Journal of the Transportation Research Board

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD

NO.

1721

Geomaterials
2000
Soils, Geology, and Foundations; Materials and Construction
Click on article title to reach abstract; abstracts link to full textclick on Full Text icon.

CONTENTS
Foreword

Part 1Cementitious Stabilization

Incorporating Subgrade Lime Stabilization into Pavement Design
Bashar S. Qubain, Eric J. Seksinsky, and Jianchao Li

Lime Requirement for Stabilization

Christopher D. F. Rogers and Stephanie Glendinning

Laboratory Performance Evaluation of Cement-Stabilized Soil Base Mixtures

Louay N. Mohammad, Amar Raghavandra, and Baoshan Huang

Part 2Mechanical and Chemical Stabilization

New Method to Stabilize the Uplift-Pressure Problem for Raft Foundations
Dave Ta-Teh Chang, Jeffery C. I. Chang, Roger S. T. Tung, and H. C. Hou

Stabilization of a Vertical Tire Chip Embankment with Geogrids

Chiwan Wayne Hsieh and Jeng Han Wu

SuperJet Grouting: New Technology for In Situ Soil Improvement

George K. Burke, David M. Cacoilo, and Kenneth R. Chadwick

Part 3Aggregate Tests

Imaging Indices for Quantification of Shape, Angularity, and Surface Texture of Aggregates
Chun-Yi Kuo and Reed B. Freeman

Fine-Aggregate Angularity: Automated Image Analysis Approach

Eyad Masad, Joe W. Button, and Tom Papagiannakis

Determination of Volume of Aggregates: New Image-Analysis Approach

Chetana Rao and Erol Tutumluer

Measuring Bulk-Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregates: Development of New Test Method

Prithvi S. Kandhal, Rajib B. Mallick, and Mike Huner

European Research into Granular Material for Pavement Bases and Subbases
Andrew R. Dawson, Michael J. Mundy, and Matti Huhtala

Uncompacted Voids and Particle Index Tests for Evaluating Coarse Aggregate
M. Shabbir Hossain, Frazier Parker, Jr., and Prithvi S. Kandhal

Transportation Research Record 1721

ISSN 0361-1981
ISBN 0-309-06730-8
Subscriber Categories
IIIA soils, geology, and foundations
IIIB materials and construction
Printed in the United States of America
Sponsorship of Transportation Research Record 1721
GROUP 2DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
Raymond K. Moore, University of Nebraska at Lincoln (Chairman)
Bituminous Section
Gale C. Page, Florida Department of Transportation (Chairman)
Committee on Characteristics of Nonbituminous Components of Bituminous Paving Mixtures
Anne Stonex, Pennsylvania State University (Chairman), H. Barry Takallou, TAK Consulting Engineers (Secretary),
Hussain U. Bahia, Robert F. Baker, Joe W. Button, Stephen A. Cross, Kent R. Hansen, John M. Heggen, R. Gary Hicks,
Richard H. Howe, Lon S. Ingram, Cecil L. Jones, Prithvi S. Kandhal, Kamyar Cyrus Mahboub, Francis J. Manning,
Robert B. McGennis, James J. Murphy, Roger P. Northwood, Gale C. Page, Brian Prowell, Michael William Rouse,
Scott Shuler, Mary Stroup-Gardiner, Maghsoud Tahmoressi, Jane Tauer
Geomaterials Section
Stephen W. Forster, Federal Highway Administration (Chairman)
Committee on Cementitious Stabilization
Roger K. Seals, Louisiana State University (Chairman), Samson W. Bandimere, Gokhan Baykal, William N. Brabston,
Dave Ta-Teh Chang, Shi-Chieh Jonathan Cheng, Alfred B. Crawley, Mohammed A. Gabr, K. P. George, Robin E. Graves,
Stanley L. Hite, John E. Huffman, Khaled Ksaibati, Dallas N. Little, Eric H. Males, Kenneth L. McManis, Raymond K.
Moore, Peter G. Nicholson, Jan R. Prusinski, Sastry Putcha, Lutfi Raad, Christopher David Foss Rogers, Mohammad R.
Shakiba, Barry Stewart, Riyad M. Wahab, Michael A. Weitlauf
Committee on Chemical and Mechanical Stabilization
Braja M. Das, California State University (Chairman), John M. Andersen, Robert Charles Andrews, Paul G. Brown,
Dave Ta-Teh Chang, Edward J. Engle, Kevin J. Gaspard, Rajaram Janardhanam, David A. Kaulfers, M. Saleh Keshawarz,
Evert C. Lawton, Adnan A. Maiah, John B. Metcalf, Anil Misra, James B. Nevels, Jr., Peter G. Nicholson, Thomas M. Petry,
Wei-Chou Virgil Ping, Robert B. Randolph, Lois Schwarz, Eun Chul Shin, Gurdev Singh, Khaled Sobhan, Akhtarhusein A.
Tayebali, Daniel R. Turner, Riyad M. Wahab, Njoroge Wainaina, Musharraf Zaman

