Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Set sequences
[
\
An =
Acn.
(i)
n=1
(ii)
n=1
n=1
An
!c
Acn.
n=1
\
[
An
k=1 n=k
ISABEL MOLINA
(ii) lim An =
An
k=1 n=k
k nk
k nk
[
An.
(i) If {An} , then lim An =
n
ISABEL MOLINA
n=1
An.
n=1
3
n=1
An =
(n, n) = IR.
n=1
\
\
1
1
= [0, 1].
,1 +
lim Bn =
Bn =
n
n
n
n=1
n=1
Problems
1. Prove Proposition 1.1.
2. Define sets of real numbers as follows. Let An = (1/n, 1] if
n is odd, and An = (1, 1/n] if n is even. Find lim An and
lim An.
3. Prove Proposition 1.2.
4. Prove Proposition 1.3.
5. Let = IR2 and An the interior of the circle with center at
the point ((1)n/n, 0) and radius 1. Find lim An and lim An.
6. Prove that (lim An)c = lim Acn and (lim An)c = lim Acn.
7. Using the De Morgan laws and Proposition 1.3, prove that if
{An} A, then {Acn} Ac while if {An} A, then {Acn}
Ac.
ISABEL MOLINA
1.2
Structures of subsets
A probability function will be a function defined over events or subsets of a sample space . It is convenient to provide a good structure to these subsets, which in turn will provide good properties
to the probability function. In this section we study collections of
subsets of a set with a good structure.
Definition 1.6 (Algebra)
An algebra (also called field ) A over a set is a collection of
subsets of that has the following properties:
(i) A;
(ii) If A A, then Ac A;
(iii) If A1, A2, . . . , An A, then
n
[
Ai A.
i=1
(i) A;
(ii) If A A, then Ac A;
(iii) If A1, A2 . . . is a sequence of elements of A, then
n=1 An A.
Thus, a -algebra is closed under countable union. It is also
closed under countable intersection. Moreover, if A is an algebra,
a countable union of sets in A can be expressed as the limit of
n
[
Ai. Thus, a
an increasing sequence of sets, the finite unions
i=1
ISABEL MOLINA
In the following we define the space over which measures, including probability measures, will be defined. This space will be
the one whose elements will be suitable to measure.
Definition 1.11 (Measure space)
The pair (, A), where is a sample space and A is an algebra
over , is called measurable space.
Problems
1. Let A, B with A B = . Construct the smallest algebra that contains A and B.
2. Prove that an algebra over contains all finite intersections
of sets from A.
3. Prove that a -algebra over contains all countable intersections of sets from A.
4. Prove that a -algebra is an algebra that is closed under limits
of increasing sequences.
5. Let = IR. Let A be the class of all finite unions of disjoint
elements from the set
C = {(a, b], (, a], (b, ); a b}
Prove that A is an algebra.
1.3
Set functions
n
[
Ai
i=1
n
X
(Ai).
i=1
[
X
An =
(An).
n=1
n=1
ISABEL MOLINA
i=1 pi
[
An.
A
n=1
10
ISABEL MOLINA
11
Ai
(Ai).
i=1
i=1
[
X
An
(An).
n=1
1.4
n=1
Probability measures
12
A = {, {head}, {tail}, }.
[
X
P
An =
P (An).
n=1
ISABEL MOLINA
n=1
13
A = {, {head}, {tail}, },
define
P1() = 0, P1({head}) = p, P1({tail}) = 1 p, P1() = 1,
where p [0, 1]. This function verifies the axioms of Kolmogoroff.
Example 1.11 For the experiment (b) described is Example 1.8,
with the measurable space (, P()), define:
For the elementary events, the probability is
P ({0}) = 0.131, P ({1}) = 0.272, P ({2}) = 0.27,
P ({3}) = 0.183,
P ({4}) = 0.09, P ({5}) = 0.012, P ({6}) = 0.00095, P ({7}) = 0.00005,
P () = 0,
P ({i}) = 0, i 8.
14
(i) P () = 0;
(ii) Let A1, A2, . . . , An A with Ai Aj = , i 6= j. Then,
!
n
n
[
X
P
Ai =
P (Ai).
i=1
i=1
(iii) A A, P (A) 1.
(iv) A A, P (Ac) = 1 P (A).
(v) For A, B A with A B, it holds P (A) P (B).
