Paper 8224V3-0 The College of Estate Management 2012

Foundations for low-rise buildings

Contents
1. Function
1.1 Building Regulations
2. Ground conditions
2.1 Vegetable soil
2.2 Subsoils
2.3 Presence of trees
2.4 Frost heave

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3
4
5
5
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6
6

3. Development of foundations
3.1 Early types
3.2 Modern types
3.3 Reinforced concrete
3.4 Piles
3.5 Defects

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10
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15

4. Basements
4.1 Function
4.2 Remedial work
4.3 Services
4.4 Alternative damp-proofing methods

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15
16
18
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1 Function
The purpose of a foundation is to spread the load from the structure in
question over a safe bearing area of subsoil and to provide a stable, level base
on which to build (Figures 1 and 2).
FIGURE 1 Modern foundation arrangement

FIGURE 2 Nineteenth century foundation arrangement

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Foundations are crucial to the stability of the whole house, and failure is one
of the most serious defects, leading to movement and cracking of walls, roof
and so on. Remedial work is very costly and often does not fully restore the
building (Figure 3).
FIGURE 3 Settlement cracks

1.1 Building Regulations

The Building Regulations require that foundations be:

capable of safely sustaining and transmitting to the ground the

combined dead load, imposed load and wind load in such a way as to
prevent damaging settlement or movement occurring in any part of the
building or any adjoining buildings;

taken down to a depth and constructed in such a way as to safeguard

against damage caused by the subsoil swelling, shrinking or freezing;

capable of resisting sulphate attack.

Since the foundations must be capable of safely sustaining and transmitting

to the ground all the requisite loads, we shall consider the structure of the
ground itself, as this often dictates the type of foundation used.

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2 Ground conditions
For our purposes, the ground can be split into two categories: vegetable soil
(or topsoil) and subsoil. The ground below the foundations is known as the
sub-foundations and is always subsoil.

2.1 Vegetable soil

This is the surface layer of soft soil which covers most areas. It varies in
thickness but the average depth is about 150mm. When constructing houses,
this layer is stripped off as it is compressible and its organic content may
have a deleterious effect. This soil is usually kept and utilised for the garden,
landscaping and so on.

2.2 Subsoils
Rock

Provided that it is sound and solid, rock only requires levelling and any
cavities or fissures filled with concrete before building can begin. However,
if the rock outcrop is on a slope, a careful examination needs to be made to
establish whether a slip plane is present. If one exists, then excavation below
that plane will be necessary and in some cases a retaining wall will also be
needed.
Chalk

Chalk may deteriorate under the action of water or frost and so, once
exposed, it should be protected by a layer of concrete.
Swallow holes are liable to develop in chalk or limestone. Cavities in the
rock dissolve away in underground water, and the overburden above
collapses into the cavity, creating a swallow hole. Wherever possible,
underground watercourses should be avoided and soakaways (discussed
later) should be kept a safe distance from buildings in such areas.
Gravel

Gravel has high compressive-resisting qualities which are helped by having

fine particles interstitially situated between the larger stones. A loss of these
particles may occur in water-bearing ground and with it a loss of its bearing
qualities. Foundations on gravel should therefore be kept above the water
table (Figure 4).
FIGURE 4

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Sand

A dense, confined bed of sand makes a good sub-foundation, being only

slightly compressible. Again, washing out of the fine particles is to be
avoided, as this makes the sand weak and unstable.
Clay

The strength and stability of clay is directly affected by water content. It will
shrink and expand with drying and wetting. The rapidity and depth of drying
out will be greatly increased by the presence of tree roots.

2.3 Presence of trees

In clay soils, it is recommended that a house with shallow foundations should
not be closer to a tree than 1 times the mature height of that tree. For a
group of trees this factor is increased to twice the height of the group (Figure
5).
If a lot of trees are cleared from a site there is a risk of swelling, and time
should be allowed for the soil to take up its normal moisture content.
Sometimes this may take several years.
If this time is not available, then there are several options: to use a flexibleframed construction without brickwork or plastering; or to make the building
rigid by reinforcing the foundation or brickwork; or by constructing a
basement.
The problem of heave (or expansion) and shrinkage in clays became very
apparent in the summer and autumn of 1976, and the Building Regulations
have been amended to help overcome these problems e.g. by
recommending a minimum depth of foundation in clay soils (Figure 6).

2.4 Frost heave

Some soils, such as gravels, are free-draining whilst others, such as fine
sands, are slow. In the slow-draining soils in winter time, wedges of ice
known as lenses form in the sand, expand, and cause the ground to swell, or
heave.
Because the soil underneath the floor of a building is protected from frost and
the surrounding soil is not, this differential expansion can cause cracking. So
strong foundations are needed which go down to at least 600mm. (Frost
seldom penetrates more than 450mm in the UK.)

