Journal of Testing and Evaluation, May 2006, Vol. 34, No.

3
Paper ID JTE100121
Available online at: www.astm.org

Danilo Cambiaghi,1 Andrea Magalini,2 Giorgio Ramorino,3 Theonis Ricc,4 and David Vetturi5

High Frequency Dynamic Testing of Rubbers and

Rubber to Metal Devices

ABSTRACT: This paper develops a methodology to test and evaluate the dynamic properties of elastomeric compounds and of rubber to metal
devices by means of an electrodynamic shaker. The dynamic tensile and shear moduli of elastomeric materials and the dynamic stiffness of rubber
components are evaluated under different conditions of excitation frequency, temperature, dynamic deformation, and static load.
KEYWORDS: rubbers, dynamic behavior, nonlinearity

Introduction
Associated with automotive industrial applications, vibrations are
considered unwanted dynamic motions. They often lead to material
fatigue, decreased component durability, structural damage and
failure, deterioration of systems performance, and increased noise
level. The traditional approach to reduce these motions consists in
installing vibration isolators between the source of disturbance and
the component to be protected. These isolators should also provide
sufficient damping to decrease vibration levels at resonance.
The ability of elastomers to provide damping makes these materials a perfect choice for applications in vibration isolators; so
rubber to metal devices are increasingly adopted for several specialized industrial applications and, specifically, they are widespread in the automotive field engine mounts, shock absorbers,
torsional dampers, etc.. As a consequence of the viscoelastic nature of rubbers, their dynamic and thermal behavior is significantly
dependent on frequency and temperature. Further, due to the high
content of carbon black, usually incorporated together with other
additives within the compounds, to optimize the mechanical performances of the rubber components, the dynamic behavior of these
materials is markedly nonlinear. Moreover elastomers properties
depend on the amount of the applied static load static prestrain or
equally preload.
This complex behavior has to be considered to estimate accurately the dynamic performances of damping rubber to metal devices; so a thorough knowledge and characterization of the dynamic properties of elastomeric compounds is needed in designing
such components.
Manuscript received September 21, 2005; accepted for publication January
12, 2006; published online March 2006.
1
Full Professor of Machine Design, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica,
Universit degli Studi di Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
2
Research Engineer, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica, Universit degli
Studi di Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
3
Research Engineer, Dipartimento di Chimica e Fisica per lIngegneria e per
i Materiali, Universit degli Studi di Brescia, via Valotti 9, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
4
Full Professor of Materials Science and Technology, Dipartimento di
Chimica e Fisica per lIngegneria e per i Materiali, Universit degli Studi di
Brescia, via Valotti 9, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
5
Associate Professor of Mechanical and Thermal Measurements, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica, Universit degli Studi di Brescia, via Branze
38, 25123 Brescia, Italy.

Moreover in the industrial practice, although a lot of information about rubber is available, when a specific rubber compound is
considered, it is usually difficult to find useful data for mechanical
design.
It is furthermore to be noted that, after obtaining the required
data by testing on materials, such data can hardly be handled by
usual computing tools. Especially the commercial FEM-FEA finite elements modeling and analysis technologies can give only
partially satisfactory results if they are applied to materials which
are strongly nonlinear, hysteresis affected, and temperature sensitive. Although such problems can be managed at academic level, it
seems that at industry level they will prevent a practical efficient
use of FEA for rubber items modeling. So, a research program,
aimed at acquiring the missing knowledge and developing the
means needed for the design of the aforementioned mechanical
items, was started. It may be basically thought of as constituted by
the three following different but closely related stages:
Experimentation: to be conducted both on materials and
components.
Modeling: performed by discrete particle based and concentrated parameters models.
Simulation: numerically conducted on the developed
models, applied on real geometry components, involving
materials data pointed out during the experimental
characterization.
The final aim of the research is to provide a practical method
which could be used to optimize the design of rubber to metal components by numerical simulations, making use of experimental data
describing the dynamic performances of the elastomeric compounds.
This contribution is intended to focus on the adopted experimental and data evaluation procedures, showing results and proposing some hints for discussion. The description of the developed
modeling and simulation approach is given in 1.
The testing method described in the present work, inspired by
developments in the field of dynamic characterization of shock absorbers 2, is based on the use of an electrodynamic shaker and the
methodology described is a refinement of procedures previously
proposed by the authors since 1997 3,4. This testing technique
adopts a configuration which was standardized by ISO in 1997
5,6 and refined by standards in 2002 7. However, the present

Copyright 2006 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.

