INDEX

CONTENT

SL
NO:

PAGE NO:

Introduction

Working cast & die

Die systems
Solid cast with individual die
Working cast with removable dies
wax pattern

9
10
14
26

Casting & investment

Spruing
Investing
Burn Out
Casting Procedure
Cleaning of the casting

36
36
41
46
46
52

Soldering

54

Trimming

54

Polishing & veneering

54

10

conclusion

55

14

References

56

4
5

INTRODUCTION

The fabrication of FPD is an indirect laboratory procedure as

direct fabrication in mouth is not possible. This commences
with receipt of impression from the clinician along with
necessary instructions for fabrication. The procedures involve
making a master cast on which the wax pattern is fabricated.
The pattern is invested and cast using the lost wax technique.
The metal restoration is then veneered with resin or ceramic as
required.

WORKING CASTS AND DIES

The ease with which a restoration is fabricated, and the

accuracy with which it will fit the mouth, are materially affected
by the cast. There are three requirements for good casts
They must be bubble free, especially along the finish lines
of the prepared teeth.
All portions of the cast must be distortion free.
The casts must be trimmed to insure access for carving
wax pattern margins.

DEFINITIONS
DIE
It is the positive reproduction of the form of a prepared
tooth in any suitable substance
The die is a model of the individual prepared tooth on
which the margins of the wax pattern are finished.

WORKING CAST
The working cast is the cast that is
mounted on an articulator

IDEAL REQUIREMENTS OF A DIE

 Reproduce the preparation exactly

All surfaces should be adequately duplicated
Avoid voids in the margins
Adequate access to margin is imperative
Adequately rigid

IDEAL REQUIREMENTS FOR DIE MATERIAL

Accurate
Dimensionally stable
Setting expansion and contraction, variations in response
to change in temperature need to be minimum
It should reproduce the fine details
Strong and durable
Withstand the carving and finishing procedures
The color should

contrast that of the wax to ease the

manipulation
Economical
Easy to use

CLASSIFICATION OF DIE MATERIALS

1. Inorganic materials
4

 die stone based on calcium sulfate hemihydrate eg:

velmix
Dental cement zinc silicophosphate
Ceramic materials
2. Metallic materials
Dental amalgam
Metal sprayed die
Electroplated die Cu plated , Ag plated
3. Polymeric materials
Self cure acrylic
Epoxy resin
4. Composite materials
ELECTROPLATED DIES
Electroplated dies are the ones that are produced when
an impression material is electroplated .When a die is
made

in

this

manner

this

process

is

known

as

electroforming.The impression materials which can be

electroplated are impression compound and elastomeric
materials
The types of dies are- Copper plated dies
- Silver plated dies
ADVANTAGES
5

 No dimensional changes occur during electro deposition of

a metal
It reproduces the impression accurately
The die is tough and has good strength characteristics

CAST & DIE SYSTEMS

1) Working cast with removable die

v.

i.

Straight dowel pin

ii.

Curved dowel pin

iii.

Di-lok tray

iv.

Pindex system

Accutrak

2) Working cast with separate die

3) DVA model system
4) Zeiser model system

SOLID CAST WITH INDIVIDUAL DIE

(MULTIPLE POUR TECHNIQUE)
6

Here, two casts are poured from a single impression and

one cast is sectioned and used as a die and the other is not
sectioned and is used as the working cast. The wax pattern is
prepared on the die and later transferred to the working cast.
Advantages
Ease of fabrication
Maintains fixed and immovable relationship between the
abutments
Easier to obtain physiologically harmonious restoration
contours when fabricating wax pattern.
Disadvantages
Wax pattern should be transferred from one to the other.
Can be used only with elastomeric impressions

IMPRESSION POURING
Use a small instrument to carry stone to the impression of
the prepared tooth Place a small amount of stone on the side of
the impression above the preparation, and vibrate it until stone
reaches the "bottom" (occlusal surface) of the preparation .Add
stone and vibrate until all the teeth in
the arch are filled. Stone is added to
the impression so that the base of the
set stone will be 1 inch. Allow the
poured impression to set for at least 1
hour.
7

DIE PREPARATION
Carefully separate the poured cast from the impression.
Wet the cast thoroughly before trimming excess stone from the
working casts on the model trimmer. Trim the cast from which
the die is made on a model trimmer to remove all excess stone
around the prepared tooth. The handle of the die should be
slightly larger in diameter than the preparation and octagonal
in cross section. The handle should parallel the long axis of the
tooth. Use a pear-shaped acrylic bur to trim the die "apical" to
the finish line of the preparation. Begin final trimming of the die
with a sharp no. 25 blade.
The die is smoothened below the finish line with the
discoid end of a tanner carver.

The prepared finish line on the die should be highlighted

with a sharp Colorbrite red pencil.

Ditching or trimming the die defines the position of the

margin and acts as a guide to gingival contour when the
restoration is being waxed.
8

 Excessive trimming does not give the correct emergence

profile and may lead to an over-contoured or bulky crown.