Committee on Mineral Aggregates

D. Stephen Lane, Virginia Transportation Research Council (Chairman), Michael E. Ayers, Albert J. Bush III, Robert J.
Collins, Andrew R. Dawson, David W. Fowler, Paul T. Foxworthy, Mike Jackson, David W. Jahn, Kamyar Cyrus Mahboub,
Charles R. Marek, Bryant Mather, Rebecca S. McDaniel, Richard C. Meininger, Charles A. Pryor, Jr., Richard W. Reaves,
Larry A. Scofield, William H. Skerritt, Barbara J. Smith, Richard L. Stewart, Mary Stroup-Gardiner, Ramzi A. Taha,
Nancy M. Whiting, Lennard J. Wylde, Robert A. Younie
Transportation Research Board Staff
G. P. Jayaprakash, Engineer of Soils, Geology, and Foundations
Frederick D. Hejl, Engineer of Materials and Construction
Robert Summersgill, Administrative Assistant
Sponsorship is indicated by a footnote at the end of each paper. The organizational units, officers, and members are as of
December 31, 1999.

FOREWORD
The papers contained in this volume were among those presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board in January 2000. Nearly 1,600 papers were submitted by authors; more than 1,000 were presented at the meeting; and
approximately 600 were accepted for publication in the 2000 Transportation Research Record series. The published papers will
also be issued on CD-ROM, which will be available for purchase in late 2000. It should be noted that the preprint CD-ROM distributed at the 2000 meeting contains unedited, draft versions of presented papers, whereas the papers published in the 2000
Records include author revisions made in response to review comments.
Starting with the 1999 volumes, the title of the Record series has included Journal of the Transportation Research Board to
reflect more accurately the nature of this publication series and the peer-review process conducted in the acceptance of papers
for publication. Each paper published in this volume was peer reviewed by the sponsoring committee acknowledged at the end
of the text; members of the sponsoring committees for the papers in this volume are identified on page ii. Additional information about the Transportation Research Record series and the peer-review process can be found on the inside front cover. The
Transportation Research Board appreciates the interest shown by authors in offering their papers and looks forward to future
submissions.

Incorporating Subgrade Lime

Stabilization into Pavement Design
Bashar S. Qubain, Eric J. Seksinsky, and Jianchao Li
Valley Forge Laboratories, Inc., 6 Berkeley Road, Devon, PA 19333.

