect his or her
working area.
Differences between the report and the essay

Topic
Report: is often a problem or case study which sets up a hypothetical situation. It is based on
reading, field work or practical work.
Essay: is usually a question. It is based on reading and knowledge.
Purpose
Report: is to investigate, present and analyze information thoroughly and logically. It is often
to recommend action to solve a problem. It is usually to make proposals.
Essay: is to articulate a well-argued response to a question.
The reader
Report: is often a client or manager.
Essay: is usually the lecturer.
The format
Report: comprises sections with headings.
Essay: includes paragraphs not sections
The style or language
Report: has to be objective based on facts
Essay: can be both objective and subjective
Assessment or success depends on:
Report: the demonstration of good research skills
Essay: the ability to develop, analyze, and discuss arguments.
Types of Reports
1. Academic report
2. Laboratory report
3. Scientific report
4. Medical report
5. Technical report
6. Feasibility study
7. Proposal
8. Financial report
9. Weather report
10. Business report
11. Workplace report
Session 2: Writing an academic report

Reports are designed to be read quickly and efficiently. They must be understood accurately
because decisions will be based on what they contain. To ensure they are effective, their
organization and language style must be clear, brief, comprehensive and impersonal.
When teachers mark influential documents (reports), they usually have a checklist which they
will use to assess you. This checklist will hopefully help you write a better report because now
you know what is expected of you.
Report writing checklist

a) Research:
1. Use relevant information
2. Integrate the information correctly
3. Include a reference list
b) Structure of the report:
1. Structure should be appropriate to the task
2. Stages of the text are sequenced appropriately
3. Headings, numberings & bullet points should be used
c) Academic writing style:
1. Appropriate choice of vocabulary
2. Appropriate language of description, analysis & evaluation
d) Reader-writer relationship:
1. Correct identification of audience
2. Adjusting to reader knowledge
3. Recognizing different viewpoints
4. Appropriate level of formality
e) Presentation
1. Correct spelling & punctuation
2. Consistent & appropriate tense choice
So how do we write a report?