Thickness of die hardener are:

Cyanoacrylates: 1.0 to 2.5um
Acrylic lacquers: 4.0 to 10um
Used to prevent abrasion of die surface by waxing
instruments during the fabrication of the wax pattern.
Luting agent space
The ideal space for the cement is suggested at 20 - 40m
for each wall. So the internal diameter of the crown may
be 40 - 80 m larger than the prepared tooth.
There needs to be space otherwise the restoration will not
seat properly.
DIE SPACER
Applied to die to increase cement space between axial
walls of prepared tooth and restoration. Formulated to
maintain constant thickness. Available as a paint on or pen
type applicators. Die spacer is needed to provide space for
the luting agent (cement) during cementation of the
finished crown. When applying the die spacer over the
preparation leave the area 1mm above the margin line
free of spacer. For close adaptation of the crown and
cement (or luting agent). Prevent disintegration and
dissolution of the luting agent at the margin.

10

WORKING CAST WITH REMOVABLE DIES

In these the die is an integral part of working cast but can
be removed to facilitate fabrication & finishing of restoration.

REQUIREMENTS OF REMOVABLE
DIE SYSTEM
Dies must return to their exact
original positions.
Dies must remain stable, even
inverted.
Cast containing the dies must be easy to mount on an
articulator.

ADVANTAGES
Wax patterns or copings need not be removed from their
respective dies when they are transferred to the working
cast.
Eliminates discrepancies between a separate die and
working cast that may be caused by impression distortion
or deterioration between pours, or by a cast and die made
from separate impressions that are not identical.

11

 Eliminates discrepancies that can occur when the die is

coated with a relief agent and the working cast is not, or
when they are coated with different thicknesses.

DISADVANTAGES
Risk of introducing an error in the pattern if the die does
not reseat accurately in the working cast.

DOWEL PIN
A metal pin used in stone casts to remove die sections and
replace them accurately in the original position (GPT8)
TYPES OF DOWEL PINS
Single dowel
Double dowel
Two separate dowels
Curved, single dowel pin
Tapered, flat-sided brass dowel pin
Flat-sided, stainless steel dowel pin
Horizontal contact tracks and vertical
ribs

STRAIGHT DOWEL PIN

12

Brass straight dowel pin is used commonly for many

years.

Resists

horizontal

displacement.

Removable

die

facilitates wax up and ceramic build up.

No special equipment required. But need technical skill.

METHODS OF REPOSITIONING DIE

Several

methods

can

be

employed

to

allow

the

repositioning of a die in its working cast. Most of these devices

can either be oriented in the impression before it is poured
(prepour technique) or attached to the underside of a cast that
has already been poured (post- pour technique).
TECHNIQUE
The brass dowel pin is one of the most accurate dowel
types in terms of resisting horizontal displacement and the
second lowest in vertical deviation of four types of
removable dies.
A dowel pin is positioned over each prepared tooth in the
impression.
Place a dowel between the arms of a bobby.

Push a

straight pin between the arms of the bobby pin and into
the impression material on both the buccal and the lingual
surfaces of each tooth to have a dowel pin placed over it.
Stabilize the dowel in the bobby pin.

13

 Pour die stone into the impression, filling the impressions

of the teeth and covering the knurled end of the dowel
pin.
The pin should parallel the long axis of the preparation.
When the stone is hard and dry, use a saw frame with a
thin blade
There should be a cut on the mesial and distal side of each
die, and the cuts should taper toward each other slightly
from occlusal to gingival.
Take the die from the cast and trim away excess stone
gingival to the finish line.
Complete the trimming of the die with a no.25 blade in the
laboratory knife and then mark the finish line with the red
pencil.
Repeat the procedure for each die on the cast.
(This type of dowel also can be cemented into holes drilled into
the flat underside of a cast that has already been poured- Post
pour technique.)

CURVED DOWEL PIN

To install pin before pouring the impression, use finger
pressure to insert tip of dowel into large opening of
position bar.

14

 Hold the bar faciolingually, so that

head of the dowel is 1-2mm into the
proposed area of impression.
The tail of dowel extends facially;
however

if

the

tooth

is

linguoversion, turn it towards lingual

side for easy removal.
Insert a straight pin into one of 3
holes into the facial aspect of bar
and

into

the

facial

flange

of

impression and another pin into lingual flange through

lingual holes of bar.
The dowel should not touch the impression and its head
should be parallel to long axis of prepared tooth or teeth.
This procedure is repeated for all abutments and pontic
areas.
One pin is placed near the center of each segment of
unprepared teeth, this wall help in removal of segment for
better access of gingival wax pattern.
Impression is poured with die stone until it covers heads of
dowel. This will fill the impression about 4 mm above
gingival finish line.
The straight pins and positioning bar are removed as soon
as stone is set.