FULL
TEXT

The benefits of subgrade lime stabilization are incorporated, for the first time, into the design of a
major interstate highway pavement in Pennsylvania. The project comprises widening and complete
reconstruction of 21 km of the Pennsylvania Turnpike in Somerset County. Field explorations indicated
that the subgrade is fairly homogeneous and consists primarily of medium to stiff clayey soils. To
safeguard against potential softening due to rain, lime modification has been traditionally utilized as a
construction expedience for highway projects with clayey subgrade. Such an approach, however, does
not take advantage of the added strength of the lime-stabilized subgrade in pavement design. Lime
improves the strength of clay by three mechanisms: hydration, flocculation, and cementation. The first
and second mechanisms occur almost immediately upon introducing the lime, and they have been
investigated in the study; the third is a prolonged effect. Laboratory tests were performed to accurately
capture the immediate benefits of lime stabilization for design. Both treated and natural clayey samples
were subjected to resilient modulus and California bearing ratio testing. To prevent cementation, the
lime-treated specimens were not allowed to cure. Nevertheless, they showed significant increases in
strength, which, when incorporated into design, reduced the pavement thickness and resulted in
substantial savings.

Lime Requirement for Stabilization

Christopher D. F. Rogers and Stephanie Glendinning
C. D. F. Rogers, School of Civil Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K. S. Glendinning,
Department of Civil Engineering, Drummond Building, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 7RU, U.K.

FULL
TEXT

Lime is used in construction as a rapid and economic method of improving the strength and stiffness
characteristics of clay soils. For economical design, an engineer must know how much lime is required
to initiate the required improvements. If lime stabilization is to be compared with alternative solutions
in the early stages of a project, it must be possible to make this assessment rapidly and with the
minimum expenditure on additional specialist testing. The ASTM Standard Test Method for
Determining Stabilization Ability of Lime (MDSAL) aims to determine the quantity of lime required for
stabilization using simple methodology to generate results quickly. Additional, much lengthier testing is
recommended to verify the lime requirement if lime is considered feasible following MDSAL testing.
Problems have been found in the execution of the test and interpretation of results, concluding in
inconsistency in the lime quantities calculated. This inconsistency could lead to substantial differences in
the estimated cost of the overall scheme and possibly to the unwarranted rejection of lime stabilization
as a potential solution. The methodology of the MDSAL test through practical experimentation is
reviewed and recommendations for its future use are made. The sensitivity of the test to changes in lime
quality, volume of water added, and temperature of the soil-water-lime mixture is examined. It is shown
that, although extremely sensitive to changes in these parameters, a revised interpretation of test data
means that a reliable and consistent result can be achieved. The scientific basis for this revised
interpretation is also demonstrated.

Laboratory Performance Evaluation of

Cement-Stabilized Soil Base Mixtures
Louay N. Mohammad, Amar Raghavandra, and Baoshan Huang
Louisiana State University, Louisiana Transportation Research Center, 4101 Gourrier Avenue, Baton Rouge, LA 70808.

FULL
TEXT

In-place cement-stabilized soils have served as the primary base material for the majority of
noninterstate flexible pavements in Louisiana for many years. These materials are economically and
easily constructed and provide outstanding structural characteristics for flexible pavements. However,
these cement-treated materials crack due to shrinkage, with the cracks reflecting from the base to the
surface. A laboratory study examined the performance of four different cement-stabilized soil mixtures
recently used in the construction of test lanes at the Louisiana Pavement Testing Facilities. Laboratory
tests included the indirect tensile strength and strain, unconfined compressive strength, and indirect
tensile resilient modulus tests. The four mixtures were (a) in-place-mixed cement-treated soil with
10 percent cement, (b) plant-mixed cement-treated soil with 10 percent cement, (c) plant-mixed cementtreated soil with 4 percent cement, and (d) plant-mixed cement-treated soil with 4 percent cement and
fiber reinforcement. The results indicated that there was no significant difference in performance
between the plant-mixed and in-place-mixed cement-treated soil mixtures. The inclusion of fiber to the
cement-treated soil mixture significantly increased the indirect tensile strain and the toughness index.
Increases in compaction effort maintained or significantly increased the indirect tensile strength and
unconfined compressive strength. Increases in curing period maintained or significantly increased
indirect tensile and unconfined compressive strength as well as the resilient modulus of the mixtures.