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FIGURE 5 Effect of trees on foundations

FIGURE 6 If trees are removed then the likelihood of heave

increases as the soil returns to its natural moisture level

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3 Development of foundations
3.1 Early types
The need for foundations has been known since the Middle Ages, when
wooden piles were used. However, until 1855 no set rules were laid down as
to the type of foundation that should be used in dwellings; indeed, there was
no compulsion to use any at all!
The Metropolitan Building Act introduced in that year said that dwellings
should rest on solid ground. Just after this Act three partially built houses
collapsed with dire consequences. The result was the formulation of bye-laws
effective from 6 October 1879, which provided for walls to have concrete
foundations at least 9 inches (225mm) in thickness.
Earlier foundations were not always badly designed, as many older properties
testify. Even with todays reinforced concrete design, failure still occurs due
to circumstances beyond the designers control.
There are many variations of the types of foundation to be found in older
property:

a complete absence in the modern sense;

spreading the load with stepped brick footings (a method used to

spread the load by -brick offsets, the bottom course being twice the
width of the wall; this practice was common but is seldom used
today);

a type of strip footing of an inferior form of lime concrete, usually

with stepped brickwork as well (found in later buildings) (Figure 7).
FIGURE 7 Development of foundations

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3.2 Modern types

In modern practice, five types of foundation are commonly found. These are:

concrete strip;
reinforced concrete;
narrow strip;
shortbore piles;
rafts.

Strip

This is the most common form of foundation. It comprises a concrete strip

not less than 150mm thick with sufficient width to spread the load. This
width can be calculated from tables which appear in the Building
Regulations.
Where the strip is wider than the wall, the thickness of the concrete must be
at least equal to that of the projection from the wall face, as shown in Figure
8.
FIGURE 8

The reason for this is that if concrete cracks under load, it will do so at 45
the projection accommodates this without reducing the effective area over
which the load is spread.
British Standard 882 (withdrawn, but cited in the Building Regulations)
prescribes what concrete mix to use for strips, this being 50kg of cement to
0.1m of fine, and 0.2m of coarse aggregate. A stronger mix may be used
but not a weaker one (i.e. more cement may be employed but not less).

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Stepped foundations

On a sloping site, foundations should be horizontal and in the form of steps.

These steps should overlap each other by at least 300mm and never less than
the thickness of the slabs used (Figure 9).
FIGURE 9 Stepped foundations

3.3 Reinforced concrete

Principles

When a strip of concrete is placed upon the ground and a load placed on it
there is a tendency for that strip to bend, as shown (exaggerated) in Figure
10.
FIGURE 10

It will be seen, say by experimenting with a soft rubber, that the bottom of
the beam is stretched (tension) and the top is compressed (compression).
Concrete is structurally quite strong in compression but very weak in tension,
so on the stretched side of the beam some additional strengthening is
required.
This strengthening is usually in the form of steel bars transversely as well as
longitudinally placed in the strip. Ideally, these bars should be situated at the
very outside edge of the strip. In practice this is not possible, as the bars
would be too susceptible to corrosion, so it is usual to have a cover of 50
75mm of concrete over the bars.
The size and spacing of bars can be calculated, but usually the main
reinforcement bars are 12mm diameter mild steel rods spaced from 150mm
to 225mm apart, and the longitudinal bars some 450mm to 900mm apart.

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Wide strip provides extra spread for the load of the building and should have
both transverse and longitudinal reinforcing bars. The minimum cover of
concrete to these bars should be at least 50mm but is more commonly 75mm
(Figure 11).
FIGURE 11 Reinforced concrete wide strip foundation

With foundations on clay ground, shrinkage and swelling may cause the slab
to tilt and the wall above it to crack.
The volume change varies with depth. Below 1m movement is not
significant, hence the minimum depth for foundations in clay is specified as
being 1m. However, near trees, severe shrinkage may occur and greater
depth may be required (Figure 12).
FIGURE 12 Movement of foundations due to clay shrinkage

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Narrow strip

This type of foundation is suitable for two-storey construction. Only a

narrow trench need be dug, normally by mechanical means, and usually
380mm wide by 1m deep; concrete is poured into this trench to fill it. This
method saves bricklaying and, as a consequence, soil removal, as no working
space need be provided for the bricklayers (Figure 13).
FIGURE 13 Narrow strip foundation

3.4 Piles
Short bore piles

This method avoids the need for excessive excavation in clay soils. A
shallow trench is dug; then, with an auger, or by mechanical means, short
cylindrical holes are dug in the ground. These cylinders are usually 250
350mm in diameter and vary between 1,800 and 3,650mm in length, the
former only being used in internal parts of the building. These holes are filled
with concrete and mild steel bars 19mm in diameter are inserted to a depth of
600mm. The bars are bent over at right angles to tie into the ground beam
when it is cast.
The piles are normally sited at corners, bases of chimney breasts, wall
junctions, and at 9001,800mm intervals to support the load in question
adequately.
Compressible material such as ash or clinker is put in a layer beneath the
ground beam to allow for any relative movement between the beam and the
clay (Figures 14A and 14B).