15

 To assist in orienting each large segments of unprepared

teeth, cut a 2mm deep hole on either side of each dowel
with a large acrylic bur.
Petrolatum is applied on stone and also an exposed part of
dowel for easy separation from the base.
Impression is boxed, allowing the tails of the dowels to
extend slightly through the heat softened wax.
Fill the boxed impression with dental stone. The dowel
should be covered by at least 2mm of stone.
After the stone has hardened, make vertical saw cuts on
either side of each die.
A die is removed by pressing the dowel
TO PLACE THE DOWELS AFTER THE CAST HAS BEEN
MADE.
Pour the impression with die stone to form a horseshoe
shaped working cast.
Trim the bottom of cast flat to level 10mm from the necks
of teeth. This is done because thin cast are easy to saw
and short dowels are more stable than larger ones.
Drill a 5mm deep hole in the bottom of the cast directly
under the center of each prepared tooth, pontic area, and
segment containing unprepared teeth. This can be made
with 2mm diameter drill in hand piece or drill press.
Clean the dowel holes, insert the curved dowel pin
properly and then adjusted for proper fit.
16

 Cement the dowels into holes one at time with placing a

drop of cyanoacrylate cement into each hole.
The head of a curved dowel is seated into the holes.
Seat the heads completely with tail pointing facially.
Then same procedure of pouring base and preparing dies
is repeated

PINDEX SYSTEM
(Coltene/Whaledent,Mahwah,NJ
In the pindex system a reverse drill press is used to create
a master cast with dies that can be removed and replaced
repeatedly with great precision. The impression is poured
without positioning and attaching dowel pins beforehand. The
machine accurately drills parallel holes from the underside of
trimmed cast.
Pour the impression, adding approximately 20mm of
stone.

17

 Wet the cast prior to trimming

Then trim the bottom of the
cast, resting the heels on the
table of the trimmer.
It should sit perfectly flat on a
tabletop,

and

its

thickness

must be a minimum of 15mm.

Periphery of the cast should be
trimmed.
Remove any excess stone in
the palate/tongue area with an
arbor band on a lathe.
The lingual border of the cast
should taper slightly toward the
base to facilitate removal of the
dies from the cast later.
The faciolingual width -20mm.
Use a pencil mark the desired
location

of

the

pins

on

the

occlusal surfaces of the teeth or

preparations.
Place the prepared cast on the
worktable and align the first
pencil mark with the illuminated dot from the light beam
director.

18

 Using both hands, exert firm

downwards

pressure

on

the

cast with thumbs.

Raise the handle bar with slow,
even pressure and the drill
assembly

moves

upwards

cutting the pinholes.

When proper depth is achieved,
red light goes off.
Same

procedure

is

repeated

with each mark.

For better results, cast is made
slightly damp to prevent dust
formation.
Compressed air and brush is
used

to

remove

debris

from

holes.
The pin holes are refined with hand reamer.
Cyanoacrylate cement is placed
on the pins prior to cementing
the pin tips.
Shorter pins are placed before
the long pins in lingual or palatal
holes and long pins in the facial
holes.

19

 White sleeves are placed on the long pins and gray

sleeves on the short pins.
The bottom of the cast is lightly coated with the
petrolatum.
Gray sleeves are blocked with small amount of molten wax
to prevent the sleeve from filling with stone when
secondary base is added.
Strip of utility wax along the ends of the long pins to
facilitate removal of the dies later.
A palatal or tongue filler is made
of boxing wax.
The filler is seated to the cast.
Boxing wax is applied around the
cast.
Base is poured with the die stone.
When stone becomes hard, the cast is seated in the base
former.
Saw cuts are premarked with the pencil.
Then dies are sectioned from the underside.
It may also be sectioned from the occlusal aspect.

20

 After the die are sectioned, trim

them in a conventional manner.
Mark the finish line with red
pencil.
Apply

die

hardener

and

die

spacer.
Then place the completed cast
on the articulator and then cast
is ready for fabrication of the
wax pattern.

DI-LOK TRAY SYSTEM

A snap apart plastic tray with internal orienting grooves

and notches is used to reassemble working cast and dies.

21

TECHNIQUE
The cast should be poured in a U shape, with no stone in
the center building it up to 2.5cm. (1.0 inch)
A lingual side of the cast base is trimmed with an arbor
band.
Horizontal grooves are cut in the base to for retention.
When stone has set for 1 hr, separate it from impression.
Cast is trimmed in horseshoe configuration to fit in Di-lok
tray and the buccal border is tapered towards base with
arbor band.

Soak the base of cast with water for 5 min.

Pour the base in tray, until of it is filled

Seat the cast on tray; in such a way that cervical line of
the prepared teeth should be approximately 4mm above
the level of base.
Wipe off the excess stone.
22

 Allow the stone to set until it is hard and dry .

To complete the dies, the cast must be removed from the
tray.
Disassemble the tray by lifting the back up, and then slide
the buccal segment forward.
Then with a saw frame and a thin saw blade, cut between
the prepared tooth and the adjacent tooth.
The saw cut should start in the interdental papilla area
and extend downward on a very slight taper.
The occlusal saw cut should extend three-quarters of the
way through the stone base.
Use finger pressure to break the die and attached teeth
from the cast.
Remove excess stone gingival to the finish line with a
pear-shaped acrylic bur.
Then cast and dies are reassembled in the tray.
Then the cast and tray mounted on the articulator.
When the stone has set, the articulated cast in the Di-lok
tray is ready for the fabrication of the wax pattern.