2 JOURNAL OF TESTING AND EVALUATION

FIG. 2Block diagram of the resilient elements testing configuration as proposed by ISO 10846.

FIG. 1Storage full line and loss modulus dashed line of a vulcanized filled
rubber SBR containing 70 phr carbon black as a function of temperature,
measured by a commercial DMTA for a strain amplitude of 0.7 % at a frequency
of 10 Hz measures by the authors.

approach extends beyond the content of these documents, providing proper procedures for the characterization of the high frequency 10 Hz dynamic properties of soft materials as well as
components at varying conditions for frequency, dynamic deformation amplitude, and static preload.

For a linear viscoelastic material, E and E depend only on temperature and frequency and are independent from the level of deformation. By contrast, in the case of filler reinforced elastomers, due
to the high content of filler, the dynamic behavior of such materials
appears markedly nonlinear. This implies that E and E show a
very strong deformation amplitude dependence, a phenomenon
which often is referred to as the Payne effect 10,11. This effect
typically consists of a decrease of the storage modulus by increasing the strain amplitude, associated to an increase or a maximum of
the loss modulus. The strain amplitude dependence of the dynamic
moduli shows that the loss modulus reaches a maximum at about
the same strain amplitude of the inflection point in the storage
modulus and then falls to lower values as the strain amplitude increases. These effects, typically observed in the range of strain amplitude between 0.01 % and some 10 %, strongly increase by increasing the filler loading.
In order to quantify the dynamic behavior of filled rubbers, it is
necessary to produce data with varying frequency, temperature and
strain amplitude within the ranges of interest. Moreover also static
load static prestrain has to be considered as a quantity influencing
the materials properties 12,13.

Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Elastomers

For viscoelastic materials, elastic and dissipative properties are
usually described in terms of the dynamic or complex modulus that
is denoted as E* tensile mode, being
E* = E + iE

E is the in-phase modulus, corresponding to the component of

stress in phase with strain, and it is called storage modulus. E relates to the elastic character of the material and the energy storage
that takes place during the deformation. E is the out-of-phase
modulus, corresponding to the component of stress out-of-phase
with respect to strain, and is denoted as loss modulus; it takes into
account the viscous character of materials and the hysteresis dissipated energy. The phase angle between stress and strain is normally considered by its tangent, denoted as loss factor and defined
as
tan =

E
E

Typical results of E and E versus temperature for filled rubbers, measured by a commercial DMTA dynamic mechanical thermal analyzer produced by Polymer Lab Ltd UK, are shown in
Fig. 1.
The determination of storage and loss modulus in wide ranges
of frequency master curves is usually obtained by empirical
frequency-temperature reduction of experimental data, acquired at
different temperatures and in limited ranges of frequency 8. From
data such as those of Fig. 1 obtained at different frequencies within
the range between 0.3 Hz and 30 Hz, the authors determine dynamic moduli master curves extending over several decades of frequency i.e., between 104 and 1010 Hz at the reference temperature
of 25 C 9.