New Method to Stabilize the

Uplift-Pressure Problem for
Raft Foundations
Dave Ta-Teh Chang, Jeffery C. I. Chang, Roger S. T. Tung, and H. C. Hou
D. T.-T. Chang and H. C. Hou, Civil Engineering Department, Chung Yuan University, Chung Li, Taiwan 32023, Republic of China.
J. C. I. Chang and R. S. T. Tung, China United Engineering Consultants Company, Limited, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.

FULL
TEXT

In Taipei City, the deep-raft foundation is the most common foundation type for typical commercial
buildings. It is known that deep-raft foundations below a high groundwater table are associated with
uplift-pressure problems. Conventional solutions, such as increased dead weight, tension piles, or
ground anchors, are costly, time consuming, and sometimes inefficient. A successful approach using
a geosynthetic system to stabilize and relieve the hydrostatic uplift pressure within the impervious
strata is presented. Filtration, clogging, transmissivity, and other properties of geosynthetics are
specified to assure the dissipation of uplift pressure in the long run. The design concept was applied
in practice to a multistory commercial complex. Two typical cases are introduced. Monitoring results
are also covered. Based on the site experience, the installation of this system was found to be rapid,
simple, and cost-effective.

Stabilization of a Vertical Tire Chip

Embankment with Geogrids
Chiwan Wayne Hsieh and Jeng Han Wu
Department of Civil Engineering, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, 1 Hseuh-fu Road, Neipu,
Pingtung, Taiwan.

FULL
TEXT

A research project that involves the construction of a full-size geogrid-reinforced test embankment
was conducted. Waste tire chips were used as the lightweight backfill for the embankment. The joint
research project involved participants from government agencies, academic research institutes,
consulting firms, and material suppliers. To meet the function requirements, the north side of the
embankment had to be built essentially as a vertical wall. To maintain stability, the vertical side of
the embankment was reinforced with geogrids and covered with segmental retaining-wall facing. The
objectives of the research study were to evaluate the feasibility of using waste tire chips as embankment
backfill material when coupled with geogrid reinforcement and to evaluate the performance of various
types of goesynthetic drainage products in the test embankment. To minimize settlement due to
compression of the tire chips, various combinations of tire chips and soil mixtures or interlayers
were used in the embankment construction. The details of the design and construction of the test
embankment are described. Performance of the test embankment is evaluated based on available
observation data.

SuperJet Grouting
New Technology for In Situ Soil Improvement
George K. Burke, David M. Cacoilo, and Kenneth R. Chadwick
G. K. Burke, Hayward Baker, Inc., 1130 Annapolis Road, Suite 202, Odenton, MD 21113. D. M. Cacoilo, Mueser Rutledge
Consulting Engineers, 708 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017. K. R. Chadwick, Hayward Baker, Inc., One Executive Boulevard,
4th Floor, Yonkers, NY 10703.

FULL
TEXT

The New Jersey Department of Transportation solicited a request for proposal for a design-construct
bid to extend the Atlantic City Expressway to the marina district and Brigantine. This would service a
developing area for casino construction as well as greatly improve access to the beachfront towns north
of Atlantic City. The preliminary proposal required approximately 0.8 km (0.5 mi) of four-lane
roadway to go underground, eliminating traffic noise, and to pass under US-30. The prime and
specialist contractors, in concert with intuitive engineering support, developed an in situ installation of
a subgrade bottom-strut bracing system for a cut-and-cover tunnel installation. This concept offered
many advantages, including months of schedule savings, reduced sheet-pile cost, and much-reduced
wall-anchoring requirements. To economically install this bottom strut, the new system of SuperJet
grouting was used. This grouting system offers several key advancements over conventional jet grouting
and allows the construction of columns up to 5 m (16 ft) in diameter. This new technology, the method
of installation, difficulties overcome, and the quality-assurance and quality-control elements of this
portion of the project are presented. Future applications are also proposed.