ACCUTRAK SYSTEM

23

A removable die system that is a

modification of a plastic tray with
internal

orientation

grooves

and

notches. Pour the impression in die

stone, with a minimum base of 20 mm.
After the stone has set, remove the
cast from the impression and trim it to
a height of 15 mm and a faciolingual width of 10 mm on a
model trimmer and arbor band. The trimmed cast should fit
loosely in the tray. Score the base of the die stone. Mix stone
and vibrate it into the assembled tray. Seat the trimmed cast
with a jiggling motion until the cervical areas of the teeth are
approximately 5.0 mm above the edge of the tray. Remove
excess stone and allow the stone to set until it is hard and dry.
Next the tray is disassembled to allow separation of the die(s).
Use a saw to separate the die from the base of the cast to
avoid damage to the interproximal finish lines. The saw cut
should extend through the interdental papillae and stop 1.0 mm
short of the interproximal finish line. Use finger pressure to
break the die and attached teeth from the cast by squeezing
the two pieces together. Repeat the process to separate the die
from the teeth attached to it. Trim the die and mark the finish
line with a red pencil. Apply a minimum of two coats of cement
spacer to the die, staying 1.0 mm away from the finish line.
Then reassemble the die and working cast in the tray.-

24

DIVESTMENT TECHNIQUE
Investment material itself is used for making a die.
Die is directly incorporated into the investment with the
pattern.
This technique is mainly used for patterns that are not
removable from the die.

WAX PATTERNS

wax

form

is

the

positive

likeness of an object to be
fabricated
The wax pattern is a precursor
of the finished cast restoration
that will be placed on the prepared tooth.
Careful handling and manipulation of the wax pattern is
required to obtain an accurate casting

METHODS OF FABRICATING A WAX PATTERN

There are two accepted ways of fabricating a wax pattern:

25

1. The direct technique, in which the pattern is waxed on the

prepared tooth in the mouth
2. The indirect technique, in which the pattern is waxed on a
stone cast made from an accurate impression of the prepared
tooth
The indirect technique offers the advantage of allowing
most of the procedure to be done away from the chair. It affords
an opportunity for visualization of the restoration and ready
access to waxing the margins .Because it allows a technician to
fabricate the pattern, the indirect technique has become the
most popular means of fabricating cast restorations.

WAX USED IN FABRICATING A WAX PATTERN

Inlay casting wax is used for all

wax patterns. Inlay wax consists
of:
Paraffin (40% to 60%).
Dammar resin to reduce flaking
Carnauba resin, ceresin, candelilla wax to raise the
melting temperature.
Dyes to provide color contrasts
Type I Wax:
- Formulated for making intraoral wax patterns
26

- Medium hardness wax

- Resist flow at mouth temperature
Type II Wax
- Formulated for fabrication of wax patterns extraorally
- Softer wax; Have a slightly lower melting point
- Resist flow at room temperature
Requirements of a good inlay wax:
1. It must flow readily when heated, without chipping,
flaking, or losing its smoothness.
2. When cooled, it must be rigid.
3. It must be capable of being carved precisely, without
chipping, distorting, or smearing.

WAX PATTERN FABRICATION

Armamentarium
1. PKT (Thomas) waxing instruments (no. 1, no. 2, no. 3, no.
4, and no 5}
2. Beavertail burnisher
3. No. 7 wax spatula
4. Sable brush 5. No. 2 pencil

27

6. Laboratory knife with no. 25 blade

7. Cotton pliers 8. Bunsen burner
9. Inlay casting wax
10. Zinc stearate powder
11. Die lubricant

Coping Fabrication
The first step in making a wax pattern
is the fabrication of a thin coping, or
thimble, on the die. The coping is usually
made of wax, but heated resin sheets also
can be used for this purpose. Vacuumadapted polystyrene2 and pressure-formed
polypropylene3 have been used to make
metal-ceramic crown patterns. This type of
coping also can be used with partial veneer crowns4 and
even pin-retained castings. If the coping is made on a
separate die, it then will be transferred to the articulated
working cast, where it will serve as the foundation for the
axial contours and occlusal morphology to be added there. If
it is formed on a removable die, the die is replaced in the
master cast.
Die lubricant applied to die surface
Flow wax onto die from well heated large waxing
instrument or die dipped in molten wax
Proximal areas extra bulk for grip and prevent distortion
28

 Trim excess wax

Axial Contours
The proximal contacts and the facial and lingual axial
contours of the wax pattern should be established at this
time.
The

proximal

contacts

of

posterior teeth are located in the

occlusal

third

of

the

crowns,

except for the contacts between

the maxillary first and second
molars, which are located in the middle third.
The contact must be more than
just a point occlusogingivally, but
it must not extend far enough
cervically to encroach on the
gingival embrasure.
The axial surface of the crown cervical to the proximal
contact should be flat or slightly concave. There can be no
encroachment upon the interdental papilla.
A flat contour may be the optimum shape because it is
easiest to floss.

29

 Overcontouring

of

the

proximal surfaces apical to

the
these

contacts
areas

by

making

convex

produce

will

severe

inflammation of the gingiva.