Methods
Testing Equipment and Configuration
International standards relate to laboratory testing of vibroacoustic
transfer properties of resilient elements vibration isolators such as
the aforementioned vibration damping devices for automotive applications. The testing configuration proposed by these documents
can be outlined by a block diagram Fig. 2. According to Fig. 2, the
system consists in three blocks, representing a vibration source, a
group of n tested resilient elements, and a receiving structure, respectively. It is assumed that a point of contact contact area which
vibrates as the surface of a rigid body between the vibration source
and the resilient system and between the resilient system and the
receiving structure, exists.
A vector containing three orthogonal forces and three orthogonal moments F and a vector containing three orthogonal displacements and three orthogonal rotations u are associated to each contact point. The tested resilient system operates by a certain
unknown transfer function, which may be described by a suitable
stiffness or transmissibility matrix 5, giving the relationship between force-displacement input F1 , u1 and output F2 , u2
couples. Each one of the vectors contains 6 n elements. This general approach allows individuating two different kinds of testing
techniques. The first one is the so-called direct method 6; in this
approach either the input displacement, velocity or acceleration,
and the blocking output forces dynamic forces on the output side
of the tested resilient device which results in zero displacement output are measured. The second one is the so-called indirect method
7; it consists of a measurement of a resilient element vibration
transmissibility for displacement, velocity, or acceleration, with
the output element loaded by a known mass. Reference is made

CAMBIAGHI ET AL. ON HIGH FREQUENCY DYNAMIC TESTING OF RUBBERS

FIG. 3Layout of the adopted experimental configuration.

here only to one direction vibrations; in this case F and u vectors

have only one component.
The approach adopted in the experimentation Fig. 3 follows
the layout of the indirect method proposed by standards. An electrodynamic shaker is used as a vibrations source; a proper fixture,
containing the resilient elements under testing, is connected to the
vibrating table and suspends a compact body, having a known mass,
constituting the receiving structure. The transmissibility function
relating the resilient elements assembly can be estimated as the
ratio of the output signal in terms of displacement or acceleration
and the input signal, measured on the suspended mass and on the
vibrating table, respectively.
Several fixtures have been designed to test both rubber samples
and specific rubber to metal devices. With reference to this second
situation, the configuration of the used fixture is a consequence of
the geometry of the specific tested devices. For tests concerning the
determination of material properties, two different fixtures have
been designed for axial and shear mode testing, in order to provide
the estimation of tensile modulus E* and shear modulus G*, respectively.
For the axial mode Fig. 4a, six rubber cylindrical samples
30 mm diameter and 25 mm thickness in unstrained conditions
are installed in the fixture to suspend a central inertial steel disc
between two plates, which are fixed to each other and rigidly joined
to the vibrating table. The distance between these two plates is
given by the length of three stiff bars connecting them by screws. In
this case the suspended mass is about 4 kg. Static strain is imposed
to rubber specimens by the interposition of a proper number of steel
discs of known thickness between their interface sections and the
fixed plates, resulting in a static compression of the specimens. Fixtures for shear mode testing Fig. 4b make use of rubber samples
3 mm thickness and 30 30 mm square section cut from sheets,
mounted by a mass of about 4 kg.
The fixtures have been designed with the aim to have a uniform
strain distribution within the rubber specimens. This point can be
achieved only when the undesired vibration modes inertial mass
rotations result to be outside the interesting frequency ranges.

FIG. 4Fixture for axial a and shear b testing on rubber samples.

Figure 5 shows the adopted measurement chain, including an

electrodynamic shaker and the fixtures joined to its vibrating table.
Acceleration measurements are performed by inductively coupled
plasma ICP accelerometers on the vibrating elements of the
mounted system typically a couple of accelerometers are placed
on the vibrating table, while another couple of accelerometers is
suitably installed on the suspended inertial mass. Temperature
measurements are also performed. Acceleration data referred to the
suspended mass are taken as control signals to realize a closed retroaction loop involving the shaker; these analog signals are so sent
to a PC and controller system passing through an analog to digital
converter ADC. Acceleration profiles are designed by means of

FIG. 5Layout of the measurement chain.

4 JOURNAL OF TESTING AND EVALUATION

dedicated software on PC. These profiles are typically defined to
obtain an almost constant level of deformation on rubber specimens during tests. Digital signals are sent by PC to a power amplifier passing through a digital to analog converter DAC; thus a
suitable power drive signal is provided for the electrodynamic
shaker. The retroaction is performed by the controller, which compares acquired acceleration signals to the defined acceleration profiles.
Tests are typically performed in the range of frequency of
20 500 Hz, imposing sinusoidal sweeps as input functions for the
vibrating system.
In the field of the dynamic characterization of resilient components, a similar testing system was also adopted by Thomson, introducing significant developments to what is presented by standards
14. More recently, other authors referred to the application of a
similar testing configuration 15.