Imaging Indices for Quantification of

Shape, Angularity, and Surface
Texture of Aggregates
Chun-Yi Kuo and Reed B. Freeman
C.-Y. Kuo, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Akron, ASEC 210E, Akron, OH 44325-3905.
R. B. Freeman, U.S. Army Engineer R&D Center, CEWES-GP-Q, 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199.

FULL
TEXT

Three image indices are presented that characterize aggregates in a hierarchical scheme involving
overall shape (or form), roundness of corners, and particle surface texture. The corresponding
dimensionless image indices are called aspect ratio, angularity, and roughness, respectively. Calculating
these indices requires that image-analysis techniques be used to find the following data for a sample of
two-dimensional particle images: shortest and longest dimensions, perimeters, convex perimeters, and
perimeters of ellipses with areas equivalent to those of the associated particles. To demonstrate the
usefulness of these three dimensionless indices, selected sieve-size fractions for 25 fine-aggregate sources
were subjected to image-analysis testing and to uncompacted void testing (ASTM C1252). Both
uncompacted void contents and image-analysis indices could generally differentiate between natural
sands and crushed fine aggregates. However, the image-analysis indices provided additional useful
information. For example, the image-analysis results identified that two sources of crushed fine
aggregates had relatively low uncompacted void contents because they had relatively smooth surface
textures or relatively low aspect ratios. In addition, the image-analysis results were able to distinguish
morphological differences between aggregate sources that were measured to have similar uncompacted
void contents.

Fine-Aggregate Angularity
Automated Image Analysis Approach
Eyad Masad, Joe W. Button, and Tom Papagiannakis
E. Masad and T. Papagiannakis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Washington State University,
Pullman, WA 99164-2910. J. W. Button, Materials and Pavements Division, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M
University System, College Station, TX 77843-3135.

FULL
TEXT

Angularity is one of the important aggregate properties contributing to the permanent deformation
resistance of asphalt mixtures. Therefore, methods that are able to rapidly and accurately describe
aggregate angularity are valuable in the design process of asphalt mixtures. Two computer-automated
procedures, which make use of the advances in digital-image processing, to quantify fine aggregate
angularity, are presented. The first method relies on the concepts of the erosion-dilation techniques.
This consists of subjecting the aggregate surface to a smoothing effect that causes the angularity
elements to disappear from the image. Then, the area lost as a result of the smoothing effect is
calculated and used to quantify angularity. The second method is based on the fractal approach. Imageanalysis techniques are used to measure the fractal length of aggregate boundary. The fractal length
increases with aggregate angularity. The proposed imaging techniques are used to capture the
aggregate angularity of 23 sand samples that represent a wide range of materials. The results are
compared with visual analysis and indirect methods of measuring fine-aggregate angularity, such as the
uncompacted air voids, and the angle of internal friction of aggregate mass. In general, the results
indicate much promise for measuring aggregate properties using automated imaging technologies.

Determination of Volume of Aggregates

New Image-Analysis Approach
Chetana Rao and Erol Tutumluer
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801.

FULL
TEXT

The importance of using quality aggregates with specific gradation and shape properties in asphalt
concrete has been recognized by the Strategic Highway Research Program under a set of developed
consensus aggregate properties. The flat and elongated ratio and angularity of the aggregate particles are
those properties that directly influence the rutting potential of an asphalt pavement. Along with a need to
develop rapid and automated methods for determining flat and elongated ratios of individual aggregate
particles, there is also a need to develop an accurate and repeatable experimental technique. A new
aggregate image analyzer has been recently developed at the University of Illinois that uses three video
cameras for accurately determining the volume of each aggregate and for automating the determination
of flat and elongated particles, angularity, and gradation. A new image-analysis approach determines the
percentage by weight of the flat and elongated particles providing results comparable to the manual
results from ASTM D4791 by presenting the results as ratios of weights. The significance of making such
accurate volume computations of an individual aggregate using images is discussed. The computed
aggregate volumes and the percentages by weight of flat and elongated ratios obtained for two bag
samples were in very good agreement with the manual measurements, thus validating the correctness
of the imaging technique and the effectiveness of the new aggregate image analyzer.