The proximal contacts are

located slightly to the facial
aspect of the middle of the
posterior teeth, except for
the

contacts

between

maxillary first and second molars, which are generally

centered faciolingually.
As a result, the lingual embrasures are slightly larger than
the facial embrasures.
Contacts that are too narrow allow fibrous foods to wedge
between the teeth, and contacts that are excessively wide
faciolingually do not adequately deflect food from the
gingival tissue.
The height of contour on the facial surface of posterior
teeth usually occurs in the cervical third.
It also occurs in the cervical third on the lingual surface of
maxillary pre- molar and molars; but on mandibular teeth,
it occurs in the middle third.

30

 The facial contours of both maxillary and mandibular

posterior teeth extend approximately 0.5 mm beyond the
outline of the root at the cemento-enamel junction.

The amount of lingual prominence differs between

maxillary and mandibular teeth. It is 0.5 mm on maxillary
teeth and mandibular first premolars, about 0.75 mm on
mandibular second premolars, and nearly 1.0 mm on
mandibular molars.11

Emergence Profile: The part of the axial contour that

extends from the base of the gingival sulcus past the free
margin of the gingiva has been described as the
emergence profile by Stein and Kuwata.

Occlusal Morphology
Waxing of the occlusal surface is deferred until the axial
surfaces are essentially complete.
During centric closure in the normal dentition, the lingual
cusps of the maxillary posterior teeth and the buccal
cusps of the mandibular posterior teeth make contact with
the occlusal fossae or the marginal ridges of the opposing
teeth. They grind food like a mortar during mastication
and are called functional cusps.
On the other hand, the buccal cusps of the maxillary
molars and the lingual cusps of the mandibular molars do
not contact the opposing teeth. These cusps act like the
rim of a pestle to prevent food from overflowing, and they
31

protect the buccal mucosa and the tongue by keeping

them away from the functional cusps. Since these cusps
do not make direct contact with opposing teeth, they are
called nonfunctional cusps.

The occlusal scheme:

Classified by the location of the occlusal contact made by
the functional cusp on the opposing tooth in centric
relation.
Cusp-Marginal Ridge Arrangement
The cusp-marginal ridge relation is the type of occlusal
scheme in which the functional cusp contacts the opposing
occlusal surfaces on the marginal ridges of the opposing pair
of teeth, or in a fossa. Therefore, a cusp-marginal ridge
occlusion is basically a one-tooth-to-two-teeth arrangement.
Since the majority of adults exhibit the cusp-marginal ridge
type of occlusion, it is an occlusal pattern widely utilized in
daily practice.

Cusp-Fossa Arrangement
The cusp-fossa relation is an occlusal pattern in which each
functional cusp is nestled into the occlusal fossa of the
opposing tooth. It is a tooth-totooth

arrangement.

Although

considered to be an ideal occlusal

32

pattern, it is rarely found in its pure form in natural teeth. Each

centric cusp should make contact with the occlusal fossa of the
opposing tooth at three points. The contact points are on the
mesial and distal incline and the inner facing incline of the
cusp, producing a tripod contact.

FABRICATION
Placement of cusp wax cones, marginal ridge & triangular
ridge.
Position and height of functional cusps occlusal scheme
Position and height of non-functional cusps- curve of spee
& curve of Wilson

33

CONE PLACEMENT
CUSPAL RIDGES SUPERIMPOSED

CONES, CUSPAL & TRIANGULAR RIDGES SECONDARY AND

MARGINAL
RIDGES

Margin Finishing
- Remove the pattern from
the working cast and place
it

back

on

the

freshly

lubricated die.
- Make certain that the red
line on the die finish line is
34

still distinct Smooth any roughness on the axial surfaces

with a slightly warm beavertail burnisher.
- Remelt the entire marginal periphery with a hot PKT no. 1,
making sure that the wax is melted through to the die.
- This will result in a depression or "trough" 1 to 2 mm wide
and extending along the entire length of the marginal
periphery of the wax pattern.
- Eliminate the depression by adding
wax with a hot beavertail burnisher.
- Carve the excess wax almost to the
margin with a PKT no. 4.
- Finish "carving" the margin with a warm beavertail
burnisher.

Polishing of wax pattern

Carefully inspect the margin by
turning the die so that the margin
can

be

direction.

viewed
To

from

finish

gingival

the

occlusal

grooves, hold a very small cotton

pellet in cotton pliers and dip it in
the die lubricant. Run the pellet carefully through the
grooves with the cotton pliers. To finish the axial surface use
a cotton roll, one end of which has been dipped in die
lubricant. Rub this end across the surfaces to be smoothed.