(vi) Let A, B A be two events. Then
P (A B) = P (A) + P (B) P (A B).
(vii) Let A1, A2, . . . , An A be events. Then
!
n
n
n
[
X
X
Ai =
P (Ai)
P (Ai1 Ai2 )
P
i=1
i=1
i1 ,i2 =1
i1 <i2
n
X
i1 ,i2 ,i3 =1
i1 <i2 <i3
[
X
P
An
P (An).
n=1
ISABEL MOLINA
n=1
15
Example 1.12 Consider the random experiment of selecting randomly a number from [0, 1]. Then the sample space is = [0, 1].
Consider also the Borel -algebra restricted to [0, 1] and define the
function
g(x) = P ([0, x]), x (0, 1).
Proof that g is always right continuous, for each probability measure P that we choose.
ai A
16
(1.1)
Then F is an algebra.
n
X
P (ai, bi].
i=1
17
18
1.5
m
X
P ({aij }) =
j=1
m
.
k
19
Result
n
head tail
10
0.700 0.300
20
0.550 0.450
30
0.467 0.533
100
0.470 0.530
1000
0.491 0.509
10000 0.503 0.497
100000 0.500 0.500
0.900
0.800
0.700
Frec. rel.
0.600
cara
cruz
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
100000
ISABEL MOLINA
20
n
10
20
30
100
1000
10000
20000
0
0.1
0.2
0.13
0.12
0.151
0.138
0.131
1
0.2
0.4
0.17
0.22
0.259
0.271
0.272
2
0.2
0.15
0.33
0.29
0.237
0.271
0.270
3
0.2
0.05
0.23
0.24
0.202
0.178
0.183
Result
4
0.1
0.2
0.03
0.09
0.091
0.086
0.090
5
6
7
0.1
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.012 0.002
0
0.012 0.0008 0.0001
0.012 0.00095 0.00005
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.4
0.35
X=0
X=1
X=2
X=3
X=4
X=5
X=6
X=7
X=8
X=9
X=10
X=11
0.3
Frec. rel.
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
-0.05
n
0.250
0.200
0.150
0.100
0.050
0.000
0
10
12
14
Nmero de accidentes
ISABEL MOLINA
21
0.9
0.8
0.7
Frec. rel.
0.6
(0,35]
(35,45]
0.5
(45,55]
(55,65]
>65
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
ISABEL MOLINA
22
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1
Intervalo de pesos
ISABEL MOLINA
23
1.6
nIN
inf {fn},
nIN
lim fn,
assuming that they exist, are also measurable. If they are infinite,
instead of IR.
we can consider IR
The following result will gives us a tool useful to check if a
function f from (1, A1 ) into (2, A2) is measurable.
Theorem 1.3 Let (1, A1) and (2, A2) be measure spaces and
let f : 1 2. Let C2 P(2 ) be a collection of subsets that
generates A2, i.e, such that (C2) = A2. Then f is measurable if
and only of f 1(A) A1, A C2.
Corolary 1.1 Let (, A) be a measure space and f : IR a
function. Then f is measurable if and only if f 1(, a] A,
a IR.
The Lebesgue integral is restricted to measurable functions. We
are going to define the integral by steps. We consider measurable
ISABEL MOLINA
24
functions defined from a measurable space (, A) on the measurable space (IR, B), where B is the Borel -algebra. We consider
also a -finite measure .
Definition 1.25 (Indicator function)
Given S A, an indicator function, 1S : IR, gives value 1 to
elements of S and 0 to the rest of elements:
1, S;
1S () =
0,
/ S.
i=1
ISABEL MOLINA
i=1
25
ISABEL MOLINA
26
Theorem 1.6 Let f1, f2, g1, g2 be non-negative measurable functions and let f = f1 f2 = g1 g2. Then,
Z
Z
Z
Z
f1 d f2 d =
g1 d g2 d.
Proposition 1.10 A measurable function f is Lebesgue integrable if and only if |f | is Lebesgue integrable.
ISABEL MOLINA
27
Proposition 1.11 If a function f : IR IR+ = [0, ) is Riemann integrable, then it is also Lebesgue integrable (with respect
to the Lebesgue measure ) and the two integrals coincide, i.e.,
Z
Z
f (x) d(x) =
f (x) dx.
A
since Q
l is numerable.