Measuring Bulk-Specific Gravity of

Fine Aggregates
Development of New Test Method
Prithvi S. Kandhal, Rajib B. Mallick, and Mike Huner
P. S. Kandhal and M. Huner, National Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn University, 211 Ramsay Hall, Auburn, AL 36849.
R. B. Mallick, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA 01609.

FULL
TEXT

Bulk specific gravity of the fine aggregate is used in hot-mix asphalt volumetric-mix design (including
Superpave) to determine the amount of asphalt binder absorbed by the aggregate and the percentage of
voids in the mineral aggregate. The current test method (AASHTO T84) uses a cone method to establish
the saturated surface dry (SSD) condition of the sample, which is necessary to conduct the test. This
method does not work satisfactorily for fine aggregates that are very angular and have rough surface
texture and, therefore, do not slump readily when in SSD condition. A research project was undertaken
to develop automated equipment and a method of establishing the SSD condition of the fine aggregate.
The wet sample of the fine aggregate is placed in a rotating drum and subjected to a steady flow of
warm air. The temperature gradient of the incoming and outgoing air and the relative humidity of the
outgoing air are monitored to establish the SSD condition. Two prototype devices were constructed. The
test results obtained with the second prototype device are encouraging and are reported. Further
improvements to be made to the second prototype device to improve the repeatability and
reproducibility of the test have been identified.

European Research into

Granular Material for
Pavement Bases and Subbases
Andrew R. Dawson, Michael J. Mundy, and Matti Huhtala
A. R. Dawson, School of Civil Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom.
M. J. Mundy, Transport SA, Australia, P.O. Box 1, Walkerville, South Australia 5081, Australia. M. Huhtala, Technical
Research Center (VTT), Finland, P.O. Box 19031, FIN-02044 VTT, Finland.

FULL
TEXT

Two transnational European research projects in the area of granular materials for road pavements are
described. The results are used to illustrate the state of practice as compared to the state of the art and
are placed within the setting of a broad picture of national research within Europe. Discussed are the
direction of European research, its implementation, those areas that will continue to be problematic,
and the findings and strategies that suggest better-practice for non-European users. The use of the
repeated-load triaxial test is shown to be an important aspect. Although the test is shown to have
limitations for practical purposes, it illustrates the nature of material behavior that may be expected in
situ. It is shown that a fundamental engineering understanding has been applied to granular material
pavement layer technology but that there remain issues of in situ assessment, analytical methods, and
variability of in situ conditions that hinder full application of current understanding.

Uncompacted Voids and Particle Index

Tests for Evaluating Coarse Aggregate
M. Shabbir Hossain, Frazier Parker, Jr., and Prithvi S. Kandhal
M. Shabbir Hossain, Civil Engineering Department; F. Parker, Jr., Highway Research Center; and P. S. Kandhal, National
Center for Asphalt Technology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.

FULL
TEXT

Coarse-aggregate angularity and surface texture are properties specified under the Superpave mix
design system. To control specification requirements, the fractured-face count test is suggested. The use
of a more objective test was investigated. Uncompacted voids and index of aggregate particle shape and
texture tests were studied to measure coarse-aggregate angularity. The gradation of the sample has an
obvious influence on both test results. Ways to separate the effect of gradation from aggregate angularity
were studied. Viable options include testing a standard graded sample and computing a weighted
average from tests of individual size fractions based on the gradation of the blend. When comparing
aggregate sources, either option produces a comparable evaluation, but testing standard graded samples
saves time. On the other hand, the weighted average is more appropriate for evaluating an aggregate
blend. The index of aggregate particle shape and texture test and the uncompacted voids test provide
comparable measures of coarse aggregate angularity and surface texture.