35

CASTING & INVESTMEMT

Arriving at a completed casting after fabrication of a wax
pattern involves three steps:
(1) Investing surrounding the wax pattern with a material that
can accurately duplicate its shape and anatomic features,
(2) Burnout removal of the wax pattern so that a mold is
created into which the molten alloy can be placed, and
(3) Casting introducing the molten alloy into the previously
prepared mold

SPRUING
The process of attaching a sprue former/sprue pin to the
wax pattern is called as spruing
SPRUE The channel or hole through which plastic or
metal is poured or cast into a gate or reservoir and then
into a mould
SPRUE FORMER - A wax, plastic or metal pattern used to
form the channel or channels allowing molten metal to
flow into a mould to make a casting.
3 Basic requirements of sprue: Must allow the molten wax to escape from the mould.
Sprue must enable the molten metal to flow into the
mould with as little turbulence as possible.
36

 Metal must remain molten slightly longer than the alloy

that has filled the mould
Type of sprue
o Wax
o Metal
o Plastic
Sprue former diameter:
o The diameter of sprue should be equal to/greater than
the

thickest

portion

the

wax

pattern

to

prevent

shrinkage porosity.

Sprue former length:

o The length of the sprue former - it keeps the wax
pattern 6mm from the end of the ring
o Very short sprue : result in back pressue porosity in
casting at the junction of sprue and pattern.
o Very long sprue : sprue solidifies first leading to casting
shrinkage and incomplete casting

Sprue former position

o The ideal area- point of greatest bulk in the pattern.

37

o The point of attachment should permit stream of metal

to be directed to all parts of the mould without having
to flow opposite the direction of casting force
o Always on non-functional cusp
Sprue former direction
o Attached 45 degrees to the walls of mould, which
decreases the turbulence of molten alloy.
Attachment morphology
o The attachment of sprue former to the wax pattern
should

be

smooth

and

do

not

possess

pits

or

irregularities.
o

Irregularities produces tags of investment which is

prone for fracture by molten alloy leading to casting
failure.

Types of attachment
o Direct: A connector or reservoir bar is positioned
between the pattern and crucible former.
o Indirect: Multiple unit spruing using runner bar
Sprue shape
o The sprue former should be straight to reduce chances
of creating turbulence in molten metal entering the
mould.
o

High turbulence of alloy cause porosity

38

 Number of sprue:
o Usually a single sprue is used for small castings.
o

When two thick sections of a pattern are connected by

thin part of wax, 2 separate sprues should be attached
to each thick portion.

RESERVOIR
Reservoir is a small amount of additional wax which is
added to the sprue former near the junction of wax
pattern
It is used in direct spruing.
It prevents localized shrinkage porosity as the alloy in this
part solidifies last after the solidification of metal in mould

VENTING
Small auxiliary sprue /vents are applied to thin wax
pattern to improve the quality of casting. Usually 18gauges sprues are used.

It is indicated with extremely

thin/thick casting to produce nonporous castings.

They help in escape of gases during casting and ensure
beginning of

solidification in critical areas by acting as a

heat sink.

39

 It is attached to the wax pattern directly opposite to larger

sprue former.

CRUCIBLE FORMER
The base to which a sprue former
is attached while the wax pattern
is being invested in refractory
investment;

convex

rubber,

plastic or metal base that forms a

concave

depression

or

crucible

in

the

refractory

investment.(GPT8)

CASTING RING
Casting ring is a metal tube in which a refractory mould is
made for casting dental restorations.(GPT8)
Casting rings are used to confine the fluid investment
around the wax pattern while the investment sets.

It also allow the hardened investment to be safely

handled during burnout and casting

RINGLESS CASTING SYSTEM

Plastic ring with rubber crucible formers are used. The ring
is conical in shape with tapering walls. As the investment sets
40

the investment is tapped out of ring. Then burnout is done

without

casting

ring,

this

causes

greater

expansion

to

compensate for metal shrinkage

CASTING RING LINER

They are commonly used to produce expansion of mould.
Various materials used as ring liners ---1. Asbestos liner
2. Cellulose (blotting paper) liner
3. Ceramic ring liner
4. Combination of ceramic and cellulose ring liner

41

INVESTING PROCEDURE

Surrounding the wax pattern with a material that can

accurately duplicate its shape and anatomic features

Investment material
Requirements:
Precise reproduction of wax pattern.

Sufficient strength to withstand burnout and casting.

Sufficiently porous to allow escape of gases.

Expand enough to compensate solidification shrinkage of

alloy.

Shrinkage Compensation
Four mechanisms to produce mould expansion:
1. Setting Expansion of Investment
2. Hygroscopic Expansion
3. Wax Pattern Expansion
4. Thermal Expansion
1. Setting Expansion
Occurs as a result of normal gypsum crystal growth in air.
About 0.4% but partly restricted by metal investment ring.

42

2. Hygroscopic Expansion :
1.

Immerse investment-filled ring in water bath at

38C.

2.

Water in bath replaces water used by hydration

process

3. space between growing crystals is maintained

4. crystals grow longer
5. Outward expansion of mould.
6. About 1.2 to 2.2% max with expandable ring.
3. Wax Pattern Expansion
While investment is still fluid, expansion occurs when wax is
warmed above temperature at which it was formed.
4. Thermal Expansion
When investment is heated in burnout oven.

Types
Gypsum bonded
Phosphate bonded
Silica bonded
Gypsum Bonded Investments
Use with alloys that melt below 1,000C.