Data Analysis
The dynamic properties of a resilient system are described by a
complex matrix given in terms of transmissibility or stiffness. If a
unidirectional vibration is considered, for a single degree of freedom model applied to the analyzed system, this matrix is simply
reduced to a single complex number. The complex values K* and
H* denote stiffness and transmissibility, respectively. These quantities assume proper values in different conditions of frequency, temperature, dynamic strain amplitude, and static load.
The time history of the vibrating table is described by the function xt, where t identifies the time variable. The vibration of the
suspended mass is denoted by a function yt. If a sinusoidal wave
is considered as exciting signal for the vibrating table and under the
hypothesis that the tested system is linear and stationary, also the
vibration of the suspended mass can be described by a sinusoidal
function in the time domain; specifically both the sinusoidal waves
x and y have the same frequency . In these conditions, each
quantity of interest can be conventionally handled as a complex
number having a module which is equal to the sinusoid amplitude
and the same phase of the sinusoidal function. As well as displacements x and y also velocities and accelerations are described by
sinusoidal functions in the time domain and they can be handled as
complex quantities.
Imposing the dynamic equilibrium for the suspended mass, the
following equation can be written, meaning that viscoelastic forces
have to equal inertial actions:
m Y + K*Y X = 0

Where m identifies the mass amount for the suspended inertial

body, Y is a complex number indicating the acceleration of the inertial mass, X and Y are complex quantities relating to the displacements of the vibrating table and of the suspended mass respectively,
and K* is the complex stiffness of the interposed resilient system.
By this approach the dynamic equilibrium equation, which is written as an ordinary second order equation in the time domain, is
reduced into a complex equation written in the frequency domain.
In sinusoidal mode the following relationship Eq 4 can be
written, where denotes frequency expressed in radians per second:
Y = 2 Y
By introducing Eq 4 into Eq 3, Eq 5 is found.

H* =

K*
Y
= *
X K m 2

From Eq 5 an expression for K* is obtained as follows:

K* =

m 2 H*
H* 1

Thus, in fixed conditions of frequency, dynamic strain amplitude, temperature, and static load, if the transmissibility function
H* is experimentally measured, the complex stiffness K* is estimated by Eq 6 for the tested system.
For the test equipment described in the previous section, accelerations concerned with the vibrating table and the suspended mass
are acquired in the time domain. These acceleration time histories
are computed by means of the least squares method or by the Fourier transform in order to associate to each signal a proper complex
number according to the signal spectrum. At a certain frequency
the ratio of the two founded complex accelerations Y / X gives
the system transmissibility H*. So at each frequency the complex stiffness K* is calculated by Eq 6. This complex number
relates to the complex stiffness of the whole tested resilient system;
if this is constituted by n resilient components, the complex stiffness to be assigned to each one of these is K* / n. Starting from
complex values of stiffness, the complex moduli can be estimated
using the following Eqs 7 and 8:
E* =

1
K* l

n
A 1 + 2 s2

K* l

n
A

G* =

Equation 7 refers to the case of axial tests n is equal to 6,

whereas Eq 8 to shear mode tests n is 2. In both these equations l
identifies the specimen thickness and A identifies the area to be associated with the specimen sections for unstrained conditions. In
Eq 7, s is a shape factor 16, which is given by
s=

d
4l

where d is the diameter of the cylindrical specimen.

