The transistor

In 1948 some work was carried out at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in America
that has changed our lives. This was the invention of the transistor by Shockley,
Brattain
and
Bardeen.
The transistor, basically a semiconductor triode, consists of a thin central layer of
one type of semiconductor between two relatively thick pieces of the other type.
The junction transistor can be of two types, as shown in Figure 1: pnp or npn.
The pnp transistor consists of a very thin piece of n-type material sandwiched
between two pieces of p-type, while the npn transistor has a central piece of ptype. The pieces at either side are called the emitter and the collector while the
central part is known as the base. The base is lightly doped compared with the
emitter and the collector, and is only about 3-5 m thick.

From now on we will consider only the npn transistor as it is now in more
common use in schools. The npn silicon transistor is connected into the circuit as
shown by Figure 2. The emitter-base junction is forward biased and the basecollector junction is reverse biased.

When the base-emitter voltage is 0.6 V current will flow through the transistor,
electrons flowing through the base from the emitter to the collector. No current
will flow without this base-emitter voltage, since it is needed to overcome the
potential barrier formed at the junction. Electrons flow into the collector,
although the base- collector junction is reverse biased because the base is very
thin.
You should see that the emitter current (I E) is the sum of the base current (IB)
and the collector current (IC):

Emitter current = Base current + collector current

IE = I B + I C
The collector current (IC) is usually over 99% of IE and IB is less than 1 per cent.
The name 'transistor' comes from the words 'transfer of resistance': the emitterbase junction is forward biased and therefore has a low resistance, while the
base-collector
is
reverse
biased
and
has
a
high
resistance.
The properties of the transistor described above lead us to consider it as a
current amplifier.
Student

investigation

A very small current, known as a leakage current will flow through the transistor
even if there is no supply to the base. This experiment is designed to investigate
how
the
leakage
current
varies
with
temperature.
Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 3, taking care not to let the transistor leads
get in the water. Slowly heat the water and record a set of values of leakage
current against temperature. Be sure to connect the transistor with the correct
polarity.
Suggest

why

the

current

varies

in

the

way

you

have

observed.

Plot a graph of your results and then use the transistor to measure the
temperature of your hand.

Example circuits with the npn transistor

For its basic operation, the circuit is set up as shown in Figure 4, and the value of
R is chosen so that the transistor is switched on, that is, the potential at the base
is at least 0.6 V.
Lamp L2 lights but L1 does not, showing that the collector current must be
much
larger
than
the
base
current.

If L1 is removed, however, L2 goes out because no potential is being applied to

the base.

The transistor as a switch

A transistor will not conduct (that is, no current will flow through from the
collector to the emitter) unless there is a also potential difference between the
emitter and the base of at least 0.6 V. This property enables the transistor to be
used as a switch: it is 'on' when the base-emitter potential difference is bigger
than
0.6
V
and
'off'
when
it
isn't.
If you consider the circuit in Figure 5, then when the transistor is off, that is,
there is no current flowing through it, the potential difference across the emittercollector (VCE) is high. As soon as the transistor starts to conduct this potential
difference
falls
to
very
close
to
zero
(Figure
6).
Therefore the output potential difference (VCE) is small when the input potential
difference (VBE) is large, and large when the input potential difference is small,
that is less than 0.6 V. This is the basic NOT logic gate circuit. (see the section on
Logic
gates
in
the
Foundation
level
for
a
further
treatment).
We will now consider two circuits in which the switching action of a transistor is
important.

(a) Making a light come on in the dark

The circuit includes a light-dependent resistor (LDR), the resistance of which
changes with illumination. A table showing the variation for a light-dependent
resistor in common use is shown below.

The circuit used is shown in Figure 7. Since the resistance of the light-dependent
resistor varies so will the voltage drop across it, and therefore the potential at
the base will change.
The less light that shines on the LDR the higher its resistance, and therefore the
larger VBE will be. If this is above 0.6 V the transistor switches on, and so when
the LDR is in darkness the transistor conducts and the lamp L comes on.

(b) Moisture detector

The circuit is shown in Figure 8. If the base circuit is broken at XY then
the transistor is off, but if the probes XY are placed in a conducting liquid the
transistor switches on. This could be used as a liquid level indicator for a blind
person, the lamp L being replaced by a buzzer and the two contacts being placed
at a suitable level in a cup or bowl.

Saturation

We have seen that when VBE >0.6 V the transistor switches on, and Figure 9
shows that as VBE is increased above this value VCE falls and reaches a steady
value (close to zero) when VBE is about 1.4 V. Any further increase in V BE does not
change
VCE.
In this condition the transistor is said to have bottomed or be saturated.
Student

investigation

Design and build a simple fire alarm based on the switching action of a
transistor
and
using
a
thermistor
as
a
heat
sensor.
Explain how you would be able to vary the temperature at which the alarm is
triggered.

Student

investigation

Design and build a circuit based on the switching action of a transistor that will
close
the
contacts
of
a
relay
after
a
certain
time.
(Note that a diode should be connected in parallel with the relay to protect the
transistor from the large e.m.f. induced in the relay coil when the current falls to
zero when the circuit is switched off.)