Used with Type I, II, III gold alloys

43

 Phosphate Bonded Investments

Much stronger and can withstand much higher burnout
temps For alloys with casting temp > 1150C
Silicate Bonded Investments
Base metal alloys such as chrom-cobalt and steel
A silica-bonded investment material can be heated up to
1200C
The reason is that these alloys melt at temperatures
ranging from 1250 1400

MIXING
Vacuum mixing

Hand mixing

The best method is vacuum mix and vacuum pour technique.

Advantages of vacuum mixing----1) Remove air bubbles & produce smooth castings
2) Increase tensile strength of investment
3)95% of castings free of nodules.
4) Removes all the gaseous by products of chemical reaction
of investment material

44

INVESTING OF GYPSUM BONDED INVESTMENT MATERIAL

Require very specific Water: Powder ratio.
A variation of only 1ml of H2O can significantly alter the
setting expansion & the character of the casting surface.
Increasing Water: Powder ratio makes investing process
easier but investment will lose strength, cause cracks to
occur during heating surface of casting inferiors.
After the casting ring has been filled with investment
material, any excess should be removed before the
material sets.
The filled ring is now set aside to allow the investment
material

to

complete

its

setting

reaction

&

the

accompanying setting expansion.

Setting is complete in 30-40min.
Hygroscopic technique is used.
Freshly filled investment ring is immediately placed into
water bath for 30min. & kept at 100F (38C).

INVESTING OF PHOSPHATE BONDED INVESTMENTS

Expansion of the mould cavity can be increased by-1) Increasing the no. of layers of asbestos or fibrous ceramic
lining the casting ring.

45

2) Increasing the special liquid: water ratio.

3) Increasing the total L: P ratio.
4) Placing the investment in contact with water during setting.
5) Burning out the mould at a higher temp.
Residual, hardened investment in an unclean mixing bowl
will greatly accelerate the set of newly mixed investment

Phosphate investment should not be mixed in an

apparatus that has been used for gypsum investment.
Residual gypsum will also accelerate the set & will break
down at temp. above 2400F(1300C) liberating sulfurous
gases that can be detrimental to the casting

Ammonia gas is given off during mixing, & it is important

to hold the mixed investment under the vacuum after
mixing ceases to dissipate some of this gas & thereby
reduce the incidence of bubbles adhering to the wax
pattern (this additional holding time will vary from 1545sec).
Initial set of the phosphate bonded investment is generally
rapid with the liberation of heat.
If burnout is not carried within 1-2hrs, the ring should be
stored in a humidor at 100% humidity, not soaked in water
since excessive hygroscopic expansion may result
Carefully grinding or scraping the shiny skin off the end
of investment just prior to burnout is advisable. This
removes a relatively impervious layer, opening the pores
46

of the investment & facilitating gas release as the alloy is

cast into the mould.

BURNOUT PROCEDURE

Removal of the wax pattern so that a mould is created into

which the molten alloy can be placed
Once the investment has set for an appropriate period
45min. it is ready for burnout.
A crucible former is then carefully removed.
It is advisable to begin the burnout procedure while the
mould is still wet, because water trapped in the pores of
investment reduces the absorption of wax & as water
vaporizes, it flushes wax from mould.

CASTING PROCEDURE
Introducing the molten alloy into the previously prepared
mold.
Casting of an alloy into the mould space uses 2 basic
requirements.
47

 Heat source to melt the alloy

Casting force to force molten alloy into mould
This can be done by use of following different type of
forceo Vacuum force
o Air or Gas Pressure
o Centrifugal force

Classification System for Noble Dental Alloy

High-noble alloys have a noble metal content of 60% or
greater. At least 40% of the alloy must be gold.
Noble alloys must be at least 25% noble metal.
Predominantly base alloys have a noble metal content of less
than 25%.
Melting temp of pure gold 1063c
Melting temp of gold alloy-924-960c
Melting temp of base metal alloy-1155-1304c

HEAT SOURCE:
Different types of materials and method are used as heat
source to melt alloy. Two basic modes are by using
1)

Torch flame-o Gas air

48

o Gas oxygen
o Air acetylene
o Oxygen acetylene.
o Hydrogen oxygen generator
2)

Electricity --

Zones of the blow torch flame:

1.Gas air torch:

49

Gas-air torch is used to melt conventional noble

metal alloys (used for inlays, crown and bridge)
whose melting points less than 1000c

2. Gasoxygen torch:
Used

to

melt

metal

ceramic

alloys

of

higher

temperature up to 1200c
The tip of torch is available as single orifice/multi
orifice.
The oxygen pressure is adjusted to

10-15 psi

50

3. Oxy-acetylene torch :
The actual production of flame can be done by adjusting
the pressure and flow of individual gases.
commonly advised pressure for acetylene nozzle is 3.5
N/cm2 and oxygen nozzle 7-10 N/cm2
one part of acetylene + 2 and half part of oxygen
For base metal alloy

CRUCIBLES
The Melting of alloy requires a crucible to act as a platform
on which the heat can be applied to the metal. There are
three

types

of

casting

crucibles available--o Clay

o Carbon
o Quartz
o Zirconia-alumina
The crucibles used with noble metal alloys should not be
used for melting base metal alloy
Clay crucibles are used with high noble and noble metal
alloys used for crown and bridges.