Proposition 1.12 (Properties of Lebesgue integral)
R
(a) If P (A) = 0, then A f d = 0.
ISABEL MOLINA
28
Af
d =
Z
X
n=1
An,
n=1
f d.
An
29
by
R an integrable function g (i.e., |fn(x)| g(x), x IR, with
g(x) d < ). Then,
Z
Z
fn d =
f d.
lim
n
Theorem 1.9 (H
olders inequality)
Let (, A, ) be a measure space. Let p, q IR such that p > 1
and 1/p + 1/q = 1. Let f and
g be measurable functions
with |f |p
R
R
and |g|q -integrable (i.e., |f |pdR< and |g|q d < .).
Then, |f g| is also -integrable (i.e., |f g|d < ) and
Z
1/p Z
1/q
Z
|f g|d
|f |p d
|g|q d
.
|f |p d
+
|g|p d
.
30
Distribution function
x+
31
32
PF ({ai}).
ai x
= F (an) F (an).
Theorem 1.12 (Radon-Nykodym Theorem)
Given a measurable space (, A), if a -finite measure on (, A)
is absolutely continuous with respect to a -finite measure on
(, A), then there is a measurable function f : [0, ), such
that for any measurable set A,
Z
f d.
(A) =
A
33
where is the Lebesgue measure. The function f is called probability density function, p.d.f.
Proposition 1.16 Let f : IRR IR+ = [0, ) be a Riemann
+
integrable
function
such
that
f (t)dt = 1. Then, F (x) =
Rx
f (t)dt is an absolutely continuous d.f. whose associated p.d.f
is f .
All the p.d.f.s that we are going to see are Riemann integrable.
Proposition 1.17 Let F be an absolutely continuous d.f. Then
it holds:
(a) F is continuous.
ISABEL MOLINA
34
Rb
a
f (t)dt, a, b
Random variables
ISABEL MOLINA
35
X 1 (B) A,
36
1 if IN ;
0 if = 0.
37
ISABEL MOLINA
38
if 0, 1
/ B;
0,
P1X (B) = 1/2, if 0 or 1 are in B;
1,
if 0, 1 B.
In particular, we obtain the following probabilities
X P1X ({0}) = P1(X = 0) = 1/2.
X P1X ((, 0]) = P1(X 0) = 1/2.
X P1X ((0, 1]) = P1(0 < X 1) = 1/2.
Example 1.19 For the probability function P introduced in Example 1.11 and the r.v. X1 defined in Example 1.17 (b), the probability induced by the r.v. X1 is described as follows. Let B B
such that IN B = {a1, a2, . . . , ap}.
PX1 (B) = P (X11 (B)) = P1((IN {0})B) = P ({a1 , a2, . . . , ap}) =
p
X
i=1
39
P ({ai
Definition 1.43 A r.v. X is said to be discrete (absolutely continuous) if and only if its d.f. FX is discrete (absolutely continuous).
Remark 1.8 It holds that:
(a) a discrete r.v. takes a finite or countable number of values.
(b) a continuous r.v. takes infinite number of values, and the
probability of single values are zero.
Definition 1.44 (Support of a r.v.)
(a) If X is a discrete r.v., we define the support of X as
DX := {x IR : PX {x} > 0}.
(b) If X continuous, the support is defined as
DX := {x IR : fX (x) > 0}.
X
PX {x} = 1 and DX is finite
Observe that for a discrete r.v.,
or countable.
xDX
Example 1.20 From the random variables introduced in Example 1.17, those defined in (a) and (b) are discrete, along with X2
form (c).
For a discrete r.v. X, we can define a function the gives the
probabilities of single points.
Definition 1.45 The probability mass function (p.m.f) of a discrete r.v. X is the function pX : IR IR such that
pX (x) = PX ({x}), x IR.
ISABEL MOLINA
40
41
IR
IR
IR
DX
XZ
n=1
g dPX
{an }
g(an)P {an}.
n=1
ISABEL MOLINA
42
IR
IR
IR
IR
43
V (X).
k
X
i=0
(1)ki
k
i
ki i.
ISABEL MOLINA
44
E[g(X)]
.
k
ISABEL MOLINA
45
IR
IR
where PX is the probability induced by X and F is the d.f. associated with PX . Observe that the only thing that we need to obtain
is the d.f., F , that is, is uniquely determined by F .