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FIGURE 14A Short bore piles

FIGURE 14B Short bore piles: worms-eye view

Raft

This is a reinforced concrete foundation slab covering the whole area of the
building and even extending beyond the outer walls. The reinforcing consists
of either mild steel bars at right angles to each other, or welded steel fabric.
The slab is often made thicker under walls.
Rafts are used where there is a likelihood of settlement or where the soil
bearing capacity is low. Their design is somewhat complex and is really an
expert job. Care has to be taken that the rafts strength is not unduly reduced
by holes for services, and provision for access to these services has also to be
considered. This type of foundation, however, is seldom found in use for a
domestic dwelling (Figure 15).

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FIGURE 15 Types of raft foundations

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3.5 Defects
The most serious foundation defects are due to subsoil movement and are
indicated by horizontal, vertical and diagonal cracks running along, down or
across external walls. There may be an overhang of brickwork at the dampproof course level, and/or bowing of the wall itself.
Subsoil movement, including a change of water content, can cause
foundation movement and hence failure (Figure 16).
FIGURE 16 Defects in foundations

4 Basements
4.1 Function
Basements were built into a lot of houses, particularly in the last century.
They were often used for the domestic activities of the household and hence
contained such rooms as sculleries, pantries, kitchens, coal stores and so on.
By virtue of the fact that they are below ground level, basements are
inherently damp.
However, some basements are constructed so as to overcome this problem by
having a light well between the external wall of the house and the soil,
provided that this well is adequately drained (Figure 17).
The degree of dampness can range from a small amount of efflorescence (salt
crystals forming on the walls), and dampness to the touch, to water seeping
through the walls.
The need for damp-proofing was appreciated in the nineteenth century and
builders utilised such things as engineers brick (a hard impervious brick) for
the outer part of the walls. Some houses had a vertical damp-proof course of
thin slate plastered into the walls.

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FIGURE 17 Separating well between basement wall and subsoil

4.2 Remedial work

If remedial work is carried out to rectify these damp conditions, the basement
can provide a very functional addition to a house. In order to make a
basement dry, a protective, waterproof layer is required, usually of asphalt.
The layer can be applied to existing properties to recover this commodious
area, the method being known as asphalt tanking.
Asphalt tanking

If a minimum of 600mm working space is available, then the vertical tanking

can be applied externally. With internal tanking, it is necessary to build a
loading wall to resist ground water pressure. Figures 18A and 18B illustrate
the basic methods for both internal and external tanking. The horizontal
asphalt is built up in three layers, totalling 48mm in the internal case, and the
vertical is also built up in three layers to make an overall thickness of 19mm.
The external tanking method shown in Figure 18A is for new properties and
the internal method shown in Figure 18B is for existing ones.

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FIGURE 18A External asphalt tanking (for new properties)

FIGURE 18B Internal asphalt tanking (for existing properties)

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4.3 Services
A pipe or service passing through the tanking creates a weak spot in the
damp protection and requires careful attention. Figures 19 and 20 indicate a
general approach for the case of little or no hydrostatic (ground water)
pressure, and one possible solution where hydrostatic pressure exists.
Little or no hydrostatic pressure
FIGURE 19

1. Pipe thoroughly cleaned

2. Pipe painted with bituminous paint
3. Asphalt sleeve placed in position.
With hydrostatic pressure present
FIGURE 20

Asphalt tanking is the most effective method of damp-proofing an existing

building, but it is very expensive and not always possible. Often less
permanent but less expensive approaches are taken. The following methods
are not really a complete solution, but they do provide a means of preventing
damp from damaging decorative wall finishes. They all work on the same
basic principles of providing a barrier between a damp wall surface and the
finish itself. All these methods work only when there is no hydrostatic
pressure (i.e. there is not a particularly high water table).

4.4 Alternative damp-proofing methods

Polyethylene lath

This is an inherently stable, high density polyethylene 0.5mm thick, formed

into a pattern of raised studs 8mm high, linked by reinforcing ribs. These
studs face the wall and create air channels. Polythene mesh is thermicwelded in the manufacturing process to the surface on one side. It provides a
rot-proof key for plaster and renders. The lath should be fixed with a small
air gap top and bottom, to permit circulation of air.

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The lath is fixed with polypropylene plugs. A variety of renders and plasters
may be used.
FIGURE 21 Polyethylene lath showing raised studs, air
channels and polythene mesh

Damp-proofing paints

These rely on their adhesive powers to form a damp barrier on the wall.
Various types exist; the most common are bituminous, plastic or epoxy-resin
based.
Careful preparation is needed, and old paint and efflorescence (salt crystals)
must be removed by thorough wire-brushing before the paints can be applied.
Bituminous paints are affected by oil-based decorative paints and will not
take water-based ones. It is usual, then, to take two courses of action: either
to paper over the bitumen and then decorate, or to put on three coats, the
third being blinded (covered) with sharp sand to provide a key for
rendering, and then rendered. These methods can also be employed for the
plastic type paints, although direct painting with water-based paints is also a
possibility. The epoxy types are only painted. Generally the paint-on types
of protection are not very important as they are usually forced away from the
wall surface by efflorescence or at a point of weak bondage. They do,
however, provide a good, reasonably priced alternative to tanking.