51

Quartz crucibles are recommended for high-fusing

alloys of any type of base metal alloys and palladium
alloys

Carbon crucibles for high noble crown and bridge and

also for higher fusing gold-based metal ceramic alloys.
Traditionally a wet lining of asbestos sheet was used
on

casting

crucible.

The

moistened

asbestos

sheet

provides a clean and good surface on which the alloy

could be melted.
Advantages is, prevent alloy contamination with oxides
and residuals that may be present in the crucible

Sufficient mass of alloy must be present to sustain

adequate casting pressure--o 6gm is typically adequate for premolar and anterior
casting
o 10gm is adequate for molar casting
o 12 gm is adequate for pontic

ELECTRICAL SOURCE
A)Electrical resistance It is used to melt ceramic alloys. Here the alloy is
automatically melted in graphite crucible.

Provides best means of temperature control. It is quite

convenient as compared to blow torch.
52

B)Electrical arc melting:

Is used to melt higher fusing alloys. It used to create an
electrical arc at the end of two electrodes. The apparatus
requires a high electrical input (30A).

CASTING MACHINES
Device for forcing the molten alloy into the mould under
pressure after wax has been eliminated
1. Air pressure casting machines
Alloy is melted in situ in crucible, followed by applied air
pressure.
Pressure of 10-15 psi
2. Centrifugal casting machine
Alloy is melted in a crucible, and
forced in to mould by centrifugal
force
3. Electrical resistance - heated casting machine
It is used to melt ceramic alloys. Here the alloy is
automatically melted in graphite crucible.
The crucible in the furnace is always against the casting
ring. So the metal button remain molten slightly longer
and ensures complete solidification.
4. Direct-current arc melting machine
Direct current is produce between two electrodes: the
alloys and the water cooled tungsten electrode.
53

 Temp between the arc rapidly increases to 4000C

alloy melts very quickly.
High risk of overheating of the alloy.
Damage

may

occur

even

after

few

seconds

of

overheating.

5. Induction melting machine

Metal is melted by an induction field that developed with

in the crucible surrounded by water- cooled metal tubing.

The electric induction furnace is a transformer in which an

alternating current flows through the primary winding coil
and generates a variable magnetic field in the location of
the alloy to be melted in a crucible

It is more commonly used for melting base metal alloys

not been used for noble alloy casting as much as other
machines

CLEANING OF THE CASTING

For gold crown & bridge alloys.
After casting has been completed, ring is removed &
quenched in water.

54

 Advantages:
Noble metal is left in an annealed condition for
burnishing & Polishing.
When water contacts hot investment, violent reaction
ensues. Investment becomes soft, granular & casting
is more easily cleaned.
Trimming is done from the button end of the ring.
Investment is being pushed out of the casting ring. The
mould is broken open. Investment is removed from the
casting. Care must be taken to avoid damaging the margin
Sandblasting: The casting is held in a sandblasting
machine to clean the remaining investment from its surface.
Pickling: Surface of the casting appears dark with oxides
and tarnish. Such a surface film can be removed by a
process called Pickling. Best method for pickling is to place a
casting in a dish & pour acid over it. Heat the acid but don't
boil it.

55

o 50% Hydrochloric acid

o Sulfuric acid
o Ultrasonic devices
Gold and palladium based metal ceramic alloys and base
metals, these alloys are not generally pickled. Pickling solution
should be renewed frequently, since it is likely to become
contaminated Precious alloys (Gold-Platinum-Palladium) can be
soaked with hydroflouric acid. Nickel Chromium should never be
placed in acid because of high reactivity.

SOLDERING
Act of uniting two pieces of metal/alloy by a filler metal
whose fusion temperature is lower than the metal/alloy to
be soldered
Use
Joining

individually

casted

retainer

-fabricating connectors
Add proximal contact
Repair casting voids
Repair single piece FPD with poor seating

TRIMMING

56

and

pontic

 The

casting

is

trimmed,

shaped and smoothen with

suitable burs or stones.
The sprue is sectioned off
with a cutting disc.

POLISHING & VENEERING

Minimum polishing is required if all the procedures from
the wax pattern to casting are followed meticulously.
White stone ,rubber wheels, rubber disks, and fine grit are
included in the finishing and polishing agents
Done with ceramic or resin for aesthetics

CONCLUSION

The lab procedures and the technicians play a

major role in the success of a prosthodontics procedure.
The lab procedure starts from pouring the model till
finishing the restoration. All precautions should be
taken to make sure that the procedures are done
according to the prescribed methods, because any
mistake in the first step will only have a snowball effect
with a poor restoration at end.
57

58

REFERENCES

Fundamentals of Fixed Prosthodontics

3rd edition Shillingburg

Contemporary fixed prosthodontics

4th edition Rosentiel Land
Fujimoto

Phillips Science of Dental Materials

Glossary of prosthodontic terms
Textbook of prosthodontics - V Rangarajan

59