The present approach to determine complex transmissibility and
material dynamic moduli is based on the hypothesis of linearity and
stationariness here intended as the persistency of the dynamic
properties of a system during vibration phenomena. By contrast,
the analyzed systems are neither linear nor stationary, because of
the nonlinear viscoelastic properties of elastomers. As a consequence, when a sinusoidal wave is assigned as excitation function
for the shaker vibrating table, the tested systems show a nonsinusoidal output. Nevertheless this acquired discrete signal is approximated to a sinusoid having the same frequency as the input vibration by means of the least squares method. By this way two
sinusoidal waves are known as input and output in terms of vibrations at a certain frequency and then the above approach is applied.
The approximation to linearity is needed to define a measurand
stiffness or transmissibility. The amount of the related approximation in the estimation of material moduli may be evaluated in a
qualitative mode by the calculation of the coherence function between the input and the output signals, and quantitatively by an estimation of variances concerned with the parameters considered for
the application of the least squares method 17.

CAMBIAGHI ET AL. ON HIGH FREQUENCY DYNAMIC TESTING OF RUBBERS

For the dynamic characterization of filled rubbers, inspecting

different amplitude levels of the imposed dynamic deformation is
required, due to the material nonlinearity. In this case the linear approximation is adopted to estimate the complex tensile or shear
modulus of the material at each deformation level. Thus complex
moduli values are obtained, for each frequency, in different conditions for the imposed dynamic strain amplitude, allowing the assessment of the intrinsic material nonlinearity; so, paradoxically
nonlinearity is estimated by means of a linearization process. A further analysis may be performed, once discrete data are acquired in
the time domain. The FFT fast Fourier transform algorithm can be
used to find the spectrum for x and y. Nonlinearity can be assessed
keeping into account spectral amplitudes concerned with higher
harmonics 18.
It is worthwhile to note that the present technique has been proposed as an alternative way to traditional approaches such as tests
performed by hydraulic actuators or by DMTA.
Test machines using hydraulic actuators allow supporting high
values loading forces, but they cannot give the possibility to reproduce high frequency excitations. So, it does not appear suitable for
the proposed application where loads are not very high while, by
contrast, frequency can reach values of some hundreds hertz.
Moreover the electrodynamic equipment allows, in a closed loop
configuration, for the control of the reproduced wave form suitably:
The vibrating board is excited at a fixed frequency with a relatively
narrow uncertainty level associated to its value and related to the
wave form distortion itself. By contrast, hydraulic equipment can
reproduce only approximated sinusoids and so the vibrating table is
excited by a signal containing a certain number of harmonics together with the desired one.
As for DMTA, this equipment performs tests in a narrow frequency range 0.01 30 Hz. Data concerning frequencies outside
this band are extrapolated according to frequency-temperature reduction scheme 8. So data are not directly measured but come
from theory. By contrast the shaker based method allows us to obtain directly the experimental values by inspecting effectively frequencies and temperatures.

Results
Typical results for transmissibility H* in terms of modulus H and
phase angle evaluated by ES electrodynamic shaker, for the
shear test system, are shown in Fig. 6 as a function of frequency.
Values of the resonance frequency r and the transmissibility
amplitude at the peak were also measured for different dynamic
strain amplitudes. It appears that a strain increase basically produces a decrease of the resonance frequency r and of the value
of transmissibility at the peak.
These findings are shown in Fig. 7, where the resonance frequency and the value of transmissibility at the peak are plotted as
functions of the dynamic strain amplitude, indicating the intrinsic
nonlinear behavior of the elastomeric material constituting the testing system.
Data of stiffness K* in terms of modulus K and loss phase
= a tan 2K / K, measured by ES, are shown in Figs. 8 and 9a,
versus frequency and prestrain, respectively. It can be noted that
rubber shows its typical dynamic stiffening effect. Data have to be
considered as reliable only at frequencies higher than 100 Hz, due
to the presence of resonance phenomena in the range 50 80 Hz;
specifically, at frequencies lower than the resonance frequency, the
H* module amount is almost 1, thus a computation of the K* value

FIG. 6Transmissibility and phase evaluated by ES testing vs frequency for the

shear test system containing samples of vulcanized rubber SBR filled with
70 phr carbon black. Data at 25 C and 0.2 % strain amplitude.

does not make sense, as it is noticeable from Eq 6.

It emerges that the values of both stiffness and loss phase increase with increasing prestrain on the whole range of the explored
frequency, with minor effects in the loss phase. The storage modulus E evaluated from such data is shown in Fig. 9b. Tests show
that this effect is more pronounced when observed in tensile deformation mode than when observed in shear deformation mode, as it
is also discussed in 19.
Further it was found that the frequency dependence of K and is
clearly unaffected by the application of static strains.
Nonlinearity effects were observed and studied also by experiments performed by a commercial DMTA in shear mode. Tests
were conducted at different levels of strain amplitude, and at each
strain level the shear storage modulus G was evaluated. G values
evaluated at the frequency of 5 Hz are reported in Fig. 10 as a function of strain amplitude. Nonlinear effects are clearly shown by the
decrease of G, by increasing strain amplitude. For the same material dynamic experiments in shear mode at different levels of strain
amplitude were also performed by ES. The values of G at the frequency of 140 Hz are also reported in Fig. 10. As expected, the
values of G obtained at high frequency 140 Hz are higher then
those evaluated at low frequency 5 Hz in the overall range of ex-

FIG. 7Resonance frequency open symbols and value of transmissibility at

the peak full symbols evaluated by ES testing as a function of strain amplitude
for the axial test system containing rubber samples same materials as in Fig.
6.

6 JOURNAL OF TESTING AND EVALUATION

FIG. 8Stiffness dashed line and loss phase full line as a function of frequency for the same testing device as in Fig. 6, measured by ES for a strain
amplitude amount of 0.2 % at room temperature.

plored strain amplitudes. It has been shown 9 that data obtained

by DMTA at different temperatures and frequencies and reduced at
high frequency according to the temperature-frequency superposi-

FIG. 10Storage modulus G of a vulcanized rubber SBR filled with 70 phr

carbon black as a function of dynamic strain amplitude. Data obtained by a
commercial DMTA full symbols at a frequency of 5 Hz and by an ES open
symbols at a frequency of 140 Hz.

tion scheme 8, are in very good agreement with those obtained

directly by ES experiments.
By a first analysis uncertainties associated to dynamic moduli
values can be estimated in about 10 % of these, but it has to be
noted that the definition of a suitable uncertainty calculation
method is still in progress within the presented research.
The results obtained as a whole show that the proposed experimental approach appears reliable and very promising to characterize the dynamic properties of rubbers at high frequencies, not accessible by commercial DMTA techniques.

Concluding Remarks

FIG. 9a Stiffness full symbols and loss phase open symbols and b storage modulus E concerning the testing system containing prestrained rubber
samples same materials as in Fig. 6 as a function of prestrain; measurements
obtained by ES for strain amplitude 0.2 %, at 25 C and 160 Hz.

An experimental method adopting an electrodynamic shaker as an

excitation source is proposed to test the dynamic properties of elastomers and viscoelastic components. This technique reproduces the
scheme of the indirect testing approach as described in the international standards for resilient components testing. It allows exploring different conditions for the quantities influencing the materials
performances such as excitation frequency, dynamic deformation,
static prestrain.
Specific data analysis procedures have been developed to evaluate experimental results, to point out complex stiffness values for
components and material complex moduli. So a wide database
about materials complex moduli can be constructed. This is used
for the calibration of suitable discrete models which are adopted for
the numerical simulation of the dynamics of rubber to metal viscoelastic devices 1.
Further developments should regard the possibility to execute
tests with random exciting functions; this improvement will allow
us to investigate deeper the materials nonlinearity, through the
analysis of upper harmonics contributions in the output signal spectrum.
A further development should concern the definition of a proper
method for the estimation of uncertainty associated with material
moduli and component stiffness measurements. At this point several uncertainty contributions have to be considered. The work is in
progress.

CAMBIAGHI ET AL. ON HIGH FREQUENCY DYNAMIC TESTING OF RUBBERS

Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to CFGomma SpA Brescia, Italy and to
Pirelli SpA Milan, Italy for their support.

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