A report consists of the following:
1. A covering letter: You need to write a covering letter in which you state the purpose of
your report to be submitted alongside the report to the person concerned.
2. Title page: It contains the title of your report, your name, position, company name, and so
on. (For a student assignment, it includes a student ID number, due date for assignment,
name of tutor, course number and name)
3. Abstract: An abstract outlines very briefly the entire report. It contains: the aim or purpose,
the procedures followed, the main findings and conclusions and recommendations that are
outlined in the report. The abstract is like an introduction of an essay. (see example below)
4. A contents page: This includes the page numbers of each section within the report. It
does not include the title page or abstract. They are attached to the report before the contents
page.
In the report, you should have
5. Introduction: You should state your aim (the purpose of the report) and your scope (show
what the report includes and excludes). The introduction also includes any relevant details
regarding the background information that may be needed to make sense of the information
in the report. It may outline the history of a project, or major players in the project. It is a
discussion of the important published writings on the subject.
6. Procedure: In this section, you briefly outline how you collected the data that will provide
the basis for analysis that will produce conclusions and recommendations. You would also
outline the steps taken during the process of collecting data and carrying out research.
7. Results or findings: This where you need to present the results obtained from your
research. This can be written as a separate section and in that case it may be in the form of
tables or graphs and be organized under subheadings.
8. Analysis of data or discussion: This section is perhaps the longest section in most
reports and it is where, using visual displays, you analyze and explain your findings, and
outline the data you have collected. Graphs, charts and tables should have a title and be
clearly labeled and should always be used to summarize the findings you have made from the
data you have collected.
9. Conclusions: The conclusion is the most important section of a report. Readers who are in
a hurry may go straight to the conclusion because they will want an overview of the subject
and to find out what the writer thinks. The conclusion should summarize briefly the main
points that have been made and state clearly what conclusion the writer draws from them.
10. Recommendations: These are your suggestions for further action based on your
conclusions. What future actions should be taken? What are your recommendations?
11. References: An alphabetical list with publication details of sources used and referred to in
the text, and it should be included after the conclusions/recommendations section.
~ Additional sections that may be required ~
Appendices
Appendices include things like raw data sheets, extra or supplementary information or diagrams, maps
of regions etc. You draw your reader's attention to the appropriate appendix by indicating this briefly at
the appropriate place in the report.
For example:
Water flow rates indicate that there is no significant change between 1998 and 2001. Comprehensive flow rate
charts for the period 1998-2000 are included as Appendix A.
Glossary
It is an alphabetical list of key terms and their definitions. This ensures that those reading the report
understand the way you have used the terms or jargon in your report.
Index
An alphabetical list of topics indicating page number(s) showing where each topic can be found.
Question: Do I have to use all the above sections or parts when I write a report?
No, you do not have to use all the above sections. To decide the number of sections to
include in your report, you should take into your account:
1. The task you deal with.
2. The topic you write your report about (business, education, science etc.)
3. The reader (tutor, manager, boss, peer, student etc)
4. The volume of data collected.
5. The way you want to outline or organize your report.
Reminders
Writers adapt their approach according to their audience and what information they
want to convey to them.
Documents are influential if they are appropriate for their purpose and their audience.
There is not a single report style or structure which is suitable for every reader in every
situation.
The principal objective in writing a report is that it should convey the necessary
information to achieve its objectives in a clear and straightforward way.
The style of language used in reports is objective, concrete, active and formal as a
rule. The rules of plain English definitely apply most of the time.
The layout is very important in report writing. Spacing between headings, subheadings,
paragraphs, ends of sections, diagrams etc. need to be uniform and consistent.
The introduction is easier to write after the report has been put together. This is
because in the introduction the writer explains to the reader what is covered in the
report, why it was written and what its aims are. It should be brief and to the point.
Report section samples:

Abstract (example)
This report discusses the feasibility study carried out from 12 June 2001 to 7 December 2001 into the
damming of the Nile River between Egypt and Sudan. Water flow rates, sediment levels, fish stock
numbers, weed infiltration rates and salinity tests have been carried out and positive conclusions have
been drawn. It should be noted that areas flooded by the proposed dam include only those areas
already declared unusable for agricultural purposes. It is expected that economic opportunities for a
fishery, irrigation leases and household water meter reservoirs will be forthcoming within twelve
months of the dam's completion. It is recommended that the parliament approves dam construction
and seeks firm financial backing immediately.
Introduction (example)
[Aim & scope] This feasibility study indicates the environmental feasibility of the proposed damming of
the Nile River between Egypt and Sudan. It does not include building specifications of the dam itself. A
further proposal would be offered if parliament decides to proceed with the recommendations of this
study.
[Background] In January 2008, Northern towns of Egypt experienced severe water shortages as a
result of prolonged drought periods during 2005 and 2006. The Egyptian parliament has made it a
priority for this problem to be solved so that it does not occur in the future. The parliament had
conducted investigations into providing a dam for the country in the late-1980s but plans were halted
due to public dissatisfaction with the outcome of those investigations. Further environmental studies
needed to be conducted over a longer period to determine the impact of the dam on neighboring
farms. This series of investigations was completed in December 2003. The outcome suggested no
significant negative environmental or economic impacts would be felt. In June 2004, the parliament
proposed that the final stages of the feasibility study should be conducted, and conclusions and
recommendations from the entire study should be on the agenda of parliaments next meeting
scheduled for 12 January 2005. This feasibility study report should thus enable parliament to make a
final decision regarding improving water supplies to the country.
Procedure (example)
During this six-month feasibility study, data were collected and analyzed according to the criteria
outlined for environmental impact studies as set out in the Environmental Committee Handbook
(2003). Water flow rates were measured according to rate of flow 100 ml per hour. These rates were
recorded three times per week during the study. Sediment and salinity levels were measured
according to the percentage of suspended siltation carried in the fastest flowing section of the river
channel. These measurements were also taken three times per week, and more often during the
change of tides. Fish stock numbers were recorded once per month where tagged fish were counted
and measured. Specific areas within the study region were targeted and fish stock numbers randomly
checked using sonar equipment. Weed infiltration rates were recorded, both in the river itself, and in
the land regions that would be directly affected by flooding.
Session 3: Self-evaluation documents