Remark 1.12 Observe that:
R
R
R itx
IR e dF (x) = IR cos(tx)dF (x) + i IR sin(tx)dF (x).
Since | cos(tx)| 1 and | sin(tx)| 1, then it holds:
Z
Z
| cos(tx)| 1,
| sin(tx)| 1
IR
IR
Many properties of the integral of real functions can be translated to the integral of the complex function eitx. In practically
all cases, the result is a straightforward consequence of the fact
that to integrate a complex values function is equivalent to integrate separately the real and imaginary parts.
ISABEL MOLINA
46
t IR.
47
(it)n
n
X (t) =
,
n!
n=0
t (r, r),
= 0.
t=0
48
Then, if (t) is the c.f. of a r.v. X, the mean and variance are
equal to
(0)
(0)
2
E(X) = 1 =
= 0, V (X) = 2(E(X)) = 2 = 2 = 0.
i
i
But a random variable with mean and variance equal to zero is a
degenerate variable at zero, that is, P (X = 0) = 1, and then its
c.f. is
it0
(t) = E e
= 1, t IR,
which is a contradiction.
We have seen already that the d.f. determines the c.f. The
following theorem gives an expression of the d.f. in terms of the
c.f. for an interval. This result will imply that the c.f. determines
a unique d.f.
Theorem 1.21 (Inversion Theorem)
Let (t) be the c.f. corresponding to the d.f. F (x). Let a, b be
two points of continuity of F , that is, a, b C(F ). Then,
Z T ita
1
e
eitb
F (b) F (a) =
lim
(t)dt.
2 T T
it
As a consequence of the Inversion Theorem, we obtain the following result.
Theorem 1.22 (The c.f. determines a unique d.f.)
If (t) is the c.f. of a d.f. F , then it is not the c.f. of any other d.f.
Remark 1.14 (c.f. for an absolutely continuous r.v.)
If F is absolutely continuous with p.d.f. f , then the c.f. is
Z
Z
itX
eitxdF (x) =
eitxf (x)dx.
=
(t) = E e
IR
ISABEL MOLINA
IR
49
We have seen that for absolutely continuous F , the c.f. (t) can
be expressed in terms of the p.d.f. f . However, it is possible to
express the p.d.f. f in terms of the c.f. (t)? The next theorem is
the answer.
Theorem 1.23 (Fourier transform of the c.f.)
If F is absolutely
continuous and (t) is Riemann integrable in IR,
R
that is, |(t)| dt < , then (t) is the c.f. corresponding to
an absolutely continuous r.v. with p.d.f. given by
Z
1
f (x) = F (x) =
eitx(t)dt,
2 IR
where the last term is called the Fourier transform of .
In the following, we are going to study the c.f. of random variables that share the probability symmetrically in IR+ and IR.
Definition 1.52 (Symmetric r.v.)
d
A r.v. X is symmetric if and only if X = X, that is, iff FX (x) =
FX (x), x IR.
Remark 1.15 (Symmetric r.v.)
Since is determined by F , X is symmetric iff X (t) = X (t),
t IR.
Corolary 1.5 (Another characterization of a symmetric r.v.)
X is symmetric iff FX (x) = 1 FX (x ), where FX (x) =
P (X < x).
Corolary 1.6 (Another characterization of a symmetric r.v.)
X is symmetric iff X (t) = X (t), t IR.
ISABEL MOLINA
50
4
,
2(2n + 1)2
n = 0, 1, 2,
ISABEL MOLINA
2
,
2(2n + 1)2
n = 0, 1, 2,
51
X
n=0
1
2
= ;
(2n + 1)2
8
8 X cos(2n + 1)t
2|t|
,
=
1
prove:
|t| ,
prove:
52
assuming that there exists r > 0 such that the integral exists for
all t (r, r). If such r > 0 does not exist, then we say that the
m.g.f. of X does not exist.
Remark 1.18 Remember that the c.f. always exists unlike the
m.g.f.
Proposition 1.22 (Properties of the m.g.f.)
If there exists r > 0 such that the series
X
(tx)n
n=0
n!
X
n
n=0
n!
tn ,
t (r, r).
Remark 1.19 Under the assumption of Proposition 1.22, the moments {n}
n=0 determine the d.f. F .
ISABEL MOLINA
53
ISABEL MOLINA
54