The book mentions three types of reports:
1. Academic reports
2. Workplace reports
3. Academic reports written for a workplace audience
Academic reports are more likely to be in response to an assignment title. The purpose of
this title is to encourage students to learn more about an area of business studies and apply
that knowledge to business situations.
Workplace reports are texts used to describe and analyze a situation, on the basis of
research, in response to a need or request. They include recommendations and are
structured for efficiency.
What are the different functions of a report?

A report may be mainly factual, with the purpose of giving information; it may be
instructional, expecting the reader to act on the information provided; or it may be
persuasive, aimed at achieving a purpose determined by the writer. If they are successful, all
of these can be influential documents.
In other words
A report is organized to do three things:
1. Give information (descriptive part)
2. Analyze information (analytical part)
3. Explaining & justifying (persuasive part)
1. Giving information (descriptive part)

When writing your report, you should know which information you want to convey to readers
(information management). You can use a technique known as theme and point. A theme is
located at the start of a sentence and it contains the focus of the sentence; it is followed by
more information or explanation known as the point. For example:
a) LB160 is the most interesting subject in the world!
b) Being a student in AOU allows me to develop academically.

The choice of theme at the start of each sentence affects the impression given by the text.
The theme and point in each sentence also convey information about how the writer
perceives the information being given and how they want the reader to perceive it. If you have
many points you have to make sure they refer back to the theme of the sentence. The theme
of the sentence has to also refer back (related) to the theme of the paragraph.
2. Analyzing (analytical part)

To analyze the information you collected, you can use different models according to the type
of information available. For example:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
SMART (Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time related)

SWOT (Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities - Threats)
STEEP (Social Technological Economic Environmental Political)
PEST (Political Economic Social Technological)
PESTLE (Political Economic Social Technological Legal Environmental)
STEP (Social Technological Economic Political)
Stakeholder
The models above are useful for organizing texts because they provide a means of
processing information through the use of headings under which to group information. Before
you choose your model, you should think about the aims and objectives of your report as well
as the issues that are important to the organization
3. Explaining (persuasive part)

Writers may use data collected by other people (secondary source) or data they collected by
themselves (primary source).
To attract readers, make sure that your data sources are credible and reliable.
Reliable sources like:
a) Governmental authorities.
b) International organizations, such as the World Bank
c) Well-known companies like Microsoft
d) Academic sources, such as books and refereed journals.
Visual representations such as tables, figures, and diagrams are also used to explain and
clarify thoughts and information and improve communication.
To explain visual representations, you can write comments using the following phrases and
expressions:
- The (pie bar line) graph shows
- The table shows / demonstrates
Remember; when you describe graphs, there are THREE trends:
a) Up
b) Down
c) Leveled
To describe each trend, you can use verbs or nouns as follows:
Up
-
.. rose to..
.. increased to..
.. went up to ..
.. boomed to ..
Down
- .fell to.
- .declined to .
- .decreased to .
- .dropped to .
- .went down to .
- .reduced to .
- .slumped to .
Leveled
- .leveled out at .
- .did not change.
- .remained stable at .
- .remained steady at .
- .stayed constant at .
- .maintained the same level .
Other terms
- .fluctuated around.
- .peaked at .
- .stood at .
- .. a rise in.
- .. an increase in .
- .. a growth in ..
- .. a boom in ..
- .a fall in .
- .a decline in .
- .a decrease in .
- .a drop in .
- .a reduction in .
- .a slump in .
- .no change.
- .stability .
- .a leveling out .
- .fluctuation
- .reached a peak of
Describing words
We can use adjectives and adverbs to comment on and describe our graphs, tables and
charts.
Dramatic
Sharp
Enormous
Substantial
Significant
Moderate
Slight
Rapid
Sudden
Steady
Slow
Gradual
Quick
dramatically
sharply
enormously
substantially
significantly
moderately
slightly
rapidly
suddenly
steadily
slowly
gradually
quickly
To express approximation, you can use:

Roughly, nearly, approximately, around
To express similarities
Similar to, similarly, likewise, both .and
To express differences
In contrast, different from, however, but
To express comparison, you can use adjectives, such as:
High, higher, the highest, good, better, the best
Some examples of self-evaluation documents are the following:

1. Skills audits
They are a kind of business studies text. They are written by students to reflect on the skills
they currently have, report on the skills they have developed, or plan the development of their
skills in the future.
2. Skills evaluation report
They are personal reports about your experience
See text 3.3 RB page 42 (example)
How is skills evaluation report organized?
You can use the problem-solution pattern as follows:
- Situation
- Problem
- Cause
- Solution
- Evaluation
When writing a skills evaluation report, you should:
- Explain what you did to improve in your chosen skill area.
- Analyze the effectiveness of your approach
- Identify any further work you could do to improve in this area
It is common for a skills evaluation report to end with proposals for future development.
Examples of self-evaluation reports are texts 3.10 3.14 in RB pages 50 : 56
Homework:
Choose a skill that you have developed during this course and write a report about that
development. Write about 250 words. See text 3.3 RB page 42 (example)
In a company (workplace) there are many different ways of communicating with others. Some
of these include: Letters reports memos emails faxes oral presentations telephone
notes face to face conversations.
We will take a closer look at emails and discuss their advantages, disadvantages and how
they are supposed to be organized.
Advantages of email communication

1. Emails are fast and effective in providing quick answers
2. Emails can distribute a lot of information quickly to many people
3. Email is inexpensive
4. Secure and reliable
Disadvantages of emails communications

1. Emails are intrusive
2. Emails may not be private
3. Emails may not be read immediately
4. Emails are not the same as talking or writing letters
5. Emails can become time-consuming
The organization of workplace emails

1. A clear subject line (title)
2. A greeting (Dear ,)
3. An introduction
4. Main message
5. Action statement (proposals or recommendations)
6. Closing statement (I look forward to hearing from you)
7. Farewell statement (yours sincerely)
8. Your name
9. Your contact details (job title, name of company, phone no)
In business, we also have other types of documents which we will look at briefly below.
Marketing Documents
Marketing documents are designed to sell a companys products or services. The overall
purpose of a marketing text is to predict the customers needs and persuade him that the
product will satisfy them. The text does this through dialogue with the customer.
Texts 5.2 and 5.3 are examples of retail (personal) marketing texts.
In most cases, the organization is as follows:
1. Customers needs
2. Benefits of the product
3. How it will satisfy the customer
Financial documents
Financial documents are used to describe financial data of a company using diagrams, charts
and tables to show the data. These documents are usually full of numbers and figures.
A good workplace document should be:

- Correct and sufficient in the information they provide.
- Focused on a specific purpose.
- Focused on the user of the document.
- Well organized.
- Readable and concise
For the language used to communicate with retail (personal) customers, you can use:
- Imperative (get it now.)
- Benefit verbs (save money and time..)
- Offers (it provides you with .)
- Promises (it will enable you to )
- Conditional (if you buy one now you can get ..)
- Adjectives (easy and simple to use )
- Adverbs (it works efficiently .)
For the language used for communication with corporate customers, you can use:
- More complex vocabulary than personal customers language
- Less use of direct you statements
- Longer sentences with more information
- Longer paragraphs (more supporting sentences + more detailing sentences)
- The language is more formal.
Remember, to choose the appropriate language for your marketing document, you need to
know the market, your customers, your product or service, and finally, your goals.
Session six
Writing workplace a proposal means learning to convince people what you propose.
Workplace proposals are those documents concerned with recommending solutions to workrelated problems. Workplace proposals can be defined as problem-solving documents.
The purpose of the proposal is to demonstrate how the solution that is proposed will move the
organization from a situation seen as a problem towards a more desired situation (the goal).
To show the desirability of the goal you need to explain the benefits of the proposed solution.
At the end of your proposal, you can add a call to action which is a statement designed to
provoke the reader to act or to do something. For example:
- We urge the board of directors to consider this proposal.
- We strongly recommend that .
In writing a workplace proposal, you should expect the possible reservations of your reader(s)
and include reasonable counterarguments in response. For example:
Although a training course would require a huge budget, we believe that this can be covered
by the donation we received recently from.in addition to the fees collected from trainees.
When writing a workplace proposal, you need to:
1. Describe the problem
2. State the goal of your proposal
3. Propose a solution
4. Explain the benefits of your solution
5. Recommend a call to action.
An exam question might look like this:

It has been noticed recently that most of the staff start work late and leave early. Their excuse
for this is the heavy traffic during rush hour and, of course, this has a negative impact on their
productivity.
You are the HR manager and this problem has been referred to you by the GM to propose a
suitable solution.
Write a proposal for this situation.
~The End ~

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LB160

Analysing Business Cases

What is mind mapping?

Analyzing a business case study requires six main skills [M.F.R.I.P.E]:

So how do we map a case?

Session 2: Framing the case

1. Framing a case with a STEP framework

~ Look at the task on the top of page 45 ~

~ Read Extract A on page 45 and do Activity 2.4 ~

~ Go to page 25 in the Resource Book and look at Text 2.9 ~

~ Look at Activity 2.11 on page 55 ~

~ Look at Activity 2.10 on page 54 ~

~ Look at the example on page 51 ~

Note: Please dont confuse stakeholder with shareholder or stockholder. A shareholder is a

2. Prioritize the Stakeholders:

There are 4 categories of stakeholders:

~ Look at Extract 2.15 on page 34 in the Resource Book~

3. Understanding the key stakeholders:

Why are stakeholder and STEP analyses important?

Session 3: Recognizing influences and impacts

What will I learn from this session?

Identify cause-and-effect relationships between events and actions.

~ Look at page 77 Activity 3.1 ~

We have 3 types of cause and effect relationships:

Below you will find examples for each relationship.

~ Look at page 82 Part A ~

We also have 4 different types of cause and effect relationship words.

Cause verbs (affecting, causing, influencing)

~ Look at page 84 Activity 3.7 ~

~ Look at page 92 Activity 3.12 ~

~ Look at page 110 Activity 4.1 ~

The SWOT framework

~ Look at the grid on page 124 ~

Session 5: Proposing Solutions

There are two types of solutions:

~ Look at Activity 5.8 on page 147 ~

The difference between RS and PS is in the verbs.

If they want..they should/could.

~ Look at Activity 5.10 on page 150 ~

~ Look at Activity 5.11 on page 151 ~

Justifying a proposed solution

2. Explain that a good result depends on the proposed solution

5. Explain what the purpose of the proposed solution is

6. Describe the benefits of the proposed solution

7. Compare the proposed solution with a different course of action

8. Quote an authority figure

~ Look at Activity 5.15 on page 156 ~

How to write a solution text

Session 6: Evaluating the analysis

A few important things you must know

Analyses can be framed by a range of business concepts including:

Evaluation in business studies

The language of evaluation

The language for explaining degrees of possibility

Organization of compare and contrast text

Dont forget that: Evaluation = judgment + explanation + persuasion

Referencing Case Studies and course books

Concepts you must know

Staff management policy

Spoken and written language

Spoken language adapts itself to the feedback from the listener.

Sentences in written language are longer and more complex.

Spoken text has the following features: